心理语言学chapter 2
现代语言学前五章课后习题答案
Chapter 1 Introduction1.Explain the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study oflanguage. 请解释以下语言学的定义:语言学是对语言的科学研究。
Linguistics investigates not any particular languagebut languages in general.Linguistic study is scientific because it is baxxxxsed on the systematic investigation of authentic language data.No serious linguistic conclusion is reached until after the linguist has done the following three things: observing the way language is actually usedformulating some hypothesesand testing these hypotheses against linguistic facts to prove their validity.语言学研究的不是任何特定的语言，而是一般的语言。
语言研究是科学的，因为它是建立在对真实语言数据的系统研究的基础上的。
只有在语言学家做了以下三件事之后，才能得出严肃的语言学结论:观察语言的实际使用方式，提出一些假设，并用语言事实检验这些假设的正确性。
1.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?语言学的主要分支是什么?他们每个人都研究什么?Phonetics-How speech sounds are produced and classified语音学——语音是如何产生和分类的Phonology-How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning音系学——声音如何形成系统和功能来传达意义Morphology-How morphemes are combined to form words形态学——词素如何组合成单词Sytax-How morphemes and words are combined to form sentences句法学-词素和单词如何组合成句子Semantics-The study of meaning ( in abstraction)语义学——意义的研究(抽象)Pragmatics-The study of meaning in context of use语用学——在使用语境中对意义的研究Sociolinguistics-The study of language with reference to society社会语言学——研究与社会有关的语言Psycholinguistics-The study of language with reference to the workings of the mind心理语言学:研究与大脑活动有关的语言Applied Linguistics-The application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning应用语言学——语言学原理和理论在语言教学中的应用1.What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?现代语言学与传统语法有何不同?Modern linguistics is descxxxxriptive;its investigations are baxxxxsed on authenticand mainly spoken language data.现代语言学是描述性的，它的研究是基于真实的，主要是口语数据。
第二言语产出的心理语言学分析.doc
第二言语产出的心理语言学分析0. 引言Levelt （1989）第一次系统考察了说话的复杂过程，提出了母语的言语产出模型。
后在新的心理语言学研究成果的基础上，Levelt （1999）提出修改的母语产出模型（参见缪海燕、刘春燕2013）.他认为语言产出是模块的，即系统中某些加工成分的功能相对自足，它们有自己特定的输入，并独立于其他成分处理该输入。
该模型主要是词汇驱动的模块的语言产出过程模型，为我们研究第二言语（简称为二语）产出提供了心理语言学基础。
de Bot 和Kormos 等人分别在Levelt 模型的基础上提出了二语产出模型。
本文以母语产出和二语产出的对比为基础，首先介绍3 个二语产出模型，然后对二语产出中最重要的特征---控制，进行综述，最后对二语产出的影响因素及个体差异进行分析，从而得出相关结论。
1. 二语产出模型1. 1 de Bot 的双语产出模型（binlingual production model）de Bot （1992,2004）在Levelt （1989）的母语产出模型基础上研究了双语产出模型。
他认为双语产出模型是个默认系统，一个人使用该系统时总是只用其中一种语言。
这样，双语产出模型与单语产出模型没有本质的区别。
Levelt （1989）的产出模型将概念系统与语言系统分开且有 3 个储存器：概念形成器（conceptulizer）、话语形成器（formulator）和发音器（ar-ticulator）.与该模型的假设相一致，de Bot （1992,2004）设定一个共用的概念形成器，负责语言的选择并形成用所选语言进行表达的信息。
de Bot 还遵循双语词汇系统的理论假设，在双语产出模型中采用了词库的子系统假设。
一个词库包含两种语言专用的子词库。
他设定两个话语形成器以容纳两个词库，每一个形成器都包含两种语言专用的形态句法信息。
他还提出发音器的扩展系统，认为双语者通常说第二语言时会有外国口音,因为两种语言共用一个发音器。
语言学总复习
Origin of language
Divine- origin theory 神授说 Bow-wow theory 汪汪理论 摹声说 Pooh-pooh theory 噗噗理论 感叹说 Yo-he-ho theory 呦嘿吼理论 劳动叫喊说
Functions of language
The nose: the nasal cavity(鼻腔)
Table
2.1 A chart of English consonants
English vowels(RP)
Four basic requirements for the description of vowels 1) the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low) 2) the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back) 3) the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short) 4) lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded)
The classification of word 词的分类
1 variable and invariable words可变词与不 变词 2 grammatical (functional) and lexical (content) words词汇词和语法词 3 closed-class and open-class words 封闭 类词和开放类词 4 word class词类
Important distinctions in linguistics
实验心理学 第十二章——心理语言学——第2部分
85ms SOA
反应时 错误率
515** 1.3 544 0.7 534* 4.0 550 2.8
145ms SOA
反应时 错误率
533** 1.0
542 * 2.0
547* 3.8
565
1.1
音同启动效应已经出现，但是只表现在促进目标字的精确判断这一指标上。
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心理语言学 实验心理学
二、语言理解：视觉词汇通达
beach
XXX 200ms
nut
15
例如， 当目标词是nut（坚果）时， 启动词可以是目标词的语义相 关词beech（山毛榉树） 目标词语义相关词的同音词 beach（海滩） 目标词语义相关词的形似词 bench（长椅子） 或者无关词badminton（羽 毛球）。
565
1.1
字形最先得到加工。
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心理语言学 实验心理学
二、语言理解：视觉词汇通达
基于语义的任务结果
四种SOA条件下，高频目标汉字的反应时（ms）和错误率（%）
启动条件
形似启动 音同启动 义近启动 无关启动
43ms SOA
57ms SOA
85ms SOA
反应时 错误率 反应时 错误率 反应时 错误率
3
心理语言学 实验心理学
二、语言理解
词汇
语句
篇章
4
心理语言学 实验心理学
二Байду номын сангаас语言理解
词汇理解
• 视觉词汇通达 • 听觉词汇通达
语句理解
• 模块化理论 • 交互作用理论
篇章理解
• 情境模型 • 情境模型发展
5
心理语言学 实验心理学
二、语言理解：视觉词汇通达
语言学chapter 2
教案（首页）教案填写说明：①教材和主要参考资料要求表明教材或参考文献的名称、作者、出版社和出版时间。
②教学方法、手段指使用直观教具、挂图、板图、多媒体教学及双语教学等方法。
③教学进程内容包括课堂教学内容、教学方法、辅助手段、师生互动、时间分配、板书设计和作业布置等。
④板书设计可在教学进程中直接用横线、浪线等标示出来。
⑤教后感是对本次教学过程中自我感觉成功的地方以及存在的不足和学生反馈的信息情况进行总结。
课程名称：课程类型：第次课 3 学时：上课日期：1、Contents：Chapter 2: Phonetics: the study of speech soundsT eaching aims: let the students have the general idea about phonetics and phonology.Focal points: description of consonants and vowels; basic knowledge about phonologyT eaching difficulties: phoneme; allophone; minimal pair; complementary distribution2、Teaching Objectives: let the students have the general idea about phoneticsLet the students understand the system of the articulatory apparatusLet the students know how to describe consonants and vowels3、Teaching importances: description of consonants and vowels;Teaching difficulties: manners and places of articulation:I.Phonetics: is the scientific study of speech sound. It is mainly concerned with how each speech sounds is articulated and what phonetic features it has.II.Speech organs:①The oral cavity②The nasal cavity③The pharynxSee the Figure 2.1 the articulatory apparatus( page 15)课程名称：课程类型：第4次课学时：上课日期：1、Contents：Chapter 2: Phonetics: the study of speech soundsT eaching aims: let the students have the general idea about phonetics and phonology.Focal points: description of consonants and vowels; basic knowledge about phonologyT eaching difficulties: phoneme; allophone; minimal pair; complementary distribution2、Teaching Objectives: let the students have the general idea about phoneticsLet the students understand the system of the articulatory apparatusLet the students know how to describe consonants and vowels3、Teaching importances: description of consonants and vowels;Teaching difficulties: manners and places of articulationIII.Classification of speech soundsEgressive sounds: produced by pushing the air stream out of the glottis, all English sounds and Chinese sounds.Ingressive sounds: by sucking the air in.A consonant is a sound produced by an obstruction or blocking of the airflow coming out from the two lungs and then going out through the oral or nasal cavity.A vowel is produced with the vibration of the two vocal cords but with no closure or obstruction when the air stream passes through the mouth.. Classification of consonants:1. V oicing2. Places of articulation (position or place of the obstruction of the air flow)3. Manners of articulation.1.Voiceless consonants:are those that are produced when the vocal cords are apart and the airflow passes freely through the vocal tract.Voiced consonants:are those that are produced when the vocal cords are together and the airstream forces its way through the two vocal cords and caused the vibrate.Whispering is invariably voiceless.* The binary system of description:[+voiced]: [b][d][g][-voiced]: [p][t][k]2.Places of articulationLabials:Bilabials :[p] [b] [m]Labiodentals: [f][v]Labiovelars: [w][M] [ ]Interdentals: [][]Alveolars: [t][d][n][s][z][l][r]Palatals: [ ][ ][ ][ ][j]Velars: [k][g][]Glottal: [h]3.Manners of articulationStopsBilabial stopsAlveolar stopsVelar stopsAspirationpin spin怕爸他搭喀嘎fricativesLabiodental fricativesInterdental fricativesAlveolar fricativesPalatal fricativesGlottal fricativeAffricates:Liquids:[l] The front of the tongue makes contact with the alveolar ridge, but the sidesof the tongue are down and the air can escape laterally through the two sides of the tongue. It is called a lateral.[r] It is formed with the tongue tip raised and curled back behind the alveolar ridge, it is called a retroflex.Glides:Nasals:Classification of vowelsmonophthongs diphthongs triphthongsDescription of simple vowels1.The part of the tongue involvedhat hut heart2.The height of the tongueFeet fit fetch fat3.The state of the musclesTense vowels: long vowels and diphthongsLax vowels: short vowels4.The shape of lipsRounded vowels:Unrounded vowels:DiphthongsCentering diphthongs: (from the front or back to the center)Rising /closing diphthongs: ( from a lower vowel to a higher one)IV Phonetic features and natural classesSounds can be analyzed into their phonetic features[u] has the features: [+high] [-back] [+round] [-tense]Classes of sounds that share a feature or features are called natural classes. [+anterior] (a feature to specify consonants) bilabials, labiodentals, interdentals and alveolar, but not labiovelars.[+continuant] : fricatives, liquids, glides.[+sibilant]( [+strident]): are produced with a hissing noise, and they are called sibilants.[+sonorant]: vowels, glides, liquids and nasals[+syllabic]: vowels and [m] [ n] [l ]V. The IPADid he believe that Caesar could see the people seize the seas? 1888, The International Phonetic AssociationThe latest version revised in 1993 and updated in 1996The broad phonetic transcription transcribes only the sounds that contrast words in meaning.The narrow phonetic transcription provides minute differences in producing sounds.Symbols in IPA and those in American EnglishExercises:1.Fill in the following blanks1).Human communication usually takes place in the form of __________-communication and ___________communication.2).The medium of spoken language is __________.3).___________phonetics is the primary concern in linguistics.4).___________phonetics focuses on the perception of speech sounds.5).Speech organs are composed of three parts, the pharyngeal cavity, the________cavity, and __________cavity.6).The International Phonetic Transcription was devised in the year_______and has undergone several revisions.2. Write the sound which corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions.1).Lateral liquid2).Lax high back vowel3).V oice bilabial oral stop4).Mid central lax vowel5).V oiceless labiodental fricative6).Low front vowel7).Palatal glide8).V oice interdental fricative9).V oiced affricate10).V elar nasal consonant11).V oiceless alveolar fricative12).Aspirated bilabial stop13).High front tense unrounded vowel14).Low back vowel15).High back tense vowel16).Mid back lax vowe5、References: 《语言学概论》杨忠高等教育出版社;《新编简明英语语言学教程》戴伟栋何兆熊上海外语教育出版社;《语言学导论论》陈林华吉林大学出版社;《语言学教程》胡壮麟北京大学出版社( 必读书籍)6、Summary after teaching: It is difficult for the students to understand the meta functions of language. I should make a further study for this part.一、双音节词一般地说，一个单词中有几个发音的元音字母，就有几个音节。
心里语言学
• 一、语言获得 • 二、字词识别中的词频效应 • 三、句子理解时间的测量
1
心理语言学
• 心理语言学是研究人类个体如何获得、理解和生成语言的心理学 分支。它从心理过程和心理机制的角度来研究人类的语言活动特 点。心理语言学研究是跨学科的。
– 首先，它以语言的结构和功能为线索来探讨人类言语活动的心理过 程和机制，而语言的结构和功能是语言学的研究对象。 – 其次，在对言语活动的心理过程和机制进行研究的过程中，必然要 涉及人脑的结构和特殊的机能，有时还要借助于对由脑损伤和发育 障碍导致的病历分析。 – 最后，人类言语活动是在社会环境中发生和发展的，复杂的社会因 素直接决定了语言系统的变化，并对言语活动产生重要影响。
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命 名
低 频 效 应 高 频
词汇命名
低 频 效 应
（一）词频效应与字词识别（5）
• 通过命名任务得到的词频效应为170ms，而通过词汇命名任务得到的 词频效应为214ms。两种不同的命名任务的差异在于，词汇命名比命 名增加了一个决策成分。214ms-170ms=44ms——词频效应中的决 策成分。 • 词汇判断任务得到的词频效应为105ms。这个词频效应包含两个成分： 词汇通达前的加工成分和决策成分。词汇通达前的词频效应成分为： 105ms-44ms=61ms。 • 词汇命名任务得到的词频效应（214ms）大于词汇判断任务得到的词 频效应（105ms）。由于两个任务所设计的加工环节仅仅在于词汇命 名任务在词汇判断结束后还要进行语音的提取，因此，在词频效应中 还存在着一个词汇通达后的加工成分（214ms-105ms=109ms）。 • 通过上述结果分析，刘英茂等认为，词频效应首先对词汇加工的编码 阶段起作用，它影响词汇通达的速度；词频效应还对词汇加工后的反 应性加工起作用，它影响词汇通达后汉字字型、读音、语义等编码形 式之间的转换过程。
语言学chapter2
语言学chapter2Chapter 2 phonology1,what are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?The two major media of communication are speech and writing. Speech is more basic than writing. Because the writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises, and in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school.2.What is voicing and how is it caused?Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds that is called voicing. It is caused by vocal cords which may also be held together tightly so that the air stream vibrates hem at different speeds .3.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ.Broad transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols only. Narrow transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics,which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone can possible do. For example, in broad transcription, the symbol[l]is used for the sound[l]in the four words leaf[li:f],feel[fi:l], build[bild],and health[helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l]in all these four sound combination differ slightly. The [l]in[li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called clear[l], and no diacritic is need to indicate it; the [l]in[fi:l]and[bild]occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [?] and innarr ow transcription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sou nd [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ]. Another example is the consonant [p]. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broadtranscription, but i n narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiratio n, thus pit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4.How are the English consonants classified?English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5.What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth , the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels. According to which part of the tongue is held highest, vowels may bedistinguished as front, central, and back. And according to the openness of the mouth, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels , semi-open vowels and open vowels. According to the shape of the lips, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels, and all the back vowels, with the exception of[a:],are rounded vowels. According to the length of the sound, vowels can be classified into tense and lax vowels.6. Give the phonetic symbol fro each of the following sound descriptions:(1)voiced palatal affricate:[?] (2)voiceless labiodental fricative:[f](3)voiced alveolar stop: [d] (4)front, close, short: [i](5)back, semi-open, long: [?:] (6)voiceless, bilabial stop: [p]Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:(1)[d]: voiced alveolar stop (2)[l]: voiced alveolar liquids(3)[?]: voiceless palatal affricate (4) [w]: voiced bilabial glides(5) [?]: back, close, short (6) [?]: front, open, short7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?Phonetics is of a general nature, it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.The difference between these sounds is what the phonetician are interested in. Because phonology is concerned with the sound system of a particular language, but phonetician isinterested in how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess.8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is a phonological unit, it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. Allophones are the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.Sequential rules refer to the ways the phonemes can be combined. Sequential rules regulate which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other. They are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].Deletion rule is when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.In the pronunciation of such wordsas sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter[g]. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented bythe letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Deletea [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?Suprasegmental features refer to the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, and intonation.There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged.Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. English has four basic types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, and the rise-fall tone When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.。
《心理语言学》课件
治疗效果语言治疗在帮助患来自恢复或改善 语言能力上具有积极效果。
结语
总结心理语言学的重点内容和未来发展方向，展示心理语言学研究的意义和价值。
1 重点内容
心理语言学研究涉及词义、语音、认知和发 育等方面的内容。
2 发展方向
未来的心理语言学研究将更加深入和多样化。
《心理语言学》PPT课件
心理语言学PPT课件大纲
前言
心理语言学的定义和历史背景
定义
心理语言学是研究语言在心理认知过程中的作用和影响的学科。
历史背景
从20世纪60年代心理学与语言学的交叉领域发展而来。
语义与语境
语义的基本概念和分类，以及语境对语义的影响。
语义概念
语义研究词义、句义和篇义的组 织与表达。
语境影响
语境对语义的理解和表达产生重 要影响。
语义分类
语言单词按意义分类，探索它们 之间的关联。
语音与语调
语音的基本要素和特征，以及语音和语调对语言理解的影响。
1 语音要素
语音的元音、辅音、音节等基本要素的研究。
2 语调分类
语调在语言中的不同分类和作用的研究。
3 语音理解
语音和语调如何影响人们对语言的理解和沟通。
婴儿期、儿童期和成人期语 言发展的不同特点和规律。
习得过程
语言习得从模仿到形成独立 表达能力的演变过程。
影响因素
语言环境、个体差异和学习 条件对语言发展和习得的影 响。
语言障碍与治疗
语言障碍的类型和特征，以及语言障碍的治疗方法和效果。
障碍类型
语言障碍包括言语障碍、听力障 碍和语言发育障碍等。
治疗方法
语言认知与处理
语言学Chapter 2
Auditory phonetics
Transcription of Speech Sounds
Broad transcription : used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics, e.g. [ pit ] Narrow transcription : used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, e.g. [ phit]
Sentence stress
Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed. Note: for pragmatic reason, this rule is not always right, e.g. we may stress any part in the following sentences.
II. Phonology
Phonology studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages.
1. Phonetics & phonology
Chapter 2语言学第二章
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics –the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced inspeech3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the InternationalPhonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters aretaken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at someplaces to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of theair can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which theair passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstructionof the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air streamfrom the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. In English,[☐ ♌ ♦ ♎ ♑] are stops and [❍ ⏹ ☠]are nasal stops.2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream fromthe lungs to escape with friction. This is caused by bringing the twoarticulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip, close together but notcloses enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English,[♐ ❆ ♦ ☞ ✞ ♒] are fricatives.3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close toanother, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that aturbulent airstream is produced. In English this class of sounds includes[♦ ❑ ].4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partiallyblocking the airstream from the lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting itescape at one or both sides of the blockage. [●] is the only lateral in English.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate.2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upperfront teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and theupper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and thealveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the backof the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curledback so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with theback of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and thehard palate.8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the softpalate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and theuvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end ofthe velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and thewalls of the pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal foldspushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearingon the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally,three or four degrees are recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-highand mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips –various degrees of lip rounding orspreading.4. The position of the soft palate –raised for oral vowels, and lowered forvowels which have been nasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels[Icywarmtea doesn’t quite understand this theory.]Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actualvowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[♓], CV2[♏], CV3[☪], CV4[♋], CV5[ ], CV6[ ], CV7[☐],CV8[◆].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for agive position: CV9 – CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want toknow, you may consult the textbook p. 47. – icywarmtea]2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.V owel glides: V owels where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves two vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[♓] high front tense unrounded vowel[◆] high back lax rounded vowel[☜] central lax unrounded vowel[ ] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referredto as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these soundscapable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latterwas meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutestshades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. 2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie anddie are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/.By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which soundsubstitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference inmeaning. Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. inEnglish, when the phoneme /☐/ occurs at the beginning of the word like peak/☐♓/, it is said with a little puff of air, it is aspirated. But when /☐/ occurs in theword like speak /♦☐♓/, it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. Boththe aspirated [☐♒] in peak and the unaspirated [☐=] in speak have the same phonemicfunction, i.e. they are both heard and identified as /☐/ and not as /♌/; they are bothallophones of the phoneme /☐/.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structuralchange in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change is conditioned ortriggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a precedingsound. Consequently, we can say that any phonological process must have three aspectsto it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; aset of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative →voiceless / __________ voiceless. This is a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies theenvironment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicatesthe position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformedinto the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering[No much to say, so omitted – icywarmtea]2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be / ✈⏹♦❑♓/. It shouldn’t be / ✈⏹♦❑♓/ or / ✈⏹♦❑♓/ according to this principle.2.12 StressStress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [ ] is used just before the syllable it relates to.。
语言心理学(第四版)
语言心理学(第四版)语言心理学是一门研究语言和人类心理之间关系的学科。
它关注语言如何影响人类的认知、情感和行为，以及人类如何使用语言来交流和表达自己。
在第四版中，我们将深入探讨语言心理学的基本概念、理论和研究方法，并介绍一些最新的研究成果。
第一章：语言与认知在这一章中，我们将探讨语言如何影响人类的认知过程。
我们将讨论语言如何帮助人们组织和理解信息，以及语言如何影响人类的思维方式和决策过程。
我们还将介绍一些关于语言障碍和认知障碍的研究，以帮助读者更好地理解语言与认知之间的关系。
第二章：语言与情感在这一章中，我们将探讨语言如何影响人类的情感体验。
我们将讨论语言如何表达情感，以及语言如何影响人类的情绪状态。
我们还将介绍一些关于情感障碍和语言障碍的研究，以帮助读者更好地理解语言与情感之间的关系。
第三章：语言与行为在这一章中，我们将探讨语言如何影响人类的行为。
我们将讨论语言如何影响人类的社交互动和人际关系，以及语言如何影响人类的行为习惯和决策过程。
我们还将介绍一些关于行为障碍和语言障碍的研究，以帮助读者更好地理解语言与行为之间的关系。
第四章：语言心理学的研究方法在这一章中，我们将介绍一些语言心理学的研究方法。
我们将讨论如何设计实验和调查来研究语言与心理之间的关系，以及如何收集和分析数据。
我们还将介绍一些关于语言心理学研究伦理和道德的讨论，以帮助读者更好地理解语言心理学的研究方法。
第五章：最新研究成果在这一章中，我们将介绍一些最新的语言心理学研究成果。
我们将讨论一些关于语言与认知、情感和行为之间关系的研究，以及一些关于语言障碍和认知障碍的研究。
我们还将介绍一些关于语言心理学应用的研究，以帮助读者更好地理解语言心理学的实际应用。
语言心理学是一门研究语言和人类心理之间关系的学科。
通过研究语言如何影响人类的认知、情感和行为，我们可以更好地理解人类的心理过程和社交互动。
在第四版中，我们将深入探讨语言心理学的基本概念、理论和研究方法，并介绍一些最新的研究成果。
心理语言学
Four examples of language and language process: 1）Garden Path Sentences (花园小径句)
东北亚地区的经济发展有赖于东北人参与亚太经合组织…… 东北亚地区的经济发展有赖于东北人参与亚太经合组织…… 东北亚地区的经济发展有赖于东北人参与亚太经合组织……
Language Productivity: The property of embedding one sign into another also occurs in ASL. P29-31
Phrase Structure: ASL also uses spatial processes to convey syntactic distinctions. This system actually reduces some of the ambiguity in language. 3) Significance of Sign Language
3、Introductions
The diversity of how we use language Psycholinguistics is part of cognitive science which is an interdisciplinary venture that draws upon the insights of psychologists, linguists, computer scientists, neuroscientists, and philosophers to study the mind and mental processes.
4) Linguistic Productivity (语言能产性、语言创造性)
第二语言产出的心理语言学研究
01 一、引言
目录
02 二、第二语言产出过 程的心理语言学模型
03
三、影响第二语言产 出的心理因素
04 四、结论与启示
05 五、展望未来
06 参考内容
一、引言
在全球化日益加剧的今天，越来越多的人在学习和使用第二语言。尽管人们在 学习第二语言的过程中会遇到许多挑战，但是他们仍然积极投入，努力掌握。 那么，这个过程背后隐藏着什么样的秘密呢？这就是本次演示要探讨的问题。 我们将从心理语言学的角度来深入剖析第二语言产出的过程。
例如，教师可以通过创造一个积极的学习环境来提高学习者的参与度和自信心； 学习者则可以通过自我激励、寻找合适的学习方法和积极寻求反馈等方式来提 高自己的学习效果。
五、展望未来
尽管我们已经取得了一些关于第二语言产出的心理语言学研究成果，但是还有 很多问题需要进一步研究。例如，我们还需要更深入地了解不同年龄段、不同 背景和学习阶段的学习者在第二语言产出过程中的心理差异；我们也需要探索 如何利用最新的心理学理论和科技手段来提高第二语言的教学效果和产出能力。 只有这样，我们才能真正满足全球化社会对多语言人才的需求，为人类的交流 和发展做出更大的贡献。
其次，认知语言学语言与文化的关系。汉语与英语、法语等其他语言有很大的 差异，这些差异不仅体现在语法和词汇上，还体现在文化背景中。因此，在汉 语第二语言教学中，教师需要教授学生关于中国文化的知识，以便学生更好地 理解汉语和中国人。
此外，认知语言学还强调语言的创造性。在汉语中，有许多词语和句子可以表 达相同的意思，但使用不同的词语和句子可以产生不同的语境和情感。因此， 在汉语第二语言教学中，教师需要培养学生的创造性和表达能力，以便学生能 够更好地使用汉语进行交流和表达。
chapters2-6外语教学心理学
• 四、判断题 • 1、感知是感性的理解，限于第一信号系统 的活动；理解是直觉的感知，为第二信号 系统所制约。（√） • 2、语言外壳的感知有直觉性质，相应思想 的理解则有自觉推理性质。（√） • 3、听觉的主观体验是音高、响度、音色， 分别对应于声学上的三个基本量度：频率、 强度、振动形式。（√）
• 4、句子的重音亦称（逻辑重音），对每种 语言都同样重要。重音落在不同的词上突 出了不同的意义。对重音的主要听觉线索 是声音的（强度）。 • 5、通常在有声言语中起主要作用的是（言 语视觉）。 • 6、视觉的适宜刺激是波长为760毫微米到 380毫微米之间的光波，也叫（可见光）。
• 7、对书面语的感知和理解，也就是人类获取信息 最重要的形式是（阅读）。 • 8、对感知书面语有重要意义的是（眼的运动）。 眼运动是以注视、注视之间的运动即眼动，包括 向后的运动即回视等为特征的。 • 9、语音之间的主要区别在于（气流）是否受到阻 碍，在何处和怎样受到阻挡。 • 10、词义感可以而且应该划分为词的（基本意义 感）和词的（具体意义感）。 • 我们知觉音位 音节 词 句 和语段。
• 7、能辨认客体或符号细节的尺寸愈小，视 敏度就愈高。视敏度标志着视力的好坏。 （√） • 8、阅读所耗的时间有两部分：注视时间和 运动时间。（√） • 9、发元音时，气流不受阻挡，发辅音则气 流总会在某个部位受阻。（√）
• 五、简答题 • 1、请问有哪些主要语调类型？ • 答：第一类由以下语调组成：问题，惊奇， 诧异，感叹，警告等。这些语调的基本音 调是升－降－升，是表示激情的语调。第 二类由命令、劝说、邀请、温和的请求、 训诫等语调组成，这些语调的基本音调是 升－降，这是意志中的语调。
• 副句 复合句可分解为两个或更多的副句。副句 有自己的主语和谓语，可以是主句和从句，也可 以是并列副句。在复合句中各个副句间，采用一 定的连接词连接起来。 • 句子 句子包含主语与谓语（至少暗示二者）而 表达完整的意思。是最大的语言单位。两个层次： 由声音、词、短语和从句——大小不同的表层构 成成分——组成并做线性排列的表层结构。以及 有按并列关系、从属关系或补充关系互相结合的 媒体组成的深层结构。
《心里语言学》课件
心理语言学的研究方法
1
认知心理学方法在心理语言学中的应用
心理语言学研究方法包括行为实验、脑成像，其中认知心理学方法对于心理语言 学研究提供了重要的理论和实践基础。
2
语料库及分析工具
语料库是心理语言学研究的重要数据来源，分析工具则是对语料库的处理和统计 分析的必备工具。
实验设计与数据分析
实验的设计方法和数据分析方法对于心理语言学研究结果的信度和效度有重要的 影响。
心理语言学的研究范畴包括语言的含义、声音特征、语法结构及其在思维和情感中的应用。
言与思维的关系
语言对思维的影响
思维对语言的影响
言语对我们的思维有很大的影 响，有助于我们的思考、推理、 判断和学习。
心理会影响我们的语言表达方 式，我们的语言也会反过来影 响我们的心理活动。
语言对情感的影响
言语和情感息息相关，语言的 应用可以表达我们的感受和情 感状态。
心理语言学未来的发展方向
多领域合作研究
未来心理语言学的研究趋势 将会越来越跨界跨学科，更 多的领域都将与心理语言学 进行合作探索。
大数据和机器学习 的应用
大数据和机器学习的应用将 会为心理语言学研究提供更 多的可能性和可操作性，推 动心理语言学的发展。
社会化语言学的发 展趋势
随着社交媒体的普及和发展， 社会化语言学也将会成为心 理语言学的重要领域之一。
心理语言学的应用场景
1 教育场景中的应用
心理语言学的研究成果可以辅助语言教学，帮助学生更好地掌握语言技能，提高教学效 果。
2 临床心理学中的应用
心理语言学研究的成果可以帮助医生和治疗师更好地理解患者的心理和情感，提高治疗 效果。
3 社会交往中的应用
心理语言学2
探测词： 探测词：
语法的心理真实性？ 语法的心理真实性？
（二）句法的中心地位
支持的证据： 支持的证据： 1. 2. 句法知识是我们语言知识的核心。 句法知识是我们语言知识的核心。 句子理解以句法为中心。 句子理解以句法为中心。 ★ 学生会讨论这个问题的。 学生会讨论这个问题的。
第一节
基本语法概念
语言和语法
什么是语言？ 什么是语言？ 语言是由无数个合乎语法的 句子构成。一种语言的句子是无数的。 句子构成。一种语言的句子是无数的。 如：1、这是我做的饭。 、这是我做的饭。 2、这是我昨天做的饭。 、这是我昨天做的饭。
什么是语法？ 什么是语法？语言中能够生成无数句子的一系 列有限规则。 列有限规则。 语法是语言的理论， 语法是语言的理论，是由语言结构的多重科学 假设构成。 假设构成。而这些科学假设是可以用实验的方 法证明。 法证明。 建立语法理论的意义就在于用有限的、简明的、 建立语法理论的意义就在于用有限的、简明的、 精确的规则去概括解释语言中无数的句式。 精确的规则去概括解释语言中无数的句式。 语法主要包括三个组成部分：语音、 语法主要包括三个组成部分：语音、语义与语 法
本章教学目标
使学生掌握语言的共同语法特征 基本知道美国手势语与口语的共性与差异 性； 简单了解中国手势语的特点。 简单了解中国手势语的特点。 掌握转换语法的含义。 掌握转换语法的含义。 了解语法理论中的一些热点争议问题。 了解语法理论中的一些热点争议问题。
本章内容
基本语法概念 手势语探究 转换语法 语法理论中一些问题
音与字是如何结合起来表达意义通过认真的观察测试等科学研究方法以验证各种各种假设语言学家力图描述语言的全貌及语言的架构从60年代起乔姆斯基的转换生成学派主导了美国学术的新潮流其对心理语言学的建立起了及其重要的作用
心理语言学chapter 2
DOG
3. Semanticity（语义性）:
It is the use of symbols to ‗mean‘ or refer to objects and actions. Humans can generalize by applying ‗chair‘ to all types of chairs, not just one in particular.
Danger cries of the Vervet monkey: chutter puff adder/cobra, raup eagle, chirp lion/leopard, uh spotted hyena/Masai tribesman.
Discontinuity theory: language may be something quite different from our basic animal heritage, and superimposed on it. (qualitatively different)
A continuity versus discontinuity divide may be over-simple. Language is a complex mosaic in which some features are continuous, and some discontinuous with ape communication.
• Problem 2: it is not always easy to decide what counts as communication in animals.
These fundamental problems show that any conclusions we draw are only tentative.
心理语言学（上）
心理语言学（上）心理语言学（上）报告人：甘露第一章：心理语言学诞生的历史根源：一、哲学根源哲学的根源最古老。
古希腊哲学家对语言的起源、词语和意义的关系、逻辑和语言的关系都很感兴趣，因为与哲学中的根本问题——知识的来源有密切的关系。
词语的意义和声音的关系是一个争议甚多的问题，围绕它们是直接的、自然的，还是任意的、无常的分为两大派。
在罗马教会的控制下．中世纪的哲学家的思想较禁锢，占统治地位的看法是语言是上帝赐与的，凡人是不能改变的。
文艺复兴后，哲学两大阵营在语言和心理的关系问题上的争论是在理性主义和心理实证生义之间展开的。
理性主义的代表人物是笛卡尔，他认为把哲学和自然科学混为一谈时，哲学就会局限于考虑各种语言因素，因为哲学家强调语言是表达人类理念的。
但是语言和感情的表达应该区分开来。
笛卡尔并没有专门去讨论语言，但是他关于心灵和肉体的关系的看法却影响了后来人们对语言的思考。
他是一个哲学上的二元论者，Chomsky（1966）把笛卡尔的主张概括为：语言是一种具有种系特征的能力，一种独立于智能以外的特殊的人类能力。
按照笛卡尔的观点，言语不但是思维的符号，而是思维存在的一个明证。
英国的实证主义哲学家洛克（Locke）他反对笛卡尔的内在意念概念，他发现意念和词语的关系十分密切，因此在考虑知识问题之前必须先考虑语言。
人类有一种“使用词语作为内在概念的符号，作为自己内心的意念的标志”的能力，语言是适应交际需要而产主的，通过外部的、可感知的符号以传递无形的意念。
他认为声音和意义没有天然的联系，就算人类的发音表达能力是天然的，对事物的赋名也是任意的、约定俗成的。
词原先是特殊的，指特定事物，表示可感知事物的意念。
后来才慢慢出现了一般的词语来表示一般的意念，而原来表示可感知事物的词则通过类比和隐喻转变为表示抽象的意念。
德国哲学家莱布尼兹认为肉体的活动是机械性的，只能用物质的原因去解释；而心理活动则必须用心理的原则去解释。
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6. aking（轮流性）:
It means that humans take it in turns to speak. This is not an exclusively human characteristic. Birds sometimes sing duets together. One bird sings a few phrases, then pauses while the other has its turn antiphonal singing(交互轮唱).
DOG
3. Semanticity（语义性）:
It is the use of symbols to ‗mean‘ or refer to objects and actions. Humans can generalize by applying ‗chair‘ to all types of chairs, not just one in particular.
Topics to be discussed
• Comparison between animal communication systems and human language to see if animals can be said to ‗talk‘ in any real sense • Various attempts to teach language to animals
4. Cultural transmission/tradition（文化传递）: It indicates that human beings hand down their languages from one generation to another. the distinction b/t humans & animals is not clear-cut! The role played by teaching in animal communication is unclear and varies from animal to animal – and even with species. It seems that a far greater proportion of communication is genetically inbuilt in animals than in humans.
• Problem 2: it is not always easy to decide what counts as communication in animals.
These fundamental problems show that any conclusions we draw are only tentative.
Children brought up in isolationdo not acquire language. Birds reared in isolationsing songs that are sometimes recognizable.
5. Spontaneous usage（自发使用）:
Do animals talk naturally?
• Problem 1: are we comparing systems which differ quantitatively or qualitatively?
Continuity theory: human language may have gradually evolved from a more primitive animal means of communication in a continuous line of growth-----language grew out of a primate call system (quantitatively different)
Chapter 2 Is language restricted to humans ?
• The word ‗talk‘ can be used in two totally different senses: (1) ‗to utter words‘------a talking parrot which says Damn if you poke it. (2) ‗to use language in a meaningful way‘--------humans • Can animals talk or learn to talk in a real sense? Are humans the only species which possesses language? If so, are humans the only species capable of acquiring it?
A continuity versus discontinuity divide may be over-simple. Language is a complex mosaic in which some features are continuous, and some discontinuous with ape communication.
Animals may be able to communicate about a total situation. But Vervet monkey ‘snake‘. We are not certain about whether this feature is present in animal communication. ???
Danger cries of the Vervet monkey: chutter puff adder/cobra, raup eagle, chirp lion/leopard, uh spotted hyena/Masai tribesman.
Discontinuity theory: language may be something quite different from our basic animal heritage, and superimposed on it. (qualitatively different)
to find out whether humans alone have the power of speech
• Some animals, such as dolphins and chimpanzees, have a high level of intelligence.
• If we find that language is beyond their capability, then that will indicate that language is a geneticallyprogrammed activity which is largely separate from general intelligence.
Humans still retain their basic set of animal cries, which exist alongside language. (Yelps of pain, shrieks of fear, and the different types of crying observed in babies may be closely related to the call systems of monkeys.)
How to define ‘language’?
Charles Hockett: Cornell
Ten design features which capture the essential nature of language: 1. The use of the vocal-auditory channel （发音-听觉频道）: It is the most obvious characteristic of language. It is neither unique to humans, nor all-important. (visual symbols—sign language/writing, tactile symbols—Braille) This characteristic is of little use in an attempt to distinguish animal from human communication.
9. Structure-dependence（结构依赖性）: Humans do not just apply simple recognition/ counting techniques when they speak to one another. They automatically recognized the patterned nature of language , and manipulate ‗structured chunks‘. Animals do not use structure-dependent operations.
2. Arbitrariness（任意性）: It means that human languages use neutral symbols. There is no connection between the word DOG and the four-legged animal it symbolizes. However, arbitrary symbols are not unique to humans. Gulls. Arbitrariness cannot be regarded as a critical distinction between human and animal communication.