difference between phonology and phonetics
What is the difference between Phonetics and Phonology
Does someone still remember what phonetics is? Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages. It stresses the speech sound itself. While phonology is also called phonemics音韵学，it is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. It stresses a particular language and its specific meaning.The second difference is their unit. Phonetic unit is phone. It means the speech sound we hear and produce during linguistic communication.The sign of a phone is phonetic symbol. One phonetic symbol represents one phone. For example, a monophthong(单元音) is made up of one phone, while a diphthong（双元音）is made up of two phones. Phones vary in different languages, even dialects in one language. Phonological unit is phoneme. Phoneme is of distinctive value. It is not any particular sound, but rather represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.In English, [p h] and [p] can not be distinguished from their meanings, so they are phones. While /l/ in light and /t/ in tight can be distinguished from meaning, so they are phonemes.Phones express the natural quality of speech sounds, while phonemes express the social attribute.Generally, phones are placed in square brackets and phonemes in slashes. The third difference is their branches. Phonetics has four branches. (1)Articulatory phonetics发音语音学: the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated.(2)Acoustic phonetics声学语音学: deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air. Transmission of speech sounds(3)Auditory (or perceptual) phonetics听觉语音学: deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds.(4)Forensic phonetics论辩语音学: has an application in legal cases involving speaker identification and the analysis of recorded utterances. Phonology has two branches.Diachronic (historical) phonology历史性音系学examines and constructs theories about the changes and modifications in speech sounds and sound systems over a period of time.Synchronic (descriptive) phonology共时性音系学investigates sounds at a single stage in the development of a language, to discover the sound patterns that can occur.The last difference is their characteristics. Phonetics is characterized of physical, description; while phonology is characterized of meaning, function.Because phonetics includes production, transmission, and perception of speech sounds, it emphasizes on the physical analysis. And it isconnected to acoustics and auditory, so it is concerned with the accurate description.From the definition of phonology, we know that phonology studies how the speech sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. It expresses meanings and is used for communication, so it is characterized of meaning, function.。
英语语言学复习资料 简答题
1.1. What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrins ic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symb olic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human l anguages, developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than writt en. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.1.2. What are design features of language?“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability1.3. What is arbitrariness?By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.1.4.What is duality?Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6), language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.1.5.What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native langua ge, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus alsocalled “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky).1.6.What is displacement?“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for s omething or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn’t be bow wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.1.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acqui re language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.1.8.What is interchangeability?(1) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to make me happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest tha t there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.(2) Some male birds, however, utter some calls, which females do not (or cannot?), and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” and which li stening.1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them (see I .2-8). Let’s borrow C. F. Hocket’s Chart tha t compares human language with some animals’ systems, from Wang Gang (1998,p.8).Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Beatnice and Alan Gardner brought up Washoe, a female chimpanzee, like a human child. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he istaken back and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child”in I.7)1.10.What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and per formative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art. M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal and textual (see! 11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al., pp10-13, pp394-396).1. 11What is the phatic function?The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?” “Fine, thanks.”) Is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don’t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.1.12. What is the directive function?The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e.g., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sen tences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin and J.Searle’s “indirect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”1.13.What is the informative function?Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P.Grice’s “Cooperative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.1.14.What is the interrogative function?When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g., “I’d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s/listener’s answer.1.15.What is the expressive function?The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or att itudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I’m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own attitudes.1.16.What is the evocative function?The “evocative function” is the use of language to cr eate certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or impo sing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with the other way round.1.17.What is the per formative function?This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze Bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say, “OK”, which means more than speech, and more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judge’si mprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration, etc., are per formatives as well (see J.Austin’s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.pp271-278).1.18.What is linguistics?“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studi es not just one language of any one society, but also the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp20-22)1.19.What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data, which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al., 1988;Wang Gang, 1988). But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics,applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitle d “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp25-27).1.22.What is speech and what is writing?(1) No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary; because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese. (2) In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.(3) Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before t his century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?F. De Saussure refers “langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the real ization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, I. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance?(1) According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.(2) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.(3) Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to,F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.26.What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behavior?M. A. K. Halliday made these two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).1.27.In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different (see 1.25). Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker’s mind; linguis tic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. Competence means “knowing”, and linguistic potenti al a set of possibilities for “doing” or “performing actions”. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.1.28.What is phonetics?“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer’s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulator phonetics.1.29.How are the vocal organs formed?The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al., p41), or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.1.30.What is place of articulation?It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved. g. Lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1) bilabial: [p, b, m]; (2) labiodental: [f, v]; (3) dental: [,]; (4) alveolar: [t, d, l, n.s, z]; (5) retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar: [,]; (7) palatal: [j]; (8) velar [k, g,]; (9) uvular; (10) glottal: [h].Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w] has both an approximation of the two lips and those two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed “labial-velar”.1.31.What is the manner of articulation?The “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstreams may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following: (1) plosive: [p, b, t, d, k, g]; (2) nasal: [m, n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap; (5) lateral: [l]; (6) fricative: [f, v, s, z]; (7) approximant: [w, j]; (8) affricate: [].1.32.How do phoneticians classify vowels?Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1) long and short vowels, e.g.,[i:,]; (4) rounded and unround vowels,e.g.[,i]; (5) pure and gliding vowels, e.g.[I,].1.33.What is IPA? When did it come into being ?The IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet”, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.1.34.What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription?In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet made a distinction between “narrow” and “broad” transcriptions, which he called “Narrow Romic”. The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1.35.What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology?(1) “Phonology” is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.(2) Phonetics, as discussed in I.28, is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics ofspeech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language.1.36.What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?(1) A “phone” is a p honetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced:[pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three differe nt[p]’s, readily making possible the “narrow transcription or diacritics”. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A “phoneme” is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].(2) The phones representing a phoneme are called its “allophones”, i. e., the different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different[p]’s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.1.37.What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, e.g., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc. All these words together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).1.38.What is free variation?If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in “free variation”. The plosives, for example, may not be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme.1.39.What is complementary distribution?When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary distribution”. For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after[s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones。
differencebetweenphonologyandphonetics
differencebetweenphonologyandphoneticsThe Difference Between Phonetics and Phonology It is generally agreed that both phonetics and phonology are the main branches of linguistics, studying speech sounds and sound structure. Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech. While phonology focuses on the rules governing the structure, distribution, sequencing of speech sounds and the shapes of syllables. Overall, the difference between them is that phonetics studies the nature of the sound itself, related to human language, and the process of the production of the sound, while phonology deals with the sound patterns and the meanings within and across the language.Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language—the speech sounds ,but they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all human language: how they are produced and how they differ form each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. etc. Phonology ,on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistics communication. The difference between [ l] and [ ] is what the phoneticians are interested in .Because form the phonological view , these two sounds in each pair are fundamentally the same ,since they have one and the same function in communication ,in distinguishing between words and meanings despite their difference in pronunciation.Phonetics deals with the articulatory and acoustic properties of speech sounds, how they are produced, and how they are perceived. As part of this investigation, phoneticians may concern themselves with the physical properties of meaningful sound contrasts or the social meaning encoded in the speech signal (While it is widely agreed that phonology is grounded in phonetics, phonology is concerned with sounds and gestures as abstract units).Phonology is both meaningful and physical which expores that how the diffierence of sound totally changes the meaning of a word or ,more precise, an utterance. For example. The word “bid ” is very similar to the word “bit” in terms of the physical property of sounds. The mere and little difference is the ending letter. The vocal chords stops vibrating so that sound is the result only of the replacement of the tongues behind the teeth and the flow of air. Physically ,these two words are not related in meaning in the very least. While, phonetics focus on how the word are sounded and how to make sounds with our vocal cords , mouth, throat, and nasal cavaties. For example ,the initial sound in bad involves both lips and its final segment involves the blade of the tongue and the alveolar ridge.Also ,if a nasal consonant such as[m] procedes an oral vowel(such as [m ]in map), some of the nasality will carry forward so that the vowel will begin with a somewhat nasal quality .This is because in producing a nasal the soft palate is lowered to allow airflow through the nasal tract. To produce the following vowel, the soft palate must move back to is normal position. All of which are explored in the field of phonetics.As a branch of linguistics and an emering and gradually prospering course , phonetics asks for persons with perfect listening mechanism and the pronounciation organs to be the source of datas.which definitely has no deep and intimate connection with peculiar language background. The same conclusion can be reached ,no matter which group of people are investigated ,Germans,English, or Indian. But the univeral method to study phonology is from theindividual languae ,so as to define which phoetic unit are used and their formation. Then, make a clear comparison of the features of different phonology ,which could lead to the basic rules used by phones in a specified group ,then in the whole scope of languages. People’s vocal cords can produce many sounds in a wide scope,in which a small fration of sounds form the words and sentences. Phonetics explores the all possible sounds while phonology studies the way the speaker of one specific language to choose those sounds to express meanings.Phonetics is the study of speech sounds that the human voice is capable of creating whereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning, The first focuses on chaos while the second focuses on order.The basic unit in phonetics is phone, just like [p h]and [p] which could not be distinguished by meaning ,while the phoneme is a phonological unit ,such as [b]in biteand [t] in tite can be distinguished from meaning ,so phoneme is a unit that is of distinctive value.Phonetics can be categoried into 3 parts, each dealing with one part of the process.(1)Articulatory phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds. In otherwords ,how sounds are made or articulated.(2)Acoustic phonetics is the study of physical properties of speech sounds whichexplores the physical properties of sound waves.(3)Auditory phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.Phonology has two branches:(1)Diachronic phonology: the study of sounds in a single stage through the courseof its history to discover the sound patterns that is capable to occur.(2)Synchronic phonology takes a fixed instant(usually ,but not necessarily present)as the point of observation,that is to say ,it examines the current changes andmodifications in speech sounds and sound systemn over a period of time.Accoding to what I have explained and illustrated , here is the conclusion,that is phonetics is more general, descriptive and classificatory; while phonology is featured by particular and functional traits. Secondly. Phonetics is the actual physical articulations of speech sounds ,while phonology is the abstract aspect of the sounds in a language .Thirdly. Phonetics studies the means for describing speech sounds, and phonology explores the way in which speech sounds are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.。
胡壮麟语言学讲义第三章（复习）ChapterThreePhonology
胡壮麟语言学讲义第三章（复习）ChapterThreePhonologyChapter Three PhonologyTeaching aims: let the students have the general idea about phonology Focal points: phoneme; phonological rules Teaching difficulties: phoneme; allophone; minimal pairTeaching procedure:Outline of this chapter:1 Phonology1.1 Definition of phonology1.1.1 Phonology (at p24)1.1.2 Phonetics1.2 the difference between phonetics and phonology2 Terms in phonology2.1 Minimal pairs (最小对立体)2.1.1 concept2.1.2 arguments and examples2.1.3Three requirements for a minimal pair:2.2 phonemes2.2.1 phones2.2.2 phoneme2.2.3 Phonemic transcription2.3 allophones2.3.1Allophones (P40, Para.2)2.3.2 Complementary distribution(P40,para.2) and free variation2.4 Difference between phonemes and allophones3 Phonological process3.1 assimilation (P42,para.1)3.1.1 regressive(P42,Para.2)3.1.2 progressive3.1.3 Examples (P42, para.3)3.2 Phonological rules(P42)3.2.1 devoicing,3.2.2 nasalization,3.2.3 dentalization,3.2.4 velarization3.2.5 the deletion rule4 Suprasegmental phonemes4.1 concept4.2 kinds of suprasegmental phonemes4.2.1 stress4.2.2Intonation4.2.3 Linking5 Some principle of phonology5.1The sequential rules5.2 the deletion rule1 Phonology1.1 Definition of phonology1.1.1 Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. (at p24) 1.1.2 Phonetics studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and received.1.2 the difference between phonetics and phonology1) Phonetics and phonology are the two disciplines dealing with speech sounds. Both are related to the study of sounds.They differ in their approach and focus.2) Phonology is concerned with the abstract and mentalaspect of the sounds in language while phonetics deals with the actual physical articulation of speech sounds.3) definition4) P 16, Para 2: Phonetics is the study of speech sounds that the human voice is capable of creating whereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute of language and meaning.5)Phonetics focuses on chaos while phonology focuses on order.2 Terms in phonology2.1 Minimal pairs (最小对立体)2.1.1 conceptWhen two words are identical in form in every way except for a contrast in one phoneme, occurring in the same position, the two words are described as a minimal pair. P392.1.2 arguments and examples1)When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, e.g., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc.2)All these words together constitute a minimal set. They are identicalin form except for the initial consonants.3) Minimal pairs are established on the basis of sound and not spelling.2.1.3Three requirements for a minimal pair:1) the same number of segment2) one phonetic difference in the same place3) different meaninge.g. a minimal pair : lit-lip; phone-tone; pill-billa minimal set: beat, bit, bet, boot, but, biteThe minimal pair test helps establish which sounds contrast in a language.2.2 phonemes2.2.1 phones: the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. It’s a phonetic unit or segment. (in the mouth)Conventionally, phones are placed within square brackets “[]”(phonetic transcription)Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning. Usually phones of different phonemes distinguish meaning.2.2.2 phoneme:(P16, Para.1) A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning.( Or a phoneme is the smallest meaning-distinguishing unit.)2.2.3 Phonemic transcription: Phonemes are placed in slashes “// ” (cf.phonetic transcription)e.g. Neither the sound [p] in pit or the sound [b] in bit is a phoneme. They are phones; they are the phonetic realization of the phoneme /p/ and /b/. 2.3 allophones2.3.1Allophones are the variants of the same phoneme.2.3.2 Complementary distribution and free variationPhonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. If they are two distinctive phoneme, they might form a contrast; e.g. /p/and /b/ in [pit] and [bit]; If they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they don’t distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic context.Strictly speaking, every sound is different from every othersounds. But in phonology some of the difference may be ignored.A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another result in a change of meaning.(1)Complementary distributionE.g 1 / p /→[ p ] / [ s ] _______/ p /→[ p ?] / elsewhereE.g 2 / l /→ [ l ] / _______ V/ l /→[ l?] / V _______Not all speech sounds occur in the same environment, when the two sounds never occur in the same environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.Not all phones in complementary distribution are considered to be allophones of the same phoneme. They must be phonetically similar and in complementary distribution.(2)Free variationA phone may sometimes has free variants.If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast, that is, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word which maybe caused by dialect or personal habit, then the two sounds are in free variation.2.4 Difference between phonemes and allophones1）concept2)transcription3)abstract vs, concrete4)possibility of production3 Phonological process3.1 assimilation (P42,para.1)Assimilation is a process by which one sound takes on some or the characteristics of a neighboring sound.3.1.1 regressive(P42,Para.2)A following sound influencing a proceeding sound is called regressive assimilation3.1.2 progressiveA proceeding sound influencing a following sound is known as progressive assimilation3.1.3 Examples (P42, para.3)1) assimilation occurring within a wordcan tan tenth sink2) assimilation occurring beyond a wordYou can keep them.You can go now3.2 Phonological rules(P42)3.2.1 devoicing3.2.2 nasalization3.2.3 dentalization3.2.4 velarization3.2.5 the deletion ruleThe “deletion rule”tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. While the letter is mute in “sign”,“design”and “paradigm”, it is pronoun ced in their corresponding derivatives: “signature”, “designation”, and “paradigmatic”. The rule then can be stated as : delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling.Sign, design, there is no {g} soundSignature, designation the {g} is pronounced.Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal constant.4 Suprasegmental phonemess4.1 conceptT he phonemic phonemes that occur above the level of the phonemic segments are called suprasegmental phonemes.“Suprasegmental phonology”refers to the study of phonological properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme. Suprasegmental features: includes stress, length, and pitch as what they suppose to be principal suprasegmental features.4.2 kinds of suprasegmental phonemes4.2.1 stressStress, including both word and sentence stress, distinguishes meaning in English形容词词义动词词义′abstract 抽象的ab′stract 摘要；提炼′frequent 时常发生的fre′quent 常去（地点）′perfect 完美的；完全的p er′fect 使完美′present 出席的；现在的pre′sent 给；赠；呈递复合词词义名词短语词义′heavy weight 重量级拳击手heavy ′weight 特别重的人或物′red cap 宪兵red ′cap 红色的帽子′small fry 不重要的人或者物small ′fry 小鱼苗′tall boy（卧室用的）高衣柜tall ′boy 高个子的男孩4.2.2 IntonationIntonation plays an important role in almost all languages: rising, falling, rise-fall, fall-rise intonation.4.2.3 Linking5 Some principle of phonology5.1The sequential rulesThere are principles that govern the combination of soundsin a particular language. These principles are called sequential rules.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules: 1）The first phoneme must be /s/; 2）The second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/; 3）The third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/ or /j/.***Sequential rules are language specific.5.2 the deletion ruleThe deletion rule tells us when a sound is deleted although it is orthographically represented. For example: desi g n, k nife.。
“英语语言学”考试题型、课堂练习与答案（1）
“英语语言学”考试题型、课堂练习与答案（1）各位好！请大家注意以下几点：1. 英语语言学期末考试及其补考的复习范围和题型一致；2. 收到此邮件，请在同学之间传阅；3. 本邮件内容有三：考试题型、参考问答题、课堂练习及其答案。
祝大家学习快乐！考试顺利！Examination Items考试题型上海外国语大学继续教育学院2014年第1学期英语本科五年级和专升本科三年级“语言学”期末试卷考试时间：60分钟班级____________ 学号____________ 姓名____________I. Fill in the blanks with suitable terms. (30%)II. Judge if the following statements are true or false. (30%)III. Choose any two of the following questions to answer. (40%)Questions for Reference参考问答题1. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar? (P6)2. Please differentiate the following pairs of terms.voicing and voiceless (P16)vowels and consonants (P18) aspirated and unaspirated (P18)phones and phonemes (P23)3. Give a brief account of the kinds of morphemes in English language with examples. (P33-36)4. Why is English rich in synonyms? And how can we classify them? (P66-68)Exercises and Key 课堂练习及其答案Practice 1 Introduction1.Linguistics is the scientific study of __________.2.__________ linguistics studies language change over various periods of time andat various historical stages while __________ linguistics studies language at one particular point of time.3.The __________ study of language studies the historical development of languageover a period of time, and it is a historical study.4.__________ and __________ are the two major media of linguisticcommunication.5.The distinction between __________ and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F.de Saussure in the early 20th century while the distinction between competence and _________ was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s.6.Chomsky uses the term __________ to refer to the actual realization of a languageuser’s knowledge of the rules of his language in linguistic communication.7.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several different ways.Firstly, linguistics is __________ while traditional grammar is __________;Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as __________, not the written; Thirdly, modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages intoa _________-based framework.8.As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyze the language people actuallyuse, and not to lay down rules for “correct” linguisticbehavior, it is said to be __________.9.The defining properties of human language are: creativity, __________,__________, __________, __________.10.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is goodproof that human language is __________.11.Generally speaking, three main functions are often recognized of language: thedescriptive functions, the expressive function, and the __________ function. 12.According to the British linguist Halliday’s simpler system of language functions,the ideational function is to organize the speaker or writer’s experience of the real or imaginary world, and the __________ function is to indicate, establish, or maintain social relationship between people while the __________ function is to organize written or spoken texts in such a manner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.Practice 2 Introduction1.Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the spoken.2.Speech and writing are the two major media of language. All languages in theworld today can be both spoken and written.3.The writing system of a language is always a later invention used to record speech;thus there are still many languages in today’s world that can only be spoken, but not written.4.Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimesdescriptive.5.With their respective distinction between langue and parole, and competence andperformance, both Saussure and Chomsky present the view that only the abstract structure of language can be studied systematically, but not its use.6.The distinction between langue and parole was proposed by the Swiss linguist F.de Saussure. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while parole refers to the concrete use of conventions and rules, thus varying from person to person.7.An important difference between traditional grammarians and modern linguists intheir study of language is that the former tended to over-emphasize the written form of language and encourage people to imitate the “best authors” for language usage./doc/c23223740.html,nguage can be studied both synchronically and diachronically. The two approaches are equally favored by modern linguists./doc/c23223740.html,nguage is entirely arbitrary.10.Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e. we are all born with theability to acquire language and the details of a language system are genetically transmitted.1.Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language. It has three branches:__________, __________ and auditory phonetics.2.The study of how people use their speech organs toproduce speech sounds is ofgreat interest to those working in __________ phonetics.3.The articulatory apparatus of a human being contains three important areas(cavities): __________, __________ and nasal cavity.4.Of all the speech organs, the __________ is the most flexible.5.V oicing as a quality of speech sounds is caused by the vibration of __________ .6. A sound is __________ when its production is accompanied by a puff of breath.This is characteristic of the English voiceless stops in initial position, e.g. [pi:l]. 7.__________ transcription is the one required and used by the phoneticians in theirstudy of speech sounds.8.In terms of the place of articulation, the following sounds [t] [d] [s] [z] [n] sharethe feature __________.9.All the back vowels in English are pronounced with rounded lips except__________.10.__________ are produced by moving from one vowel position to another throughintervening positions.11.The orthographic representation of speech sounds with diacritics is normally notused in dictionaries and teaching textbooks.12.V oicing is a feature of all consonants and some vowels.13.In producing a vowel the air stream coming from the lungs meets with noobstruction whatsoever while in the production of aconsonant it is obstructed in one way or another.14.The English stops include [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g] [f] [v].15.All the English nasal consonants are voiced.16.With no exception all the front vowels in English are unrounded.17.With no exception all the back vowels in English are rounded.18.In English, long vowels are also tense vowels because when we pronounce a longvowel such as /i:/, the larynx is in a state of tension.19.Although the [l] sound is represented by the same symbol in the two combinationsof [li:f] and [fi:l], it is actually pronounced differently.20.If a Chinese speaker pronounces the /l/ sound in /fi:l/ not as a dark [], but as aclear [l], he will be misunderstood by a native speaker as saying something else.1.[p], and [p] are the __________ of the same phoneme /p/.2.The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are calledsuprasegmental features. They include __________, __________ and intonation.3.The tone, defined as pitch variation, is an important suprasegmental feature oftone languages such as __________.4.The negative prefix “in-” in English, when added to the adjective “possible”, isactually pronounced /im/, and spelt as “im-”. This is the result of the __________ rule at work.5.To form the present tense, 3rd person singular, of the verb“teach”, we have to add“-es”, instead of just “-s” to it. This is required by the __________rule of English.6. A general difference between phonetics and phonology is that phonetics is focusedon the production of speech sounds while phonology is more concerned with how speech sounds distinguish meaning.7. A phone is a phonetic segment while a phoneme is a phonological unit.8.Clear [l] and dark [] form the relation of complementary distribution for theyoccur in the same position in sound combinations and also distinguish meaning.9./p/ and /b/ in [ pit ] and [ bit ] are in contrastive distribution.10.Phonological rules are not language specific, i.e. once proved to be valid, they canbe applied to all languages.11.In English, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], the next must be a vowel.12.The three voiceless stops /p/, /t/, /k/ are aspirated when preceded by /s/ andfollowed by a vowel./doc/c23223740.html,ually in the two-syllable words, the noun has the stress on the first syllable and the corresponding verb has the stress on the second syllable.14.Stress is a suprasegmental feature that is exclusively used with words, not withsentences.15.Chinese is often cited as examples of typical tone language because tone plays animportant role in distinguishing meaning.1.is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of wordsand the rules by which words are formed.2.The morpheme “-vision” in the common word “television” is a(n)________morpheme.3.There are different types of morphemes. “-ed” in the word "lea rned" is known asa(n)__________ morpheme.4.The words that contain only one morpheme can be called ________ morphemes.5.The morphemes that cannot be used by themselves, but must be combined withother morphemes to form words are called morphemes.6.In English, nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and conjunctions make up the largestpart of the vocabulary. They are open classes.7.Such endings as “-ed”and “-ing” are called derivational morphemes because newgrammatical forms are derived by adding them to existing words.8.The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.9. A compound is the combination of only two words.10.The word “carelessness”is a three-morpheme word formed by a free morpheme“care” + affix “-less” + affix “-ness”.11.The meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total ofthe meanings of its components.12.The compound word “bookstore” is the place whe re books are sold. This indicatesthat the meaning of a compound is the sum total of the meanings of its components.13.Only words of the same parts of speech can be combined to form compounds.14.The part of speech of the compound is always determined by the part of speech ofthe second element, without exception.15.A compound can be written as one word with or withouta hyphen between itscomponents, or as two separate words. It is simply a matter of convention.1.Historically, different views have been suggested concerning the study of meaning.In our textbook, some views on semantics have been exemplified. They are naming things, __________, __________, __________ and mentalism.2.The naming theory was proposed by __________.3.Of the views concerning the study of meaning, the one in which meaning isexplained in terms of observable stimuli and responses made by participants in specific situations is referred to as __________.4.__________ is concerned with the inherent meaning if the linguistic form. It is thecollection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized. __________ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.5.Synonyms that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances are called__________ synonyms.6.C omplete Synonyms are classified into several kinds. The kind to which “girl”and “lass” belong is called __________ synonym.7.Antonyms are divided into several kinds. They are gradable antonyms,__________ antonyms and __________ opposites.8.“Cold” and “hot” are called __________ antonyms.9.__________ refers to a paradigmatic relation between a more specific, orsubordinate, lexeme and a more general, or superordinate, lexeme. This can be exemplified by such pairs as cow: animal; rose: flower.10.__________ refers to the phenomenon that the same word may have a set ofdifferent meanings. For example, “mouth” means “organ of b ody”, “entrance of cave” etc.11.“Lead” (metal) and “lead” (dog’s lead) are spelt in the same way, but pronounceddifferently. This is called __________.12.“Can I borrow your bike?”__________ “You have a bike.”13.__________ is an approach adopted by structural semanticists in describing themeaning of words.14.Predication analysis is a way to analyze __________ meaning.15.In terms of predication analysis, the utterance “Is it going to snow this afternoon?”is a __________ -place predication.1.Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.2.The conceptualist view of meaning holds that there is no direct link between asymbol and reference, i.e. between language and thought.3.Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in differentsituations while linguistic forms with the same reference always have the same sense.4.“Site” and “sight”, “meat”and “meet”, “sow” and “sew” are in relationship ofhomography.5.English is rich in synonyms for historical reasons but complete synonyms, i.e.synonyms that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rare.6.Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such asBritish English and American English, but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English.7.There are different kinds of antonyms because words opposite in meaning do notcontrast each other only on a single dimension.8.The important criteria to distinguish polysemy from homonymy are the etymologyof the words in question and the closeness of the relationship between the meanings in question.9.An important difference between presupposition and entailment is thatpresupposition, unlike entailment, is not vulnerable to negation. That is to say, if a sentence is negated, the original presupposition is still true.10.A grammatically well-formed sentence is always semantically well-formed.Key to Exercises Practice 1 Introduction1. language or languages in general2. Diachronic, synchronic3. diachronic4. Speech, writing5. langue, performance6. performance7. descriptive, prescriptive; primary; Latin8. descriptive9. arbitrariness, duality; displacement, cultural transmission10. arbitrary11. social12. interpersonal, textualPractice 2 Introduction1. F;2. F;3. T;4. F;5. T6. T;7. T;8. F;9. F; 10. FPractice 3 Phonetics1. articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics2. articulatory3. pharyngeal cavity, oral cavity4. tongue5. vocal cords6. aspirated7. Narrow8. alveolar9. []10. Diphthongs11. T; 12. F; 13. T; 14. F; 15. T 16.T; 17. F; 18. T; 19. T; 20. F Practice 4 Phonology1. allophones2. stress, tone3. Chinese4. assimilation5. sequential6. T;7. T;8. F;9. T; 10. F11. T; 12. F; 13.T; 14. F. 15. T Practice 5 Morphology1. Morphology2. free3. inflectional4. free or root5. derivational;6. F;7. F;8. T;9. F; 10. T11. T; 12. F; 13. F; 14. F; 15. TPractice 6 Semantics1. conceptualism, contextualism, behaviorism2. Plato3. behaviorism4. Sense, Reference5. complete6. dialectal7. complementary, relational8. gradable9. Hyponymy10. Polysemy11. homonymy or homography12. presupposes13. Componential analysis14. sentence15. noPractice 7 Semantics1. T;2. F;3. F;4. F;5. T6. F;7. T;8. T;9. T; 10. F。
《语言学导论》重点整理
♦Applied linguistics: the study of applications of linguistics.
5. Some distinctions in linguistics
6. Phonology : the sound patterns of language
Difference Phone, phoneme, allophone
Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair
7. Phones, phonemes, and allophones
Narrow transcription窄式标音: transcription with letter-symbols and the diacritics
4. Classification of English consonants
5. Classification of English vowels
1 .An Introduction to Linguistics and language
1. What is Linguistics?
Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It endeavors to answer the question--what is language and how is represented in the mind? Linguists focus on describing and explaining language and are not concerned with the prescriptive rules of the language.
语音学和音系学考试资料
Phonetics1.The differences between consonants and vowelsConsonants are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the airflow in the cavity. However, a vowel is produced without such obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.2.Manners of articulationIt refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain part of vocal tracts. There are several basic ways in which articulation can be accomplished: the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; they may narrow the space considerably; or they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.(1). Stop: complete closure of the articulators involved so that the airstream cannot escape through the mouth. It is essential to separate three phrases in the production of a stop: (a) the closing phase, in which the articulators come together; (b)the compression phrase, during which air is compressed behind the closure; (c)the release phrase, during which the articulatorsforming the obstruction come rapidly apart and the air is suddenly released. In English, [p, b, t, d, k, g]are stops and [m, n,ŋ] are nasals.(2) Fricative: close approximation of two articulators so that the airstream is partially obstructed and turbulent airflow is produced. In English, [f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h]are fricatives.(3)Approximant: an articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced. The gap between the articulators is therefore larger than for a fricative and no turbulence is generated. In English, this class of sounds includes [w, r, j].(4)Lateral: obstruction of the airstream at a pint along the center of the oral tract, with incomplete closure between one or both sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouth. [l] is the only lateral in English.(5)Trill: produced when an articulator is set vibrating by the airstream. A major trill sound is [r], as in red.(6)Affricates: involving more than one of these manners of articulation in that they consist of a stop followed immediately afterwards by a fricative at the same place of articulation. In English, the “ch [ tʃ ]” of cheese and the “j [dʒ]”of jetare both affricates.3. Places of articulationIt refers to the point where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing or the abstraction of air. Practically, consonants may be produced at any place between the tips and the vocal folds.(1)Bilabial: made with the two lips. In English, bilabial sounds include [p, b, m, w], as in pet, bet, met and wet.(2)Labiodental: made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth. Labiodental sounds include [f, v], as in fire and five.(3)Dental: made by the tongue tip and the upper front teeth. Only frictives[θ, ð] are dental sounds.(4)Alveolar: made with the tongue tip and the alveolar ridge. Sounds include [t, d, n, s, z, r, l] for English.(5)Postalveolar: made with the tongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge. Such sounds include [ʃ, ʒ,], as in ship and pleasure.(6)Patatal: made with the front to the tongue and the hard palate. The only English sound made here is [j], as in yes and yet. (7)Velar: made with the black of the tongue and the soft palate. Examples in English are velar stops [k, g], as in cat and get, and velar nasal [ŋ], as in sing.(8)Glottal: made with the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towards each other. The only glottal is [h] in hat and head.4.Description of the consonants (必考)[p] voiceless bilabial stop [b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative [z] voiced alveolar fricative [m] bilabial nasal; [j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative [l] alveolar lateral5. Cardinal VowelsThe cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.6. Three types of vowelsAccording to the quality of production, there are 3 types of vowels. The first one is monophthong, whose quality of production is unchangeable movement; the second one is diphthong, whose quality of production is a single change movement; and the last one is triphthong, whose quality of production is 2 change movements, such as tower /ˈtaʊə(r)/.7. 短元音发音是会受到清辅音和浊辅音的影响，后面是浊辅音是元音长；后面是清辅音时，元音短。
语言学Chapter3Phonology
语言学Chapter3PhonologyChapter 3 PhonologyAims:1) To have an understanding of the differences between phonology and phonetics;2) To let the students know some terms in phonology, such as phoneme, allophone, phonemiccontrast, complementary distribution and so on;3) To be familiar with the distinctive features and some phonological rules;4) To understand what suprasegmental features are.1. Phonology and phoneticsPhonology is the study of sound systems—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall, how the sound system of a language functions.Both phonology and phonetics are studies of speech sounds．The two words contain the same root phono-，meaning sounds．But while both are related to the study of sounds，they differ in their approach and focus. As we have seen in the last chapter，phonetics is of a general nature；it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages：how they are produced，how they differ from each other，what phonetic features they possess，how they can be classified，etc. Phonology，on the other hand，is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language；it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication．Thus these two are at once related and distinct branches of linguistic studies.Phonology, therefore, different from phonetics, is language specific. It deals with speech sounds within the context of a particular language.2. Phoneme and allophonePhonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. So the subtle difference between clear [l] and dark [l] and that between alveolar [n] and dental [n] are not really the concern of phonology, but the difference between [p] and [b] and that between [l] and [m] are because [pi:] (pea) and [bi:] (bee), and [leik] and [meik] are entirely different in meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. But is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features. In actual speech, a phoneme is realized phonetically as a certain phone. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.3. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pairPhonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. They might form a contrast if they aretwo distinctive phonemes，or they do not form a contrast in meaning if they are allophones of the same phoneme. Study the pronunciation of the following words:Rope[r[Up]，robe［r[Ub］，pin［phin］，bin [bin]，pot ［phCt］spot［spCt］We can see that [ph] and［b］contras each other in initial position，as in pin and bin. Then we find that they also contrast in final position，as in rope and robe. So we come to the conclusion that /p/ and /b/ can occur in the same environmentsand they distinguish meaning：therefore they are in phonemic contrast. On the other hand，［p］and [ph]never contrast each other. They are two allophones of the same phoneme /p/. They occur in different environmentsThese two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.When confronted with an unfamiliar language，a linguist has，first of all，to find out what are the sounds that convey meaning in that language，namely，the phonemes that form the sound system of that particular language．A basic way to determine the phonemes of language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes. An easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.4. Phonological rules4.1 Sequential rulesThere are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. These rules are called sequential rules. There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [ibik] and [ikbi] are impossible combinations in English.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:1) the first phoneme must be /s/;2) the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/;3) the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/.This is why all words beginning with a combination of threeconsonants in English are words like spring, strict, square, splendid, scream.4.2 Assimilation rulesThe assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential pho neme, thus making the two phones similar.For example, [i:] sound is non-nasalized in such words as tea, peep, flee, it is nasalized in words like bean, green, team and scream. This is because in al these sound combination the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m]. While we are pronouncing the [i:] sound, we are already getting ready to pronounce the subsequent nasal sound. Nasalize a vowel when it is followed bya nasal sound.4.3 Deletion ruleIt tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.4.4 Distinctive featuresAs we have seen from the discussion of IPA symbols in the last chapter; speech sounds are divided up into classes according to a number of properties. One important property is “voicing”, which plays an important part in distinguish obstruents（阻塞音）in English. Because voicing can distinguish one phoneme from another, it is a distinctive feature for English obstruents. There are other features too and many of them are binary features. eg, [+voiced] [+nasal] [+round].5. Suprasegmental features (refer to Poole, 2000: 66)5.1 SyllableSyllable is a unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word. The syllable consists of three parts: onset, the peak, coda. Every syllable has a nucleus,its power source. This is usually a vowel but it can also be a liquid or nasal consonant as in the second syllable of the word “people” [5pi:pl]. A syllable may consist of nothing but the nucleus, as in the word “owe”, but the nucleus is usua lly accompanied by at least one consonant.A preceding consonant or consonant cluster is called an onset and a following.5.2 StressThe pronunciation of a word or syllable with more force than the surrounding words or syllables.A stressed word or syllable is produced by using more air from the lungs.Stress has two main semantic functions:a. It may distinguish between two wordsb. The speaker wishes to emphasize the syllable or word.Pitch: different rates of vibration of vocal cord caused different pitch. Pitch variations may be distinctive like phonemes.5.3 IntonationWhen pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as Intonation. Intonation has four grammatical functions: First, it may indicate different sentence types by pitch direction.Second, sometimes the different pitch direction may indicate connotative meanings.Third, it may impose different structure on the sentence by dividing it into different intonation units.Fourth, intonation may bring part of a sentence into prominence by placing the nucleus (the major pitch change) on the syllable concerned. Stress, intonation and length can all makea word more prominent than the quality of its component sounds allows. But of the three, intonation is the most effective means while stress is the least, in spite of the erroneous assumption that the sole function of stress is to give emphasis to a word.Intonation also has attitudinal functions. It may indicate the emotional state of the speaker---whether he is calm or exited, happy or sad.Exercise:1. What criteria are used to classify the English consonants and vowels?2. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound description:1) voiced palatal affricate 2) voiceless labiodental fricative 3) voiced alveolar stop 4) front, close, short 5) back, semi-open, long 6) voiceless bilabial stop3. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:[d] [l] [tF] [w] [U] [A ]4. How do phonetics phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say [l] and [l], [] and [ph], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?5. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule and the deletion rule.6. What is the test used for determining phonemes in a language?。
新编简明英语语言学教程-戴伟栋版
新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版第1章导言本章要点：1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究范围2. Important distinction in Linguistic语言学的一些重要区分3. The definition and the design features of language语言的定义和识别特征4. Function of language语言的功能本章考点：语言学考点：语言学的定义，语言学中几组重要的区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支及各自研究范畴；宏观语言及应用语言学的主要扥只及各自的研究范畴。
语言的考点：语言的定义；语言的识别特征（任意性，能产性，二重性，移位性，文化传递性）；语言的功能1,The definition of linguistics语言的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language(based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to general theory of language structure)2.The scope of linguistics语言学的范围A：micro-linguisticsPhonetics（语音学）: the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication.Phonology（音系学）: the study of how sounds put together and used to convey meaning in communication.(语音分布和排列的规则及音节的形式) Morphology（形态学）: the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.Syntax（句法学）: the study of rules in the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in language.Semantics（语义学）: the study of meaning.Pragmatics（语用学）: the study of the meaning in the context of language use. B：macro-linguisticsSociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with the society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics: the study of language and its relation with psychology.Applied linguistics: the study of application of language to the solution of practical problems. Narrowly it is the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.3. Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学中的重要区分A: Descriptive vs Prescriptive 描写式与规定式Descriptive: if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.Prescriptive: if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what should t hey say and what they should not say, it is said to be Prescriptive.B: Synchronic vs Diachronic 共时性和历时性Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.C: Speech vs writing 言语和文学These are major media of communication.D: Langue vs parole 语言与言语(Saussure 索緖尔)Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by the all the members of a speech community.Parole: refers to the realization of language in actual use.E: Competence vs performance 语言能力和语言应用(Chomsky乔姆斯基) Competence: refers to a user’s underlying knowledge about the system of the rules.Performance: refers to the actual use in concrete situations.乔姆斯基和索绪尔的区别：索绪尔采用的是社会学的观点，他的语言观念是社会惯例性的。
江西农业大学语言学概论课程考试试卷A
江西农业大学语言学概论课程考试试卷A专业：英语考试日期：06-12-291. Translate the following terms into English and define them (10 points)1) 语言能力2) 互补分布3) 送气音4) 音节5) 语义学6) 最小对立体7) 蕴涵8) 衔接9) 语域10) 习得2. Name 4 design features that human language has as against animal communication. Give a brief explanation for each of them. (10 points)3. Give a phonetic symbol (IPA) for each of the following sounds. (10 points)1) voiced bilabial stop consonant: [ ]2) voiceless palatal affricative consonant: [ ]3) voiced dental fricative consonant: [ ]4) voiced labiodental fricative consonant: [ ]5) voiceless alveolar stop consonant: [ ]6) voiced velar stop consonant: [ ]7) voiced bilabial nasal consonant: [ ]8) voiced velar nasal consonant: [ ]9) front close long vowel: [ ]10) back open short vowel: [ ]4. Give two examples for each of the following terms (Underlining may be used to indicate the morphemes): (10 points)1) bound morphemes:2) free morphemes:3) derivational morphemes:4) inflectional morphemes:5) compounds:5. Fill in the blanks with proper terms: (10 points) 1) Ways of creating new words may include: ___________; ___________; ___________; ___________; ____________2) Writing systems can be categorized as ______________; _______________; __________________3) In text analysis, ___________ is the element whichserves to relate the message of the sentence to theunfolding text. The rest of the clause is called the______________.4) Draw two labeled tree diagrams for each of thefollowing structurally ambiguous sentences (10 points)1) The farmer saw the cow in the field.2) They need more highly trained teachers.6. Define the following terms and give an example toillustrate the terms: (10 points)1) Synonymy:2) Polysemy:3) Homonymy:4) Hyponymy:5) Antonymy:7. The notion of "context" is important in the study ofpragmatics. Define the notion first, and then explain withexamples why it is important. (10 points)8. It is widely recognized that language change isinevitable, constant, and universal, With examples,provide explanations for some major factors that triggerlanguage change. (10 points)9. In what ways does your mother tongue interfere withyour English learning? Give examples to illustrate yourpoint. (10 points)江西农业大学语言学概论课程考试试卷B专业：英语/考试日期：06-12-29/考试所需时间：10. What are the main branches of linguistics? Name 5topics and define each of them briefly (10 points)11. What is language? Name some of the definitions you havefound for language. (10 points)12. Give phonetic symbol for each of the following sounds.(10 points)1) voiceless bilabial stop consonant: [ ]2) voiced palatal affricative consonant:3) voiceless dental fricative consonant:4) voiceless labiodental fricative consonant:5) voiced alveolar stop consonant:6) voiceless velar stop consonant:7) voiced bilabial nasal consonant:8) voiced velar nasal consonant:9) front close long vowel:10) back open short vowel13. Explain different kinds of morphemes and give twoexamples for each of them: (10 points)14. List three speech acts and explain them withexamples:(10 points)15. Of the following pairs of sentences, say whether Aentails B in each pair: (10 points)1) A. John is a bachelor.B. John is a man. ( )2) A. Eliza plays the violin.B. Someone plays a musical instrument. ( )3) A. I’ve done my homework.B. I haven’t brushed my teeth. ( )4) A. Some of the students came to my party.B. Not all of the students came to my party. ( )5) A. John picked a tulip.B. John didn’t pick a rose. ( )16. Use a tree diagram to show the constituent structureof the following sentence: (6 points)A small thin old man walked unsteadily acrossthe street.17. According to Austin, there are two types of sentences:performatives and constatives. Identify the followingsentences in these two categories. (6 points)1) He bet her 10 dollars it would snow the next day.( )2) I warn you that the bull will charge. ( )3) I know that she saw the accident. ( )4) I dismiss the class. ( )5) I promise to finish it in time. ( )6) I suppose the Bulls will win the match.( )18. Comment with examples the relationship betweenlanguage and culture (10 points)19. In what ways does your mother tongue interfere withyour English study? Give examples to illustrate your point.(10 points)20. How do you think English should be taught as a foreignlanguage in Chinese universities? (8 points)江西农业大学语言学概论课程考试试卷(A)本试卷（闭卷）适用于外国语学院英语051、052、 053和044 I. Each of the following questions is followed with four choices marked A, B, C, and D. Decide which best answers the question or completes the sentence (2%×15):1. As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, and not to lay down rules for ‚correct‛linguistic behavior, it is said to be _________.A. prescriptiveB. sociolinguisticC. descriptiveD. psycholinguistic2. Of all the speech organs, the _________ is/are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords3. The morpheme ‚vision‛in the common word ‚television‛ is a(n) ___________.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme4. A _________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator5. ‚Can I borrow your bike?‛________ ‚You have a bike.‛A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes6. The branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the way speakers interpret sentences is called _______.A. semanticsB. pragmaticsC. sociolinguisticsD. psycholinguistics7. The pair of words ‚long‛and ‚short‛are _________.A. gradable oppositesB. relational oppositesC. synonymsD. co- hyponyms8. The smallest meaningful unit of language is _________.A. morphemeB. phoneC. phonemeD. allomorph9. The utterance ‚We’re already working 25 hours a day, eight days a week.‛obviously violates the maxim of __________.A. qualityB. quantityC. relationD. manner 10. Transformational grammar is a type of grammar fistproposed by ___________ in his book language.A. ChomskyB. SapirC. SaussureD. Firth11. A word with several meanings is called a(n)_________word.A. polysemousB. synonymousC. abnormalD.multiple12. The function of the sentence ‚A nice day, isn't it?‛is _________.rmativeB.phaticC.directiveD.performative13. The semantic components of the word ‚gentleman‛ canbe expressed as _____________.A. +animate, +male, +human,－adultB. +animate, +male, +human, +adultC. +animate, －male, +human,－adultD. +animate,－male, +human, +adult14. The fact that different languages have different wordsfor the same object is a good proof that human language is__________.A. non-arbitraryB. non-productiveC. logicalD. arbitrary15. What the element ‘-es’indicates is the third personsingular, present tense, the element ‘-ed’ past tense,and ‘-ing’progressive aspect. Since they are thesmallest units of language and meaningful, they are also_____________.A. phonemesB. morphemesC. allophonesD. phonesII. Fill in the blanks with proper words to complete eachof the following sentences (2%×10):16. Language exists in time and changes through time. Thedescription of a language at some point of time is calleda s_______ study of language.17. An essential difference between c___________ and vowelsis whether the air coming up from the lungs meets with anyobstruction when a sound is produced.18. The morphemes that cannot be used by themselves, butmust be combined with other morphemes to form words arecalled b________ morphemes.19. Chomsky defines ‚c__________‛ as the ideal user’sknowledge of the rules of his language.20. Affixes are limited in number in a language, and aregenerally classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix,s__________ and infix.21. H___________ is the relationship which obtains betweenspecific and general lexical items. The word that is moregeneral in meaning is called superordinate.22. S_________________ can be simply defined as the studyof meaning.23. ‚A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.‛Thissentence means that language has the feature ofa________________.24. M________ is a branch of grammar which studies theinternal structure of words and the rules by which wordsare formed.25. Linguists often use the term native language or mothertongue instead of first language, and t________ languageinstead of second language in second language acquisitionliterature.III. Read the following statements and decide whether theyare true or false. Put a T in the bracket for true and anF for false (2% ×10):26. ( ) Human capacity for language has a genetic basis,i. e. we are all born with the ability to acquire languageand the details of a language system are geneticallytransmitted.27. ( ) A general difference between phonetics andphonology is that phonetics is focused on the productionof speech sounds while phonology is more concerned with howspeech sounds distinguish meaning.28. ( ) Only words of the same parts of speech can becombined to form compounds.29. ( ) Sentences are not formed by randomly combininglexical items, but by following a set of syntactic rulesthat linguistic elements are in a particular order.30. ( ) A perlocutionary act is the consequence of or thechange brought about by the utterance.31. ( ) Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive becauseit sets rules for language users to follow.32. ( ) New words may be formed from existing words bysubtracting an affix thought to be part of the old word;that is, ignorance sometimes can be creative. Thus ‚peddle‛ was derived from ‚peddler‛ on the assumption that the ‚-er‛ was the agentive suffix.33. ( ) The relationship between "fruit" and "apple" is hyponymy.34. ( ) The quality maxim of CP requires that a participant's contribution be relevant to the conversation.35. ( ) The speech act theory was first put forward by John Searle.IV. Define the following terms and give examples for illustration if it is necessary (5%×3):36. derivational affixes37. relational opposites38. interlanguageⅤ. Answer the following question in English （15%）: 39. Briefly explain with examples what sense is and what reference is.江西农业大学语言学概论课程考试试卷本试卷（闭卷）适用于外国语学院英语051、052、 053和044班。
大学语言学考试7章-试题和答案
12 maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonont. it is put into the on set rather than the coda. . The correct syllabification of the word country should be第一章，填空1.The study of the meaning of lingustic words, phrases is callesde mantics・2.Displacement is a design feature of human languoge that enables speakers to talk about a wild range of things free from barriers caused by4.Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.5.If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.6.Chomsky defines " competencaes "the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his Ionguage.nguage is a means of verbal communication. It is informative in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act.8.The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter ofnguage is distinguished from traffic lights in that the former has the designing feature of duality.10.In linguistics research, bothq uantity and quality approaches are preferred.半lj 断:丄1・ The writing system of a Ianguage is always a later invention used to record speech, thus there are still many languages in today's have no V12. compentoetn Icime it"ed itso the ability of anideal native speaker to construct and recognize..13.Duality and cultural transmission are two most im porta nt design features of human Ian guage. X14.Chomsky's compete nee' and performance are similar in meaning to Saussure s langue and parole. V15.An important difference between traditional grammarians and modem linguists in their study of language is that the former tended to over-emphasize the written form of language and encourage people to imitate the "bestauthors ” V for languag16・ In modern linguistic studies, the written form of language is given more emphasis than the spoken form for a of reasons. V17.Modern linguistics is mainly diachronic・ x chochronic 共时白勺ngue and parole is the fundamental distinction discussed by Chomsky in his Aspects of the Theory of distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as Parole and language V .20. According to Chomsky, the task of a linguist is to determine from the data of performance the underlying system of rules that has been V选择：1.As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyse the language people actually use, and not to lay down rules for correct linguistic behavior, it is said to bed escriptive2.丨can refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2000 years ago. This shows that language has the design feature of displacement.this 3." Don't end a sentence with a prepositio IT4.Which of the following is most referred to as a branch of the study of meaning in5.The synchronic study of language takes a fixed instant as its point of observatiori.6.The branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the way speakers interpret sentences is calledp ragmatics.7.The fact that different Ionguages have different words for the same object is good proof that human language is A 没照下图片arbitrary8.The descriptive of a language as it changes through time is dai achronic study・9.题目没照下来。
Differences between phonetics and phonology
Differences between phonetics and phonologyThe major difference between human beings and animals is the fact that human beings have language and are able to create infinite speech with the help of our brain mechanism. So language is unique to mankind. Therefore, we human beings are bound to have research on it, thereby phonetics and phonology appearing. Although both phonetics and phonology are dedicated to the study of speech sounds, they do have some differences.Firstly, phonetics studies the actual sounds used by the speakers of a language in the world such as how people pronounce them. It is a branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.It is subdivided into three categories:Secondly, phonology studies the mental representation of sounds as part of a symbolic cognitive system and how abstract sound categories are manipulated in the process of language. Phonology more focuses on the sound system such as the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns they fall.Next, let’s illustrate some differences between phonetics and phonology.一．The first difference is their unit: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. One phonetic symbol represents one phone. For example, a monophthong is made up of one phone, and diphthong is made up of two phones. And the different phones representing a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called its allophones.When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. So in English, pill and bill are a minimal pair, and so are beat and bit. A phoneme is a phonological unit, and it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is not any particular sound, but represented by a phone in a certain phonetic context. In English, ｛p｝can not be distinguished from the verbs play and phone, so it is phone. While ｛l｝in light and ｛t｝in light can be distinguished from meaning, so they are phonemes.二．The second difference is their branches: phonetics is divided into three branches：articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics and acoustic phonetics. Articulatory phonetics is about the production of speech. It defines and classifies speech sounds according to how they are produced. And it focuses on what organs are involved in the process of speech production.Auditory phonetics is concerned about the reception of speech which studies on the impression that a speech sound makes on the hearer. The last one is acoustic phonetics which lies between the production and reception of speech sounds. It studies on the physical properties of speech sounds.三．Phonetic focuses on the natural attribute of speech sounds, and pay attention to all the speech that occurs in the world. And a phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds and how it is generated.It is the foundation of phonology research. On the other hand, phonology stresses on the social function of speech sounds, the object are those can be used to make sentences. A phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features,a phonologist cares about the meaningful quantity,quality, their distribution ways, their compound mode, morphological feature, and their semantic feature, and how can function in the course of people’s cognition. A man who is armed with this knowledge, he can produce meaningful speech, and he can distinguish a foreign speech.四．Phonetic has nothing to do with the meaning, but has something to do with how to pronounce.In a word, it is physical rather than meaningful. For example, if you want to pronounce the word pit, what you should firstly consider is your pronouncing organs like lips, teeth, tongue, and your lungs. It is known that they have survival function, but when referring to the study of linguistic, they have speech function. Lungs supply airstream, vocal cords produce vibration in resonating cavity, tongue articulate sounds, teeth provide passive articulate and acoustic baffle, lips articulate sounds.Phonology, on the other hand, is both physical and meaningful. It searches the differences between sounds that change the meaning of a sentence. For example, the word “pit” is very similar to the word “pi g” in terms of the physical manifestation of sounds. The only difference is that at the e nd of “pig,” the vocal chords stop vibrating so that sound is a result only of the placement of the tongue behind the teeth and the flow of air. However, the meanings of the two words are not related in the least. This is the biggest distinction between phonetics and phonology, although phonologists analyze a lot more than just the obvious differences. They also check variations on single letter pronunciations, words in which multiple variations can exist versus those in which variations are considered incorrect, and the phonological “grammar” of languages. If you are a native speaker of English, you pronounce the letter P three different ways. It’s true. You may not realize it, but you do, and if you were to hear the wrong pronunciation, you might not be able to find the problem, but you would think it sounded really weird. Say the word “pop-up.” The first P has more air behind it than the others, the second is very similar to the first, but it doesn’t have much air in it, and the last one is barely pronounced at all. Now, say it again, but put a lot of air in the final P. It is weird, right .That’s because the aspirated P (with air) sound is not “grammatically” correct at the end of an English word. Similarly, Spanish words do not begin with an “s” sound followed by a consonant, which makes it very difficult for Spanish-speakers who are learning English to say words like “school,” “speak” and “strict.” Phonologists study things like that.In general, the research results can be concluded into the following.∙Phonetics is strictly physical while phonology also pays attention to the function or meaning of a sound.∙Phonetics only asks, “Does this sound go here or not?” Phonology asks, “Does the meaning change if I put this sound here instead of that one?”∙Phonetics makes a pretty general description of sounds and can be used to describe sounds in any language. Phonology makes very detailed descriptions of sounds, so eachlanguage has its own unique set of symbols (because no two languages use all of the exact same sounds).。
《语言学导论》重点整理
《语⾔学导论》重点整理1 .An Introduction to Linguistics and language1. What is Linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It endeavors to answer the question--what is language and how is represented in the mind? Linguists focus on describing and explaining language and are not concerned with the prescriptive rules of the language.2. Basic criteria for doing Linguistics1. Objectivity2. Explicitness3. Rigorousness4. Adequacy3. The Scope of Linguistics(1)General Linguistics: the study of language as a wholePhonetics: the study of sounds in linguistic communicationPhonology: the study of the sound patterns of language. It is concerned with how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.Morphology : the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.4. The Scope of Linguistics (2): Syntax the study of sentence structure. It attempts to describe what is grammatical in a particular language in term of rules Semantics: the study of meaning.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in contextSociolinguistics: the study of social aspects of language and its relation with society.Psycholingustics:the study of language with relation to psychologyApplied linguistics: the study of applications of linguistics.5. Some distinctions in linguisticsPrescriptive vs.descriptiveSynchronic vs. diachronicSpeech and writingLangue and paroleCompetence and performanceTraditional grammar and modern linguistics(linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive; modern linguistics regards spoken language as primary, not the written; modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in that it does not force language into a Latin-based framework.)6. What is language?Language is not an abstract construction of the learned, or of dictionary-makers, but is something arising out of the work, needs, ties, joys, affections, tastes, of long generations of humanity, and has its bases broad and low, close to the ground. ? Walt Whitman7. The definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication8. Design features (Properties)Arbitrariness: vast majority of linguistic expressions are arbitraryProductivity: creativity or open-endednessDuality: double articulation(sounds and meanings)Displacement: eg. Santa Claus, Superman, dragonCultural transmission: meme, memics(Discreteness:the sounds used in language are meaningfully distinct. Eg. pack, back)9. AssignmentsComment on the definition of language.Summarize the design features of language.What is your understanding of synchronic study of language2.Chapter 2 Phonetics and phonology1. Phonetics: the sounds of languageThree branches of phoneticsArticulatory Phonetics发⾳语⾳学: the production of speech sounds.Auditory Phonetics听觉语⾳学: the study of the perception of speech soundsAcoustic Phonetics声学语⾳学: the study of the physical production and transmission of speech sounds.2. Organs of speech: 1.The pharyngeal cavity喉腔2.The oral cavity⼝腔3.The nasal cavity⿐腔3. Two kinds of transcriptionBroad transcription宽式标⾳: transcription with letter-symbolsNarrow transcription窄式标⾳: transcription with letter-symbols and the diacritics4. Classification of English consonants5. Classification of English vowels6. Phonology : the sound patterns of languageDifference Phone, phoneme, allophonePhonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair7. Phones, phonemes, and allophonesPhonology is the study of sound patterns of language( i.e. how sounds are arranged to form meaningful units) and the function of each sound. It reveals what are the possible combinations of sounds in a language and explains why certain words take the form they do.8. Phone ⾳素phone: the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speechi) phonetic unit ii) not distinctive of meaning iii) physical as heard or produced iv) marked with [ ]9. Phoneme ⾳位the minimal unit in the sound system of a language. With phonemes, we establish the patterns of organization within the infinitely large number of sounds. Each language can be shown to operate with a relatively small number of phonemes (15-80). No two languages have the same phonemic system.10. Phoneme ⾳位i) phonological unit ii) distinctive of meaning iii) abstract, not physical iv) marked with / /.11.Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs:1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different; 3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment. Minimal set: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etc.11. Allophone ⾳位变体: phonic variants/realizations of a phoneme12. Phonological rules:Phonological patterning is rule-governed. [blik] and [kilb], though not found in English, can be possible combinations, while [kbil] or [lkib] cannot. Sequential rules are those that account for the combination of sounds in a particular language. They are language-specific, as in thefollowing cases:* [tlait] [iltrit]13.Sequential ruleIf three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should follow the order/sequence below:a. The first phoneme must be /s/b. The second phoneme must be /p/, /t/ or /k/c. The third phoneme must be /l/, /r/, or /w/. spring, string, squirrel, split, screen14. Assimilation ruleA sound may change by assimilating/copying a feature of a sequential/neighboring sound, e.g. impossible, irresistible, illegal [in-]Question: What other examples?sink /since pan cake sun glasses five past seven has to15. Deletion ruleA sound may be deleted even though it may be orthographically represented.16.Stress, tone, and intonationSuprasegmental （超切分）phonology Suprasegmental phonemes:stress, tone and intonation17.Stress重⾳Word stress/sentence stress Primary stress/secondary stressStress of compounds: ‵blackbird / black ‵bird; ‵greenhouse / green ‵ houseSentence stress: Depending on the relative importance of the words; contrastive stress18. Tone (声调）Different rates of vibration produce different frequencies, which are termed as different pitches. Pitch variations are distinctive of meaning.In some languages like Chinese, pitch variations are called tones. Languages using tones are tone languages.19. Intonation（语调）When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence, they combine to become known as intonation.Three major types of English intonation: a. falling tone/tune b. rising tone/tune c. fall-rise tone/tune20. Assignments:Difference between phonetics and phonologyPhone, phoneme, allophonePhonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair3. Morphology（词法）1. Morphology is the study of word formation and structure. It studies how words are put together from their smaller parts and the rules governing this process.2. Two kinds of words1. Open class words: content words .e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs2. Closed class words: grammatical words or functional words. E.g. conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns Words can be related to other words, e.g. "happy" — "unhappy".The rules that relate such sets of words are called Word Formation Rules. Thus, the morphology containsfundamental elements – morphemes rules of combination -- Word Formation Rules4. MorphemesThe elements that are combining to form words are called morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning you can have in a language.we know three things about every morpheme:1. its meaning2. its form (the sounds that make it up)3. a rule of combination (put it before/after/inside the stem)5. A case: Unhappy Happier unhappier6. Bound and Free Morphemes" In the word doors" there are two morphemes: "door" and "-s".The morpheme "door" can be used by itself, so it is called a FREE morpheme.But the morpheme "s" cannot be used by itself: ? "How many doors did you shut?" "More than one." OK "s" Not OK Therefore, "-s" is called a BOUND morpheme.7. AffixesMorphemes added to free forms to make other free forms are called affixes. There are four principle kinds of affixes:1. prefixes (at beginning) — "un-" in "unable"2. suffixes (at end) — "-ed" in "walked"3. circumfixes (at both ends) — "en--en" in "enlighten" (These always seem to consist ofotherwise attested independent prefixes and suffixes.)4. infixes (in the middle) -- "-bloody-" in "inbloody- credible"8.Derivational morphemesDerivational morphemes may or may not change the category, or grammatical class of words.E.g. Noun--- Adjective affection + ate alcohol+ ic9. Inflectional MorphologyMorphology that interacts with syntax (sentence structure) is called INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY Some examples are: ? person? number? gender ? noun class ? case ? tenseInflectional morphemes never change the category. Inflectional morphemes do not change the "core" meaning of the word. Inflectional morphemes usually occur "outside" derivational ones. 10. A Rule for Forming some English Words 11. Compounds12. Other ways of Forming Words13. Word-formation:the creation of new words on the basis of existing structural devices in the language derivation compounding derivational affixation clipping, abbreviation, acronyms conversion* affixation * coinage: Ford, Kodak* compounding/composition: hot-line, keep-fit* conversion /functional shift : knee, cool, trigger, brake* derivation: alcoholic, affectionate* back-formation:edit, babysit, massproduce, laze* blending: smog, motel, globesity* shortening (clipped words, acronym) * borrowing: tea, algebra15. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ? Lab OED16. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ?lab babysit (from: babysitter)17. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ? institution-al skin-deep18. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ?to strength-en to house (e.g. this building houses 500 families)19. AssignmentsDistinguish the following terms: Open class words and closed class wordsBound morpheme and free morphemeInflectional morpheme and derivational morpheme List some rules of word formation 4. syntax1. Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. Syntactic rulesHow do we COMBINE WORDS to make SENTENCES? Syntax uses trees (just as in morphology) but the trees are built on WORDS instead of morphemes. Words are the fundamental units of sentences. The laws of combination for words are the syntactic rules.3. Sentence StructureWe know that there is structure in sentences separate from the meaning of the sentence because of the difference between "well formed nonsense" (1) and "total gibberish" (2) :(1) Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. (2) Green sleep furiously ideas colorless.Which sounds better ?4. Word-level categoriesMajor lexical categoriesN( Noun) book, boy V(Verb) run, buy A(Adjective) happy, heavyP (Preposition) about, in Minor lexical categories Det (determiner) the, a thisDeg (Degree word) quite, very Qual (Qualifier) often, always Aux(Auxiliary) must, should Con (Conjunction) and, but 5. Three criteria for judging the word’s categories1.meaning Noun—entity2.inflection -ed, -s3.distribution the girl Det+ N6. Phrase categoriesPhrases are constructed out of a "head" plus other material into:Noun Phrase (NP) Verb Phrase (VP) Adjective Phrase (AP) Prepositional Phrase (PP)7. Head, specifier, complementHead: the word around which a phrase is formedSpecifier: the words on the left side of the headscomplement: the words on the right side of the headsE.g. a touching story about a sentimental girl8. Phrase Structure RulesNP → (Det)N (PP) ? VP → (Qual) V ( NP) ? AP → (Deg)A (PP) ? PP → (Deg) P (NP)9. XP rule X= N, V, A or P XP →(specifier) X (complement)10. X – theory XP →(specifier) X X - → X(complement)11. Co-ordination rules X → X Con X12. XP rule (revised): XP →(specifier) X (complement ) Matrix clauseComplement phrase (CP) Complement clause Complementizers (Cs)13. ModifierAP PP AdvP The expanded XP rules XP →(spec)(Mod) X (complement*)(Mod)14. The S ruleS NP VPDet N V P Det N| | | | | |The cat is on the mat15. Transformational RulesOnce we have built a basic tree, we then might want to change it, for example to turn it into a question.1. John is going to school.2. Is John going to school?What happened between (1) and (2)? "Is" moved to the front. How did we make the yes/no question? What change did we make?16.Deep structure and surface structure:Deep structure is a level of syntactic representation that results from insertion of lexical items into the tree structure generated by the phrase structure rules.Surface structure is a level of syntactic representation that results from the application of whatever transformations are needed to yield the final syntactic form of the sentence.17. The organization of the syntactic componentThe XP ruleDeep structuretransformationsSurface structure18. Wh MovementMove the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentenceMove a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP19. Word OrderRecall that languages can choose the order of the constituents in a phrase structure rule. ? English: PP → P NP ? Japanese: PP → NP P20. SVOWe can say that the overall word-order in a simple sentence is Subject-Verb-Object or SVO.There are two choices for each rule:1. Sentence: S → NP VP S → VP NP2. Verb Phrase: VP → V NP VP → NP V21. AssignmentsDraw two possible trees for the sentence “The boy saw the man with the telescope. ”5. Semantics1. Semantics is the study of meaning.2. The Meanings of MeaningEveryday use and ambiguity of the word mean(ing)(1) Daddy, what does 'unique' mean? (2) When Mary talks about "her ex" she means me.(3) 'Purchase' means the same as 'buy'. (4) Gwailou means "foreign devil".(5) When he drinks it means he's depressed. (6) I didn't mean to hurt you.3. Ogden and Richards' The Meaning of Meaning (1923)sixteen different meanings of the words "mean/meaning" were distinguished. Here are some of them:John means to write. 'intends’A green light means go. 'indicates' Health means everything. 'has importance'His look was full of meaning. 'special import'What is the meaning of life? 'point, purpose'What does 'capitalist' mean to you? 'convey'What does ‘cornea‘(⾓膜)mean? 'refer to in the world'4. What does meaning mean in linguistics?It is the last kind of use that comes closest to the focus of linguistic semantics. In modern linguistics, the meaning is studied by making detailed analyses of the way words and sentences are used in specific contexts ("meaning" is not some kind of "entity" separate from language - any more than measures such as "height" or "length" have some kind of independent existence). This is an approach shared by a number of philosophers and psychologists. Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889- 1951), in particular, stressed its importance in his dictum: "The meaning of a word is its use in the language."5. 4 views concerning the study of meaningThe naming theory The conceptual theory Contextualism behaviorism6. The naming theoryPlato Words are names or labels for things.Limitations of the theory: it can be applicable to nouns only, but verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are not names or labels; imaginary things like “dragon”;abstract nouns like “joy”7. The conceptual theoryOgden & Richards' TriangleTHOUGHT (concepts, images, schemas)/ \(Sense) / \/ \(language) WORDS - - - - - - - - WORLD(things, situations)(Reference)Note: (i) Reference as an indirect relation(ii) Sense as a psychological notionWhat is the link between the language and concept?8. ContextualismLudwig Wittgenstein Malinowski J.R.Firth2 kinds of contexts: the situational context and the linguistic context9. BehaviorismBloomfield 1926, 1935 Behaviorism vs. mentalismHuman and animal behaviorStimulus and responseS -> r ... s -> R Jack and Jill10. Lexical meaningSense and referenceSense refers to the meaning of a Noun Phrase which determines its referent;Reference refers to that part of meaning of a Noun Phrase which is its referent.Sense is abstract and de-contextualized;Reference is concrete and contextualized.11. sense relations between words1.synonymy2.polysemy3.homonymy4.hyponymy5.antonymy11.1. synonymytwo words, same meaning never complete; tendency toward divergence,e.g small - little, but cf. small change and little sistera) dialectal synonymsb) stylistic synonymsc) synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningd) collocational synonymse) semantically different synonyms11.2. polysemyone word, many meaningseye 'organ of sight', 'center of hurricane' , 'hole in needle'11.3.homonymydifferent words, same soundbear 'carry' bear 'furry creature' bare 'naked'cf. Homonymy, Homography: different words, same spelling bow 'knotted ribbon' bow 'front of ship'11.4.hyponymysuperordinate (hyponym) to subordinate Also: co-hyponymsProblematic superordinates:aunt - uncle > none sweet - sour - bitter > Tastes , but no Adj chair - sofa - couch > ? sitting furniture (Sitzm?bel) 11.5. antonymy(1) Gradable (scalar) antonyms: cold. . hot(2) Complementary antonyms: dead - alive(3) Relational opposites: teach - learn husband - wife12. six sense relations between sentencesa) X is synonymous with Yb) X is inconsistent with Yc) X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X)d) X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X)e) X is a contradiction?f) X is semantically anomalous?13. Analysis of meaningComponential analysisPredication analysisgrammatical meaningsemantic meaning13.1 Componential analysisFeatures in Semantic Theoryman = [+human] [+adult] [+male]woman = [+human] [+adult] [+female]girl = [+human] [-adult] [+female]boy = [+human] [-adult] [+male]stool = [+sitting] [+legs] [-back] [-arms] [+single person]chair = [+sitting] [+legs] [+back] [+/- arms] [+single person]sofa = [+sitting] [+/-legs] [+back] [+arms] [-single person] etccow = [+bovine] [+adult] [+female]ewe = [+ovine] [+adult] [+female] bull = [+bovine] [+adult] [+male]ram = [+ovine] [+adult] [+male] calf = [+bovine] [- adult]lamb = [+ovine] [-adult]But should calf = [+/-female] [+/-male] or simply unspecified?And what about: steer? = [+bovine] [+adult] [-male] [-female]13.2Predication analysisIt is proposed by G. Leech. In his framework of analysis, the basic unit is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of arguments and predicate. An argument is a logical participant in a predication. A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.14.Interdisciplinary nature of semantics (1)philosophy: definitions, truth, logiclinguistics: lexical, grammatical meaning; structural ambiguitypsychology: concepts, categorization, learninglaw: interpretation, entailment translation: translatability, paraphrasecomputer science: processing and representation of information15. Interdisciplinary nature of semantics(2)musicology: musical meaning (Joseph Swain: Musical Languages, 1997)anthropology: cultural meaning, relativityliterary criticism: interpretation, ambiguity, metaphorreligion (Anna Wierzbicka, What did Jesus mean?, 2001)16. Assignments:Summarize the four approaches to the studies on meaning.Specify the five major sense relations1.synonymy2.polysemy3.homonymy4.hyponymy5.antonymyDefine the following terms: componential analysis Predication analysis6 Pragmatics1. Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context2. Contextualist viewLudwig WittgensteinMalinowskiJ.R.Firth2 kinds of contexts: the situational context and the linguistic context3. Some issues in PragmaticsDeixis指⽰ Speech acts⾔语⾏为 Indirect language间接语⾔Conversation会话 Politeness礼貌 Cross-cultural communication跨⽂化交际Presupposition预设4. Pragmatics and Semanticsa There is continuum between Semantics (things that are true by theDEFINITIONS and RULES) and Pragrmatics (things that are true by virtue of the REAL WORLD Complementarism: semantics studies meaning in the abstract; pragmatics studies meaning in the context/use.5. Consider the following sentences:The rock ate my lunch. Semantically false, because "eat" requires anANIMATE subject.The giraffe ate the hyena. Grey area, does SEMANTICS include the concept VEGETARIANThe giraffe ate one hundred pounds of grass today.Pragmatics, how much DOES a giraffe eat in a day?6. ContextAccording to Firth, context includes the relevant features of participants: persons, personalities, the verbal and non-verbal action of the participants, the relevant objects and the effect of the verbal action. Hymes’ notion of context includes addressor, addressee, topic, setting, channel, code, message form, event, key and purpose.Shared knowledge7. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaningSentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. Utterance is the issuance in an actual context.The meaning of a sentence is abstract and decontextualized,while the meaning of an utterance is concrete and contextdependent.8. Speech Act TheoryAustin noticed that some sentences are special in that they DO things. One class is PERFORMATIVES. When spoken such sentences do the work:I (hereby) declare the fair open. ("hereby" is a good diagnostic of performatives)Performatives⾏事: Performatives were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Constatives⾔事: constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were thusverifiable9. Three kinds of actsLocutionary act⾔内⾏为: locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.Illocutionary act⾔外⾏为: an illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention. It is an act performed in saying something.Perlocutionary act⾔后⾏为: perlocutionary act is the act performed by saying something. 10. Searle’s classification of speech actsRepresentatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true;Directives: trying to get the hearer to do something;Commissives: committing the speaker himself to future course of action;Expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state;Declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something11. Principle of ConversationGrice discovered a number of conversational maxims (rules) that people generally obey.Two of them are: ? Be cooperative ? Be relevantThe following discourse represents a failure of cooperation:A: Do you know what time it isB: Yes.Or, if you know for sure that you're leaving on Tuesday it's misleading to say: "I'm leaving on Monday or Tuesday."12. Four maximsThe maxim of quantity The maxim of qualityThe maxim of relation The maxim of manner13. Conversational Implicatureconversational implicature: Conversational implicature occurs only when the maximsof Cooperative Principle are “flouted”. A: Do you know where Mr. X lives?B: Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.(said when it is known to both A and B that B has Mr. X’s address.)A: Would you like to come to our party tonight?B: I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well today.A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don’t you think?B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t they?(said when it is known to both A and B that it is entirely possible for B to make a comment on the hostess)A: Shall we get something for the kids?B: yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.(said when it is known to both A and B that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word“ice-cream”).14. Leech’s Politeness PrincipleTact maxim Generosity maxim Approbation maximModesty maxim Agreement maxim Sympathy maxim15. The 6 maxims of Leech’s PPtact generosityapprobation modestyagreementsympathy16. Tact Maxim:1. Minimize cost to other 2.Maximize benefit to other Generosity Maxim:1. Minimize benefit to self 2. Maximize cost to self Approbation Maxim: 1. Minimize dispraise of other 2. Maximize praise of other Modesty Maxim:1. Minimize praise of self 2. Maximize dispraise of self17. Agreement Maxim: 1.Minimize disagreement between self and other2.Maximize agreement between self and otherSympathy Maxim: 1. Minimize antipathy between self and other2. Maximize sympathy between self and other18. Politeness scale: DirectnessdirectCould you possibly answer the phone?Would you mind answering the phone?Can you answer the phone?Will you answer the phone?I want you to answer the phone.Answer the phone.indirect19. Politeness scale: Cost – benefitbenefitHave another sandwich.Enjoy your holiday.Look at that.Sit down.Hand me the newspaper.Peel these potatoes.Cost20. PresuppositionsStatements or questions that presuppose a related sentence. "Leading" questions or statements. "When did you stop beating your donkey?" presupposes:You stopped beating your donkey.You did beat your donkey.You beat something.You have a donkey...."I'll have some more coffee." presupposes that you have already had some.21. assignmentsSpeech act theorycoperative principleconversational implicature7. Language Change1. ReviewPrescriptive vs.descriptive (Chapter 1)The definition of language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication (Chapter 1) Word formation: affixation, composition, conversion, back formation, blend, shortening , coinage (Chapter 3) Contextualism (Chapter 5) Context (Chapter 6)2. All languages change through timeLanguages change in the phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon and semantic components of the grammar.3. The changes of language at different levels (1)Sound changeMorphological and syntactic changea) change in “agreement” ruleb) change in negation rulec) process of simplificationd) loss of inflections4. The changes of language at different levels (2)Vocabulary changea) addition of new words(coinage, clipped words, blending, acronyms, backformation, functional shift, borrowing)b) loss of wordsc) changes in the meaning of words (widening of meaning, narrowing of meaning,meaning shift)5. Some recent trendsMoving towards greater informalityThe influence of American EnglishThe influence of science and technologya) space travel b) computer and internet language c) ecology6. Causes of language changea) The rapid development of science and technology has led to the creation of many new words: fax, laser, telecomb) As more and more women have taken up activities formerly reserved for men, more neutral job titles have been created: chairman-chairperson, fireman-fire fighter.c) The way children acquire the language provides a basic cause of change.d) “economy of memory ” and “theory of least effort”. foe/foes, cow/cows (kine)cheap-cheaplye) other factors, e.g. elaboration of grammar7. SummaryThe linguistic change is complex.The linguistic change is gradual.The exact reasons for language change are still elusive and need to be further investigated. 8. Assignments1. Illustrate the vocabulary change with examples.2. What are the possible causes of language change?8. Language and Society1. The relatedness between language and societyLanguage is used to establish and maintain social relationship.The kind of language the users choose is in part determined by his/her social background.Language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social.2. Speech communityFor general linguists, a speech community is defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of a language.。
新编简明英语语言学教程 整理Questions
Anwser the following questions:1.Of the two media of language，why do you think speech is more basic than writing？In linguistic evolution，speech is prior to writing. In everyday communication，speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue，and writing is learned and taught later at school.2.What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics？They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature；it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages：how they are produced，how they differ from each other，what phonetic features they possess，how they can be classified. Phonology，on the other hand，is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language；it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.3.In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not？A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does，the two sounds then represent different phonemes.4.What are the main features of the English compounds?Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.5.Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book-” in the word “bookish”.Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish” in “bookish”. Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene-” in the word “generate”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “-s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such a s “mis-” in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ” in the word “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “-less” in the word “friendless”.6.What are the basic components of a sentence?Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.7.What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures?The tree diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents.8.What is NP movement? Illustrate it with examples.NP movement involves the movement of a noun phrase. NP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice:(A) The man beat the child. (B). The child was beaten by the man.B is the result of the movement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original positions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right and "the child" is preposed to the left. Not all instances of NP-movement, however, are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice. For exam:(C) It seems they are quite fit for the job. (D) They seem quite fit for the job. These sentences are identical in meaning, but different in their superfi-cial syntactic representations. It is believed that they have the same underlying structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.9.What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? How do they differ?One of the oldest was the naming theory, proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato, who believed that the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. The form and the meaning are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized; the situational context and the linguistic context.10.Why do we say that a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components?The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components because it cannot be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words.As we know, there are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning. The meaning of a sentence is the product of both lexical and grammatical meaning. It is the product of the meaning of the constituent words and of the grammatical constructions that relate one word syntagmatically to another11.What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with examples.Componential analysis, proposed by structural semanticists, is a way to analyze word meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components, which are called semantic features. Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word, and these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. For example, the word “man”is analyzed as consisting of the semantic features of [+ HUMAN, + ADULT, + ANIMATE, +MALE].nguage is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.First of all, language is a system, because elements of language are combined according to rules. Secondly, language is arbitrary because there is no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between the sign and what it stands for. Different languages have different words for the same object in the world. This fact is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are just symbols; they are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by convention . Thirdly, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well - developed their writing systems are. 13.What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.14.How do you understand competence and performance ?American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.15.Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?Although Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.16.Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash,etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two elements “photo”and “copy”in “photocopy”are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary.。
What is the difference between Phonetics and Phonology
Does someone still remember what phonetics is? Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages. It stresses the speech sound itself. While phonology is also called phonemics音韵学，it is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. It stresses a particular language and its specific meaning.The second difference is their unit. Phonetic unit is phone. It means the speech sound we hear and produce during linguistic communication.The sign of a phone is phonetic symbol. One phonetic symbol represents one phone. For example, a monophthong(单元音) is made up of one phone, while a diphthong（双元音）is made up of two phones. Phones vary in different languages, even dialects in one language. Phonological unit is phoneme. Phoneme is of distinctive value. It is not any particular sound, but rather represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.In English, [p h] and [p] can not be distinguished from their meanings, so they are phones. While /l/ in light and /t/ in tight can be distinguished from meaning, so they are phonemes.Phones express the natural quality of speech sounds, while phonemes express the social attribute.Generally, phones are placed in square brackets and phonemes in slashes. The third difference is their branches. Phonetics has four branches. (1)Articulatory phonetics发音语音学: the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated.(2)Acoustic phonetics声学语音学: deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air. Transmission of speech sounds(3)Auditory (or perceptual) phonetics听觉语音学: deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds.(4)Forensic phonetics论辩语音学: has an application in legal cases involving speaker identification and the analysis of recorded utterances. Phonology has two branches.Diachronic (historical) phonology历史性音系学examines and constructs theories about the changes and modifications in speech sounds and sound systems over a period of time.Synchronic (descriptive) phonology共时性音系学investigates sounds at a single stage in the development of a language, to discover the sound patterns that can occur.The last difference is their characteristics. Phonetics is characterized of physical, description; while phonology is characterized of meaning, function.Because phonetics includes production, transmission, and perception of speech sounds, it emphasizes on the physical analysis. And it isconnected to acoustics and auditory, so it is concerned with the accurate description.From the definition of phonology, we know that phonology studies how the speech sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. It expresses meanings and is used for communication, so it is characterized of meaning, function.。
The similarity and differences between phonology and phonetics
The similarity and differences between phonology and phoneticsThe similarity; The two fields, phonetics and phonology, do have similarities as they both pertain to language. Phonetics concerns the actual mechanics of speech and the tools used to express sounds. The tools involved are the lips, tongue, teeth and pharynx. Phonology is the study of the speech sounds that are made from these mechanical parts. phonology begins from where phonetics ends which means that phonology is a continuation of phonetics. Therefore, without one the other cannot exist. Also, they are both used in language development, mostly in the development of a language's authography and transcription. Phonology is also affected by the language used by the speaker. The similarity between phonetics and phonology lies in the fact that both of them are branches of linguistics and they are both dedicated to the study of human speech sounds and sound structures.The diffferences; Phonetics and phonology are the two fields dedicated to the study of human speech sounds and sound structures. The difference between phonetics and phonology is that phonetics deals with the physical production of these sounds while phonology is the study of sound patterns and their meanings both within and across languages.Phonetics is strictly about audible sounds and the things that happen in your mouth, throat, nasal and sinus cavities, and lungs to make those sounds. It has n othing to do with meaning. It’s only a description. Americans pronounce the word “cat.” It has nothing to do with a furry house pet.In fact, if there were a word in any other language pronounced the same way, the phonetic spelling would be the same regardl ess of meaning. Again, it’s not about meaning. It’s strictly physical.Phonology, on the other hand, is both physical and meaningful. It explores the differences between sounds that change the meaning of an utterance. This is the biggest distinction between phonetics and phonology, although phonologists analyze a lot more than just the obvious differences. They also examine variations on single letter pronunciations, words in which multiple variations can exist versus those in which variations are considered incorrect, and the phonological “grammar” of languages.If you are a native speaker of English, you pronounce the letter P three different ways. It’s true. You may not realize it, but you do, and if you were to hear the wrong pronunciation, you might not be able to put your finger on the problem, but you would think it sounded really weird.Phonetics is strictly physical while phonology also pays attention to the function or meaning of a sound.Phonetics makes a pretty general description of sounds and can be used to describe sounds in any language. Phonology makes very detailed descriptions of sounds, so each language has its own unique set of symbols (because no two languages use all of the exact same sounds).。
test 2-phonology and phonetics
Quiz of LinguisticsI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False.1. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication. ( )2. V oicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English. ( )3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning. ( )4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not. ( )5. Of all the speech organs, the lips are the most flexible. ( )6. A phoneme can be represented by different phones in specific phonetic contexts.( )7. The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, they are all bilabial. ( )8. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. ( )9. In terms of the place of articulation, the following sounds [t][d][s][z][n] share the feature of palatal. ( )10. In such sound combinations as /bi:p/, /geip/ and /su:p/, the voiceless stop /p/, occurring in the final position, is unaspirated, i.e. pronounced with the strong puff of air withheld to some extent. ( )II. Multiple Choice Items1. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies_____.A. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechB. the perception of soundsC. the combination of soundsD. the production of sounds2. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in _______A. the place of articulationB. the obstruction of airstreamC. the position of the tongueD. the shape of the lips3. What is the common factor of the three sounds: p, k, t?A. voicelessB. spreadC. voicedD. nasal4. What phonetic feature distinguishes the /p/ in “please” and the /p/ in “speak”?A. voicingB. aspirationC. roundnessD. nasality5. Which of the following is not a distinctive feature in English?A. voicingB. nasalC. approximationD. aspiration6. The phonological features of the consonant /k/ are ____.A. voiced stopB. voiceless stopC. voiced fricativeD. voiceless fricative7. /p/ is different from /k/ in ________.A. the manner of articulationB. the shape of the lipsC. the vibration of the vocal cordsD. the place of articulation8. Vibration of the vocal cords results in _____.A. aspirationB. nasalityC. ObstructionD. V oicing9. Of the three branches of phonetics, the longest established, and until recently the most highly developed, is _____ phonetics.A. auditoryB. acousticC. articulatoryD. none of the above three10. In terms of the place of articulation, the following sounds [t][d][s][z][n] share the feature of ____.A. palatalB. alveolarC. bilabialD. dentalIII. Term Explanation1. phoneme2. allophone3. phonology4. phonetics5. supersegmental featuresIV. Short-answer Questionspare and contrast phonetics and phonology.2.What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones relatedto a phoneme?3.Under what conditions will two sounds be assigned to the same phoneme?4.What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?5.Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule and the deletionrule.6.What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features ofEnglish function in conveying meaning?7.What are the possible interpretations of the sentence “I can’t eat anything”ifdifferent intonations are applied?。
The difference between phonetics and phonology
The difference between phonetics and phonology/wiki/PhoneticsPhonology concerns itself with systems of phonemes音素、音位, abstract cognitive认知的、认识的 units of speech sound or sign which distinguish the words of a language. Phonetics, on the other hand, concerns itself with the production, transmission传递, and perception n. （知觉；[生理] 感觉；看法；洞察力；获取）of the physical phenomena which are abstracted in the mind to constitute these speech sounds or signs.Using an Edison phonograph, Ludimar Hermann investigated the spectral properties of vowels and consonants. It was in these papers that the term formant was first introduced. Hermann also played back vowel recordings made with the Edison phonograph at different speeds in order to test Willis' and Wheatstone's theories of vowel production.Relation to phonologyIn contrast to phonetics, phonology is the study of how sounds and gestures pattern in and across languages, relating such concerns with other levels and aspects of language. Phonetics deals with the articulatory and acoustic properties of speech sounds, how they are produced, and how they are perceived. As part of this investigation, phoneticians may concern themselves with the physical properties of meaningful sound contrasts or the social meaning encoded in the speech signal (e.g. gender, sexuality, ethnicity, etc.). However, a substantial portion of research in phonetics is not concerned with the meaningful elements in the speech signal.While it is widely agreed that phonology is grounded in phonetics, phonology is a distinct branch of linguistics, concerned with sounds and gestures as abstract units (e.g., features, phonemes, mora, syllables, etc.) and their conditioned variation (via, e.g., allophonic rules, constraints, or derivational rules).[3]Phonology relates to phonetics via the set of distinctive features, which map the abstract representations of speech units to articulatory gestures, acoustic signals, and/or perceptual representationsReferencesO'Grady, William, et al. (2005). Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction (5th ed.).Bedford/St. Martin's. ISBN0312419368.。
语言学第2章习题复习过程
Chapter 2：PhonologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results ina change of meaning.18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21． A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.22．A___________ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.23．The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b_______ sounds.24．Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.25．English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p_______ of articulation.26．When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________.27．S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.28．The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s ____ rules. 29．The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.30．When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.31．P___________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.32．The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.33．T_______ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.34．Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stress.III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best completethe statement:35．Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords36．The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowelD. consonantal37．__________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D./b/38．The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a seq thus making the two phones ____________.A. identicalB. sameC. exactly alikeD. similar39．Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair40．The sound /f/ is _________________.A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________.A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC. suprasegmental featuresD. semantic features43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme44．The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.A. phonesB. soundsC. phonemesD. allophonesSuggested answers to supplementary exercisesI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.T 2.F 3.F 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.F 8.F 9.T 10.F11.F 12.T 13.F 14.F 15.F 16. F 17. T 18. F 19. T 20. TII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Aspiration 22.Articulatory 23. bilabial 24. tongue 25. place26. stop 27. Suprasegmental 28. sequential 29. narrow 30. intonation31. Phonology 32. oral 33. Tone 34. sentenceIII. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best completethe statement:35.C 36.A 37.B 38.D 39.A 40.D 41.C 42.C 43.D 44.DIV. Define the terms below:45. phonology 46. phoneme 47.allophone48. international phonetic alphabet49. intonation 50. phonetics 51. auditory phonetics52. acoustic phonetics 53. phone 54. phonemic contrast 55. tone 56.minimal pairV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?Suggested answers to supplementary exercisesIV. Define the terms below:45. phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.46. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.47. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.48. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.49. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.50. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages51. auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.52. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.53. phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.54. phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.55. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.56. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occursin the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?1) In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.2) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later at school.58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?1) Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth.2) According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels.3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels.4) The English vowels can also be classified into long vowels and short vowels according to the length of the sound.59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, h ow they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.1) The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as `import and im`port. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds, is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element andthe second element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is black.2) The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives , adverbs,etc are pronounced with greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sentence t hat is usuallyfor example. To unstressed can be stressed to achieve different effect. Take the sentence “He is driving my car. emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, but mine, the speaker can stress the possessive pronoun my, which under normal circumstances is not stressed.3) English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones: When spoken in different tones, thesame sequence of words may have different meanings. Generally speaking, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the rising tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes.。
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The Difference Between Phonetics and Phonology It is generally agreed that both phonetics and phonology are the main branches of linguistics, studying speech sounds and sound structure. Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech. While phonology focuses on the rules governing the structure, distribution, sequencing of speech sounds and the shapes of syllables. Overall, the difference between them is that phonetics studies the nature of the sound itself, related to human language, and the process of the production of the sound, while phonology deals with the sound patterns and the meanings within and across the language.Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language—the speech sounds ,but they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all human language: how they are produced and how they differ form each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. etc. Phonology ,on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistics communication. The difference between [ l] and [ ] is what the phoneticians are interested in .Because form the phonological view , these two sounds in each pair are fundamentally the same ,since they have one and the same function in communication ,in distinguishing between words and meanings despite their difference in pronunciation.Phonetics deals with the articulatory and acoustic properties of speech sounds, how they are produced, and how they are perceived. As part of this investigation, phoneticians may concern themselves with the physical properties of meaningful sound contrasts or the social meaning encoded in the speech signal (While it is widely agreed that phonology is grounded in phonetics, phonology is concerned with sounds and gestures as abstract units).Phonology is both meaningful and physical which expores that how the diffierence of sound totally changes the meaning of a word or ,more precise, an utterance. For example. The word “bid ” is very similar to the word “bit” in terms of the physical property of sounds. The mere and little difference is the ending letter. The vocal chords stops vibrating so that sound is the result only of the replacement of the tongues behind the teeth and the flow of air. Physically ,these two words are not related in meaning in the very least. While, phonetics focus on how the word are sounded and how to make sounds with our vocal cords , mouth, throat, and nasal cavaties. For example ,the initial sound in bad involves both lips and its final segment involves the blade of the tongue and the alveolar ridge.Also ,if a nasal consonant such as[m] procedes an oral vowel(such as [m ]in map), some of the nasality will carry forward so that the vowel will begin with a somewhat nasal quality .This is because in producing a nasal the soft palate is lowered to allow airflow through the nasal tract. To produce the following vowel, the soft palate must move back to is normal position. All of which are explored in the field of phonetics.As a branch of linguistics and an emering and gradually prospering course , phonetics asks for persons with perfect listening mechanism and the pronounciation organs to be the source of datas.which definitely has no deep and intimate connection with peculiar language background. The same conclusion can be reached ,no matter which group of people are investigated ,Germans,English, or Indian. But the univeral method to study phonology is from theindividual languae ,so as to define which phoetic unit are used and their formation. Then, make a clear comparison of the features of different phonology ,which could lead to the basic rules used by phones in a specified group ,then in the whole scope of languages. People’s vocal cords can produce many sounds in a wide scope,in which a small fration of sounds form the words and sentences. Phonetics explores the all possible sounds while phonology studies the way the speaker of one specific language to choose those sounds to express meanings.Phonetics is the study of speech sounds that the human voice is capable of creating whereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning, The first focuses on chaos while the second focuses on order.The basic unit in phonetics is phone, just like [p h]and [p] which could not be distinguished by meaning ,while the phoneme is a phonological unit ,such as [b]in biteand [t] in tite can be distinguished from meaning ,so phoneme is a unit that is of distinctive value.Phonetics can be categoried into 3 parts, each dealing with one part of the process.(1)Articulatory phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds. In otherwords ,how sounds are made or articulated.(2)Acoustic phonetics is the study of physical properties of speech sounds whichexplores the physical properties of sound waves.(3)Auditory phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.Phonology has two branches:(1)Diachronic phonology: the study of sounds in a single stage through the courseof its history to discover the sound patterns that is capable to occur.(2)Synchronic phonology takes a fixed instant(usually ,but not necessarily present)as the point of observation,that is to say ,it examines the current changes andmodifications in speech sounds and sound systemn over a period of time.Accoding to what I have explained and illustrated , here is the conclusion,that is phonetics is more general, descriptive and classificatory; while phonology is featured by particular and functional traits. Secondly. Phonetics is the actual physical articulations of speech sounds ,while phonology is the abstract aspect of the sounds in a language .Thirdly. Phonetics studies the means for describing speech sounds, and phonology explores the way in which speech sounds are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.。