Analysis ofReservoir Performancefor Shale Gas Systems(页岩气系统储层特征分析)
迎浪船舶参数横摇的理论研究
1.2 参数横摇研究进展
long-crest waves，wave group
VII
上海交通大学硕士学位论文
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上海交通大学硕士学位论文
时也导致了船舶在波浪上的稳性特征值的变化。其中，船舶横摇恢复力矩作为保证 船舶安全的最为重要的参数受此变化影响最为严重。传统理论对船舶各个运动模态 的数值估计和预报是在船舶线性运动理论框架下进行的，适应于微幅运动，对于船 舶发生大幅度运动时所呈现强烈的非线性运动无法适用。参数横摇的存在揭示了船 舶海上客货安全和航行效率上存在的危险隐患.其影响强度是船舶频域幅值理念下 安全预报的盲区，因此正确预报船舶参数横摇的发生范围和危险程度势在必行。 1.1.2 研究目的
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IV
上海交通大学硕士学位论文
TangentialFlowFiltration
Purification Of Minute Virus Of Mice Using High PerformanceTangential Flow FiltrationMiriam I. Hensgen1,2, Peter Czermak2,4,Jonathan O. Carlson3,S. Ranil Wickramasinghe11Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO,USA2Institute of Biopharmaceutical Technology, University of Applied Sciences Giessen-Friedberg,35390 Giessen, Germany3Department of Microbiology, Immunology & Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins,CO, USA4Department of Chemical Engineering, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USACorresponding author: ***************************.deKeywords: Virus Recovery, High Performance Tangential Flow Filtration, Ultrafiltration, Minute Virus of Mice,Downstream Purification, Filtration ProcessAbstractMembrane technology has proven to be a mainstay separation technology over the past two decades. Some major advantages of membrane technology are application without the addition of chemicals and a comparatively low energy use. With its current applications, membrane technology has been widely used in biotechnology processes. Cell harvesting and virus purification/removal are important processes in many downstream purifications of biopharmaceutical products. For this project, ultrafiltration (UF) for virus purification from cell culture broth was used. Recently, it has been demonstrated that UF is a powerful tool for purification of other viruses such as Aedes aegypti and virus-like particles. More precisely, high-performance tangential flow filtration (HPTFF) will be used, which was first introduced by Robert van Reis in 1997. To date HPTFF has been used in other projects, as for protein concentration, purification, and buffer exchange as a single unit operation. The virus used in this study was the parvovirus Minute Virus of Mice (MVM); characterized by an average diameter of 22-26 nm and icosahedral symmetry. Experiments were conducted with 300, 100 and 50 kDa Sartorius membranes. Results obtained indicate that using the 50 or 100 kDa membrane, viral particles get excluded, whereas the 300 kDa membrane allows the passage of the virus particles into the permeate. In HPTFF mode the permeate flux decline of the 300 kDa ultrafiltration membrane is much greater than for the other membranes used. One possible explanation for this decay could have to do with the virus particles’ access to the membrane pores (gradual pore narrowing). Additionally the permeate flux and level of protein rejection as well, are strongly affected by the cell culture medium.This article published as: Hensgen M I, P Czermak, J O Carlson, S R Wickramasinghe: Purification of Minute Virus of Mice using High Performance Tangential Flow Filtration, Desalination 250 (2010) p. 1121-11241. IntroductionMembrane technology has proven to be a mainstay separation technology over the past two decades. Some major advantages of membrane technology are application without the addition of chemicals and a comparatively low energy use. Cell harvesting and virus purification/removal are important processes in many downstream purifications of biopharmaceutical products [1]. In order to avoid membrane fouling ultrafiltration with tangential flow is emplyed because high density cell cultures and the corresponding increase in the level of cell debris cause fouling of membrane systems. Thus membrane fouling by cell debris and or cell-derived proteins presents a serious problem. For this project, ultrafiltration (UF) for virus purification from cell culture broth was used. Recently it has been demonstrated that UF is a powerful tool for purification of other viruses such as Aedes aegypti and virus-like particles [4, 5, 6]. More precisely, high-performance tangential flow filtration (HPTFF) will be used, which was first introduced by Robert van Reis in 1997 [2, 3]. The virus used in this study was the parvovirus Minute Virus of Mice (MVM); characterized by an average diameter of 22-26 nm and icosahedral symmetry. In general, members of parvoviridae are among the smallest known DNA viruses. They replicate in the nucleus of actively dividing cells. The genome of MVM is linear, single stranded, and approximately 5kb long [7, 9]. Environmental extremes, like pH or temperature do not critically damage the virus [8]. MVM has a broad in vitro host range such as NBK324 cells, A9 cells, and T-cell lymphomas producing cytopathic effects. As part of this project, A9 mouse cells were infected with MVM.The experiments were conducted with 50, 100 and 300 kDa Sartorius membranes. The analysis methods included flux measurement, real-time PCR and protein concentration determination (data not shown).2. Materials and MethodsCell culture and virus productionA9 mouse Fibroblast cells (ATCC® No. CCL-1.4, Manassas, VA) were grown at 37°C and 10% carbon dioxide in Dulbecco's Modified Eagle's Medium (DMEM High Glucose, with 4.5g/L Glucose, Fisher Scientific-Hyclone, Cat. No. SH3002201, Pittsburgh, PA) in plastic cell culture T-75 flasks (TPP®, Product No. 90076, Trasadingen, Switzerland). The medium was supplemented with 1% penicillin (Invitrogen, 50 units/ml, Carlsbad, CA) and streptomycin (Invitrogen, 50 µg/ml) and 10% heat inactivated fetal bovine serum (Atlas Biologicals, Catalog No. F-0500-A, Fort Collins, CO). After formation of an adherent cell monolayer, sub-cultivation was carried out by removing old medium and adding fresh Trypsin- EDTA solution (Gibco-Invitrogen, 0.25% Trypsin-EDTA, Product No. 25200). For initial infection of A9 cells with Minute Virus of Mice (MVM), approximately 200 µl MVM stock solution (ATCC® No. VR-1346) was added to a confluent monolayer of cells in a T-75 flask. The infected cells were incubated for 6-8 days under the same conditions as uninfected cells. After incubation the cells (Corning Incorporate, Corning tubes, 50ml, Corning, NY) cells were lysed using three freeze/thaw cycles with freezing at -80°C and thawing in a 37°C water bath. The cell lysate was then centrifuged using a Beckman GS-6R centrifuge (Beckman, Fullerton, CA) at 1500 rpm at 4 °C for 15 minutes to remove large cell debris. The supernatant, containing the virus, was filtered using 0.22 µm bottle top sterilization filters (Nalgene Company, Rochester NY) and stored at -80 °C. Before using the virus solution for experiments, a 1:100 dilution with pure media is carried out, meaning that the amount of FBS in samples collected is low.Membrane FiltrationFiltration experiments were conducted using flat sheet Sartocon® Slice 200 cassettes (Sartorius AG, Göttingen, Germany). Three ultrafiltration membranes, Sartorius polyethersufone 308 1465002E SG, 308 1466802E SG and 308 1467902E SG, with molecular weight cut offs (MWCO) of 50, 100 and 300 kD were tested in this study. All experiments were run at a feed flow rate of 150 mL/min controlled by a peristaltic pump. Figure 1 shows the experimental set up for high performance tangential flow filtration (HPTFF) whereas the experimental set up for tangential flow filtration (TFF) is not shown. Then 500 mL of clarified medium containing virus was added to a feed reservoir. Additionlly, throughout the entire experiment 1ml samples of the feed, retentate and permeate were collected at fixed mass points of intervals of 25g of the permeate, for analysis of virus titer and protein concentration. All samples were analyzed in triplicate and average results reported.Figure 1: High performance tangential flow filtration system 50kDa, 100kDa and 300kDa PES membranes were used. Experiments were run at a flow rate of 150 ml/minProtein assayProtein concentration was measured using a bicinchoninic acid assay (BCA, Protein Assay Kit, Pierce, Rockford, IL) following the manufacturer’s instructions. As described by the manufacturer, the protein concentration is determined and reported with reference to a standard albumin solution provided by the manufacturer. All samples were analyzed in triplicate and average values reported.Quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (QPCR, rt-PCR)The quantitative QPCR assay is a rapid, sensitive and efficient way to compare samples. The QPCR assay will detect both viral genomic and naked DNA. In order to prevent detection of naked DNA, samples are DNAse (RQ1 RNA- free DNAse, Category No. M6101, Promega, Madison, WI) treated for 45minutes. Reverse and forward primers were designed for quantification of Minute Virus of Mice (MVM). Primers for MVM DNA amplification were as follows:forward,5’-GAC GCA CAG AAA GAG AGT AAC CAA-3’ and reverse, 5’-CCA ACC ATC TGC TCC AGT AAA CAT-3’. Further melting curve analysis was conducted in order to receive information about the length of the fragment and of the specificity of the primers. Amplification and real-time detection of PCR products were performed on the DNA samples using the iCycler system (Bio-Rad Laboratories, iQTM 5 iCycler, Multicolor Real time PCR Detection System) withSYBR Green Mastermix (Bio-Rad Laboratories iQ™ SYBR® Green Supermix). At the end of the extension step of every cycle, the fluorescence was measured. Cycling conditions consisted of an initial step at 95 °C for 10 minutes, which is vital for breaking up viral capsids and it also activates the polymerase enzyme. This step was followed by 40 cycles with the following thermal profile: 95°C and 15s, 57°C and 10s, and 72°C and 45s, and 72°C and 10s for real time detection.3. ResultsVirus titer analysisThe variation of virus titer in retentate and permeate over permeate volume collected for HPTFF and TFF mode is displayed in figures 2 and 3. Permeate virus titers in HPTFF and TFF are only shown when they were detectable.Figure 2: Variation of the virus titer in the retentate and permeate with cumulative permeate volume during HPTFF. Samples were diluted 1000 fold for rt - PCRFor the 50 and 100 kDa membranes, no virus particles were detected in permeate samples, whether for TFF nor for HPTFF mode; whereas the 300 kDa membrane showed no retention of virus particles. To be precise, it was possible to detect virus particles in retentate and permeate samples of the 300 kDa membrane in both modes. Further, complete passage is shown by the fact, that the same viral titers were measured, using rt-PCR, in both retentate and permeate samples. Consequently, exclusion of virus particles is only feasible with 50 kDa and 100 kDa membrane cassettes. Pore size of 300 kDa is nominal, which means that the greatest percentages of pores are around 300 kDa. Potentially, virus particles “squeeze” through membrane pores, meaning the virus takes advantage of the pore size distribution. The determined detection limit, using Sybr Green I dye for the detection of M inute Virus of Mice, was determined to be 14 viral copies/μl. Due to an extra 10 fold dilution, which has to be added because of DNase treatment of samples, the final detection limit was set to 1.4*105 viral copies/ml. We showed that with a 95% confidence less than 1.4*105 viral copies/ml are present in permeate samples (data not shown). Furthermore, the retention percentage is less than 0.01%, as determined by dividing the limit of detection by the starting viral titer (approximately 109).Figure 3: Variation of the virus titer in the retentate and permeate with cumulative permeate volume during TFF. Samples were diluted 1000 fold for rt - PCRTangential FiltrationThe variation of permeate flux with permeate volume in HPTFF mode for 50, 100, 300 kDa membranes is presented in figure 4. The graph demonstrates, that all flux regimes are relatively constant during the experiments, except for drop in 300 kDa curve. In addition, the 300 kDa curve shows a decline in flux throughout the entire experiment. One possible explanation for the decay could have to do with the virus particles’ access to the membrane pores. In the case of the 50 and 100 kDa membranes, the virus particles have little to no access to the pores (particles are too large) and therefore could not non-specifically bind to the internal pore structure of the membrane. Gradual increases in virus particle binding to the inside of the pores (and therefore gradual pore narrowing) could account for the observed flux decrease. The regular interval drops observed in all flux curves correspond to points where samples were taken from the permeate outlet.Figure 4: Variation of the permeate flux with cumulative permeate volume in HPTFF mode. Virus in DMEM medium was pumped through PES 50, 100 and 300 kDa membranes at a flow rate of 150 ml/min (1:100 dilution of initial virus solution with pure media was carried out before each experiment)Figure 5: Variation of the permeate flux with cumulative permeate volume in TFF mode. Virus in DMEM medium was pumped through PES 50, 100 and 300 kDa membranes at a flow rate of 150 ml/min (1:100 dilution of initial virus solution with pure media was carried out before each experiment)Figure 5 shows as expected, the highest permeate flux with the 300 kDa membrane cassette. Comparing the permeate flux of 50 and 100 kDa membranes, it is significant that those two fluxes differ from each other. At first, this seems to be an expected result, but the fact that the 50 kDa flux is higher than the 100 kDa flux leads to the question, why do the larger pores of the 100 kDa membrane not give a higher flux compared to the smaller pores of the 50 kDa membrane. Occurrence of higher flux using the 50 kDa membrane can be explained by an irregularity in pores sizes (larger pore-size distribution). Pores are never identical or uniform due to production steps. This hypothetical assumption was discussed and agreed upon by Sartorius (email contact with Sartorius). This high flux decay for the 50 kDa membrane can be explained by a gradual blocking of the small pores of the membrane, which then results in a flux decrease. During this type of process, tangential flow filtration, a thin cake layer of retained viral particles and other particles builds up on the membrane surface. The thickness and especially particle size distribution of this layer controls the passage of most soluble components [9].4. ConclusionsResults obtained indicate that 50, and 100 kDa membranes are able to retain the Parvovirus Minute Virus of Mice, whereas the 300 kDa membrane is not capable of excluding viral particles of MVM, due to the fact that the same amount of viral particles is found in the 300 kDa permeate and retentate for TFF and HPTFF mode (measured by rt-PCR). The decrease in permeate flux for the 300 kDa ultrafiltration membrane is much greater than for the 50, and 100 kDa membranes for HPTFF, indicating possible entrapment of virus particles in membrane pores. The permeate flux and level of protein rejection is strongly affected by the cell culture growth medium.Feed fluxes for all membranes were always lower than initial water fluxes due to the higher viscosity of DMEM media supplemented with FBS compared to water viscosity (data not shown). Real-time PCR was used for virus titer determination as well as for evaluation of the ultrafiltration membranes ability to exclude viral particles. By using the Sybr Green assay we developed, it was possible to detect the amount of viral particles in samples collected with a determined detection limit of 14 viral copies/μl.References[1] Olsen, W. P.; Separations Technology: Pharmaceutical and Biotechnology Applications; 1st edition;Informa Healthcare, 1995; 122-130V an Reis,R.; Gadam, S.; Frautschy, L.N.; Orlando, S.; Goodrich, E.M.; Saksena, S.; Kuriyel, R.;[2]Simpson, C.M.; Pearl, S.; Zydney, A.L. High Performance Tangential Flow Filtration, Biotechnology and Bioengineering, 1997, 56, 71-82[3] Van Reis,R.; Brake, J.M.; Charkoudian, J.; Burns, D.B.; Zydney, A.L. High–performance tangentialflow filtration using charged membranes, Journal of Membrane Science, 1999, 159, 133-142[4] Czermak, P.; Grzenia, D.; Wolf, A.; Carlson, J.; Specht, R.; Han, B.; Wickramasinghe, S.R.Purification of the densonucleosis virus by tangential flow ultrafiltration and by ion exchange membranes, Desalination 224, 2007, 23-27[5] Grzenia D., Specht R., B.B. Han, J.O. Carlson, P. Czermak, S. R. Wickramasinghe: Purification ofDensonucleosis Virus by Tangential Flow Filtration, Biotechnology Progress 22, 2006, 1346 -1353 [6] Czermak, P., Nehring, D., Wickramasinghe, S.R.: Membranfiltration in Animal Cell Culture, inPoertner, R. (ed.): Animal Cell Biotechnology: Methods and Protocols, 2nd Edition, Chapter 19, p.397-420, Humana Press, Totoba USA, 2007[7] Agbandje-McKenna, M.; Llamas-Saiz, A.L.; Wang, F.; Tattersall, P.; Rossmann, M.G. FunctionalImplications of the Structure of Murine Parvovirus, Minute Virus of Mice, Structure, 1998, 6, 1369-1381[8] Segovia, J.C.; Real, A.; Bueren, J.A.; Almendral, J.M. In Vitro Myelosuppressive Effects of theParvovirus Minute Virus of Mice (MVMi) on Hematopoietic Stem and committed Progenitor Cells, Blood, 1991, 77, 980-988[9] Llamas-Saiz, A.L.; Agbandje-McKenna, M.; Wikoff W.R.; Bratton, J.; Tattersall, P.; Rossmann, M.G.Structure of minute virus of mice, Acta Crystallographica, 1997, 93-102。
非常规油气藏新一代体积压裂技术的几个关键问题探讨
第 51 卷 第 4 期石 油 钻 探 技 术Vol. 51 No.4 2023 年 7 月PETROLEUM DRILLING TECHNIQUES Jul., 2023doi:10.11911/syztjs.2023023引用格式：蒋廷学. 非常规油气藏新一代体积压裂技术的几个关键问题探讨[J]. 石油钻探技术，2023, 51（4）：184-191.JIANG Tingxue. Discussion on several key issues of the new-generation network fracturing technologies for unconventional reservoirs [J].Petroleum Drilling Techniques，2023, 51(4)：184-191.非常规油气藏新一代体积压裂技术的几个关键问题探讨蒋廷学1,2,3（1. 页岩油气富集机理与有效开发国家重点实验室, 北京 102206；2. 中国石化页岩油气钻完井及压裂重点实验室, 北京 102206；3. 中石化石油工程技术研究院有限公司, 北京 102206）摘 要: 体积压裂技术是实现非常规油气藏高效开发的关键，围绕有效改造体积及单井控制EUR最大化的目标，密切割程度、加砂强度、暂堵级数及工艺参数不断强化，导致压裂作业综合成本越来越高。
为此，开展了新一代体积压裂技术（立体缝网压裂技术）的研究与试验，压裂工艺逐渐发展到“适度密切割、多尺度裂缝强加砂、多级双暂堵和全程穿层”模式。
为促进立体缝网压裂技术的发展与推广应用，对立体缝网的表征、压裂模式及参数界限的确定、“压裂–渗吸–增能–驱油”协同提高采收率的机制、一体化变黏度多功能压裂液的研制、石英砂替代陶粒的经济性分析及“设计–实施–后评估”循环迭代升级的闭环体系构建等关键问题进行了探讨，厘清了立体缝网压裂技术的概念、关键技术及提高采收率机理，对于非常规油气藏新一代压裂技术的快速发展、更好地满足非常规油气藏高效勘探开发需求，具有重要的借鉴和指导意义。
SNP与杂种优势
Identification of TranscriptomeSNPs Assessing Allele-Specific Gene Expression in a Super-Hybrid Rice Xieyou9308Rongrong Zhai1.,Yue Feng1.,Xiaodeng Zhan1,Xihong Shen1,Weiming Wu1,Ping Yu1,Yingxin Zhang1, Daibo Chen1,Huimin Wang2,Zechuan Lin1,Liyong Cao1*,Shihua Cheng1*1State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology,China National Rice Research Institute,Hangzhou,Zhejiang,China,2College of Agronomy,Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang,Liaoning,Chinais an important component of lead to speciation, adaptive[1,2,3,4],and can give rise to a[5].Combination of these allelic of gene action, and is thought to contribute to heterosis,a phenomenon in which hybrids show improved and superior performance compared with either inbred parental line[6,7,8].Most efforts to understand the genetic mechanisms of heterosis have been focused on total gene expression levels in hybrids and their parents,with differential regulation of parental alleles in hybrids not well characterized. Although allele-specific gene expression(ASGE)in inter-specific hybrids has been reported in insects[9],fish[10],mammals [11,12],and plants[5,13,14],illuminating the direct impact of parental alleles on gene regulation,these studies were conducted using a limited number of genes.Recently-developed next-generation high-throughput RNA sequencing technology(RNA-Seq)has enabled the analysis of genome-wide ASGE,facilitating the examination of allelic contributions to gene expression in hybrids.Allelic expression bias in hybrids has been found to be correlated with parental differences[15],with trans effects possibly mediating most hybrid transcriptional differences[16].No attempt has been made, however,to compare ASGE at different developmental stages on a global transcriptomic scale.In this study,we focused our research on the late-stage high-vigor super-hybrid rice variety,Xieyou9308,which has a grain yield as high as12.236103kg?hm22and was designated as a‘super rice’by the Chinese Ministry of Agriculture in2005[17]. Xieyou9308is derived from a cross between the restorer line R9308(with25%japonica genetic composition)and the maternal line Xieqingzao B(indica).We applied RNA-Seq technology to assess genome-wide ASGE in the hybrid genetic background at tillering and heading stages.Results from this study indicate thatin the hybrid,Materials and MethodsPlant materials andRNA isolationExperiments were conductedin2011on Xieyou9308,a super-hybrid rice commonly plantedin China,and its parents XieqingzaoB(female)and R9308(male).After approximately30d of growth inthe field at theNational Rice Research Institute,Fuyang,China,40seedlings of each genotype were transplanted into plots ofplastic foam floating in a pool filled with nutrient solution.Two rootsof each genotype were collected at tillering and heading stages andimmediately frozen in liquid nitrogen.Total RNA was extractedfrom roots with Trizol reagent(Invitrogen,Carlsbad,CA)andpurified using an Oligotex mRNA Midi kit(Qiagen,Valencia,CA).RNA quality was assessed on a Bioanalyzer2100(Aligent,SantaClara,CA);all samples were found to have RNA Integrity Number(RIN)values greater than8.5.RNA-Seq library preparation and sequencingPoly(-A)-containing mRNA was isolated from total RNA in tworounds of purification using poly-T oligo-attached magnetic beads.Purified mRNA was then fragmented using an RNA fragmenta-tion kit,converted to cDNA using reverse transcriptase andrandom primers,and PCR amplified for18cycles(Illumina).PCRproducts were loaded onto an Illumina Hiseq2000instrument andsubjected to paired-end(100bp62)sequencing for100cycles.Processing of fluorescent images into sequences,base calling,andquality value calculations were performed via the Illumina dataprocessing pipeline(version1.8).Single nucleotide polymorphism(SNP)diversity analysisAfter filtering out low-quality reads(i.e.,reads in which morethan30%bases had Q-scores below20)from the raw reads,wediscarded low-quality bases(Q,20)from the59and39ends of theremaining high-quality reads.Cleaned RNA-Seq reads weremapped to the Nipponbare reference genome(IRGSP build5.0)by determiningfrom the binomial(i.e.,thein the hybridsthis publication haveunder accessionTranscriptome profileDifferentialR software edgeR(R version:2.14;edgeR version:2.3.52)[19].We characterized gene expression levels in terms of reads perkb per million reads(RPKM)[20],caculated false(FDR)for each transcript,and estimated foldlog2values of FC.Transcripts that exhibited anan estimated absolute log2(FC)$1weresignificantly differentially expressed.Transcriptestimated as the number of mapped reads for aby100bp and then divided by the summed exonlocus.ResultsDeep sequencing and mapping of RNA-Seq readsRNA-Seq technology is a powerful approach for transcriptionalanalysis and ASGE assessment[21,22].To measure ASGEpatterns in rice,we amplified cDNA fragments from a heteroticcross involving Xieyou9308,its maternal line Xieqingzao B,andpaternal line R9308,and sequenced them on an IlluminaHiseq2000platform.In total,448million short reads wereobtained at tillering and heading stages,with391million high-quality100-bp reads selected for further analysis.With respect togene expression levels,the two biological replicates were in goodagreement(0.86,R2,0.96).We then pooled and aligned theshort reads against the Nipponbare reference genome(IRGSPbuild5.0),and found that50.32–73.09%of reads were mapped toexonic regions,2.12–2.83%to intronic regions,and4.04–5.66%root and aboveground phenotypes relative to its two(Figure2).Although this superior performance may be dueinteraction of the two genomes,the genetic mechanismsin producing such hybrid phenotypes are not well understood.investigate ASGE in the hybrid,we identified SNPs fromsequencing reads by comparing each base position in exons of38,872annotated transcripts.After applying quality controlcriteria,9325SNPs(3746transcripts)were further analyzedS1).The most frequently occurring SNPs involved C to T(corresponding to G to ACombined,these mutationisTo ensure accuracyand reliability,only SNPs exhibitinga significant allelic bias (P ,0.01)were included in our analyses.In addition,among those transcripts with more than one SNP identified,two showed a contradictory allelic expression bias for different SNPs and were excluded from further analyses.Out of 4685identified SNPs (2793transcripts)(Table S2),significant allelic biases were 336SNPs (289transcripts)from the tillering stage and (316transcripts)from the heading stage (Figure 4)effects of gene the hybrid.We designated the ratio of and Xieqingzao B as R9308s /Xieqingzao B s and the ratio of allelic expression in the hybrid Xieyou9308as R9308a /Xieqingzao B a .We found that most transcripts with higher levels of gene expression in R9308also exhibited allelic biases towards R9308in the hybrid (Figure 5).Assessment of ASGE in the F 1hybridWe examined allelic expression differences between tillering and heading stages and found that 480transcripts showed allelic expression biases during at least one stage,with 125showing allelicFigure 2.Illustration of heterosis in Figure 4.Example of a transcript showing allelic bias in Xieyou9308at heading stage.Number of reads detected for a given parental allele at each SNP position is plotted.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0060668.g004expression biases at both tillering and heading stages and 355showing allelic expression biases at only one stage.Out of the 125transcripts exhibiting biases at both stages,92showed allelic expression biases towards the R9308allele and 26towards the Xieqingzao B allele.We further investigated the 92R9308-biased transcripts using Web Gene Ontology Annotation (WEGO)software [23]and found that these transcripts could be classifiedinto a diversity of functional subcategories,such as cell and cell part in the cellular component category,binding and catalytic processes in the molecular function category,and cellular and metabolic processes in the biological process category (Figure 6).In addition,195of 289transcripts at the tillering stage and 195of 316transcripts at the heading stage showed allelic expression biases towards the R9308allele.To further investigate transcripts showing strong allelic expres-sion biases in the F 1hybrid,we analyzed 38transcripts exhibiting expression almost exclusively from one parental allele (the fraction of reads carrying R9308allele was less than 0.3or greater than 0.7at tillering or heading stages)(Table S5).Among these 38allele-specific expressed transcripts,20predominantly expressed the R9308allele at both stages,and 14primarily expressed the Xieqingzao B allele.In addition,four transcripts showed different allelic biases between the two stages.The annotation indicated that 26transcripts could be functionally characterized.Transcripts encoding proteins involving resistance to diseases or other stresses,such as nucleotide-binding adaptor shared by APAF-1,R proteins,and CED-4(NB-ARC)protein,pathogenesis-related (PR)protein,chitin elicitor receptor kinase,plant disease resistance response protein,and nucleotide binding site-leucine rich repeat (NBS-LRR protein),were predominant in the annotated list (Table 1).We further analyzed total and allelic expression with respect to the two parents and the hybrid in the above-mentioned resistance transcripts.Two transcripts (Os02t0272900and Os11t0229300)at both tillering and heading stages and one transcript (Os07t0617100)at the heading stage showed significant total expression differences between parental strains.The other transcripts did not show significantly different total expression between parental strains.For Os11t0229300,R9308a /Xieqingzao B a ratios in the hybrid were as expected from R9308s /Xieqingzao B s ratios of the parental strains;however,R9308a /Xieqingzao B a ratios of Os02t0272900in the hybrid were lower than expected from R9308s /Xieqingzao B s ratios.DiscussionASGE in hybrids can be studied using two general approaches [24].The first approach,a polymorphism-directed method,utilizes known genome variants and can achieve highly ASGE results [9,25].A second approach employs SNP arrays to examine tens of thousands of ASGE sites simultaneously [13,26].Both approaches,however,requires prior knowledge of genomic information.Another approach,used in this study,is based on RNA-Seq,does not rely on previous knowledge of genetic variation and provides an unbiased view of gene regulation.TheFigure 5.Allelic biases in Xieyou9308according to their differences between parents.R9308s ,gene expression levels in R9308;Xieqingzao B s ,gene expression levels in Xieqingzao B;R9308a ,R9308allele;Xieqingzao B a ,Xieqingzao B allele.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0060668.g005single-base resolution obtained using this method provides in-formation regarding both transcript abundance and allelic bias.In this study,we employed Illumina/Solexa sequencing to identify SNPs between the parental lines R9308and Xieqingzao B and quantify ASGE in the F 1hybrid Xieyou9308.Interestingly,we found that CT and GA SNPs between R9308and Xieqingzao B constituted nearly 68%of all identified SNPs,consistent with a previous study in which these SNP types accounted for 73%of SNPs between Nipponbare and 93–11[16].This phenomenon may be due to methylated cytosines that mutate more frequently than non-methylated cytosines.In addition,deamination of methylcytosine,yielding thymine,occurs at higher rates than other spontaneous mutations [16,27,28,29].DNA methylation is a heritable epigenetic mark;it can control gene expression and environmental stress responses,and may play a role in heterosis in plants [16,30,31].In a future study,we plan to determine if DNA methylation is present in the parents and their F 1hybrid,and,if so,to characterize how methylation from inbred parents interacts during generation of their hybrid progeny and contributes to heterosis.In our study,only 480(17%)of 2793identified transcripts showed significant allelic biases at tillering and heading stages.A similar result was observed in another recent study,in which 398(22.7%)out of 1754genes exhibited significant allelic expression differences in a reciprocal F 1hybrid between Nipponbare and 93–11[15].Differences in allelic expression were also observed in 73%and 57%of identified genes in maize and Populus ,respectively [5,14].In contrast,in a study of hybrid mice,allelic expression differences were found in only 10%of genes [11].The relatively high allelic expression variation observed in maize and Populus is probably a consequence of their highly polymorphic genomes.Similarly,the genetic divergence between indica and japonica subspecies may account for the higher degree of allelic expression variation observed compared with mouse hybrids [5].Of the 480transcripts that showed allelic expression biases during at least one stage,67%and 62%were biased towards the R9308allele at tillering and heading stages,respectively.In addition,transcripts with higher gene expression levels in R9308also exhibited R9308allelic biases in the hybrid.Furthermore,92(74%)of the 125transcripts exhibiting allelic expression biases atboth tillering and heading stages were biased towards the R9308allele at both stages and were associated with different functional proteins.These results indicate that R9308alleles tend to preserve their characteristic activity states in the hybrid and may play important roles in hybrid vigor at both stages.Functional diversity of the R9308alleles in the hybrid may have an impact on hybrid performance.Interestingly,about 355(74%)of the 480transcripts with allelic biases showed divergent allelic expression patterns at different developmental stages,indicating that allelic expression in hybrids can be highly stage-specific [5,32].Allelic variation in gene expression may arise from cis -and/or trans -regulatory elements [9].Alteration of cis -elements may affect aspects such as promoter strength,enhancer action,or transcript stability,whereas trans -element changes may involve structure,binding affinities,or intercellular levels of factors inuencing transcription [21].Cis -and trans -regulation can be distinguished by comparing ratios of species-specific transcripts between F 1hybrids and parental lines [5].If a mutation occurs in a cis -element,the affected gene shows the same ratio of allelic expression levels in both the hybrid and parents.On the other hand,if trans -elements are altered in the parents,no differences in allelic expression are displayed for that gene in the F 1hybrid because both alleles are exposed to the same subcellular environment.In our study,most transcripts (89.65%at the tillering stage and 88.69%at the heading stage)exhibited relatively balanced allelic expression in the hybrid genetic background,suggesting that trans effects may dominate genetically mediated allele-specific expression [18].Based on findings of a previous study,alleles derived from different parents may be differentially regulated in hybrids during plant development and in response to environmental signals [14].In our study,we analyzed 38transcripts exhibiting expression biases towards one parental allele.Four transcripts encoding UPF0307protein,ATP-binding cassette (ABC)transporter pro-tein,and Zinc finger RING-type domain containing protein displayed different allelic biases between the two stages,suggesting differential roles for the alleles during hybrid development.A majority of the 38transcripts,however,showed consistent allelic biases and were associated with different functional proteins.It should be noted that these transcripts were relatively enrichedinFigure 6.GO classification of 92R9308-biased transcripts.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0060668.g006pathways for resistance to diseases or other stresses,implying that this category may be involved in vigorous growth in the hybrid and deserves further investigation.Furthermore,the R9308a/ Xieqingzao B a ratios of Os11t0229300(encoding the NBS-LRR protein)was as expected from R9308s/Xieqingzao B s ratios, implying the involvement of cis-regulation;in contrast,R9308a/ Xieqingzao B a ratios of Os02t0272900(encoding the NB-ARC protein)were lower than expected R9308s/Xieqingzao B s ratios, suggesting both cis-and trans-regulation.The differential regula-tion of the two parental alleles of these resistant transcripts may contribute to Xieyou9308hybrid vigor.ConclusionsIn this study,roots from tillering and heading stages of the super-hybrid rice Xieyou9308and its parents were used for global transcriptional analysis and assessment of ASGE.Our results demonstrate that Illumina paired-end sequencing is a powerful tool for exploring allelic expression patterns and gene regulatory phenomena in interspecies hybridization,and may provide valuable information to further elucidate molecular mechanisms of heterosis.Supporting InformationTable S1SNPs detected in the hybrid at tillering andTable S2SNPs showing consistent allelic expression biases in the hybrid.(XLSX)Table S3SNPs showing significant allelic biases for accumulated transcripts in the hybrid at the tillering stage.(XLSX)Table S4SNPs showing significant allelic biases for accumulated transcripts in the hybrid at the heading stage.(XLSX)Table S5Thirty-eight transcripts showing biases to-wards one parental allele in the F1hybrid.(XLSX)AcknowledgmentsWe thank Mr.Weijie Song,Dr.Gulei Jin,and Dr.Qiongyi Zhao for technical support and excellent discussions,and the associate editor and anonymous reviewers for their valuable suggestions.Author ContributionsConceived and designed the experiments:RRZ YF SHC LYC.Performed the experiments:RRZ YF HW.Analyzed the data:RRZ YF ZCL. 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SH系列表面活性剂筛选与评价-化工论文-化学论文
SH系列表面活性剂筛选与评价-化工论文-化学论文——文章均为WORD文档，下载后可直接编辑使用亦可打印——摘要：针对江汉油区高矿化度、高地层温度地层条件研制出抗盐耐温的阴-非离子型SH系列表面活性剂。
通过溶解配伍性实验、界面张力测试, 筛选出耐温抗盐的SH01、SH03两种表面活性剂。
二者的乳化性、长期稳定性、抗盐性和耐温性能均较好, 且SH03表面活性剂性能优于SH01, 在低浓度下SH03表面活性剂可有效降低油水界面张力。
实验表明, 用浓度为0.3%的SH03表面活性剂0.3PV驱替岩芯, 采收率可提高6%。
关键词：表面活性剂; 耐温性; 耐盐性; 界面张力;Abstract：Heat-resistance and salt-tolerance surfactants, Yin-non-ionic type SH series, are developed aiming at hypersalinity and high formation temperature conditions in Jianghan Oilfield.Two surfactants (SH01 and SH03) are screened out through dissolution compatibility experiment and interfacial tension test.They are good at emulsibility, long-term stability, salt tolerance and heat resistance.SH03 is better than SH01 in performance and can reduce oil-water interface tension.the experiment shows that recovery efficiency can be increased by 6% by using 0.3 PV SH03 with 0.3% concentration to displace rock core.Keyword：Surfactant; Heat Resistance; Salt Tolerance; Interfacial Tension;江汉油区为盐湖沉积环境, 发育了下第三系沙市组上段-新沟嘴组下段及潜江组两套成盐成油岩系。
A fractal analysis of permeability for fractured rocks
A fractal analysis of permeability for fracturedrocksTongjun Miao a ,b ,Boming Yu a ,⇑,Yonggang Duan c ,Quantang Fang caSchool of Physics,Huazhong University of Science and Technology,1037Luoyu Road,Wuhan 430074,Hubei,PR ChinabDepartment of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering,Xinxiang Vocational and Technical College,Xinxiang 453007,Henan,PR China cState Key of Oil and Gas Reservoir Geology and Exploitation,Southwest Petroleum University,8Xindu Road,Chengdu 610500,Sichuan,PR Chinaa r t i c l e i n f o Article history:Received 6September 2013Received in revised form 28March 2014Accepted 5October 2014Keywords:Permeability Rock Fractal FracturesFracture networksa b s t r a c tRocks with shear fractures or faults widely exist in nature such as oil/gas reservoirs,and hot dry rocks,etc.In this work,the fractal scaling law for length distribution of fractures and the relationship among the fractal dimension for fracture length distribution,fracture area porosity and the ratio of the maxi-mum length to the minimum length of fractures are proposed.Then,a fractal model for permeability for fractured rocks is derived based on the fractal geometry theory and the famous cubic law for laminar flow in fractures.It is found that the analytical expression for permeability of fractured rocks is a function of the fractal dimension D f for fracture area,area porosity /,fracture density D ,the maximum fracture length l max ,aperture a ,the facture azimuth a and facture dip angle h .Furthermore,a novel analytical expression for the fracture density is also proposed based on the fractal geometry theory for porous media.The validity of the fractal model is verified by comparing the model predictions with the available numerical simulations.Ó2014Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.1.IntroductionFractured media and rocks with shear fractures or faults widely exist in nature such as oil/gas reservoirs,and hot dry rocks,ually,the fractures are embedded in porous matrix with micro pores,which play negligible effect on the seepage characteristic,and randomly distributed fractures dominate the seepage charac-teristic in the media.The randomly distributed fractures are often connected to form irregular networks,and the seepage character-istic of the fracture networks has the significant influence on nuclear waste disposal [1],oil or gas exploitation [2],and geother-mal energy extraction [3].In this work,we focus our attention on the seepage characteristics of fracture networks in fractured rocks and ignore the seepage performance from micro pores in porous matrix.Over the past four decades,many investigators studied the seepage characteristics of fracture networks/rocks and proposed several models.Snow [4]developed an analytical method for per-meability of fracture networks according to parallel plane model.Kranzz et al.[5]studied the permeability of whole jointed granite and tested the parallel plane model by experiments.Koudina et al.[6]investigated the permeability of fracture networks with numer-ical simulation method in the three-dimensional space,they assumed that fracture network consists of polygonal shape frac-tures and fluid flow in each fracture meets the Darcy’s law.Dreuzy et al.[7]studied the permeability of randomly fractured networks by numerical and theoretical methods in two dimensions,and they verified the validity of the model by comparing to naturally frac-tured networks.Klimczak et al.[8]obtained the permeability of a single fracture by parallel plate model with the fracture length and aperture satisfying power-law and verified by the numerical simulation.However,these models did not provide a quantitative relationship among the permeability of fracture networks,poros-ity,fracture density and microstructure parameters of fractures,such as fracture length,aperture,inclination,orientation etc.Fractures in rocks are usually random and disorder and they have been shown to have the statistically self-similar and fractal characteristic [3,9–13].Chang and Yortsos [10]studied the single phase fluid flow in the fractal fracture networks.Watanabe and Takahashi [3]investigated the permeability of fracture networks and heat extraction in hot dry rock by using fractal method.But,they did not propose an expression of permeability with micro-scopic parameters included.Jafari and Babadagli [14]obtained the permeability expression with multiple regression analysis of random fractures by the fractal geometry theory according to observed data in the well logging.In addition,their expression with several empirical constants does not include the orientation factor and microstructure parameters of fracture networks.The tree-like fractal branching networks were often considered as/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2014.10.0100017-9310/Ó2014Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.⇑Corresponding author.E-mail address:yubm_2012@ (B.Yu).fracture networks by many investigators.Xu et al.[15,16]studied the seepage and heat transfer characteristics of fractal-like tree networks.Recently,Wang et al.[17]studied the starting pressure gradient for Binghamfluid in a special dual porosity medium with randomly distributed fractal-like tree network embedded in matrix porous media.Most recently,Zheng and Yu[18]investigated gas flow characteristics in the dual porosity medium with randomly distributed fractal-like tree networks.However,the fractal-like tree network is a kind of ideal and symmetrical network.The purpose of the present work is to derive an analytical expression and establish a model for permeability of fracture rocks/media based on the parallel plane model(cubic law)and frac-tal geometry theory.The proposed permeability and the predicted fracture density will be compared with the numerical simulations.2.Fractal characteristics for fracture networksMany investigators[3,9–13,19–23]reported that the relation-ships between the length and the number of fractures exhibit the power-law,exponential and log-normal types.Torabi and Berg [19]made a comprehensive review on fault dimensions and their scaling laws,and they summarized several types of scaling laws such as the length distributions for faults and fractures in siliciclas-tic rocks from different scales and tectonic settings.The power-law exponents of the scaling-law between the fault length and the number of faults were found to be in the range of1.02–2.04and are probably influenced by factors such as stress regime,linkage of faults,sampling bias,and size of the dataset.Interested readers may consult Refs.[3,9–13,19–23]for detail.In addition,the self-similar fractal structures of fracture net-works were extensively studied[22,23],and the application in complex rock structures with the fractal technique was recently reviewed by Kruhl[24].Velde et al.[25]and Vignes-Adler et al.[26]studied the data at several length scales with fractal method and found that the fracture networks are fractal.Barton and Zoback [27]analyzed the2D maps of the trace length of fractures spanning ten orders,ranging from micro to large scale fractures and found that D f=1.3–1.7.The width between two plates/walls of a fracture,i.e.the paral-lel plate model is used to represent the effective aperture of a frac-ture.Generally,the relationship between the effective aperture a and the fracture length l is given by[28,29]a¼b l nð1Þwhere b and n are the proportionality coefficient and a constant according to fracture scales,respectively.The value of n=1is important,which indicates a linear scaling law,and the fracture network is self-similarity and fractal[19,29].Thus,in the current work the value of n=1is chosen for fractures with fractal characteristic.Thus,Eq.(1)can be rewritten asa¼b lð2ÞEq.(2)will be used in this work.It is well-known that the cumulative size distribution of islands on the Earth’s surface obeys the fractal scaling law[30]NðS>sÞ/sÀD=2ð3aÞwhere N is the total number of island of area S greater than s,and D is the fractal dimension for the size distribution of islands.The equality in Eq.(3a)can be invoked by using s max to represent the largest island on Earth to yield[31]NðS>sÞ¼s maxsD=2ð3bÞEq.(3b)implies that there is only one largest island on the Earth’s surface,and Majumdar and Bhushan[31]used this power-law equation to describe the contact spots on engineering surfaces,where s max¼g k2max(the maximum spot area)and s¼g k2(a spot area),with k being the diameter of a spot and g being a geometry factor.It has been shown that the length distribution of fractures sat-isfies the fractal scaling law[3,9–13,19,22,23,32],hence,Eq.(3b) for description of islands on the Earth’s surface and spots on engi-neering surfaces can be extended to describe the area distribution of fractures on a fractured surface,i.e.NðS!sÞ¼a max l maxalD f=2ð3cÞwhere a max l max represents the maximum fracture area with a max and l max respectively being the maximum aperture and maximum fracture length,and al refers to a fracture area with the aperture and length being a and l,respectively.Inserting Eq.(2)into Eq.(3c),we obtainNðS!sÞ¼b l2maxb l!D f=2ð3dÞThen,from Eq.(3d),the cumulative number of fractures whose length are greater than or equal to l can be expressed by the follow-ing scaling law:NðL!lÞ¼l maxD fð4Þwhere D f is the fractal dimension for fracture lengths,0<D f<2(or 3)in two(or three)dimensions;and Eq.(4)implies that there is only one fracture with the maximum length.Some investigators [3,9–13,19,32]reported that the length distribution of fractures in rocks has the self-similarity and the fractal scaling law can be described by N/ClÀD f,where C is afitting constant,D f is the fractal dimension for the length(l)distribution of fractures and N is the number of fractures,and this fractal scaling law is similar to Eq.(4).Eq.(4)is also the base of the box-counting method[33]for mea-suring the fractal dimension of fracture lengths in fracture net-works,and Chelidze and Guguen[9]applied the box-counting method and found that the fractal dimension of fracture network (described by Nolen-Hoeksema and Gordon[34])in a2D cross sec-tion is1.6.Since there usually are numerous fractures in fracture net-works,Eq.(4)can be considered as a continuous and differentiable function.So,differentiating Eq.(4)with respect to l,we can get the number of fractures whose lengths are in the infinitesimal rang l to l+dl:ÀdNðlÞ¼D f l D fmaxlÀðD fþ1Þdlð5ÞEq.(5)indicates that the number of fractures decreases with the increase of fracture length andÀdN(l)>0.The relationship among the fractal dimension,porosity and the ratio k max=k min for porous media was derived based on the assump-tion that pores in porous media are in the form of squares with self-similarity in sizes in the self similarity range from the mini-mum size k min to the maximum size k max,i.e.[35]D f¼d Eþln emax minð6Þwhere e is the effective porosity of a fractal porous medium,d E is the Euclid dimension,and d E=2and3respectively in two and three dimensions.It has been shown that Eq.(6)is valid not only for exactly self-similar fractals such as Sierpinski carpet and Sierpinski gasket but also for statistically self-similar fractal porous media.Fractures in rocks or in fractured media are analogous to pores in porous media.Therefore,Eq.(6)can be extended to describe the76T.Miao et al./International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer81(2015)75–80relationship among the fractal dimension for length distribution, porosity of fractures and the ratio l max/l min of fractures in rocks,i.e.D f¼d Eþln/lnðl max=l minÞð7Þwhere l max and l min are the maximum and the minimum fracture lengths,respectively,and/is the effective porosity of fractures in a rock.The area porosity/of fractures is defined as/¼A PAð8Þwhere A is the area of a unit cell,A P is the total area of all fractures in the unite cell.Based on Eq.(5),the total area of all fractures in the unite cell can be obtained asA p¼ÀZ l maxl min aÁlÁdNðlÞ¼b D f l2max2ÀD f1Àl minl max2ÀD f"#ð9ÞInserting Eq.(7)into Eq.(9)yieldsA p¼b D f l2max2ÀD f1À/ðÞð10Þwhere porosity/is applied in Eq.(7)in two dimensions,i.e.d E=2is used.3.Relationship between fracture density and fractal dimensionThe total fracture lengths in a unit cell of area A can be obtained byl total¼ÀZ l maxl min lÁdNðlÞ¼D f l max1ÀD f1Àl minl max1ÀD f"#ð11ÞThe fracture density is defined by[36]D¼l totalð12Þwhere l total is the total length of all fractures(not a single fracture) which may be connected to form a network in the unit cell.Inserting Eqs.(7),(8)and(11)into Eq.(12)results in the fracture densityD¼ð2ÀD fÞ/1Àl minl max1ÀD fð1ÀD fÞb l max1Àl minmax2ÀD fð13aÞInserting Eq.(7)into Eq.(13a),the fracture density can also bewritten asD¼ð2ÀD fÞ1À/ðÞ1ÀD ff"#/ð1ÀD fÞb l max1À/ðÞð13bÞIt is evident that the fracture density D of fractures is a functionof the fractal dimension D f for fracture area,area porosity/,proportionality coefficient b and l max.Fig.2compares the predictions by the present fractal model(Eq.(13a))with numerical simulations of four groups of randomfracture networks by Zhang and Sanderson[36],who proposed anew numerical method for producing the self-avoiding randomgenerations,and the parameters such as the lengths of fracturescan be controlled.In their simulations,the lengths of fractures liefrom0.0005to1.5m,and the averaged fractal dimension D f is1.3.So,in this work we take the maximum length and minimumlength of fractures are1.5m and0.0005m,respectively,and theaveraged fractal dimension D f=1.3.The average porosity/is0.018calculated by Eq.(7).It can be seen from Fig.2that the pre-dictions are in good agreement with the numerical simulations.Fig.2clearly indicates that the fracture density increases withthe increase of the fractal dimension,and this is consistent withpractical situation.Fig.3presents the fracture density versus porosity of fracturenetworks as l max=1.5m,b=0.01.It can be seen from Fig.3thatthe fracture density increases with porosity.This can be explainedthat the pore area of fractures increasing with porosity means thatthe fracture density increases with porosity.This result is in agree-ment with the Monte Carlo simulations by Yazdi et al.[37].4.Fractal model for permeability of fractured rocksThe orientation of each fracture in fracture networks is definedby two angles,the fracture azimuth and fracture dip angle,whichsignificantly affect theflow and transport properties.The orienta-tions of fractures in a fracture network are non-uniform,but usu-ally with a preferred orientation[38,39].In general,the numberof fractures in fracture networks is very large.Based on generalpractice,the fracture azimuths of all fractures are taken as aver-aged/mean angle,for instance,Massart et al.[40]showed a meandip angle of70°,mean N–S(North–South)orientation from thetotal number of1878fractures.In this work,the mean dip angleof fractures between fracture orientations andfluidflow direction,and the mean azimuth of fractures perpendicular tofluidflowdirection are assumed to be h and a,respectively(see Fig.1(a)).(a)(b)T.Miao et al./International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer81(2015)75–8077Therefore,the scalar quantity of permeability alongflow direction needs to be calculated.Iffluidflow through fractures is assumed to be laminarflow,the flow rate along theflow direction through a fracture can be described by the famous cubic law[41,42]qðlÞ¼a3l12lD PL0ð14Þwhere L0is the length of the structural unit,l is the fracture trace length,a is the fracture aperture,and D P is the pressure drop across a fracture alongflow direction.If the single fracture forms an angle with theflow direction,due to the projection on theflow direction of the fracture,theflow rate through the fracture can be written by[43,44]qðlÞ¼a3l1Àcos2a sin2h12lD PL0ð15Þwhere a and h are respectively the mean facture azimuth and facture dip angle.When a=0,Eq.(15)is reduced toqðlÞ¼a3l cos2h12lD PL0ð16ÞThis is the famous Parsons’model.See Fig.1(b)[43,44].The totalflow rate through all the fractures can be obtained by integrating Eq.(16)from the minimum length to the maximum length in a unit cross section,i.e.Q¼ÀZ l maxl minqðlÞdNðlÞ¼b3128lD f1Àcos2a sin2h4ÀD fD PL0l4max1Àl minl max4ÀD f"#ð17Þwhere D f represents the fractal dimension for the length distribu-tion of fractures.In general,l min<<l max.Since0<D f<2in two dimensions,andðl min=l maxÞ4ÀD f<<1,so that Eq.(17)can be simplified as:Q¼b3128lD f1Àcos2a sin2h4ÀD fD PL0l4maxð18ÞEq.(18)indicate that the totalflow rate through the fracture net-work is related to the fractal dimension D f of the fracture lengths, the facture azimuth a and facture dip angle h.Eq.(18)also indicates that theflow rate is very sensitive to the maximum fracture length l max.Darcy’s law for Newtonianfluidflow in porous media is given byQ¼KAlD PL0ð19ÞComparing Eq.(18)to Eq.(19),we can obtain the permeability for Newtonianfluidflow through the fracture networks asK¼b3128AD f1Àcos2a sin2h4ÀD fl4maxð20ÞInserting Eqs.(12)and(13b)into Eq.(20),the permeability for Newtonianfluidflow through fracture networks can be written asK¼b3D1281ÀD f4ÀD fl3max1Àcos2a sin2h1À/ðÞ1ÀD ff"#ð21ÞEq.(21)shows that the permeability is a function of the fractal dimension D f for the fracture length distribution,the structural parameters(maximum fracture length l max,fracture density D,fac-ture azimuth a and facture dip angle h)and fracture porosity/of fracture networks.Eq.(21)also reveals that the permeability strongly depends on the maximum fracture length l max,and the longer fracture with wider apertures conduct the higher volume offluid and higher permeability.As a result,the present fractal model can well reveal the mechanisms of seepage characteristics78T.Miao et al./International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer81(2015)75–80in fracture networks than conventional methods.For example, many investigators proposed fracture network models by assum-ing that the media have ideal structures such as the parallel frac-ture network[4,5,8,45],the orthogonal plane network cracks [46,47],alternate level matrix layer and fractures[48]etc.The frac-ture network permeability was often expressed as K=/a2/12, where/is fracture porosity and a is fracture aperture.Recently, Jafari and Babadagli[14]obtained an expression(with several empirical constants)by fractal geometry for fracture networks according to the well logging and observation data.Therefore,it is clear that Eq.(21)has the obvious advantages over the conven-tional models/methods.5.Results and discussionIn this section,the model predictions will be compared with the simulated data and the effects of model parameters on the perme-ability will be discussed.The procedures for determination of the relevant parameters in Eq.(21)are as follows:(1)Given the fracture network parameters(such as l max,/,a,hand b)based on a real sample.(2)Find the fractal dimension D f of fracture lengths in a fracturenetwork by the box-counting method or by Eq.(7).(3)Determine the fracture density D by Eq.(13b).(4)Finally,calculate the permeability by Eq.(21).Jafari and Babadagli[49]obtained the fractal dimensions D f of2D maps from22different nature fracture networks by box-counting method,and then they calculated the equivalent fracture network permeability by a3D model with a block size of100Â100Â10m simulated/constructed.The maximum fracture length was taken to be2m and dip angle h=0.In comparison,the fracture density D and permeability are calculated by procedures3and4,respec-tively.Fig.4shows that the present model predictions are in good agreement with the simulation results[49].Fig.5depicts the permeability for Newtonianfluid through frac-ture networks against porosity of fracture networks at different dip angles at l max=10mm,b=0.01.It is seen from Fig.5that the per-meability for fracture networks increases with porosity.This is consistent with practical situation.From Fig.5,we can also see that the permeability decreases as the fracture plane dip angle increases.This can be explained that a higher fracture plane dip angle leads to an increase of theflow resistance.Fig.6plots the permeability versus the fracture density of the fracture networks at l max=10mm,a=0,h=p/4and b=0.01.It suggests that the permeability of the fracture networks increases with the increases of fracture density.The reason is that when the fracture density D increases,the area of fracture networks increases and thus results in increasing the permeability.This result agrees with the numerical simulation results in Ref.[50]. 6.ConclusionsIn this paper,the fractal geometry theory has been applied to describe the fractal fracture system,and the fractal scaling law for length distribution of fractures and the relationship among the fractal dimension for fracture length distribution,fracture area porosity and the ratio of the maximum length to the minimum length of fractures have been proposed.Then,a model for perme-ability of fractured rocks has been derived based on the famous cubic law,fractal geometry theory and technique.A novel expres-sion for the fracture density has also been proposed based on the fractal scaling law of length distribution of fractures.The present results show that the permeability of fracture networks increases with the increases of porosity and fracture density.Our results agree well the available numerical simulations.This verifies the validity of the proposed models.It should be point out that the percolation and critical behavior are not involved in this work.In this paper,we focus on the perme-ability that all fractures are assumed to be connected to form frac-ture network,which contributes the permeability of the fracture system.This means that we have ignored the interaction between fractures.The permeability after including the interaction and con-nectivity between fractures and critical behavior of fractures near the threshold undoubtedly is an interesting topic,and this may be our next workConflict of interestNone declared.AcknowledgmentThis work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China through Grant Number10932010. 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商用车前下防护安全性能分析
10.16638/ki.1671-7988.2018.18.046商用车前下防护安全性能分析张德伟，李冰，孔雪，祝哮，孙巍，尚帅涛（辽宁忠旺集团有限公司，辽宁辽阳111003）摘要：文章对某商用车铝合金前下防护依据GB26511-2011对其进行安全性能进行分析，分析借助CAE的仿真手段，通过分析初版数据结果，探究其不满足标准的原因，并进行结构优化，结构优化后其安全性能满足标准要求。
前下防护采用铝合金材质既可以实现轻量化目标，同时也能满足其安全性能目标。
通过CAE技术可以提高试验通过率，从而降低研发成本，缩短研发周期。
关键词：前下防护；安全性能；结构优化；满足标准中图分类号：U467 文献标识码：B 文章编号：1671-7988(2018)18-135-03The Safety Performance Analysis of Front Underrun Protection for commercial vehicle Zhang Dewei, Li Bing, Kong Xue, Zhu Xiao, Sun Wei, Shang Shuaitao( Liaoning Zhongwang Group Co. Ltd., Liaoning Shenyang 111003 )Abstract: This paper analyzes the safety performance of aluminum alloy front underrun protection for commercial vehicle according to GB26511-2011. By analyzing the results of the first version of the data by CAE technology, this paper studies the reasons why it does not meet the standards. After structural optimization, its safety performance satisfy criteria The aluminum alloy material can not only achieve the lightweight target, but also meet its safety performance target. By CAE technology, the passing rate of test can be improved, so as to reduce the design cost and shorten the design time. Keywords: Front underrun protection; Safety performance; Structure optimization; Satisfy criteriaCLC NO.: U467 Document Code: B Article ID: 1671-7988(2018)18-135-03前言随着我国汽车保有量的快速增加，交通事故也不断攀升，尤其是小型车辆与商用车发生正面碰撞事故，小型车辆很多时候被卷入到商用车下部而造成车毁人亡的严重后果，为此我国国家发展与改革委员会发布了标准GB26511-2011，强制规定了商用车前下部防护装置的安全性能要求。
《非常规油气地质》ShaleGas
Characteristics of Shale Gas Plays
Low individual well production cycle and long field production cycle Mainly non-Darcy flow, no water production or very little water production Lower recovery ratio Effective development requires horizontal well, multi-stage fracturing, micro-seismic and other advanced technologies to implement reservoir stimulation treatment
Geomechanics
• • • • • In situ P,T conditions Stress-strain behaviour Failure modes Vp/Vs with ultrasonics Modelling at multiple scales
Shale Gas E&P Road Map
“Sweet Spot”
100 km
Woodford-Chattanooga Shale, Oklahoma Structure on top of the formation
“Sweet Spot”
100 km
Woodford-Chattanooga Shale, Oklahoma Thermal maturity
• • • • • • • • OGIP Gas storage location Flow mechanisms Organic matter effects Experimental testing Impact of gas saturation on rock property estimation Anisotropy Reservoir simulation inputs
人工智能技术在油藏工程领域评价方法
人工智能技术在油藏工程领域评价方法Artificial intelligence (AI) technology has been increasingly used inthe field of reservoir engineering for the evaluation of oil and gas reservoirs. It has provided great potential in improving the efficiency and accuracy of reservoir evaluation, leading to significant advancements in the industry.人工智能（AI）技术在油藏工程领域的应用日益增多，用于油气储层的评价。
它在提高储层评价的效率和准确性方面具有巨大潜力，促进了该行业的显著进步。
One major aspect of AI in reservoir engineering is its capability to analyze vast amounts of data. AI algorithms can process and interpret geological, geophysical, and engineering data, allowing for a more comprehensive understanding of reservoir characteristics and behavior.人工智能在油藏工程中的一个主要方面是其分析海量数据的能力。
AI算法可以处理和解释地质、地球物理和工程数据，使人们更全面地了解储层的特征和行为。
Additionally, AI can be utilized for predictive modeling of reservoir performance. By using machine learning and data-driven techniques, AI can forecast production rates, reservoir pressure, and other key parameters with improved accuracy, aiding in the optimization of production strategies and reservoir management.此外，人工智能还可以用于油藏性能的预测建模。
煤层气地质学
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龙湾湖水库工程设计洪水计算要点
《河南水利与南水北调》2023年第9期水文水资源龙湾湖水库工程设计洪水计算要点何生虎，陈卓（河南灵捷水利勘测设计研究有限公司，河南南阳473000）摘要：水库工程设计洪水计算分析是科学实施水库枢纽规划设计极其重要的技术内容，对水库工程建设具有十分重要的工程意义。
为此，结合龙湾湖水库工程设计洪水计算典型案例展开分析研究。
结果表明，了解工程概况，首先完成龙湾湖水库设计暴雨洪水计算，其次进行龙湾湖水库水位库容与水库泄流分析计算（包括水库水位～面积～库容曲线和水库泄流曲线计算）；然后进行龙湾湖水库调洪演算（包括调洪演算原理及调洪演算结果）；最后完成龙湾湖水库回水计算。
可为类似水库工程设计洪水计算提供借鉴参考。
关键词：龙湾湖水库工程；设计洪水；计算要点；分析中图分类号：TV122.3文献标识码：A文章编号：1673-8853（2023）09-0064-021工程概况老灌河西峡县境内河长109.40km ，落差298.50m ，平均比降3.30‰，控制流域面积3473km 2，总控制流域面积4219km 2。
有17个梯级、29座小水电站，总装机28520kW ，龙湾湖水库为第17级，坝址位于档子岭电站拦河坝上游200m 处。
龙湾湖水库以供水、防洪为主，兼顾灌溉、生态、应急、发电等，中型水利枢纽工程。
水库从老灌河向丹水河、黄水河流域的丹田阳区域年调水2354万m 3，解决丹水、田关、阳城三个乡镇7.70万人生活用水、丹田阳工业园区用水和2333.34hm 2高标准农田灌溉用水。
削减老灌河流域洪峰10.80%，与上游石门水库双重应急调节，可以确保老灌河流域南水北调中线水源水质安全。
增加水电装机容量3800kW 。
2设计暴雨2.1天然情况下设计洪水计算2.1.1特大洪水处理特大洪水处理是指特大洪水重现期的确定、经验频率和统计参数的处理。
对于调查考证期N 中有a 个特大洪水的不连续洪水系列，其经验频率采用下列数学经验公式计算：特大洪水经验频率：P M =N +1M，M =1，2，…，a 。
saej10v002_(R) Automotive and Off-Highway Air Brake Reservoir Performance
SAE Technical Standards Board Rules provide that: “This report is published by SAE to advance the state of technical and engineering sciences. The use of this report is entirely voluntary, and its applicability and suitability for any particular use, including any patent infringement arising therefrom, is the sole responsibility of the user.”SAE reviews each technical report at least every five years at which time it may be reaffirmed, revised, or cancelled. SAE invites your written comments and suggestions.Copyright © 2007 SAE InternationalAll rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of SAE.TO PLACE A DOCUMENT ORDER:Tel: 877-606-7323 (inside USA and Canada)Tel: 724-776-4970 (outside USA)Fax: 724-776-0790Email: CustomerService@SURFACE VEHICLE STANDARD J10REAF.NOV2007Issued 1959-05Reaffirmed2007-11Superseding J10 FEB2000(R) Automotive and Off-Highway Air Brake Reservoir Performanceand Identification Requirements—Truck and Bus1.Scope—This SAE Standard applies to all new production air brake reservoirs used in automotive vehicles andoff-road machines. This document defines an “air brake reservoir” as a reservoir having single or multiple compartments that is used for storage of compressed air. This document does not apply to accumulators or reservoirs for storage of gases other than compressed air.The reservoirs tested per these requirements shall be selected from production stock and shall be equipped with all permanently attached items such as mounting brackets and fitting bosses.1.1Purpose—The purpose of this document is to provide MINIMUM performance requirements and a method of identifying new production air brake reservoirs. Additional requirements for corrosion resistance and pressure fatigue tests should be considered by the vehicle manufacturer. Additional or different considerations should be given to non-metallic and non-circular reservoirs.2.References2.1Applicable Publications—The following publications form a part of this specification to the extent specified herein. Unless otherwise indicated, the latest version of SAE publications shall apply.2.1.1ASTM P UBLICATIONS —Available from ASTM, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959.ASTM B 117-95—Operating Salt Spray (Fog) ApparatusASTM D 1654-92—Evaluation of Painted or Coated Specimens Subjected to Corrosive Environments 3.Certification requirements 3.1Proof Tests—All air brake pressure reservoirs shall be capable of withstanding a hydrostatically applied internal pressure of not less than five times the reservoir rated working pressure.There shall be no indication of rupture or permanent circumferential deformation exceeding 1% after having been subjected to this test pressure for 5 min.When testing multiple compartment reservoirs, the pressure shall be applied to and exhausted from all compartments simultaneously. Then pressurize each compartment individually to 1.5 times the indicated rated working pressure to verify the baffle strength in both directions.3.2FMVSS Conformance (Off-Highway Applications need not comply)—Initially and at a continuingfrequency of not less than once annually, one or more air brake reservoirs of each size, type (single compartment, multiple compartment, dual compartment with integral check valve) and mounting configuration must be tested for compliance to all requirements of applicable Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards.4.Performance Requirements4.1Leakage Tests—Each air brake reservoir shall be capable of the following applicable tests. When air pressureis used to perform this test, protection against explosive rupture shall be provided. The effectiveness of the protective enclosure shall be verified prior to use. A sealing compound may be used to seal port threads.4.1.1S INGLE C OMPARTMENT R ESERVOIRS—All air reservoirs shall be subjected to twice the indicated rated workingpressure. Leakage shall not exceed 20 std cm3/m.4.1.2M ULTIPLE C OMPARTMENT R ESERVOIRS WITHOUT C HECK V ALVES4.1.2.1Reservoir Shell—Perform the same test as in 4.1.1 by applying the pressure to and exhausting from allcompartments simultaneously.4.1.2.2Reservoir Baffle Plate(s)—Check for leakage and weld integrity of the internal baffle plate(s) by applying apressure equal to the indicated rated working pressure to one side of the baffle plate(s). Leakage shall not exceed 20 std cm3/m.4.1.3D UAL C OMPARTMENT R ESERVOIRS WITH I NTEGRAL C HECK V ALVES4.1.3.1Reservoir Shell—Perform the same test as in 4.1.1 except the pressure must be applied through thesupply (inlet) compartment and exhausted through the service (exhaust) compartment.4.1.3.2Reservoir Baffle Plates—Perform the same tests as in 4.1.2.2 by plugging the check valve closed whenrequired.4.1.3.3Check Valve—With a pressure equal to the indicated rated working pressure in both compartments,exhaust pressure from the supply compartment. The service compartment pressure must remain at the rated working pressure. Leakage past the check valve shall not exceed 100 std cm3/m.4.2Corrosion Test—All air brake reservoirs shall be protected internally and externally against detrimentalcorrosion through the use of either a corrosion-resistant base material or a suitable protective coating or treatment. Any additional tests and requirements deemed important shall be agreed upon by purchaser and seller.4.2.1E XTERIOR S URFACE—The exterior surface shall withstand a minimum of 48 h exposure to salt spray inaccordance with ASTM B 117-95. Upon completion of the exposure, evaluate the specimen per ASTM D 1654-92. All maximum creepage points from the scribe are to be measured. A minimum of six measurements are required on each side of the scribe (12 total). No one measurement greater than 3 mm is permissible. No corrosion spots or blisters are permissible in the unscribed area (Rating Number 10). Small openings between mounting brackets and shells shall be disregarded in the corrosion evaluation. Also, edges or areas damaged in specimen preparation or purposely unpainted areas such as threads shall be disregarded.4.2.2I NTERIOR S URFACE—The interior surface shall withstand a minimum of 96 h exposure to salt spray inaccordance with ASTM B 117-95. Upon completion of the exposure, evaluate the specimen per ASTM D 1654-92. All maximum creepage points from the scribe are to be measured. A minimum of six measurements are required on each side of the scribe (12 total). No one measurement greater than 3 mm is permissible. No corrosion spots or blisters are permissible in the unscribed area (Rating Number 10).Hidden lap areas such as end cap protrusion, internal baffle crevices, and fitting boss clearances shall be disregarded in the corrosion evaluation. Also, edges or areas damaged in specimen preparation or purposely unpainted areas such as threads shall be disregarded.4.2.3S PECIMEN P REPARATION—A production reservoir shall be quartered by cutting it in such a manner that eachsection includes 50% of the end cap and 25% of the shell. The sectioned test reservoir should have a minimum of 72 h air exposure. Then the specimen shall be scribed in accordance with 5.1 of ASTM D 1654-92. The specimen is then to be placed in the salt spray booth in a manner to provide thorough drainage andin accordance with Section 7 of ASTM B 117-95.5.Identification—All air brake reservoirs which meet the requirements of this document shall be permanentlyidentified to show the manufacturer, SAE J10 plus latest revision, the rated working pressure and the date of manufacture (day, month, and year). For example:a.XYZ - SAE J10 XXX99 - 1034 kPa (150 psi) Rated Working Pressure - 1508976.Notes6.1Marginal Indicia—The change bar (l) located in the left margin is for the convenience of the user in locatingareas where technical revisions have been made to the previous issue of the report. An (R) symbol to the left of the document title indicates a complete revision of the report.PREPARED BY THE SAE TRUCK AND BUS BRAKE SUPPLY AND CONTROL COMPONENTSSUBCOMMITTEE OF THE SAE TRUCK AND BUS BRAKE COMMITTEERationale—SAE J10 is currently written for steel reservoirs. Aluminum tanks are being used today an non-metallic materials, such as fiber-reinforced plastics, are being considered. Sections 1.1 and 4.2 have been revised to indicate that SAE J10 is not limited to only steel reservoirs.The current SAE J10 does not clearly define the pressure test requirements for multiple compartment reservoirs. A proof test was added under 3.1 to verify baffle strength at 1.5 times the rated working pressure. A 1.5 factor is a common requirement of many pressure vessel codes such as ASME. The production test in 4.1.2.2 remains at the rated working pressure.Most truck manufacturers require tests in addition to SAE J10, primarily regarding corrosion protection.Section 1.1 has been revised to stress that SAE J10 provides MINIMUM requirements which may need to be revised and/or expanded to meet each specific application.A finish paint is usually applied over the reservoir. An adhesion test was added to the exterior surfacerequirements in 4.2.1 to insure the adhesion of the finish paint. Also, the welded areas should be considered as part of the corrosion evaluation. The benefits of any type of protective coating are greatly diminished if areas are left unprotected.A few minor revisions and updates were made. The ASTM specifications were updated to their currentrevisions in 2.1.1 and 4.2. A note in 4.1.2 was clarified and moved 3.1. The rated working pressure in Section 5 was revised to include the metric conversion, 1034 kPa (150 psi). A hard conversion to metric units is not considered appropriate at this time for this product.Relationship of SAE Standard to ISO Standard—Not applicable.Application—This SAE Standard applies to all new production air brake reservoirs used in automotive vehicles and off-road machines. This document defines an “air brake reservoir” as a reservoir having single or multiple compartments that is used for storage of compressed air. This document does not apply to accumulators or reservoirs for storage of gases other than compressed air.The reservoirs tested per these requirements shall be selected from production stock and shall be equipped with all permanently attached items such as mounting brackets and fitting bosses. Reference SectionASTM B 117-95—Operating Salt Spray (Fog) ApparatusASTM D 1654-92—Evaluation of Painted or Coated Specimens Subjected to Corrosive Environments Developed by the SAE Truck and Bus Supply and Control Components SubcommitteeSponsored by the SAE Truck and Bus Brake Committee。
底水锥进是底水气藏开发的难题之一...
摘要底水锥进是底水气藏开发的难题之一，尽管国内外在理论研究和实践应用方面取得了一些成果；然而，由于底水气藏渗流机理复杂，开采难度大，因此，开展底水气藏水锥动态及合理开采对策应用研究，既具有必要性又具有挑战性。
本文围绕底水气藏开发上存在的一些问题，分析了底水气藏的地质特征、产能特征、生产特征以及产水规律，开展了低渗透有水气藏水锥动态研究，并从理论和实践上综合分析了底水气藏产能大小的控制因素。
底水驱气藏工程研究的主要任务之一是确定气井的临界产量，因为在气藏开发过程中，由于底水窜入井筒，导致气井产水，产量大大降低甚至停产，严重影响了气井正常生产和寿命。
如何推迟气水两相流的出现和延长气井无水生产时间成为关系到合理高效开发该类气藏的关键。
本文围绕底水气藏开发上存在的一些问题，分析了底水气藏的地质特征、产能特征、生产特征,开展了底水锥进和临界产量规律的一些研究，并从理论和实践上综合分析了底水气藏临界产量影响因素和影响规律，建立底水气藏临界产量的方法，提出控制底水锥进的方法。
关键词：底水气藏；气井；临界产量；锥进AbstractConing of bottom water is a puzzle in gas reservoir, although there are many returns have been achieved in theory and practitical apply, the complexity of seepage mechanism, difficult in explo ition make the research on the coning dynamic and the application of reasonable development game become necessary and difficulty.During the explo itation, the fractures make the bottom water whisk into well bore, which results. In production and life-span severely, To delay the two-phase flow of gas and water and non-water producing duration become the key point for the reasonable and difficient exploitation.Surrounding the problems in gas reservoir, this paper analyses the geologic feature, production performance, and studies the coning dynamics. At the same time, analyzes the factors controlling the productivity of gas reservoir in the water. Based on the theory and practice, affecting factor and affecting law on critical productivity of gas reservoir of bottom water the multid isciplinary analysis were analysed, and than formed the model on critical productivity of gas reservoir of bottom water, proposed the method about controlling bottom water coningKey words: Bottom Water；Gas Reservoir；Critical output；Coning；目录摘要 (i)Abstract (ii)目录 (I)1. 绪论 (1)1.1题目的研究意义 (1)1.2国内外研究现状 (1)1.3主要研究内容 (2)1.4研究思路 (4)1.5设计的预期结果 (4)2. 底水气藏气井锥进机理分析 (5)2.1底水锥进理论概述 (5)2.2底水锥进的物理现象 (5)2.3底水锥进的产生机理 (5)3. 底水气藏气井临界产量的预测模型、影响因素和规律 (7)3.1底水锥进模型 (7)3.1.1地层模型 (7)3.2气井水锥的临界产量公式的推导 (9)3.3临界产量的影响因素及其规律 (11)3.4其他几种临界产量的计算公式 (12)3.4.1 Dupuit临界产量计算公式 (13)3.4.2修正的Dupuit临界产量计算公式 (13)3.4.3 Scho1s临界产量公式 (14)3.4.4 Craft-Hawk1nsl临界产量公式 (14)3.4.5 Meyer-Gardner-Pisron临界产量公式 (15)3.4.6 Chaperon 临界产量公式 (15)3.4.7具有隔板的临界产量公式 (16)4. 控制底水锥进的技术方法 (17)4.1影响水侵的各种因素 (17)4.1.1地质因素 (17)4.1.2开发因素 (18)4.2控制技术方法 (19)4.2.1分隔注入调堵技术 (19)4.2.1定位注入调堵技术 (20)4.2.3笼统注入调堵技术 (21)5. 实例计算 (22)6. 结论 (26)谢辞 (27)参考文献 (28)1. 绪论1.1题目的研究意义底水气藏在我国气藏中占很大的比例，其储量相当丰富。
燃料电池阳极蛇形优于平行流场开孔率50%最优
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENERGY RESEARCH Int.J.Energy Res.2009;33:719–727Published online 13January 2009in Wiley InterScience ().DOI:10.1002/er.1507Effect of anode current collector on the performance of passive directmethanol fuel cellsQin-Zhi Lai,Ge-Ping Yin Ã,y ,z and Zhen-Bo WangSchool of Chemical Engineering and Technology,Harbin Institute of Technology,Harbin 150001,ChinaSUMMARYThe effect of anode current collector on the performance of passive direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC)was investigated in this paper.The results revealed that the anode of passive DMFC with perforated current collector was poor at removing the produced CO 2bubbles that blocked the access of fuel to the active sites and thus degraded the cell performance.Moreover,the performances of the passive DMFCs with different parallel current collectors and different methanol concentrations at different temperatures were also tested and compared.The results indicated that the anode parallel current collector with a larger open ratio exhibited the best performance at higher temperatures and lower methanol solution concentrations due to enhanced mass transfer of methanol from the methanol solution reservoir to the gas diffusion layer.However,the passive DMFC with a smaller open ratio of the parallel current collector exhibited the best performance at lower temperatures and higher methanol solution concentrations due to the lower methanol crossover rate.Copyright r 2009John Wiley &Sons,Ltd.KEY WORDS:passive direct methanol fuel cell;current collector;open ratio;methanol concentration;cell temperature1.INTRODUCTIONOver the past decades,the worldwide proliferation of portable electronic devices has created a large and growing demand for energy sources that are compact,lightweight,and powerful.The direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC)has received much attention for its high theoretical energy density,using liquid fuel,employing solid polymer electro-lyte,and working at low temperature,and has presented beneficial opportunities for use as a power source for small mobile devices [1,2].However,these accessorial devices make the fuel cell system complex.Therefore,the passive DMFC with neither liquid pumps nor gas compressors has been proposed and studied.In the passive DMFC,the oxygen diffuses into the cathode side from ambient air without any help of external devices,and the methanol solution stored in the reservoir attaches to the anode current collector and the methanol driven by concentration gradient be-tween the reservoir and anode also diffuses intozProfessor.*Correspondence to:Ge-Ping Yin,School of Chemical Engineering and Technology,Harbin Institute of Technology,Harbin 150001,China.yE-mail:yingphit@ Contract/grant sponsor:Natural Science Foundation of China;contract/grant numbers:20606007,50872027Received 21October 2008Revised 19November 2008Accepted 24November 2008Copyright r 2009John Wiley &Sons,Ltd.the anode catalyst layer.Therefore,the passive DMFC can potentially result in higher reliability, lower cost,higher fuel utilization,and higher energy density,which are in favor of mobile equipments in future electronic devices[3–7].The key component of a passive DMFC system consists of a methanol solution reservoir,anode current collector,membrane electrode assembly (MEA),and cathode current collector.Liu et al.[8] presented that the optimal concentration of methanol solution in passive DMFC was 4.0mol LÀ1.Similar opinions about the effect of methanol concentration on the performance of passive DMFC could also be found in the literature[9–13].The utilizations of highly concentrated fuel of DMFCs with vapor fed had also been reported[14,15].Chen et al.reported a suitable MEA for DMFC[16,17]and optimized theflow-fields[7,18].Lu et al.[19]applied a highly hydrophobic cathode microporous layer(MPL) and a thin membrane to control the water crossover.Thus,the cathodeflooding was avoided by facilitating water backflow to the anode via hydraulic permeation.Yang et al.[20] presented that the micro DMFC with a parallel flow-field at the anode and a perforatedflow-field at the cathode performed the best.Jeong et al.[21] presented the open area of cathode and the relative humidity of the atmosphere on the performance of passive air breathing PEMFCs.Chen et al.[22] found that the cell performance was improved with the increase of cathode and anode open ratios,which resulted in the improvement of mass transport of both methanol and oxygen,although the cell operating temperature decreases slightly with the increase of open ratio.The anode current collector is effective on the PEMFC performance and the methanol crossover flux is very important[23–25].In a passive DMFC, the methanol solution stored in the reservoir attaches to the anode current collector,and the methanol driven by the concentration gradient between the reservoir and the anode diffuses into the anode.The anode current collector is to provide channels for methanol fuel to access the MEA surface.Therefore,the anode current collector had a significant effect on the cell performance.In this paper,we experimentally investigated the effect of the parallel current collector and the perforated current collector on the performance of a passive DMFC.We found that the parallel current collector exhibited a better performance than the perforated current collector. Then we focused on studying the effects of the parallel current collector with different open ratios on the cell performance at different methanol concentrations and cell temperatures.2.EXPERIMENTAL2.1.MEA fabricationAll the electrocatalysts used in this paper were prepared in-house by chemical reduction with formaldehyde of H2PtCl6and RuCl3as precursors [26].The anode catalyst was40wt%PtRu(with an atomic ratio of1:1)/C and the cathode catalyst was 40wt%Pt/C.The gas diffusion layers(GDLs)for the cathode electrodes were wet-proofed Toray carbon papers coated with the MPLs,which comprised Vulcan XC-72carbon black and 10wt%of PTFE.The anode GDLs were the Toray carbon papers coated with the MPLs,which comprised Vulcan XC-72carbon black and 10wt%of Nafion ionomer(DuPont).The loading of carbon black was2mg cmÀ2for both the anode and the cathode.The catalyst powder and5wt% Nafion ionomer solution were ultrasonically mixed in isopropyl alcohol to form a homogeneous catalyst ink.Then the catalyst ink was scraped onto the GDLs,and then the electrodes were dried for2h in the vacuum oven at801C.The Nafion content in both the anode and the cathode was 20wt%and the metal loading(PtRu or Pt)was 2.0mg cmÀ2in each electrode.Nafion117polymer membranes(DuPont) were used to fabricate MEAs.Before being applied to the electrodes,the membranes were pretreated in four steps to eliminate the organic and inorganic contaminants.First,membranes were boiled in3wt%H2O2solution followed by washing in the ultra-pure water.Then,they were boiled in0.5mol LÀ1H2SO4solution.Finally, the membranes were boiled again in the ultra-pure water.Each step took about1h.The pretreated Nafion117membrane was sandwiched betweenI,G.-P.YIN AND Z.-B.WANG 720the anode and the cathode,and then the assembly was hot pressed under a loading of100kg cmÀ2for 90s at1351C.2.2.Single cellfixtureThe prepared MEA was sandwiched between two graphite plates to form an apparent area of approximately9cm2.The graphite plates of the cathode side was machined with many holes for air diffusion and the anode side machined through the graphite plates had channels and large open space for delivering and storing methanol solution, respectively.The oxygen diffused into the cathode side from ambient air without any help of external devices,such as a pump or a fan,and the methanol solution was stored in the reservoir attached to the anode side plate,and the methanol driven by concentration gradient between the reservoir and the anode diffused into the anode.The volume of the methanol reservoir was10cm3.The extension area of the bipolar plates served as a current collector,and a heating tape was attached to the extension area to adjust the operating temperature of passive DMFC to a desired value during the experiments.2.3.Anode current collector designThe geometry areas of current collectors are listed in Table I and Figure 1.As can be seen from Figure1and Table I,the open ratio of the current collector with perforatedflow-fields(perforated current collector)is50%,and the open ratios of current collectors with parallelflow-fields(parallel current collector-1to perforated current collector-3)are from35.5to68.8%.2.4.Electrochemical measurementsThe Fuel Cell Testing System(Arbin Instrument Corp.)connecting with a computer was used to control the conditions of discharge and record the voltage–current curves.For each discharging current point along the I–V curve,a more than 40-s waiting time was used to obtain the stable voltage.A solution of 1.0–8.0mol LÀ1aqueous methanol driven by the concentration gradient between the reservoir and the anode diffused into the anode.The oxygen diffused into the cathode side from ambient air without any help of external devices.Prior to testing the performance of passive DMFC,the MEA was installed in an active cell fixture and activated at801C for about24h. During the activation period,methanol solution of 2.0mol LÀ1was fed at aflow rate of3.0mL minÀ1, while oxygen was supplied under atmospheric pressure at aflow rate of200mL minÀ1.3.RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Figure2shows the performance of passive DMFCs with different anode current collectors. The performance of the passive DMFC with the parallel current collector is better than that with the perforated collector.In the initial discharge process,its performance with the parallel current collector is similar to that with the perforated current collector.However,the performance of the latter evidently decays at higher current densities. This is because the anode of the passive DMFC with the perforated current collector is poor at removing the produced CO2bubbles that block the access of fuel to the active sites and thusTable I.The geometry of the anode current collector.Current collector Perforated currentcollectorParallel currentcollector-1Parallel currentcollector-2Parallel currentcollector-3Channel width(mm)—122Rib width(mm)—221 Aperture(mm)4———Holes–centers distance(mm)5———Depth(mm)2222 Open area(mm2)452319450600 Effective area(mm2)900899900896 Open ratio(%)5035.55068.8 EFFECT OF ANODE CURRENT COLLECTOR ON THE PERFORMANCE OF DMFC721degrade its performance [20,23].On the other hand,the passive DMFC with the parallel current collector exhibits the better performance due to the easier removal of CO 2bubbles from the anode.Figure 3shows that the transient discharging voltage curves of passive DMFCs with different anode current collectors at current density 30mA cm À2at an ambient temperature and a cell temperature of 301C.The passive DMFC with the parallel anode current collector shows the higher transient discharging voltage.In the initial discharge process,the transient discharging voltage of the passive DMFC with the perforated current collector sharply decays to about 0.26V,and then slowly decreases with time.The anode of the passive DMFC with the perforated current collector makes against the removing ofproducedFigure 1.Geometry of the anode current collectors:(a)perforated current collector;(b)parallel current collector-1;(c)parallel current collector-2;and (d)parallel currentcollector-3.Figure parison of the passive DMFC perfor-mance among DMFCs with different anode current collectors (2.0mol L À1methanol solution,cell tempera-ture 301C).I,G.-P.YIN AND Z.-B.WANG722CO 2bubbles.Therefore,its voltage fastly degrades in the initial discharge process.Moreover,we still study the effects of different parallel current collectors as the parallel current collector exhibited a better performance than the perforated current collector.The effects of different open ratios of the parallel current collectors on the cell performance were investigated using collector-1(open ratios:35.5%),collector-2(open ratios:50%),and collector-3(open ratios:68.8%).Figure 4shows the polarization curves and the power density curves of passive DMFCs with the parallel current collector at a methanol concentration of 2.0mol L À1.The maximum power density of the passive DMFC with an open ratio of 50%is the highest.However,three parallel current collectors of passive DMFCs exhibit similar performances.Figure 5shows the polarization curves and the power density curves of passive DMFCs with parallel current collectors at a methanol concentration of 4.0mol L À1.The cell with the parallel current collector with an open ratio of 50%exhibits the best performance.The parallel current collectors with a smaller open ratio (35.5%)and a larger open ratio (68.8%)exhibit the worse cell performances.It is believed that the parallel current collector with a smaller open ratiopresents a smaller effective contact area between the liquid fuel and the MEA,which results in the degradation of the cell performance.On the other hand,the parallel current collector with a larger open ratio presents a larger effective contact area between the liquid fuel and the MEA.However,first of all,the internal resistance of the cell increases with the increase of the open ratio of the parallel current collector [26].Second,the larger methanol permeation area causes a higher methanol crossover rate through the membrane.Figure 6shows the transient discharging voltage curves of passive DMFCs withdifferentFigure 3.Transient discharging voltage–time curves at a current density of 30mA cm À2with a start from the passive DMFC to be fueled with 2.0mol L À1methanol solution (10mL)at passive DMFCs with different anodecurrent collectors (cell temperature 301C).Figure 4.The effect of different open ratios of the parallel current collector on the performance of the cellwith 2.0mol L À1methanol at 301C.Figure 5.The effect of different open ratios of the parallel current collector on the performance of the cellwith 4.0mol L À1methanol at 301C.EFFECT OF ANODE CURRENT COLLECTOR ON THE PERFORMANCE OF DMFC723parallel collectors at a current density of 15mA cm À2.To investigate the fuel utilization,the Faraday efficiency (Z )is adopted for the passive DMFC with different open ratios.The Faradic efficiency is here defined as a ratio of the actual discharge capacity versus the theoretical capacity of fuel used in the fuel cell.It is believed that the Faraday efficiency of the passive DMFC was reduced because of the loss of methanol by crossover and remaining methanol in the reservoir,which cannot be used due to methanol mass transfer limitations.The Faradic efficiency can be calculated with the following equation [8]:Z ¼it6CVFÂ100%ð1Þwhere i (A)is the discharging current,t (s)the time of the discharging process C (mol L À1)the methanol concentration,V (L)the methanol solution volume,F (C)the Faraday constant,and Z the Faradic efficiency.The Faradic efficiencies determined by Equation (1)with different methanol concentrations at a constant current density of 15mA cm À2are given in Table II.The Faradic efficiency decreases from 48.3to 42.0%when the open ratio increased from 35.5to 68.8%.The lower Faradic efficiency is primarily caused by the higher rate of methanol crossover with a higher open ratio.In addition,it can be seen from Figures 4and 5that the highest open-circuit voltage (OCV)is obtained with a parallel current collector-1.It is believed that the gradual decrease of OCVs with the increase of open ratio results from the increase of methanol crossover through the Nafion 117membrane.Figure 7shows that the anode of the passive DMFC with the parallel current collector-3exhibits the best performance with the methanol concentration of 1.0mol L À1.It is believed that the transfer of fuel molecules into the anode catalyst layer is the main factor affecting the cell performance at a lower methanol concentration.Under such a situation,the parallel current collector with a larger open ratio affords a larger effective contact area between the liquid fuel and the GDL,which improves the mass transfer of methanol from the methanol solution reservoir to the catalyst layer.Therefore,the parallel current collector with a larger open ratio tends toyieldFigure 6.Transient discharging voltage at a current density of 15mA cm À2with a start from the passive DMFC to be fueled with 2.0mol L À1methanol solution (10mL)at the passive DMFC with different open ratios (air temperature 201C,the passive DMFCtemperature 301C).Table II.The effect of the open ratio on Faradic efficiencies for the passive DMFC under current density(15.0mA cm À2)discharge.Open ratio (%)i (mA)C (mol L À1)V (ml)Z (%)35.513521048.35013521044.168.813521042.0Figure 7.The effect of different open ratios of the parallel current collector on the performance of the cellwith 1.0mol L À1methanol at 301C.I,G.-P.YIN AND Z.-B.WANG724a better cell performance with a lower methanol solution concentration.Figure 8shows that the parallel current collector-1exhibits the best performance with a methanol concentration of 8.0mol L À1.It is believed that when the cell is operating at a higher methanol solution concentration,the methanol transfer rate becomes faster and the lower performance is primarily caused by the higher rate of methanol crossover and excessive water crossover through the membrane with a higher open ratio [27,28].The experiments were carried out at 20and 401C with the same methanol concentration as in Figures 9and 10,respectively.In Figure 9,the anode of the passive DMFC with the parallel current collector-1exhibits the best performance at a low temperature of 201C.It is believed that there are more methanol molecules in the surface of the anode catalyst layer with a larger open ratio.However,the poor catalytic activity of the anode at a low temperature of 201C leads to a higher methanol crossover rate through the membrane.Therefore,the anode of the passive DMFC with the parallel current collector-1exhibits the best performance.However,as can be seen from Figure 10,at a higher temperature of 401C,the anode of the passive DMFC with the parallel current collector-3exhibits the best performance.It is believed that the catalytic activity of the anode catalyst increases with the increase of temperature,and the higher methanol mass transfer ratebecomes the main factor enhancing the cell performance.On the other hand,the anode of the passive DMFC with smaller open areas means a smaller effective contact area between the liquid fuel and the GDL,which weakens the methanol mass transfer.Therefore,the anode of the passive DMFC with the parallel current collector-3exhibits the best performance.4.CONCLUSIONThe effect of the anode current collector on the performance of the passive DMFCwasFigure 8.The effect of different open ratios of the parallel current collector on the performance of the cellwith 8.0mol L À1methanol at 301C.Figure 9.The effect of different open ratios of the parallel current collector on the performance of the cellwith 2.0mol L À1methanol at 201C.Figure 10.The effect of different open ratios of the parallel current collector on the performance of the cellwith 2.0mol L À1methanol at 401C.EFFECT OF ANODE CURRENT COLLECTOR ON THE PERFORMANCE OF DMFC725investigated.The experimental results show that the passive DMFCs with the perforated current collector are poor at removing the produced CO2 bubbles,which block the access of fuel to the active sites and thus degrade the cell performance, compared with the parallel current collector.Moreover,the effect of different parallel current collectors with various open ratios on performances of the passive DMFCs at different temperatures and different methanol concentrations is also studied.The passive DMFC equipped with a smaller open ratio (35.5%)of the parallel current collector exhibits the best performance at a higher methanol solution concentration and a lower temperature as the methanol mass transfer rate becomes relatively fast,and the best performance is primarily caused by the lowest methanol crossover rate with a smaller open ratio.The experiments also reveal that the passive DMFCs equipped with a larger open ratio(68.8%)of the parallel current collector exhibit the best performance at a lower methanol concentration and a higher temperature.The best performance results primarily from the improvement of the mass transfer of methanol to the GDL due to the larger open ratio.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThis work was supported by Natural Science Founda-tion of China(Nos.20606007and50872027).REFERENCES1.Springer TE,Zawodzinski TA,Gottesfeld S.Polymerelectrolyte fuel cell model.Journal of the Electrochemical Society1991;136:2334–2342.2.Fukada S.Analysis of oxygen reduction rate in aprotonexchange membrane fuel 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RZ.Effect of operating conditions on energyefficiency for a small passive direct methanol fuel cell.Electrochimica Acta2006;51:5829–5835.11.Kim YJ,Bae B,Scibioh MA et al.Behavioral pattern of amonopolar passive direct methanol fuel cell stack.Journal of Power Sources2006;157:253–259.12.Kho BK,Bae B,Scibioh MA et al.On the consequencesof methanol crossover in passive air-breathing direct methanol fuel cells.Journal of Power Sources2005;142:50–55.13.Hong SA,Ha HY.Performance evaluation of passiveDMFC single cells.Journal of Power Sources2006;158:1256–1261.14.Kim HK.Passive direct methanol fuel cells fed withmethanol vapor.Journal of Power Sources2006;162:1232–1235.15.Guo Z,Faghri A.Vapor feed direct methanol fuel cells withpassive thermal-fluids management system.Journal of Power Sources2007;167:378–390.16.Chen R,Zhao TS.A novel electrode architecture forpassive direct methanol fuel cells.Electrochemistry Com-munications2007;9:718–724.17.Shao ZG,Hsing IM,Zhang HM et al.Influence of anodediffusion layer on the performance of a liquid feed direct methanol fuel cell by AC impedance spectroscopy.International Journal of Energy Research2006;30: 1216–1227.18.Kazim A,Forges P,Liu HT.Effects of cathode operatingconditions on performance of a PEM fuel cell with interdigitatedflowfields.International Journal of Energy Research2003;27:401–414.19.Lu GQ,Lim PC,Liu FQ et al.On mass transport in an air-breathing DMFC stack.International Journal of Energy Research2005;29:1041–1050.20.Yang WM,Choub SK,Shu C.Effect of current-collectorstructure on performance of passive micro direct methanol fuel cell.Journal of Power Sources2007;164:549–554. 21.Jeong SU,Cho EA,Kim HJ et al.Effects of cathode openarea and relative humidity on the performance of air-breathing polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells.Journal of Power Sources2006;158:348–353.22.Chen R,Zhao TS,Yang WW et al.Two-dimensional two-phase thermal model for passive direct methanol fuel cells.Journal of Power 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THE PERFORMANCE OF DMFC727。
reservoir engineer 工作职责英文
reservoir engineer 工作职责英文A reservoir engineer is responsible for analyzing subsurface data to evaluate oil and gas reservoirs. Their duties typically include:1.Reservoir Analysis: Analyzing geological and geophysical data to evaluate reservoircharacteristics, including size, shape, and properties.2.Reservoir Modeling: Building reservoir models using specialized software to simulate fluidbehavior, predict production, and optimize recovery strategies.3.Well Performance Evaluation: Assessing well productivity, analyzing pressure data, andconducting well testing to understand reservoir performance.4.Reservoir Management: Developing and implementing strategies to maximize hydrocarbonrecovery while minimizing costs and environmental impact.5.Data Interpretation: Interpreting well logs, seismic data, and core samples to understandreservoir behavior and characteristics.6.Reservoir Surveillance: Monitoring and analyzing reservoir performance over time,identifying trends, and proposing solutions for optimal performance.7.Reporting: Compiling and presenting analysis results, production forecasts, andrecommendations to management and technical teams.8.Collaboration: Collaborating with multidisciplinary teams including geologists, geophysicists,drilling engineers, and production engineers to develop comprehensive strategies.9.Regulatory Compliance: Ensuring all work complies with industry regulations and standardsin health, safety, and the environment.These professionals play a vital role in the oil and gas industry by informing decision-making processes related to reservoir development and production optimization.。
高效液相色谱结构管路流程图解
高效液相色谱结构管路流程图解英文回答：High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is a widely used analytical technique in the field of chemistry. It is used to separate, identify, and quantify different components in a mixture. The structure and flow path of an HPLC system play a crucial role in the efficiency and accuracy of the analysis.The basic components of an HPLC system include a solvent reservoir, a pump, an injector, a column, a detector, and a data acquisition system. The solvent reservoir holds the mobile phase, which is the liquid used to carry the sample through the system. The pump is responsible for delivering the mobile phase at a constant flow rate. The injector is used to introduce the sampleinto the mobile phase. The column is the heart of the system, where the separation of the components takes place. The detector is used to monitor the eluent from the columnand generate a signal that can be used for quantification. The data acquisition system records and analyzes thesignals generated by the detector.The flow path in an HPLC system is designed to ensure efficient separation and analysis of the components. The mobile phase is pumped from the solvent reservoir throughthe injector and into the column. Inside the column, the sample components interact with the stationary phase, which is packed in the column. The components are separated based on their different affinities for the stationary phase. The eluent from the column then enters the detector, where itis analyzed and quantified. Finally, the data is recorded and analyzed by the data acquisition system.中文回答：高效液相色谱（HPLC）是化学领域中广泛使用的一种分析技术。
reservoir的用法总结
reservoir的用法总结一、引言水库是一种重要的水资源调控工程，能够有效储存和调配水量，满足人类对水资源的需求。
在实际生活和生产中，水库有着广泛的应用。
本文将总结水库的用途和应用场景，并探讨其对社会经济发展的重要作用。
二、供水调度与稳定供应1. 保障城市供水水库可以为城市提供稳定的饮用水源。
通过储存雨水和来自河流的径流，将其贮存于水库中。
并根据城市需要进行科学合理的调度，保证供应量充足，满足城市居民和工业生产的日常用水需求。
2. 农田灌溉水库也被广泛用于农田灌溉。
通过向农田输送经过处理后的储存水源，为农业生产提供持续而可靠的灌溉设施。
这不仅有利于增加粮食产量，还可以提高农产品质量，并缓解干旱地区面临的严重缺乏自然降水带来的困境。
三、防洪排涝与控制洪灾1. 洪水调节水库在洪水季节可以起到重要的调节作用。
当河流面临暴雨或大量融雪时，水库可以调整放水量，减轻来自上游的洪峰流量，以保护下游地区安全。
此外，适当利用水库蓄洪能力还可以避免来自山区洪水泛滥导致的城市和农田被淹。
2. 排涝排污在城市建设和农田开垦中，为了保证土地的干燥和良好的生长条件，需要进行排涝工程。
通过向低洼地区提供排水功能，水库可以有效控制地下水位，并将积聚的雨水、泥沙和废弃物排出。
这样不仅能够改善土壤环境条件，还能够防止疾病传播和环境污染。
四、发电与能源利用1. 水电发电水库也是一种重要的发电工程。
通过充分利用河流资源，在放置大功率涡轮机组时放空移动做额定旋转力引起轮片般转级间衔接而产生有序顺德反图画进行修整。
Kitzbühel夏季如果不是，咖啡厅只是离家出走18个小时，特别是在山区开发水电站。
水库中的蓄水量可以提供稳定的高水头，为发电设备提供动力源。
2. 温室气体减排水库利用来自河流的径流，将其贮存在深处，在这个过程中可以吸收大量二氧化碳等温室气体。
当水库放空时，会释放掉这些积存的气体。
因此，在一定程度上使用水库能够减轻温室气体的压力，对抑制全球变暖具有积极意义。
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b. Pressure profile at 1 year (8768 hr).
e. Pressure profile at 18.44 years (161,700 hr).
c. Pressure profile at 5.59 years (49,010 hr).
f. Pressure profile at 44.10 years (386,600 hr).
Tom Blasingame Department of Petroleum Engineering Texas A&M University College Station, TX 77843-3116 (USA) +1.979.845.2292 — t-blasingame@
RPSEA/GTI Meeting — New Albany Shale Project Group Chicago, IL (USA) — 04 June 2009 Analysis of Reservoir Performance for Shale Gas Systems T.A. Blasingame
RPSEA/GTI Meeting — New Albany Shale Project Group Chicago, IL (USA) — 04 June 2009
Analysis of Reservoir Performance for Shale Gas Systems — RPSEA/GTI Project
Tom Blasingame Department of Petroleum Engineering Texas A&M University College Station, TX 77843-3116 (USA) +1.979.845.2292 — t-blasingame@
RPSEA/GTI Meeting — New Albany Shale Project Group Chicago, IL (USA) — 04 June 2009 Analysis of Reservoir Performance for Shale Gas Systems T.A. Blasingame
RPSEA/GTI Meeting — New Albany Shale Project Group Chicago, IL (USA) — 04 June 2009 Analysis of Reservoir Performance for Shale Gas Systems T.A. Blasingame
Slide — 1/22
RPSEA/GTI Meeting — New Albany Shale Project Group Chicago, IL (USA) — 04 June 2009
Introduction to Production Analysis for Tight Gas Systems
Results Generated Using:
Ecrin Product Suite, Kappa Engineering, SophiaAntipolis, France (2008).
a. Pressure profile at 0 year (0 hr).
d. Pressure profile at 9.26 years (81,200 hr).
Slide — 3/22
c. Elliptical boundary configurations (finite conductivity fracture case [Amini, et al (2007lliptical Flow Domination
a. Elliptical flow type curve solution — low fracture conductivity case.
b. Elliptical flow type curve solution — high fracture conductivity case.
RPSEA/GTI Meeting — New Albany Shale Project Group Chicago, IL (USA) — 04 June 2009 Analysis of Reservoir Performance for Shale Gas Systems T.A. Blasingame
Slide — 4/22
RPSEA/GTI Meeting — New Albany Shale Project Group Chicago, IL (USA) — 04 June 2009
Issues Related to Horizontal Fractured Wells — Production Analysis for Shale Gas Systems
Tom Blasingame Department of Petroleum Engineering Texas A&M University College Station, TX 77843-3116 (USA) +1.979.845.2292 — t-blasingame@
RPSEA/GTI Meeting — New Albany Shale Project Group Chicago, IL (USA) — 04 June 2009 Analysis of Reservoir Performance for Shale Gas Systems T.A. Blasingame
Slide — 2/22
Vertical TG/SG Wells: Elliptical Flow Domination
SPE 106308 (2007)
Evaluation of the Elliptical Flow Period for Hydraulically-Fractured Wells in Tight Gas Sands — Theoretical Aspects and Practical Considerations S. Amini, D. Ilk, and T. A. Blasingame, SPE, Texas A&M U.