土建施工外文翻译--新意法的设计与施工
土木工程专业毕业设计- 外文翻译
Structure in Design of ArchitectureAnd Structural Material专业：土木工程学生：指导老师：We have and the architects must deal with the spatial aspect of activity, physical, and symbolic needs in such a way that overall performance integrity is assured. Hence, he or she well wants to think of evolving a building environment as a total system of interacting and space forming subsystems. Is represents a complex challenge, and to meet it the architect will need a hierarchic design process that provides at least three levels of feedback thinking: schematic, preliminary, and final.Such a hierarchy is necessary if he or she is to avoid being confused , at conceptual stages of design thinking ,by the myriad detail issues that can distract attention from more basic considerations .In fact , we can say that an architect’s ability to distinguish the more basic form the more detailed issues is essential to his success as a designer .The object of the schematic feed back level is to generate and evaluate overall site-plan, activity-interaction, and building-configuration options .To do so the architect must be able to focus on the interaction of the basic attributes of the site context, the spatial organization, and the symbolism as determinants of physical form. This means that ,in schematic terms ,the architect may first conceive and model a building design as an organizational abstraction of essential performance-space in teractions.Then he or she may explore the overall space-form implications of the abstraction. As an actual building configuration option begins to emerge, it will be modified to include consideration for basic site conditions.At the schematic stage, it would also be helpful if the designer could visualize his or her options for achieving overall structural integrity and consider the constructive feasibility and economic of his or her scheme .But this will require that the architect and/or a consultant be able to conceptualize total-system structural options in terms of elemental detail .Such overall thinking can be easily fed back to improve the space-form scheme.At the preliminary level, the architect’s emphasis will shift to the elaboration of his or her more promising schematic design options .Here the architect’s structural needs will shift to approximate design of specific subsystem options. At this stage the total structural scheme is developed to a middle level of specificity by focusing on identification and design of major subsystems to the extent that their key geometric, component, and interactive properties are established .Basic subsystem interaction and design conflicts can thus be identified and resolved in the context of total-system objectives. Consultants can play a significant part in this effort; these preliminary-level decisions may also result in feedback that calls for refinement or even major change in schematic concepts.When the designer and the client are satisfied with the feasibility of a design proposal at the preliminary level, it means that the basic problems of overall design are solved and details arenot likely to produce major change .The focus shifts again ,and the design process moves into the final level .At this stage the emphasis will be on the detailed development of all subsystem specifics . Here the role of specialists from various fields, including structural engineering, is much larger, since all detail of the preliminary design must be worked out. Decisions made at this level may produce feedback into Level II that will result in changes. However, if Levels I and II are handled with insight, the relationship between the overall decisions, made at the schematic and preliminary levels, and the specifics of the final level should be such that gross redesign is not in question, Rather, the entire process should be one of moving in an evolutionary fashion from creation and refinement (or modification) of the more general properties of a total-system design concept, to the fleshing out of requisite elements and details.To summarize: At Level I, the architect must first establish, in conceptual terms, the overall space-form feasibility of basic schematic options. At this stage, collaboration with specialists can be helpful, but only if in the form of overall thinking. At Level II, the architect must be able to identify the major subsystem requirements implied by the scheme and substantial their interactive feasibility by approximating key component properties .That is, the properties of major subsystems need be worked out only in sufficient depth to very the inherent compatibility of their basic form-related and behavioral interaction . This will mean a somewhat more specific form of collaboration with specialists then that in level I .At level III ,the architect and the specific form of collaboration with specialists then that providing for all of the elemental design specifics required to produce biddable construction documents .Of course this success comes from the development of the Structural Material.The principal construction materials of earlier times were wood and masonry brick, stone, or tile, and similar materials. The courses or layers were bound together with mortar or bitumen, a tar like substance, or some other binding agent. The Greeks and Romans sometimes used iron rods or claps to strengthen their building. The columns of the Parthenon in Athens, for example, have holes drilled in them for iron bars that have now rusted away. The Romans also used a natural cement called puzzling, made from volcanic ash, that became as hard as stone under water.Both steel and cement, the two most important construction materials of modern times, were introduced in the nineteenth century. Steel, basically an alloy of iron and a small amount of carbon had been made up to that time by a laborious process that restricted it to such special uses as sword blades. After the invention of the Bessemer process in 1856, steel was available in large quantities at low prices. The enormous advantage of steel is its tensile force which, as we have seen, tends to pull apart many materials. New alloys have further, which is a tendency for it to weaken as a result of continual changes in stress.Modern cement, called Portland cement, was invented in 1824. It is a mixture of limestone and clay, which is heated and then ground into a power. It is mixed at or near the construction site with sand, aggregate small stones, crushed rock, or gravel, and water to make concrete. Different proportions of the ingredients produce concrete with different strength and weight. Concrete is very versatile; it can be poured, pumped, or even sprayed into all kinds of shapes. And whereas steel has great tensile strength, concrete has great strength under compression. Thus, the two substances complement each other.They also complement each other in another way: they have almost the same rate ofcontraction and expansion. They therefore can work together in situations where both compression and tension are factors. Steel rods are embedded in concrete to make reinforced concrete in concrete beams or structures where tensions will develop. Concrete and steel also form such a strong bond─ the force that unites them─ that the steel cannot slip within the concrete. Still another advantage is that steel does not rust in concrete. Acid corrodes steel, whereas concrete has an alkaline chemical reaction, the opposite of acid.The adoption of structural steel and reinforced concrete caused major changes in traditional construction practices. It was no longer necessary to use thick walls of stone or brick for multistory buildings, and it became much simpler to build fire-resistant floors. Both these changes served to reduce the cost of construction. It also became possible to erect buildings with greater heights and longer spans.Since the weight of modern structures is carried by the steel or concrete frame, the walls do not support the building. They have become curtain walls, which keep out the weather and let in light. In the earlier steel or concrete frame building, the curtain walls were generally made of masonry; they had the solid look of bearing walls. Today, however, curtain walls are often made of lightweight materials such as glass, aluminum, or plastic, in various combinations.Another advance in steel construction is the method of fastening together the beams. For many years the standard method was riveting. A rivet is a bolt with a head that looks like a blunt screw without threads. It is heated, placed in holes through the pieces of steel, and a second head is formed at the other end by hammering it to hold it in place. Riveting has now largely been replaced by welding, the joining together of pieces of steel by melting a steel material between them under high heat.Priestess’s concrete is an improved form of reinforcement. Steel r ods are bent into the shapes to give them the necessary degree of tensile strengths. They are then used to priestess concrete, usually by one of two different methods. The first is to leave channels in a concrete beam that correspond to the shapes of the steel rods. When the rods are run through the channels, they are then bonded to the concrete by filling the channels with grout, a thin mortar or binding agent. In the other (and more common) method, the priestesses steel rods are placed in the lower part of a form that corresponds to the shape of the finished structure, and the concrete is poured around them. Priestess’s concrete uses less steel and less concrete. Because it is a highly desirable material.Progressed concrete has made it possible to develop buildings with unusual shapes, like some of the modern, sports arenas, with large spaces unbroken by any obstructing supports. The uses for this relatively new structural method are constantly being developed.建筑中的结构设计及建筑材料专业：土木工程学生：指导老师：建筑师必须从一种全局的角度出发去处理建筑设计中应该考虑到的实用活动，物质及象征性的需求。
土木外文文献与翻译--新奥法(NATM)隧道设计
NATM tunnel design principle in the construction of major andConstruction TechnologyW.BroereI.The NATM Design Principle1.Tunnel design and construction of two major theoretical and development processSince the 20th century, human space on the ground floor of the growing demand, thus the underground works of the study of a rapid development. In a large number of underground engineering practice, it is generally recognized that the tunnel and underground cavern project, the core of the problem, all up in the excavation and retaining two key processes. How excavation, it will be more conducive to the stability and cavern facilitate support : For more support, Supporting how they can more effectively ensure stability and facilitate the cavern excavation. This is the tunnels and underground works two promote each other and check each other's problems.Tunnels and underground caverns, and focusing on the core issues with the above practice and research, in different periods, People of different theories and gradually established a system of different theories, Each system includes theory and resolve (or are studying the resolution) from the works of understanding (concept), mechanics, engineering measures to the construction methods (Technology), a series of engineering problems.A theory of the 20th century the 1920s the traditional "load relaxation theory." Its core content is : a stable rock self-stability, no load : unstable rock may have collapsed. need shoring structure to be supported. Thus, the role of the supporting structure of the rock load is within a certain range may be due to relaxation and collapse of rock gravity. This is a traditional theory, and their representative is Taishaji and Principe's and others. It works similar to the surface issues of the thinking is still widely used to.Another theory of the 20th century made the 1950s the modern theory of timbering or "rock for the theory." Its core content is : rock stability is clearly bearing rock to their own self-stability : unstable rock loss of stability is a process, and if this process in providing thenecessary help or restrictions will still be able to enter the rock steady state. This theoretical system of representative characters Labuxiweici, Miller-Feiqieer, Fenner - Daluobo and Kashitenai others. This is a more modern theory, it is already out of the ground works to consider the ideas, and underground works closer to reality, the past 50 years has been widely accepted and applied. demonstrated broad development prospects.Can be seen from the above, the former theory more attention to the findings and the results of treatment : The latter theory is even more attention to the process and the control of the process, right from the rock for the full utilization of capacity. Given this distinction, which both theory and methods in the process, each with different performance characteristics. NATM theory is rock for the tunnel engineering practice in the representation method.2. NATMNATM that the new Austrian Tunneling Method short the original is in New Austrian Tunneling Method, referred to as the NATM. France said it convergence bound or some countries alleged to observe the dynamic design and construction of the basic principles.NATM concept of filibustering Xiweici Austria scholars in the 20th century, Professor age of 50. It was based on the experience of both the tunnel and rock mechanics theory, will bolt and shotcrete combination as a major means of supporting a construction method, Austria, Sweden, Italy and other countries, many practical and theoretical study in the 1960s and patented officially named. Following this approach in Western Europe, Scandinavia, the United States and Japan and many other underground works with a very rapid development, have become modern tunnels new technologies landmark. Nearly 40 years ago, the railway sector through research, design, construction combining, in many construction of the tunnel, according to their own characteristics successfully applied a new Austrian law, made more experience, have accumulated large amounts of data, This is the application stage. However, in the road sector NATM of only 50%. Currently, the New Austrian Tunneling Method almost become weak and broken rock section of a tunnel construction method, technical and economic benefits are clear. NATM the basic points can be summarized as follows : （1）. Rock tunnel structure is the main loading unit, the construction must fully protect the rock, it minimize the disturbance to avoid excessive damage to the intensity of rock. Tothis end, the construction of sub-section should not block too much, excavation should be used smooth blasting, presplit blasting or mechanical tunneling.（2）. In order to give full play to rock the carrying capacity should be allowed to control and rock deformation. While allowing deformation, which can be a rock bearing ring; The other hand, have to limit it, Rock is not so lax and excessive loss or greatly reduced carrying capacity. During construction should be used with rock close to, the timely building puzzle keeps strengthening Flexible support structure, such as bolting and shotcreting supporting. This adjustment will be adopted supporting structural strength, Stiffness and its participation in the work of the time (including the closure of time) to control the deformation of the rock mass.（3）. In order to improve the support structure, the mechanical properties, the construction should be closed as soon as possible, and to become a closed cylindrical structure. In addition, the tunnel shape with a round should, as far as possible, to avoid the corner of the stress concentration.（4）. Construction right through the rock and supporting the dynamic observation, measurement, and reasonable arrangements for the construction procedures, changes in the design and construction management of the day-to-day.（5）. To lay waterproof layer, or is subject to bolt corrosion, deterioration of rock properties, rheological, swelling caused by the follow-up to load, use composite lining.（6）. Lining in principle, and the early rock deformation Supporting the basic stability of the conditions under construction. rock and supporting structure into a whole, thereby improving the support system of security.NATM above the basic elements can be briefly summarized as : "less disturbance, early spray anchor, ground measurements, closed tight."3．With a spring to understand the principle NATM（1）. Cavern brink of a point A in the original excavation ago with stress (stress self-respect and tectonic stress) in a state of equilibrium. As an elastic stiffness of the spring K, P0 under compression in a state of equilibrium.（2）. Cavern excavation, A point in attacking lose face constraints, the original stress state to be adjusted, if the intensity of rock big enough, After less stress adjustments maycavern in a stable condition (without support). But most of the geological conditions of the poor, that is, after the stress cavern adjustments, such as weak protection, we could have convergence deformation, even instability (landslides), must be provided to support power PE, in order to prevent landslides instability. Equivalent to the Spring of deformation u, in the role of PE is now in the midst of a state of equilibrium.（3）. By the mechanical balance equation, we can see in the spring P0 role in a state of equilibrium; Spring in the event of deformation u, PE in the role they will be in equilibrium, assuming spring elasticity of K, were : P0=PE+KuDiscussion :(1) When u = 0, that is not allowed P0=PE rock deformation, is a rigid support, not economic;(2) when u ↑, PE ↓; When u ↓, PE ↑. That is, rock deformation occurred, the release of some of the load (unloading), we should allow some extent rock deformation, to give full play to rock the capacity for self. Is an economic support measures, the rock self-stability P=P0-PE=Ku;(3) When u=umax, landslides, have relaxation load and unsafe.4. Points（1）. Rock cavern excavation is affected by that part of rock (soil) body, the rock is a trinity : have a load bearing structure, building materials.（2）. Tunnel construction is in the rock stress is of special architectural environment, which can not be equated with the construction on the ground.（3）. Tunnel structure rock + = bracing system.II. The new Austrian highway construction in the basic methodNATM one of the characteristics is the scene monitoring, measurement information to guide construction, through the tunnel construction measure receipts and excavation of the geological observation for prediction and feedback. And in accordance with the established benchmark for measuring the tunnel construction, excavation section steps and sequences, Supporting the initial parameters for reasonable adjustments to guarantee the safety of construction, a tunnel rock stability, the quality of the project and supporting structure of theeconomy and so on. The author of commitments (Chengde) Chek (Chifeng) East Maojingba Tunnel NATM basic construction method for investigation concluded, synthesis of a new highway tunnel Natm the selection of different types and the basic characteristics of the construction methods and tips.1. A tunnel construction method of choice tunnel construction method of choice, mainly based on the engineering geological and hydrogeological conditions Construction, rock type, buried deep tunnel, the tunnel section size and length lining types, Construction should be the premise of safety and engineering quality at the core, and with the use of the tunnel function, the level of construction technology, Construction machinery and equipment, time requirements and economic feasibility of factors to consider in selection.When choosing the method for tunnel construction on the surrounding environment negatively affected, should also be a tunnel, the environmental conditions as the method to choose one of the factors, taking into rock changes the method and the applicability of the possibility of change. Tunnel project to avoid mistakes and unnecessary increase investment in public works. NATM new construction, we should also consider the entire process of construction of auxiliary operations and changes in the surrounding rock to measure control methods and the tunnel through special geological lots of construction means for a reasonable choice.2. New Austrian Tunneling Method program New Austrian Tunneling Method used all methods can be divided into sections, Division level and the three major types of excavation method and some changes in the program.(1) Full-face method. That whole section excavation method is based on the design of an excavation face excavation molding. Excavation order is its full face excavation, steel bracing, pouring concrete lining. Often choose to IV-VI Class Rock Hard Rock Tunnel, which can be used blasting deep hole.Excavation whole section of the law is a larger space operations, introducing supporting large mechanized operations, improving the speed and process small, less interference and facilitate the construction organization and management. Excavation is due to shortcomings in the larger, lower relative stability of rock, and with each cycle of the relatively large workload, it requires the construction units should have a strong excavation, transport and slag out andsupport capability, Maojingba VI : Class V rock used in the full-face excavation to achieve the desired results.Full-face excavation face, drilling and blasting construction more efficient use of deep focus to accelerate the excavation blasting speed, and the rock blasting vibration frequency less conducive to a stable transfer rocks. The drawback is every deep hole blasting vibration larger. Therefore require careful drilling and blasting design and strict control of blasting operations.Full-face excavation method is the main process : the use of mobile carts (or platforms), the first full-face a bored, and installed a line, and then drilling platform car outside 50m back to a safe place and then detonate, Blasting to make a shape out after drilling Jardine car again moved to the excavation face in place, began a cycle of drilling and blasting operations, Anchor sprayed simultaneously supporting or after the first arch wall lining.(2) step method. Step method of design is generally divided into sections on the half-section and the lower half section two excavation molding. Excavation order is its first half excavation arch bolt jet concrete bracing, arch lining, the central part of the second half of excavation, sidewall of excavation, concrete wall jet bolt support and lining. The more applicable to the II, III and soft joint development of the surrounding rock, which were used Tim change program.Long-step method : The next stage distance away, on the general level above 50m ahead, Construction can be assigned to the Department of next larger machine with parallel operations, when mechanical deficiencies can be used interchangeably. When the case of a short tunnel, the upper section will be all dug later, and then dug under the section, the construction of which less interference, single process can work.Short step method : on the stage length 5-50m apply to Ⅱ, Ⅲrock can be shortened Invert closing time, Supporting improve early stress conditions, but larger construction interference, in the event of Soft Rock need to consider carefully, Auxiliary shall be applied measures to stabilize the excavation excavation face, in order to ensure the safety of construction.Ultrashort step method : The only step ahead 3-5m, section closed faster. The method used for the high level of mechanization of various rock section, in the event of the siege softrock when required careful consideration. Auxiliary shall be applied measures to stabilize the construction excavation face to ensure the safety of construction.Excavation level of character is the first step to using light excavation drilling machine drill a hole, rather than through large drilling platform car. Two step method of excavation operations with sufficient space and a faster rate of construction. Level is conducive to the stability of excavation face. Especially Excavation in the upper, lower operational safety. Three step method of excavation is the next shortcomings of operations interfere with each other. It should be noted at the bottom of the upper operational stability, level of excavation will increase the number of country rock.(3) Segment excavation method. Excavation Law Division can be divided into five changes in the program : Excavation Division level, from top to bottom hole lead, heading advance on the excavation, single (double) and lateral pit method. Excavation will be conducted Section Division excavation by the Ministry of shape, and to advance some of excavation, it may be called derivative ahead excavation pit method.Law Division level : general application or soil collapse easily lots of soft rock, with its advantages - stage method, height can be lengthened, the two-lane tunnel for a hole-fold, cycling Road Tunnel - hole 2 times; rather than single (double) PENDANTS Heading a high degree of mechanization, can accelerate the progress of the projects.The next heading advance excavation method (that is guided pit wall first arch) : This Act applies to Ⅱ, Ⅲrock. in the soft ground tunneling, to be adopted next general guide advance excavation pit wall first arch Act. Its advantages are : Heading advance excavation, the use of proven geological conditions in advance to facilitate change in the method. Face to facilitate started procedures applicable to the labor arrangements for the use of small machinery and construction. The drawbacks : The next section will guide small, slow construction and construction processes more, construction and management difficult.Unilateral-arm pit Law : rock instability, the tunnel span larger, ground subsidence is difficult to control when using this method. Its characteristics are : a positive step and arms Heading Act advantages.Bilateral arm Heading law : in large-span shallow tunnels, surface subsidence require strict, especially poor rock used. Advantages of this method are : Construction of safe, reliable, but slow construction, high cost.III.The main tunnel construction technology1. Cave construction（1）excavation slope aroundLofting total station measurements, the use of excavators from top to bottom, paragraph by paragraph excavation, not the amount of excavation or the end of next overlapping excavation, remove pits with the above may slump topsoil, shrubs and rock slopes, rock strata of slope excavation needs blasting, Discussion should focus mainly loose blasting. Also partial artificial finishing, when excavation and inspection slope of slope, if sliding and cracking phenomenon and slowing down due slope.（2）.Cheng Tung-supportingYang Brush Singapore Singapore after the completion of timely inspection plate slope gradient, the gradient to pass the inspection, the system set up to fight time anchor, and the exposed bolt heads, hanging metal based network expansion and bolt welding into first overall. Linked network immediately after the completion of shotcrete and repeatedly jet until it reaches the thickness of the design so far.（3）.as of gutter constructionYang slope away from the groove 5 meters excavation ditch interception, interception gutter mainly mechanical excavation, artificial finishing, after dressing, 7.5# immediately masonry made of mortar and stones, and the floor surface with mortar.2. Auxiliary construction（1）A long pipe roofSets arch construction : construction Lofting, template installation, assembling reinforcement, the guidance of lofting 127 installation guide, concrete pouring.Pipe specifications : Heat Nazarbayev Seamless Steel Tube ￠108 mm and a thickness of 6 mm, length of 3 m, 6 m;N pipe from : Central to the distance 50 cm;N Inclination : Elevation 1 ° (the actual construction works by 2 °), the direction parallel with the Central Line;N pipe construction error : Radial not more than 20 cm;N tunnel longitudinal joints within the same section with more than 50% adjacent pipe joints staggered at least a meter.A. pipe roof construction methodLofting accurate measurement personnel, marking the centerline and the vault out of its hole elevation, soil excavation reserved as a core pipe roof construction work platform Excavation footage of 2.5 meters, after the end of excavation, artificial symmetrical on both sides of excavation (Commodities H) platform, level width of 1.5 meters, 2.0 meters high, as construction sets and pipe arch shed facilities drilling platform. Pipe-roof design position should be and it should be a good hole steel tube, grouting after playing non-porous tube steel, non-porous tube can be used as pipe inspection, Grouting quality inspection, drill vertical direction must be accurately controlled to guarantee the opening hole to the right, End each drilling a hole is a pipe jacking, drilling should always use dipcompass drilling pipe measuring the deflection, found that the deflection over design requirements in a timely fashion. Pipe joints using screw connection, screw length 15 cm, to stagger the pipe joints, odd-numbered as the first section of the introduction of three-meter steel pipes and even numbered the first section of pipe using 6 meters, After each have adopted six-meter-long steel pipe.B. pipe roof construction machineryN drilling machinery : XY-28-300 equipped with electric drill, drilling and pipe jacking long shelf;N grouting machine : BW-250/50-injection pump two Taiwan;N using cement-water glass slurry. Mud and water volume ratio 1:0.5; water glass slurry concentration of water-cement ratio 1:1 silicate 35 Baume; The efficacy silicate modulus pressure grouting pressure early pressure 2.0MPA 0.5~1.0MPA; end.（2）. a small catheterA. small catheter used ahead diameter of 42 mm and a thickness of 3.5 mm thermal Nazarbayev seamless steel tubes, steel pipe was front-tip, Welding on the tail ￠6 stiffening brace and the wall around the drilling hole grouting 8 mm, but the tail of a meter without grouting holes and Advance Construction of a small catheter, the tubes and the lining of the centerline parallel to 10 ° -30 ° Chalu into the rock arch. penstocks to 20-50 cm spacing. Each was over a steel tubes, should be closed immediately shotcrete excavation face and thengrouting. After grouting, erecting steel Arch, Supporting the early completion of every (2-3 meters, and the paper attempts to be) another one for steel tubes, Advance small catheter general lap length of 1.0 meters.B. Grouting parametersN water slurry and water glass volume : 1:0.5;N slurry water-cement ratio 1:1N 35 Baume concentration of sodium silicate; The efficacy silicate modulusN grouting pressure 0.5~1.0MPA; if necessary, set up only orifice Pulp Cypriots.（3）. bolting ahead : The Chalu must be greater than 14 degrees, grouting satiated and lap length is not less than 1 meter.3.Correcting constructionEmbedded parts used by the Design Dimensions plank make shape design, installation in contrast snoop plate car, and position accuracy (error ± 50CM), the firm shall not be fixed, you must be in possession of the wire through the middle wear.4. Leveling ConstructionInstallation templates, at the request of both sides leveling layer calibration position to install template. Side-channel steel templates used [10#, top elevation with a corresponding length of the road elevation unanimously to allow deviation ±2mm. adjusted using the standard measurement to determine elevation. Every template fixed a certain distance from the outside to ensure that no displacement, the joints template close comfort, not from a slit, crooked and formation, and the bottom connector templates are not allowed to leak plasma. Concrete before reperfusion, the bottom surface of concrete must be clean. When the concrete arrived at the construction site directly installed backward mode of the road bed, and using artificial Huabu uniform. Concrete paver should be considered after the earthquake destroyed the settlement. Unrealistically high can be 10% higher, Lan is the surface elevation and design line. Concrete earthquake destroyed at or anywhere near the corner with plug-Lan Lan pound for pound order; Flat-Lan pound for pound crisscross comprehensive Lan, Inside each location is no longer the time for concrete sinks, no longer emitted large bubbles, and the surface of cement mortar later. normally no less than 15 seconds, also should not be too long;Then Chun-pound beam along the longitudinal Lan-pound trailer, With redundant Chun-pound concrete beams were dragged shift Trim, Dixian Department should keep leveling Lan facts. Finally, the diameter 75~100mm rolling seamless steel pipe for further leveling. Just do prohibited in the surface spraying water, and threw cement.5. Water, cable duct constructionInstall groove wall reinforcement of location accuracy, the line must be linked to the construction. Install groove wall purity, the purity requirements of accurate location, a vertical line. Dyadic greatest degree of not more than 3 mm, and template-Ditch The top-pronged, pass the inspection before the concrete reperfusion, on the side of the original wall must pick hair, and embedded parts to the location accurately. Template using stereotypes purity.6.Gate ConstructionCleared the site for construction layout. By design size requirement dug-wall basis. M7.5# masonry made of mortar and stones.Template installation, location accuracy requirements purity, a vertical line, and timely inspection template slope. Concrete pouring 15 # Riprap concrete, concrete strength to be more than 70% for Myeongdong vault backfill.Myungdong vault backfill should hierarchical compaction said. The typical thickness of less than 0.3M, both backfill surface height difference of not more than 0.5M. restored to the vault after the pack to design hierarchical compaction high, the use of machines rolling, Ramming must manually filled to vault over 1.0M before mechanical compaction .7 .Construction safety and environmental controlEntrance to wear helmets to prevent crashes, in which the speed limit 5KM, lighting must be a 10-meter lights reckless goods stored material must be standardized and distributed under special guard.Spoil venues must be smooth drainage, and must be masonry retaining wall to prevent flooding, debris flow forming.8. The construction process has to tackle the problemsConstruction of two liner after water seepage treatment :Small cracks with acrylic, water or slurry coating of epoxy resin and other caulking, a good effect; On the larger cracks, available on the 10th of cement mortar or cement mortar expansion caulking more appropriate and effective;Large cracks (crack width greater than 5MM), (if leakage of water, available along the cutting machine cutting a wide cracks around 2~4CM small groove depth approximately 10CM above the water, Cutting a 5 × 5CM Cube holes room, then insert a pipe 4 × 4CM MF7 plastic Blind groove, Cutting together into good pressure tank, the introduction of vertical water drains, Finally, cement and water Glass closed mixed mortar cutting groove) without seepage, it is appropriate epoxy mortar, or grouting, Reinforced concrete and other reinforced jet.IV. Example projectsNATM is from the introduction of the bolt and shotcrete a category of "active" support the new technology to promote the use began. Soon, the Chinese engineer on the tunnel not only in substance but also in terms of acceptance of the new Austrian law. To be held in China in the tunnel and underground engineering academic meeting, the new Austrian capital has become a hot topic.Engineers of the new Austrian law relishes is justified : the use of new Austrian law, has been successful in soft rock and difficult conditions of the construction of various types of underground works.Built on loose sand gravel stratum of Beijing Subway allowed back of the tunnel is a typical example. The tunnel is located in the main street-256, 358m long, the largest excavation section 9m high, 14.5m wide coverage stratigraphic top of the tunnel only minimum thickness 9.0m. Tunnel boring machine of excavation, strengthen the grid arch shotcrete initial support and advance small catheter care, Without prejudice to ground transportation, underground pipelines to ensure the safety of construction success.In the works is the experience, knowledge of the Chinese engineers, the use of new Austrian law principles can be used in the Mountain Tunnel Mine Act to expand the scope ofapplication of the soft rock, even in the fourth strata of municipal shallow tunnel to replace the traditional method of digging or shield. In China, such a method called "shallow mining method."Following allowed back lane tunnel, gravel in the same folder of alluvial gravel layer is shallow mining method used to build the span of 21.67m in the Xidan MTR stations.Changan Avenue in the construction of the new Beijing metro line projects, shallow mining method has been selected as the main method of construction. For example, the Tiananmen Square in Beijing Metro West Point, 226m long, for two double-pole structure.Guangzhou Metro East is shallow mining method used in the construction. Experience shows that from the ground environmental protection, surface subsidence of the dug system and the cost and time period perspective, Shallow Mining Act of open or with the shield are compared with a competitive edge.Chinese engineers from Europe to the introduction of the new Austrian law, and in light of China's situation of the new Austrian law, and related technology expanding means of support, such as, measurement and control technology was further developed. As a new Austrian law an important background shotcrete technology in China has been widely used. With the international situation, in order to resolve the long-troubled people of dust pollution of the environment. Rebound serious and concrete uneven quality of such issues, and is vigorously implementing the wet spray. Recently by the China Academy of Railway Sciences Southwest Branch of the development of a "Rotor-Piston," a new type of jet aircraft. This type wet spraying process, which is to include the machines Mix Concrete Preparation good product mixture, However, material handling is different from the general-pumping wet spraying machine, using thin stream conveyor. Therefore machines compact and easy to use. Has been popularized in this country.It is no exaggeration to say that the new Austrian law implementation has indeed caused a mining method in the construction of the excavation, Construction of the tunnel design, and even the thinking of the major changes. Nevertheless, it should be said that China's implementation of the new Austrian law is not satisfactory. In many works was no lack of examples of failure. In addition to construction management, quality control and technology related to grasp, and other reasons, is the main tunnel engineers sometimes NATM real lack of a proper understanding.。
土木工程外文翻译5
PROJECTCOSTCONTROL INTRODUCTION project a corporate image window and effectiveness of the source. With increasingly fierce market competition, the quality of work and the construction of civilizations rising material prices fluctuations. uncertainties and other factors, make the project operational in a relatively tough environment. So the cost of control is through the building of the project since the bidding phase of acceptance until the completion of the entire process, It is a comprehensive enterprise cost management an important part, we must organize and control measures in height to the attention with a view to improving the economic efficiency of enterprises to achieve the purpose.2, outlining the construction project cost control, the cost of the project refers to the cost and process of formation occurred, on the production and operation of the amount of human resources, material resources and expenses, guidance, supervision, regulation and restrictions, in a timely manner to prevent, detect and correct errors in order to control costs in all project costs within the intended target. to guarantee the production and operation of enterprises benefits.4, the construction cost control measures cost control measures.Reduce the cost of construction projects means, we should not only increase revenue is also reducing expenditure, or both also increase savings. Cutting expenditure is not only revenue, or revenue not only to cut expenditure, it is impossible to achieve the aim of reducing costs, at least there is no ideal lower cost effective.Project Manager of the project cost management responsibility for the first, comprehensive organization of the project cost management, timely understand and analyze profit and loss situation and take prompt and effective measures; engineering technology department should ensure the quality, Regular tasks to complete as much as possible under the premise adopt advanced technology in order to reduce costs; Ministry of Economic Affairs should strengthen budget management contract, the project to create the budget revenue; Finance Ministry in charge of the project's financial, Analysis of the project should keep the financial accounts of reasonable scheduling of funds. Develop advanced economies reasonable construction program, which can shorten the period, and improve quality, reduce costs purpose; paid attention to quality control to eliminate redone, shorten the acceptance and reduce expenses; control labor costs, material costs, Machinery and other indirect costs.With the construction market competition intensifies, more and the price low, the scene increasingly high management fees. This requires project managers to more scientific and more rigorous management approach to the management of the project. As a management departments should be a reasonable analysis of regional economic disparities, to prevent the input across the board. From the foregoing analysis, project management and cost control are complementary, it is only by strengthening project management, can control project costs; only achieve cost control project aims to外文翻译strengthen the management of construction project can be meaningful. Construction of the project cost control of construction reflects the nature of project management features, and represents construction project management at the core. Construction of the project cost control of construction project management performance evaluation of the objectivity and fairness of the scale.5. strengthen project cost control practical significance5.1 strengthen project cost control railway construction enterprises out of their predicament, the need to increase revenue. At present, the railway construction enterprises just into the market, to participate in market competition, will face a tough test of the market. Now the construction market liberalization, implement bidding system, and the strike has very low weight, To create efficiency is the only way to strengthen internal management and improve their internal conditions, internal efficiency potentials. Therefore, the strengthening of project cost control is a very realistic way.5.2 Strengthening Project Cost control is adapt to the market competition, and strengthening internal management to the needs of their work. With the railway enterprise's rapid development, construction increasingly fierce market competition. For a period of time, the railway construction enterprises will face the increasingly fierce market challenges Construction of the business environment difficult to be improved. Efficiency increases, effective cost control and claims will be strengthened in the future management focus. This requires the railway construction enterprises should respect the unity3of the work to reduce costs and enhance efficiency objectives. In accordance with the requirements of the market economy research, adjustment and improve the management system, to further strengthen the management of infrastructure, enterprise management from the physical management to value management, thus enabling cost management into enterprise management centers.6, the construction project cost control of construction cost control in many ways, this highlights deviation analysis. Deviation refers to the actual value of the construction costs with the planned value of the difference. Deviation analysis available Bar Graph method, the form, method.(1) Bar Graph method is different Transverse-Line marking the completion of the project has been the construction costs, End to construction projects have been completed and cost (the cost-effective construction, Transverse-Line length is proportional to the amount of their cases. Bar Graph with image, audio-visual, very clear advantages, It can accurately express construction cost deviations, but one can feel the gravity of deviation. However, this method of information below.(2) Form method is error - Analysis of the most commonly used method, it will project code name, Construction of the cost parameters and construction cost deviation integrated into the number one form, and in the form of direct comparison. As the deviations are shown in the table. Construction costs makes integrated managers to understand and deal with these data. flexible, applicability;外文翻译informative; forms can be handled by computer, thus saving a large amount of data to deal with the human, and greatly improve speed.(3) curve is a total construction cost curve (S OK curve) for the partial construction costs A differential analysis methods. a figure which indicated the actual value of the construction cost curve, p. construction cost of the scheme said the value curve, The curve between two vertical distance between construction cost deviation. The method used is the same image analysis, and visual characteristics, But this is very difficult to direct for quantitative analysis of quantitative analysis can play a role.7. Currently construction enterprise project cost control analysis of the current project cost7.1 problems and the causes of the current project implementation After the restructuring projects implemented "five responsibility for the costs," "100 of responsibility for the content of the output value of wages" and "contracting indicators Kau" various forms of economic management contract responsibility system. Construction projects in the Ministry of Production and quality aspects of the rapid progress. But beyond doubt is just working, regardless of the mode of production accounts still exist. Some only production tasks are completed, the cost of a weak awareness cost management as dispensable. In the past two years the Department of grasping items complain, enterprise project appraisal of the indicators, all focus on the production tasks to complete, objective, fueled by such acts. Specific indications : 1. in the use of labor, not by post,5according to the actual needs staffing, they can complete the work for three, can be used for low-cost trades and the use of subjects of labor costs. To take care of relations, sensibilities and TWA also retained his spare time. workers can be indifferent to the production and operation, but the monthly wages, allowances, bonuses can spend less. artificially expand the expenditure of funds. 2, material management, can be simplified to what extent on what is the level of simplification, operational staff only to facilitate easy and timely withdrawal credit card, and some kind of engineering materials and book a difference to thousands of dollars, tens of thousands or even hundreds of some of its few. Consuming the works, the procedure is incomplete. not fixed by the material. placing arbitrary site materials, engineering materials stolen have occurred from time to time; Consuming accessories not review, bad on the other, very few people to repair; fill empty fuel consumption result was secretly putting the oil sold. 3. Construction machinery efficiency is not high (example : Monthly leasing machinery and equipment), less to him, usually poor maintenance. With mechanical equipment failure analysis is not objective and subjective reasons, not to pursue the responsibility of the parties, have bad information on the exchange, no other information on. TWA did not undergo a rigorous examination on the induction training mechanical damage to the non-normal, impact of the construction progress. In summary, the current project of cost management, accounting only after the accounting, rather than advance the prevention and control things. The reasons are : lack of外文翻译cost awareness. simply that the cost of management is the financial sector or the superior leadership, have nothing to do with them. only focused on the "production tasks are completed" and "contracting profit and loss," the groups have a "negative effect." Therefore, project to mobilize the full participation of the Ministry of cost control, deepening of the project cost management imperative.Projects 7.3 containment measures for the loss of containment for a variety of reasons over the project losses, in accordance with the requirements of clear responsibilities, Projects should control the cost of the project is able to cost control measures were taken. for a project to control the cost of the project by the Ministry of control; and the project beyond the control of the costs or losses, by the enterprises should take measures to control it.1. Construction projects to the Ministry of the so-called cost control measures to the Ministry of Construction of the project. refer to enterprises directly organized by the staff and farmers contract workers, temporary workers and the labor force composed of the internal construction team, mixed construction team and construction services sub-teams composed of Construction Projects.⑴ determine the total project cost targets and the profit and loss targets. Every one of the successful projects, in a formal pre-construction, identify the project and sub-project for the dates, materials, equipment and identify the project and sub-project of the labor, materials, machinery and indirect costs. On this basis, The project will determine the profit or loss targets.7⑵implemented material bidding procurement. Projects must thoroughly change the past, piecemeal purchase goods, the enterprises of all projects, including the main material to build on all the tender for the procurement, Obviously choice of material suppliers. Meanwhile, we should fully consider the time value of money. choose a suitable form of payment.⑶controllable according to the principle of cost control. The Ministry of Construction of the project team and staff, In accordance with the principle of cost control and distinguish the project department, the construction team and the staff of the costs of monovalent responsibility, including dates Price, Materials Unit, select the unit and units, or fixed rates. We must strictly enforce the internal inspection system for pricing, timely construction team and staff honored economic interests.⑷enhance safety, and quality management. Projects must establish security, Quality is the major benefits of efficiency. actively prevent and avoid possible security, quality accidents, for the accident-prone regions of constant surveillance. to strictly implement the responsibility for the accident the penalty system so that all staff clearly establish the safety, quality consciousness.⑸strengthen contract management. All of the projects, In particular, the main sub-projects of the need for a designated person responsible for contract management, In addition to the timely settlement or deal with the things, with the other units or individuals from the economic, technical, labor matters, must sign the formal外文翻译contract, not with the verbal agreement. at the contract process, should act in strict accordance with the relevant provisions of the contract for disposal.⑹improve the management system, establish a cost-control mechanism. Projects must connect with reality, the development and control of the cost to draw up rules and regulations, such as material procurement, custody, inspection, warehousing, consumption system, the labor remuneration management systems, equipment management, financial management, accounting, security, quality management approach, the post-mortem valuation methods, and to establish the cost of the project department of internal control and supervision mechanisms.2. Construction of the sub-item of cost control measures in the so-called sub-Construction Projects, refers to the shoulder of the main tasks of the project subcontracted to external team of mainly construction of the project.⑴ determined in accordance with the assembly The objectives of the sub-projects to determine the price. their specific operational process : First, According to determine the total cost of the project and the sub-units of construction commitments, identify the sub-project is the direct costs and field; Secondly, the intelligence sub-unit level, its terms should obtain the enterprise management fee, labor insurance and financial costs to lower the rate to 30% -50%; Third, According to the above-mentioned projects identified in the direct costs, the scene funds, management fees, insurance and9financial labor, the total cost put the project plans to reduce profit 60% or above plan for profit⑵allocated in strict accordance with the requirements of the project and the clearing. Projects must be in accordance with the provisions of the contract settlement price of the project, completion of the sub-units of qualified engineering post-mortem will be conducted on a monthly basis for the valuation and then clearing projects, sub-units will not be allowed to advance baiting, and for projects. Clearing of the project, the need for timely deduction of pay various fees to establish the settlement works in conjunction sign system, the clearing of the project, In addition to the post-mortem valuation report, even with the sub-unit business-related business departments Deductions views.⑶ strictly prohibited construction of higher units link . Projects must be in accordance with the requirements of enterprises, prohibit external units linked to various forms of external construction enterprises. All enterprises in the name of the successful projects Enterprises must be directly related to the construction unit signed a contract by the project and construction of the inspection unit pricing and settlement payments. Any item shall allow the Ministry of External units to enterprises in the name of contractor carry out projects, the post-mortem pricing and settlement payments.8. Summary of the construction project cost control is a complicated systematic project. the application needed to be applied with flexibility the actual operation be adapted to local conditions,外文翻译different sizes, different construction firms and different management systems have differences, But in any case are the construction of the production and operation of enterprises in the amount of human resources, material resources and expenses, guidance, supervision, regulation and restriction. Therefore, "increases production and economize, to increase revenues and reduce expenditures" is a common construction enterprises, This requires constant practice in the review and improve cost control, ways and means to ensure that the project cost goals. As an enterprise only deepening financial management system, outstanding cost management center, further strengthening cost management and strict cost veto, the full implementation, the whole process comprehensive cost control and continually adapt to the market competition situation, overcome adversity, to achieve the goal of cost control.一、引言项目是企业形象的窗口和效益的源泉。
土建专业外文翻译2
附录1翻译适当有效的建筑材料是限制富有经验的结构工程师成就的主要原因之一。
早期的建筑者几乎都只使用木材，石头，砖块和混凝土。
尽管铸铁在修建埃及的金字塔中已被人们使用, 但是把它作为建筑材料却由于大量熔炼它比较困难而被限制。
藉由产业革命，然而，受到把铸铁作为建筑材料和在大量融炼它的能力的两者对其双重需要的影响。
John Smeaton，一个英国土木工程师, 在十八的世纪中时，是第一广泛地使用铸铁作为建筑材料的。
在1841之后，可锻金属被发展成更可靠的材料并且广泛地被应用。
尽管可锻金属优于铸铁,但仍有很多结构破坏从而需要有更可靠的材料。
钢便是这一需要的答案。
1856年的贝色麦转转炉炼钢法和后来发展的马丁平炉炼钢法的发明使以竞争的价格形成了生产建筑用钢并且兴起了建筑用钢在下个百年的快速发展。
钢的最严重缺点是它容易被氧化而需要被油漆或一些其他的适当涂料保护。
当钢被用于可能发生火灾环境时, 钢应该包围在一些耐火的材料中, 例如石料或混凝土。
通常，钢的组合结构不易被压碎除非是在冶金成分不好，低温的不利组合, 或空间压力存在的情况下。
建筑用铝仍然不广泛被在土木工程结构中用,虽然它的使用正在稳定地增加。
藉着铝合金作为一个适当的选择和对其进行热处理,可获得各式各样的强度特性。
一些合金所展现的抗压强度特性相似于钢, 除线形弹性模量大约是7,000,000 牛/平方厘米，相当于刚的三分之一。
质量轻和耐氧化是铝的两个主要优点。
因为它的特性对热处理是非常敏感的,当铆接或焊接铝的时候，一定要小心仔细。
一些技术已为制造预制铝组合配件及形成若干的美丽的设计良好的外型结构的铝制结构而发展起来。
组合房屋配件制造的一般程序藉由螺栓连接，这似乎是利用建筑用铝的最有前途的方法。
加强和预应力混凝土是主要的建筑材料。
天然的水泥混凝土已经被使用长达数世纪之久。
现代的混凝土建筑兴起于十九世纪中叶,尽管人造水泥被Aspidin ，一个英国人于1825年申请了专利. 虽然一些建筑者和工程师在十九世纪后期用钢筋混凝土作实验, 但作为一种建筑材料它占统治地位是在二十世纪初期。
建筑施工中英文对照外文翻译文献
建筑施工中英文对照外文翻译文献建筑施工中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)外文：Building construction concrete crack ofprevention and processingAbstractThe crack problem of concrete is a widespread existence but again difficult in solve of engineering actual problem, this text carried on a study analysis to a little bit familiar crack problem in the concrete engineering, and aim at concrete the circumstance put forward some prevention, processing measure.Keyword:Concrete crack prevention processingForewordConcrete's ising 1 kind is anticipate by the freestone bone, cement, water and other mixture but formation of the in addition material of quality brittleness not and all material.Because the concrete construction transform with oneself, control etc. a series problem, harden model of in the concrete existence numerous tiny hole, spirit cave and tiny crack, is exactly because these beginning start blemish of existence just make the concrete present one some not and all the characteristic of quality.The tiny crack is a kind of harmless crack and accept concrete heavy, defend Shen and a little bit other use function not a creation to endanger.But after the concrete be subjected to lotus carry, difference in temperature etc. function, tiny crack would continuously of expand with connect, end formation we can see without the aid of instruments of macro view the crack be also the crack that the concrete often say in the engineering.Concrete building and Gou piece usually all take sewer to make of, because of crack of existence and development usually make inner part of reinforcing bar etc. material creation decay, lower reinforced concrete material of loading ability, durable and anti- Shen ability, influence building of external appearance, service life, severity will threat arrive people's life and property safety.A lot of all of crash of engineerings is because of the unsteady development of the crack with the result that.Modern age scienceresearch with a great deal of of the concrete engineering practice certificate, in the concrete engineering crack problem is ineluctable, also acceptable in certainly of the scope just need to adopt valid of measure will it endanger degree control at certain of scope inside.The reinforced concrete norm is also explicit provision:Some structure at place of dissimilarity under the condition allow existence certain the crack of width.But at under construction should as far as possible adopt a valid measure control crack creation, make the structure don't appear crack possibly or as far as possible decrease crack of amount and width, particularly want to as far as possible avoid harmful crack of emergence, insure engineering quality thus.Concrete crack creation of the reason be a lot of and have already transformed to cause of crack:Such as temperature variety, constringency, inflation, the asymmetry sink to sink etc. reason cause of crack;Have outside carry the crack that the function cause;Protected environment not appropriate the crack etc. caused with chemical effect.Want differentiation to treat in the actual engineering, work°out a problem according to the actual circumstance.In the concrete engineering the familiar crack and the prevention1.Stem Suo crack and preventionStem the Suo crack much appear after the concrete protect be over of a period of time or concrete sprinkle to build to complete behind of around a week.In the cement syrup humidity of evaporate would creation stem Suo, and this kind of constringency is can't negative.Stem Suo crack of the creation be main is because of concrete inside outside humidity evaporate degree dissimilarity but cause to transform dissimilarity of result:The concrete is subjected to exterior condition of influence, surface humidity loss lead quick, transform bigger, inner part degree of humidity variety smaller transform smaller, bigger surface stem the Suo transform to be subjected to concrete inner part control, creation more big pull should dint but creation crack.The relative humidity is more low, cement syrup body stem Suo more big, stem the Suo crack be more easy creation.Stem the Suo crack is much surface parallel lines form or the net shallow thin crack, width many between 0.05-0.2 mm, the flat surface part much see in the big physical volume concrete and follow it more in thinner beam plank short todistribute.Stem Suo crack usually the anti- Shen of influence concrete, cause the durable of the rust eclipse influence concrete of reinforcing bar, under the function of the water pressure dint would creation the water power split crack influence concrete of loading dint etc..Concrete stem the Suo be main with water ash of the concrete ratio, the dosage of the composition, cement of cement, gather to anticipate of the dosage of the property and dosage, in addition etc. relevant.Main prevention measure:While being to choose to use the constringency quantity smaller cement, general low hot water mire and powder ash from stove cement in the adoption, lower the dosage of cement.Two is a concrete of stem the Suo be subjected to water ash ratio of influence more big, water ash ratio more big, stem Suo more big, so in the concrete match the ratio the design should as far as possible control good water ash ratio of choose to use, the Chan add in the meantime accommodation of reduce water.Three is strict control concrete mix blend with under construction of match ratio, use of concrete water quantity absolute can't big in match ratio design give settle of use water quantity.Four is the earlier period which strengthen concrete to protect, and appropriate extension protect of concrete time.Winter construction want to be appropriate extension concrete heat preservation to overlay time, and Tu2 Shua protect to protect.Five is a constitution the accommodation is in the concrete structure of the constringency sew.2.The Su constringency crack and preventionSu constringency is the concrete is before condense, surface because of lose water quicker but creation of constringency.The Su constringency crack is general at dry heat or strong wind the weather appear, crack's much presenting in the center breadth, both ends be in the centerthin and the length be different, with each other not coherent appearance.Shorter crack general long 20-30 cm, the longer crack can reach to a 2-3 m, breadth 1-5 mm.It creation of main reason is:The concrete is eventually almost having no strength or strength before the Ning very small, perhaps concrete just eventually Ning but strength very hour, be subjected to heat or compare strong wind dint of influence, the concrete surface lose water to lead quick, result in in the capillary creation bigger negative press but make a concrete physical volume sharplyconstringency, but at this time the strength of concrete again can't resist its constringency, therefore creation cracked.The influence concrete Su constringency open the main factor of crack to have water ash ratio, concrete of condense time, environment temperature, wind velocity, relative humidity...etc..Main prevention measure:One is choose to use stem the Suo value smaller higher Huo sour salt of the earlier period strength or common the Huo sour brine mire.Two is strict the control water ash ratio, the Chan add to efficiently reduce water to increment the collapse of concrete fall a degree and with easy, decrease cement and water of dosage.Three is to sprinkle before building concrete, water basic level and template even to soak through.Four is in time to overlay the perhaps damp grass mat of the plastics thin film, hemp slice etc., keep concrete eventually before the Ning surface is moist, perhaps spray to protect etc. to carry on protect in the concrete surface.Five is in the heat and strong wind the weather to want to establish to hide sun and block breeze facilities, protect in time.3.Sink to sink crack and preventionThe creation which sink to sink crack is because of the structure foundation soil quality not and evenly, loose soft or return to fill soil dishonest or soak in water but result in the asymmetry sink to decline with the result that;Perhaps because of template just degree shortage, the template propped up to once be apart from big or prop up bottom loose move etc. to cause, especially at winter, the template prop up at jelly soil up, jelly the soil turn jelly empress creation asymmetry to sink to decline and cause concrete structure creation crack.This kind crack many is deep enter or pierce through sex crack, it alignment have something to do with sinking to sink a circumstance, general follow with ground perpendicular or present 30 °s-45 °Cape direction development, bigger sink to sink crack, usually have certain of wrong, crack width usually with sink to decline quantity direct proportion relation.Crack width under the influence of temperature variety smaller.The foundation after transform stability sink to sink crack also basic tend in stability.Main prevention measure:One is rightness loose soft soil, return to fill soil foundation a construction at the upper part structure front should carry on necessity ofHang solid with reinforce.Two is the strength that assurance template is enough and just degree, and prop up firm, and make the foundation be subjected to dint even.Three is keep concrete from sprinkle infusing the foundation in the process is soak by water.Four is time that template tore down to can't be too early, and want to notice to dismantle a mold order of sequence.Five is at jelly soil top take to establish template to notice to adopt certain of prevention measure.4.Temperature crack and preventionTemperature crack much the occurrence is in big surface or difference in temperature variety of the physical volume concrete compare the earth area of the concrete structure.Concrete after sprinkling to build, in the hardening the process, cement water turn a creation a great deal of of water turn hot, .(be the cement dosage is in the 350-550 kg/m 3, each sign square the rice concrete will release a calories of 17500-27500 kJ and make concrete internal thus the temperature rise to reach to 70 ℃or so even higher)Because the physical volume of concrete be more big, a great deal of of water turn hot accumulate at the concrete inner part but not easy send forth, cause inner part the temperature hoick, but the concrete surface spread hot more quick, so formation inside outside of bigger difference in temperature, the bigger difference in temperature result in inner part and exterior hot the degree of the bulge cold Suo dissimilarity, make concrete surface creation certain of pull should dint.When pull should dint exceed the anti- of concrete pull strength extreme limit, concrete surface meeting creation crack, this kind of crack much occurrence after the concrete under construction period.In the concrete of under construction be difference in temperature variety more big, perhaps is a concrete to be subjected to assault of cold wave etc., will cause concrete surface the temperature sharply descend, but creation constringency, surface constringency of the concrete be subjected to inner part concrete of control, creation very big of pull should dint but creation crack, this kind of crack usually just in more shallow scope of the concrete surface creation.The alignment of the temperature crack usually none settle regulation, big area structure the crack often maneuver interleave;The size bigger structure of the beam plank length, the crack run parallel with short side more;Thorough with pierce throughsex of temperature crack general and short side direction parallelism or close parallelism, crack along long side cent the segment appear, in the center more airtight.Crack width the size be different, be subjected to temperature variety influence more obvious, winter compare breadth, summer more narrow.The concrete temperature crack that the heat inflation cause is usually in the center the thick both ends be thin, but cold Suo crack of thick thin variety not too obvious.The emergence of the this kind crack will cause the rust eclipse of reinforcing bar, the carbonization of concrete, the anti- jelly which lower concrete melt, anti- tired and anti- Shen ability etc..Main prevention measure:One is as far as possible choose to use low hot or medium hot water mire, like mineral residue cement, powder ash from stove cement...etc..Two is a decrease cement dosage, cement dosage as far as possible the control is in the 450 kg/m 3 following.Three is to lower water ash ratio, water ash of the general concrete ratio control below 0.6.Four is improvement the bone anticipate class to go together with, the Chan add powder ash from stove or efficiently reduce water etc. to come to reduce cement dosage and lower water to turn hot.Five is an improvement concrete of mix blend to process a craft, lower sprinkle of concrete to build temperature.Six is the in addition that the Chan add a have of fixed amount to reduce water and increase Su, slow Ning etc. function in the concrete, improvement the concrete mix to match a thing of mobility, protect water, lower water to turn hot, postpone hot Feng of emergence time.Seven is the heat season sprinkle to build can the adoption take to establish to hide sun plank etc. assistance measure control concrete of Wen Sheng, lower to sprinkle temperature of build the concrete.Eight is the temperature of big physical volume concrete should the dint relate to structure size, concrete structure size more big, temperature should dint more big, so want reasonable arrangement construction work preface, layering, cent the piece sprinkle to build, for the convenience of in spread hot, let up control.Nine is at great inner part constitution of the physical volume concrete cool off piping, cold water perhaps cold air cool off, let up concrete of inside outside difference in temperature.Ten is the supervision which strengthen concrete temperature, adopt to cool off in time, protection measure.11 is to reserve temperature constringency to sew.12 is to let up to control, sprinkle proper before building concrete in the Ji rockand old concrete top build a 5 mm or so sand mat a layer or usage asphalt etc. material Tu2 Shua.13 is to strengthen concrete to protect, the concrete after sprinkle build use moist grass Lian in time, hemp slice's etc. overlay, and attention sprinkle water to protect, appropriate extension protect time, assurance the concrete surface be slow-moving cool off.At the cold season, concrete surface should constitution heat preservation measure, in order to prevent cold wave assault.14 is the allocation be a little amount in the concrete of reinforcing bar perhaps add fiber material concrete of temperature crack control at certain of scope inside.5.Crack and prevention that the chemical reaction causeAlkali bone's anticipating the crack that reaction crack and reinforcing bar rust eclipse cause is the most familiar in the reinforced concrete structure of because of chemical reaction but cause of crack.The concrete blend a future reunion creation some alkalescence ion, these ion with some activity the bone anticipate creation chemical reaction and absorb surroundings environment in of water but the physical volume enlarge, make concrete crisp loose, inflation open crack.In this kind of crack general emergence concrete structure usage period, once appear very difficult remediable, so should at under construction adopt valid the measure carry on prevention.Main of prevention measure:While being to choose to anticipate with the alkali activity small freestone bone.Two is the in addition which choose to use low lye mire with low alkali or have no alkali.Three is the Chan which choose to use accommodation with anticipate to repress an alkali bone to anticipate reaction.Because the concrete sprinkle to build, flap Dao bad perhaps is a reinforcing bar protection layer thinner, the harmful material get into concrete to make reinforcing bar creation rust eclipse, the reinforcing bar physical volume of the rust eclipse inflation, cause concrete bulge crack, the crack of this kind type much is a crack lengthways, follow the position of reinforcing bar ually of prevent measure from have:One is assurance reinforcing bar protection the thickness of the layer.Two is a concrete class to go together with to want good.Three is a concrete to sprinkle to note and flap Dao airtight solid.Four is a reinforcing bar surface layer Tu2 Shua antisepsiscoating.Crack processingThe emergence of the crack not only would influence structure of whole with just degree, return will cause the rust eclipse of reinforcing bar, acceleration concrete of carbonization, lower durable and anti- of concrete tired, anti- Shen ability.Therefore according to the property of crack and concrete circumstance we want differentiation to treat, in time processing, with assurance building of safety usage.The repair measure of the concrete crack is main to have the following some method:Surface repair method, infuse syrup, the Qian sew method, the structure reinforce a method, concrete displacement method, electricity chemistry protection method and imitate to living from heal method.Surface repair the method be a kind of simple, familiar of repair method, it main be applicable to stability and to structure loading the ability don't have the surface crack of influence and deep enter crack of processing.The processing measure that is usually is a surface in crack daubery cement syrup, the wreath oxygen gum mire or at concrete surface Tu2 Shua paint, asphalt etc. antisepsis material, at protection of in the meantime for keeping concrete from continue under the influence of various function to open crack, usually can adoption the surface in crack glue to stick glass fiber cloth etc. measure.1, infuse syrup, the Qian sew methodInfuse a syrup method main the concrete crack been applicable to have influence or have already defend Shen request to the structure whole of repair, it is make use of pressure equipments gum knot the material press into the crack of concrete, gum knot the material harden behind and concrete formation one be whole, thus reinforce of purpose.The in common use gum knot material has the cement the syrup, epoxy, A Ji C Xi sour ester and gather ammonia ester to equalize to learn material.The Qian sew a method is that the crack be a kind of most in common use method in, it usually is follow the crack dig slot, the Qian fill Su in the slot or rigid water material with attain closing crack of purpose.The in common use Su material has PVC gum mire,plastics ointment, the D Ji rubber etc.;In common use rigid water material is the polymer cement sand syrup.2, the structure reinforce a methodWhen the crack influence arrive concrete structure of function, will consideration adopt to reinforce a method to carry on processing to the concrete structure.The structure reinforce medium in common use main have the following a few method:The piece of enlargement concrete structure in every aspect accumulate, outside the Cape department of the Gou piece pack type steel, adoption prepare should the dint method reinforce, glue to stick steel plate to reinforce, increase to establish fulcrum to reinforce and jet the concrete compensation reinforce.3, concrete displacement methodConcrete displacement method is processing severity damage concrete of a kind of valid method, this method be first will damage of the concrete pick and get rid of, then again displacement go into new of concrete or other material.The in common use displacement material have:Common concrete or the cement sand syrup, polymer or change sex polymer concrete or sand syrup.4, the electricity chemistry protection methodThe electricity chemistry antisepsis is to make use of infliction electric field in lie the quality of electricity chemical effect, change concrete or reinforced concrete the environment appearance of the place, the bluntness turn reinforcing bar to attain the purpose of antisepsis.Cathode protection method, chlorine salt's withdrawing a method, alkalescence to recover a method is a chemistry protection method in three kinds of in common use but valid method.The advantage of this kind of method is a protection method under the influence of environment factor smaller, apply reinforcing bar, concrete of long-term antisepsis, since can used for crack structure already can also used for new set up structure.5, imitate to living from legal moreImitate to living from heal the method be a kind of new crack treatment, its mimicry living creature organization secrete a certain material towards suffering wound part auto, but make the wound part heal of function, join some and special composition(suchas contain to glue knot of the liquid Xin fiber or capsule) in the concrete of the tradition the composition, at concrete inner part formation the intelligence type imitate to living from heal nerve network system, be the concrete appear crack secrete a parts of liquid Xin fiber can make the crack re- heal.ConclusionThe crack is widespread in the concrete structure existence of a kind of phenomenon, it of emergence not only will lower the anti- Shen of building ability, influence building of usage function, and will cause the rust eclipse of reinforcing bar, the carbonization of concrete, lower the durable of material, influence building of loading ability, so want to carry on to the concrete crack earnest research, differentiation treat, adoption reasonable of the method carry on processing, and at under construction adopt various valid of prevention measure to prevention crack of emergence and development, assurance building and Gou piece safety, stability work.From《CANADIAN JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING》译文：建筑施工混凝土裂缝的预防与处理混凝土的裂缝问题是一个普遍存在而又难于解决的工程实际问题，本文对混凝土工程中常见的一些裂缝问题进行了探讨分析，并针对具体情况提出了一些预防、处理措施。
土建专业外文翻译---传统的施工程序
Traditional Construction ProceduresAs mentioned before, construction under the traditional construction procedure is performed by contractors. While they would like to satisfy the owner and the building designers, contractors have the main objective of making a profit. Hence, their initial task is to prepare a bid price based on an accurate estimate of construction costs. This requires development of a concept for performance of the work and a construction time schedule. After a contract has been awarded, contractors must furnish and pay for all materials, equipment, power, labor, and supervision required for construction. The owner compensates the contractors for construction costs and services.A general contractor assumes overall responsibility for construction of a building. The contractor engages subcontractors who take responsibility for the work of the various trades required for construction. For example, a plumbing contractor installs the plumbing, an electrical contractor installs the electrical system, and an elevator contractor installs elevators. Their contracts are with the general contractor, and they are paid by the general contractor. Sometimes, in addition to a general contractor, the owner contracts separately with specialty contractors, such as electrical and mechanical contractors, who perform a substantial amount of the work require for a building. Such contractors are called prime contractors. Their work is scheduled and coordinated by the general contractor, but they are paid directly by the owner.Sometimes also, the owner may use the design-build method and award a contract to an organization for both the design and construction of a building. Such organizations are called design-build contractors. One variation of this type of contract is employed by developers of groups of one-family homes or low-rise apartment buildings. The homebuilder designs and constructs the dwellings, but the design is substantially completed before owners purchase the homes.Administration of the construction procedure often is difficult. Consequently, some owners seek assistance from an expert, called a professional construction manager, with extensiveconstruction experience, who receives a fee. The construction manager negotiates with general contractors and helps select one to construct the building. Managers usually also supervise selection of subcontractors. During construction, they help control costs, expedite equipment and material deliveries, and keep the work on schedule. In some cases, instead, the owner may prefer o engage a construction program manager, to assist in administrating both design and construction.Construction contractors employ labor that may or may not be unionized. Unionized craftspeople are members of unions that are organized by construction trades, such as carpenter, plumber, and electrician unions, Union members will perform only the work assigned to their trade.During construction, all work should be inspected. For this purpose, the owner, often through the architect and consultants, engages inspectors. The field inspectors may be placed under the control of an owner’s representative, who may be titled clerk of the works, architect’s superintendent, engineer’s superintendent, or resident engineer. The inspectors have the responsibility of ensuring that construction meets the requirements of the contract documents and is performed under safe conditions. Such inspections may be made at frequent intervals.In addition, inspections also are made by representatives of one or more governmental agencies. They have the responsibility of ensuring that construction meets legal requirements and have little or no concern with detailed conformance with the contract documents. Such legal inspections are made periodically or at the end of certain stages of construction. One agency that will make frequent inspections is the local or state building department, whichever has jurisdiction. The purpose of these inspections is to ensure conformance with the local or state building code.Following is a description of the basic traditional construction procedure for a multistory building.After the award of a construction contract to a general contractor, the owner may ask the contractor to start a portion of the work before signing of the contract by giving the contractor a letter of intent or after signing of the contract by issuing a written notice to proceed. The contractor then obtains construction permits, as required, form governmental agencies, such as the local building, water, sewer, and highway departments.The general contractor plans and schedules construction operations in detail and mobilizes equipment and personnel for the project. Subcontractors are notified of the contract award and issued letters of intent or awarded subcontracts, then are given, at appropriate times, notices to proceed.Before construction starts, the general contractor orders a survey to be made of adjacent structures and terrain, both for the record and to become knowledgeable of local conditions. A survey is then made to lay out construction.Field offices for the contractor are erected on or near the site. If desirable for safety reasons to protect passersby, the required to be removed from the site are demolished and the debris is carted away.Next, the site is prepared to receive the building. This work may involve grading the top surface to bring it to the proper elevations, excavating to required depths for basement and foundations, and shifting of utility piping. For deep excavations, earth sides are braced and the bottom is drained.Major construction starts with the placement of foundations, on which the building rests. This is followed by the erection of load-bearing walls and structural framing. Depending on the height of the building, ladders, stairs, or elevators may be installed to enable construction personnel to travel from floor to floor eventually to the roof. Also, hoists may be installed to lift materials to upper levels. If needed, temporary flooring may be placed for use of personnel.As the building rises, pipes, ducts, and electric conduit and wiring are installed. Then, permanent floors, exterior walls, and windows are constructed. At the appropriate time,permanent elevators are installed. If required, fireproofing is placed for steel framing. Next, fixed partitions are built and the roof and its covering are put is place,Finishing operations follow. There include installation of the following: ceilings; tile; wallboard; wall paneling; plumbing fixtures; heating furnaces; air-conditioning equipment; heating and cooling devices for rooms; escalators; floor coverings; window glass; movable partitions; doors; finishing hardware; electrical equipment and apparatus, including lighting fixtures, switches, transformers, and controls; and other items called for in the drawings and specifications. Field offices, fences, bridges, and other temporary construction must be removed from the site. Utilities, such as gas, electricity, and water, are hooked up to the building. The sit is landscaped and paved. Finally, the building interior is painted and cleaned. The owner’s representatives then give the building a final inspection. If they find that the structure conforms with the contract documents, the owner accepts the project and gives the general contractor final payment on issuance by the building department of a certificate of occupancy, which indicates that the completed building meets building-code requirements.传统的施工程序众所周知，在传统的施工程序中进行施工的承包商。
土木工程专业毕业设计外文翻译
High-Rise BuildingsIn troducti onIt is difficult to defi ne a high-rise buildi ng . One may say that a low-rise build ing ranges from 1 to 2 stories . A medium-rise buildi ng p robably ran ges betwee n 3 or 4 stories up to 10or 20 stories or more .Although the basic principles of vertical and horiz on tal subsystem desig n rema in the samefor low- , medium- , or high-rise build ings , whe n a build ing gets high the verticalsubsystemsbecome a con trolli ng p roblem for two reas ons . Higher vertical loads will requirelarger colu mns , walls , and shafts . But , more sig nifica ntly , the overtur ning mome nt and theshear deflect ions p roduced by lateral forces are much larger and must be carefully pro vided for .The vertical subsystems in a high-rise buildi ng tran smit accumulated gravity load from storyto story , thus requiri ng larger colu mn or wall secti ons to support such loadi ng .In additi onthese same vertical subsystems must tran smit lateral loads , such as wi nd or seismic loads , tothe foun datio ns. However , in con trast to vertical load , lateral load effects on build ings arenot lin ear and in crease rap idly with in crease in height . For example under wind load , theoverturning moment at the base of buildings varies approximately as the square of a buildings mayvary as the fourth power of buildings height , other things being equal. Earthquake produces an evenmore pronoun ced effect.When the structure for a low-or medium-rise building is designed for dead and live load , it isalmost an in here nt property that the colu mns , walls , and stair or elevator shafts can carrymost of the horiz on tal forces . The p roblem is p rimarily one of shear resista nee . Moderateadditi on braci ng for rigid frames in easily be pro vided by filli ng certa in pan els ( or eve n“short ” buildi all pan els ) without in creas ing the sizes of the colu mns and girders otherwise required forvertical loads.Unfortunately , this is not is for high-rise buildings because the problem is p rimarily resistanee to mome nt and deflect ion rather tha n shear alone . Sp ecial structural arra ngeme nts will often have to be made and additi onal structural material is always required for the columns , girders ,walls , and slabs in order to made a high-rise buildi ngs sufficie ntly resista nt to much higherlateral deformati ons .As p reviously men ti oned , the qua ntity of structural material required per square foot offloor of a high-rise buildings is in excess of that required for low-rise buildings . The verticalcomponents carrying the gravity load , such as walls , columns , and shafts , will need to bestrengthened over the full height of the build ings . But qua ntity of material required for resisting lateral forces is eve n more sig nifica nt .With rei nforced con crete , the qua ntity of material also in creases as the nu mber ofstories in creases . But here it should be no ted that the in crease in the weight of material addedfor gravity load is much more sizable tha n steel , whereas for windIn crease the effective width of the mome nt-resisti ng subsystems . This is very usefulbecause in creas ing the width will cut dow n the overtur n force directly and willreduce deflecti on by the third po wer of the width in crease , other things rema iningcin sta nt . However , this does require that vertical components of the widenedsubsystem be suitably connected to actually gain this ben efit.Desig n subsystemssuch that the components are made to in teract in the most efficientmanner . For example , use truss systems with chords and diagonals efficiently stressed ,place reinforcing for walls at critical locati ons , and op timize stiff ness ratios for rigid frames .In crease the material in the most effective resist ing components . For exa mple ,materials added in the lower floors to the flan ges of colu mns and conn ect ing girderswill directly decrease the overall deflect ion and in crease the mome nt resista neewithout con tribut ing mass in the upper floors where the earthquake p roblem isaggravated .Arrange to have the greater part of vertical loads be carried directly on the primarymoment-resisting components . This will help stabilize the build ings aga inst ten sileovertu rning forces by p reco mp ress in gthe major overturn-resisti ng components .The local shear in each story can be best resisted by strategic pl aceme nt if solid wallsor the use of diagonal members in a vertical subsystem . Resist ing these shears solelyby vertical members in bending is usually less econo mical , since achiev ing sufficient bending resista nee in the colu mns and conn ect ing girders will require morematerial and con struct ion en ergy tha n using walls or diago nal members .Sufficie nt horiz on tal dia phragm acti on should be pro vided floor . This will help tobring the various resist ing eleme nts to work together in stead of sep arately .Create mega-frames by joining large vertical and horizontal components such as two or moreelevator shafts at multistory intervals with a heavy floor subsystems , or by use of verydee p girder trusses .Remember that all high-rise build ings are esse ntially vertical can tilevers which aresupported at the ground . When the above principles are judiciously applied , structurally desirable schemes can be obta ined by walls , cores , rigid frames, tubular con struct ion , and othervertical subsystems to achieve horiz on tal stre ngth and rigidity . Some of these app licati ons will now be described in subseque nt secti ons in the followi ng .Shear-Wall SystemsWhen shear walls are comp atible with other fun cti onal requireme nts , they can beeconomically utilized to resist lateral forces in high-rise buildings . For example , ap artme nt build ings n aturally require many sep arati on walls . Whe n some of these are desig ned to be load the in crease for lateral force resista nee is not that much more since the weight of a concrete buildings helps to resist overturn . On the other hand , the problem of desig n for earthquake forces . Additi onal mass in the upper floors will give rise to a greater overall lateral force un der the of seismic effects .In the case of either concrete or steel design , there are certain basic principles for pro vid ing additi onal resista nee to lateral to lateral forces and deflecti ons in high-rise build ings without too much sacrifire in economy .1.2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.solid , they can act as shear walls to resist lateral forces and to carry the vertical load aswell . For buildi ngs up to some 20storise , the use of shear walls is com mon .If give n sufficie nt len gth ,such walls can econo mically resist lateral forces up to 30 to 40 stories or more .However , shear walls can resist lateral load only the plane of the walls ( i.e .not in adireti on perpen dicular to them ) . There fore ,it is always n ecessary to pro vide shear walls in two perpen dicular directi ons can be at least in sufficie nt orie ntati on so that lateral force in any direct ion can be resisted .In additi on , that wall layout should reflect con siderati on of any torsi onal effect .In desig n p rogress , two or more shear walls can be conn ected to from L-sha ped or cha nnel-sha ped subsystems .In deed ‘internal shear walls can be conn ected to from a rectangular shaft that will resist lateral forces very efficiently . If all external shear walls are continuously connected , then the whole buildings acts as tube , and conn ected , the n the whole buildi ngs acts as a tube , and is excelle nt Shear-Wall Seystems resist ing lateral loads and torsi on .Whereas con crete shear walls are gen erally of solid type with openings whe n necessary, steel shear walls are usually made of trusses . These trusses can have single diagonals , “X” diagona|sor “ K” arrang e nhs . A trussed wall will have its members act esse ntially in direct tension or comp ressi on un der the acti on of view , and they offer some opportunity anddeflection-limitation point of view , and they offer some opportunity for penetration between members . Of course , the inclined members of trusses must be suitable p laced so as not to in terfere with requireme nts for wion dows and for circulati on service pen etrati ons though these walls .As stated above , the walls of elevator , staircase ,and utility shafts form n atural tubes and are com monly empio yed to resist both vertical and lateral forces . Since these shafts are no rmally recta ngular or circular in cross-sect ion , they can offer an efficie nt means for resist ing mome nts and shear in all directi ons due to tube structural action . But a p roblem in the desig n of these shafts is pro vided sufficie nt stre ngth around door openings and other pen etrati ons through these eleme nts . For rein forced concrete construction , special steel reinforcements are placed around such opening .In steel con struct ion , heavier and more rigid conn ecti ons are required to resist rack ing at the openings .In many high-rise build ings , a comb in ati on of walls and shafts can offer excelle ntresista nee to lateral forces whe n they are suitably located ant conn ected to one ano ther . It is also desirable that the stiff ness offered these subsystems be more-or-less symmertrical in all direct ions .Rigid-Frame SystemsIn the desig n of architectural build ings , rigid-frame systems for resist ing vertical and lateral loads have long bee n acce pted as an imp orta nt and sta ndard means for designingbuilding . They are empioyed for low-and medium means for designing build ings . They are empio yed for low- and medium up to high-rise build ing p erha ps 70 or 100 stories high . Whe n comp ared to shear-wall systems , these rigid frames both with in and at the outside of a buildi ngs . They also make use of the stiff ness in beams and colu mns that are required for the build ings in any case , but the colu mns are made stron ger whe n rigidly conn ected to resist the lateral as well as vertical forces though frame bending .Freque ntly , rigid frames will not be as stiff as shear-wall con struct ion , and therefore may p roduce excessive deflecti ons for the more sle nder high-rise buildi ngs desig ns . But because of this flexibility , they are ofte n con sidered as being more ductile and thus less susceptible to catastr op hic earthquake failure whe n comp ared with ( some ) shear-wall desig ns . For exa mple , if over stress ing occurs at certa in p orti ons of a steel rigid frame ( i.e., near the joi nt ) , ductility will allow the structure as a whole to deflect a little more , but it will by no means colla pse eve n un der a much larger force tha n exp ected on the structure . For this reas on , rigid-frame con struct ion is considered by some to be a “ best ” seisresisting type for high-rise steel buildings . On the other hand ,it is also unlikely that a well-designed share-wall system would colla pse.In the case of con crete rigid frames ,there is a diverge nee of opinion .It true that if a con crete rigid frame is desig ned in the conven ti onal manner , without sp ecial care to produce higher ductility , it will not be able to withstand a catastrophic earthquake that can p roduce forces several times lerger tha n the code desig n earthquake forces . therefore , some believe that it may not have additi onal cap acity p ossessed by steel rigid frames . But moder n research and exp erie nee has in dicated that con crete frames can be desig ned to be ductile , whe n sufficie nt stirr ups and joinery rein forceme nt are designed in to the frame . Modern buildings codes have specifications for the so-called ductile con crete frames . However , at p rese nt , these codesofte n require excessive rein forceme nt at certa in points in the frame so as to cause con gesti on and result in construction difficulties 。
土木工程专业英语课文原文及对照翻译
Civil EngineeringCivil engineering, the oldest of the engineering specialties, is the planning, design, construction, and management of the built environment. This environment includes all structures built according to scientific principles, from irrigation and drainage systems to rocket-launching facilities.土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。
此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。
Civil engineers build roads, bridges, tunnels, dams, harbors, power plants, water and sewage systems, hospitals, schools, mass transit, and other public facilities essential to modern society and large population concentrations. They also build privately owned facilities such as airports, railroads, pipelines, skyscrapers, and other large structures designed for industrial, commercial, or residential use. In addition, civil engineers plan, design, and build complete cities and towns, and more recently have been planning and designing space platforms to house self-contained communities.土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。
土木工程专业外文翻译建筑工程
Construction EngineeringAbstract: Construction engineering is a specialized branch of civil engineering concerned with the planning, execution, and control of construction operations for such projects as highways, buildings, dams, airports, and utility lines. Planning consists of scheduling the work to be done and selecting the most suitable construction methods and equipment for the project. Execution requires the timely mobilization of all drawings, layouts, and materials on the job to prevent delays to the work. Control consists of analyzing progress and cost to ensure that the project will be done on schedule and within the estimated cost.Keywords: planning, Execution, Control, Preparation of site,Earthmoving, Foundation treatment, Steel erection, Concrete construction, Asphalt paving and so on.Construction engineering is a specialized branch of civil engineering concerned with the planning, execution, and control of construction operations for such projects as highways, buildings, dams, airports, and utility lines.Planning consists of scheduling the work to be done and selecting the most suitable construction methods and equipment for the project. Execution requires the timely mobilization of all drawings, layouts, and materials on the job to prevent delays to the work. Control consists of analyzing progress and cost to ensure that the project will be done on schedule and within the estimated cost.Planning. The planning phase starts with a detailed study of construction plans and specifications. From this study a list of all items of work is prepared, and related items are then grouped together for listing on a master schedule. A sequence of construction and the time to be allotted for each item is then indicated. The method of operation and the equipment to be used for the individual work items are selected to satisfy the schedule and the character of the project at the lowest possible cost.The amount of time allotted for a certain operation and the selection of methods of operation and equipment that is readily available to the contractor. After the masteror general construction schedule has been drawn up, subsidiary detailed schedules or forecasts are prepared form the master schedule. These include individual schedules for procurement of material, equipment, and labor, as well as forecasts of cost and income.Execution. The speedy execution of the project requires the project requires the ready supply of all materials, equipment, and labor when needed. The construction engineer is generally responsible for initiating the purchase of most construction materials and expediting their delivery to the project. Some materials, such as structural steel and mechanical equipment, require partial or complete fabrication by a supplier. For these fabricated materials the engineer must prepare or check all fabrication drawings for accuracy and case of assembly and often inspect the supplier’s fabrication.Other construction engineering duties are the layout of the work by surveying methods, the preparation of detail drawings to clarify the design engineer’s drawings for the construction crews, and the inspection of the work to ensure that it complies with plans and specifications.On most large projects it is necessary to design and prepare construction drawings for temporary construction facilities, such as drainage structures, access roads, office and storage buildings, formwork, and cofferdams. Other problems are the selection of electrical and mechanical equipment and the design of structural features for concrete material processing and mixing plants and compressed air, water, and electrical distribution systems.Control. Progress control is obtained by comparing actual performance on the work against the desired performance set up on the master or detailed schedules. Since delay on one feature of the project could easily affect the entire job, it is often necessary to add equipment or crews to speed up the work.Cost control is obtained by comparing actual unit costs for individual work itemsagainst estimated or budgeted unit costs, which are set up at the beginning of the work. A unit cost is obtained by dividing the total cost of an operation by the number of units in that operation.Typical units are cubic yards for excavation or concrete work and tons for structural steel. The actual unit cost for any item at any time is obtained by dividing the accumulated costs charged to that item by the accumulated units of work performed.Individual work item costs are obtained by periodically distributing job costs, such as payroll and invoices to various work item accounts. Payroll and equipment rental charges are distributed with the aid of time cards prepared by crew foremen. The cards indicate the time spent by the job crews and equipment on the different element of the work. The allocation of material costs is based on the quantity of each type of material used for each specific item.When the comparison of actual and estimated unit costs indicates an overrun; an analysis is made to pinpoint the cause. If the overrun is in equipment costs, it may be that the equipment has insufficient capacity or that it is not working properly. If the overrun is in labor costs, it may be that the crews have too many men, lack of proper supervision, or are being delayed for lack of materials or layout. In such cases time studies are invaluable in analyzing productivity.Construction operations are generally classified according to specialized fields. These include preparation of the project site, earthmoving, foundation treatment, steel erection, concrete placement, asphalt paving, and electrical and mechanical installations. Procedures for each of these fields are generally, the same, even when applied to different projects, such as buildings, dams, or airports. However, the relative importance of each field is not the same in all cases.Preparation of site. This consists of the removal and clearing of all surface structures and growth from the site of the proposed structure. A bulldozer is used forsmall structures and trees. Larger structures must be dismantled.Earthmoving. This includes excavation and the placement of earth fill. Excavation follows preparation of the site, and is performed when the existing grade must be brought down to a new elevation. Excavation generally starts with the separate stripping of the organic topsoil, which is later reused for landscaping around the new structure. This also prevents contamination of the nonorganic material which is below the topsoil and which may be required for fill. Excavation may be done by any of several excavators, such as shovels, draglines, clamshells, cranes, and scrapers.Efficient excavation on land requires a dry excavation area, because many soils are unstable when wet and cannot support excavating and hauling equipment. Dewatering becomes a major operation when the excavation lies below the natural water table and intercepts the groundwater flow. When this occurs, dewatering and stabilizing of the soil may be accomplished by trenches, which conduct seepage to a sump from which the water is pumped out. Dewatering and stabilizing of the soil may in other cases be accomplished by wellpoints and electroosmosis.Some materials, such as rock, cemented gravels, and hard clays, require blasting to loosen or fragment the material. Blast holes are drilled in the material; explosives are then placed in the blast holes and detonated. The quantity of explosives and the blast-hole spacing are dependent upon the type and structure of the rock and the diameter and depth of the blast holes.After placement of the earth fill, it is almost always compacted to prevent subsequent settlement. Compaction is generally done with sheep’s-foot, grid, pneumatic-tired, and vibratory-type rollers, which are towed by tractors over the fills it is being placed. Hand-held, gasoline-driven rammers are used for compaction close to structures where is no room for rollers to operate.Foundation treatment. When subsurface investigation reveals structural defects in the foundation area to be used for a structure, the foundation must be strengthened.Water passages, cavities, fissures, faults, and other defects are filled and strengthened by grouting. Grouting consists of injection of fluid mixtures under pressure. The fluids subsequently solidify in the voids of the strata. Most grouting is done with cement and mixtures, but other mixture ingredients are asphalt, cement and clay, and precipitating chemicals.Steel erection. The construction of a steel structure consists of the assembly at the site of mill-rolled or shop-fabricated steel section. The steel sections many consist of beams, columns, or small trusses which are joined together by riveting, bolting, or welding. It is more economical to assemble sections of the structure at a fabricating shop rather than in the field, but the size of preassembled units is limited by the capacity of transportation and erection equipment. The crane is the most common type of erection equipment, but when a structure is too high or extensive in area to be erected by a crane, it is necessary to place one or more derricks on the structure to handle the steel. In high structures the derrick must be constantly dismantled and reerected to successively higher levels to raise the structure. For river bridges the steel may be handled by cranes on barges, or, if the bridge is too high, by traveling derricks which ride on the bridge being erected, Cables for long suspension bridges are assembled in place by special equipment that pulls the wire from a reel, set up at one anchorage, across to the opposite anchorage, repeating the operation until the bundle of wires is of the required size.Concrete construction. Concrete construction consists of several operations: forming, concrete production, placement, and curing. Forming is required to contain and support the fluid concrete within its desired final outline until it solidifies and can support itself. The form is made of timber or steel sections or a combination of both and is held together during the concrete placing by external bracing or internal ties. The forms and ties are designed to withstand the temporary fluid pressure of the concrete.The usual practice for vertical walls is to leave the forms in position for at least a day after the concrete is placed. They are removed when the concrete has solidified or set. Slip-forming is a method where the form is constantly in motion, just ahead of the level of fresh concrete. The form is lifted upward by means of jacks which are mounted on vertical rods embedded in the concrete and are spaced along the perimeter of the structure. Slip forms are used for high structures such as silos, tanks, or chimneys.Concrete may be obtained from commercial batch plants which deliver it in mix trucks if the job is close to such a plant, or it may be produced at the job site. Concrete production at the job site requires the erection of a mixing plant, and of cement and aggregate receiving and handling plants. Aggregates are sometimes produced at or near the job site. This requires opening a quarry and erecting processing equipment such as crushers and screens.Concrete is placed by chuting directly from the mix truck, where possible, or from buckets handled by means of cranes or cableways, or it can be pumped into place by special concrete pumps.Curing of exposed surfaced is required to prevent evaporation of mix water or to replace moisture that dose evaporate. The poper blance of water and cement is required to develop full design strength.Concrete paving for airports and highways is a fully mechanized operation. Batches of concrete are placed between the road forms from a mix truck or a movable paver, which is a combination mixer and placer. A series of specialized pieces of equipment, which ride on the forms, follow to spread and vibrate the concrete, smooth its surface, cut contraction joints, and apply a curing compound.Asphalt paving. This is an amalgam of crushed aggregate and a bituminous binder. It may be placed on the roadbed in separate operations or mixed in a mix plant and spread at one time on the roadbed. Then the pavement is compacted by rollers.建筑工程摘要：建筑工程是土木工程的一个专业分支，涉及对诸如高速公路、建筑物、水坝、机场和公用事业管线项目的规划、实施和控制。
土木工程外文翻译(中英互译版)
使用加固纤维聚合物增强混凝土梁的延性Nabil F. Grace, George Abel-Sayed, Wael F. Ragheb摘要：一种为加强结构延性的新型单轴柔软加强质地的聚合物(FRP)已在被研究，开发和生产(在结构测试的中心在劳伦斯技术大学)。
这种织物是两种碳纤维和一种玻璃纤维的混合物，而且经过设计它们在受拉屈服时应变值较低，从而表达出伪延性的性能。
通过对八根混凝土梁在弯曲荷载作用下的加固和检测对研制中的织物的效果和延性进行了研究。
用现在常用的单向碳纤维薄片、织物和板进行加固的相似梁也进行了检测，以便同用研制中的织物加固梁进行性能上的比拟。
这种织物经过设计具有和加固梁中的钢筋同时屈服的潜力，从而和未加固梁一样，它也能得到屈服台阶。
相对于那些用现在常用的碳纤维加固体系进行加固的梁，这种研制中的织物加固的梁承受更高的屈服荷载，并且有更高的延性指标。
这种研制中的织物对加固机制表达出更大的奉献。
关键词：混凝土，延性，纤维加固，变形介绍外贴粘合纤维增强聚合物〔FRP〕片和条带近来已经被确定是一种对钢筋混凝土结构进行修复和加固的有效手段。
关于应用外贴粘合FRP板、薄片和织物对混凝土梁进行变形加固的钢筋混凝土梁的性能，一些试验研究调查已经进行过报告。
Saadatmanesh和Ehsani〔1991〕检测了应用玻璃纤维增强聚合物(GFRP)板进行变形加固的钢筋混凝土梁的性能。
Ritchie等人〔1991〕检测了应用GFRP，碳纤维增强聚合物〔CFRP〕和G/CFRP板进行变形加固的钢筋混凝土梁的性能。
Grace等人〔1999〕和Triantafillou〔1992〕研究了应用CFRP薄片进行变形加固的钢筋混凝土梁的性能。
Norris，Saadatmanesh和Ehsani〔1997〕研究了应用单向CFRP薄片和CFRP织物进行加固的混凝土梁的性能。
在所有的这些研究中，加固的梁比未加固的梁承受更高的极限荷载。
土木工程毕业设计外文翻译--土方工程的地基勘察与施工
DESIGN AND EXECUTION OF GROUNDINVESTIGATION FOR EARTHWORKSABSTRACTThe design and execution of ground investigation works for earthwork projects has become increasingly important as the availability of suitable disposal areas becomes limited and costs of importing engineering fill increase. An outline of ground investigation methods which can augment ‘traditional investigation methods’ particularly for glacial till / boulder clay soils is presented. The issue of ‘geotechnical certification’ is raised an d recommendations outlined on its merits for incorporation with ground investigations and earthworks.1. INTRODUCTIONThe investigation and re-use evaluation of many Irish boulder clay soils presents difficulties for both the geotechnical engineer and the road design engineer. These glacial till or boulder clay soils are mainly of low plasticity and have particle sizes ranging from clay to boulders. Most of our boulder clay soils contain varying proportions of sand, gravel, cobbles and boulders in a clay or silt matrix. The amount of fines governs their behaviour and the silt content makes it very weather susceptible.Moisture contents can be highly variable ranging from as low as 7% for the hard grey black Dublin boulder clay up to 20-25% for Midland, South-West and North-West light grey boulder clay deposits. The ability of boulder clay soils to take-in free water is well established and poor planning of earthworks often amplifies this.The fine soil constituents are generally sensitive to small increases in moisture content which often lead to loss in strength and render the soils unsuitable for re-use as engineering fill. Many of our boulder clay soils (especially those with intermediate type silts and fine sandmatrix) have been rejected at the selection stage, but good planning shows that they can in fact fulfil specification requirements in terms of compaction and strength.The selection process should aim to maximise the use of locally available soils and with careful evaluation it is possible to use o r incorporate ‘poor or marginal soils’ within fill areas and embankments. Fill material needs to be placed at a moisture content such that it is neither too wet to be stable and trafficable or too dry to be properly compacted.High moisture content / low strength boulder clay soils can be suitable for use as fill in low height embankments (i.e. 2 to 2.5m) but not suitable for trafficking by earthwork plant without using a geotextile separator and granular fill capping layer. Hence, it is vital that the earthworks contractor fully understands the handling properties of the soils, as for many projects this is effectively governed by the trafficability of earthmoving equipment.2. TRADITIONAL GROUND INVESTIGATION METHODSFor road projects, a principal aim of the ground investigation is to classify the suitability of the soils in accordance with Table 6.1 from Series 600 of the NRA Specification for Road Works (SRW), March 2000. The majority of current ground investigations for road works includes a combination of the following to give the required geotechnical data:▪Trial pits▪Cable percussion boreholes▪Dynamic probing▪Rotary core drilling▪In-situ testing (SPT, variable head permeability tests, geophysical etc.)▪Laboratory testingThe importance of ‘phasing’ th e fieldwork operations cannot be overstressed, particularly when assessing soil suitability from deep cut areas. Cable percussion boreholes are normally sunk to a desired depth or ‘refusal’ with disturbed and undisturbed samples recovered at 1.00m intervals or change of strata.In many instances, cable percussion boring is unable to penetrate through very stiff, hard boulder clay soils due to cobble, boulder obstructions. Sample disturbance in boreholes should be prevented and loss of fines is common, invariably this leads to inaccurate classification.Trial pits are considered more appropriate for recovering appropriate size samples and for observing the proportion of clasts to matrix and sizes of cobbles, boulders. Detailed and accurate field descriptions are therefore vital for cut areas and trial pits provide an opportunity to examine the soils on a larger scale than boreholes. Trial pits also provide an insight on trench stability and to observe water ingress and its effects.A suitably experienced geotechnical engineer or engineering geologist should supervise the trial pitting works and recovery of samples. The characteristics of the soils during trial pit excavation should be closely observed as this provides information on soil sensitivity, especially if water from granular zones migrates into the fine matrix material. Very often, the condition of soil on the sides of an excavation provides a more accurate assessment of its in-situ condition.3. SOIL CLASSIFICATIONSoil description and classification should be undertaken in accordance with BS 5930 (1999) and tested in accordance with BS 1377 (1990). The engineering description of a soil is based on its particle size grading, supplemented by plasticity for fine soils. For many of our glacial till, boulde r clay soils (i.e. ‘mixed soils’) difficulties arise with descriptions and assessing engineering performance tests.A key parameter (which is often underestimated) in classifying and understanding these soils is permeability (K). Inspection of the particle size gradings will indicate magnitude of permeability. Where possible, triaxial cell tests should be carried out on either undisturbed samples (U100’s) or good quality core samples to evaluate the drainage characteristics of the soils accurately.Low plasticity boulder clay soils of intermediate permeability (i.e. K of the order of 10-5 to 10-7 m/s) can often be ‘conditioned’ by drainage measures. This usually entails the installation of perimeter drains and sumps at cut areas or borrow pits so as to reduc e the moisture content. Hence, with small reduction in moisture content, difficult glacial till soils can become suitable as engineering fill.4. ENGINEERING PERFORMANCE TESTING OF SOILSLaboratory testing is very much dictated by the proposed end-use for the soils. The engineering parameters set out in Table 6.1 pf the NRA SRW include a combination of the following:▪Moisture content▪Particle size grading▪Plastic Limit▪CBR▪Compaction (relating to optimum MC)▪Remoulded undrained shear strengthA number of key factors should be borne in mind when scheduling laboratory testing:▪Compaction / CBR / MCV tests are carried out on < 20mm size material.▪Moisture content values should relate to < 20mm size material to provide a valid comparison.▪Pore pressures are not taken into account during compaction and may vary considerably between laboratory and field.▪Preparation methods for soil testing must be clearly stipulated and agreed with the designated laboratory.Great care must be taken when determining moisture content of boulder clay soils. Ideally, the moisture content should be related to the particle size and have a corresponding grading analysis for direct comparison, although this is not always practical.In the majority of cases, the MCV when used with compaction data is considered to offer the best method of establishing (and checking) the suitability characteristics of a boulder clay soil. MCV testing during trial pitting is strongly recommended as it provides a rapid assessment of the soil suitability directly after excavation. MCV calibration can then be carried out in the laboratory at various moisture content increments. Sample disturbance can occur during transportation to the laboratory and this can have a significant impact on the resultant MCV’s. IGSL h as found large discrepancies when performing MCV’s in the field on low plasticity boulder clays with those carried out later in the laboratory (2 to 7 days). Many of the aforementioned low plasticity boulder clay soils exhibit time dependant behaviour with significantly different MCV’s recorded at a later date –increased values can be due to the drainage of the material following sampling, transportation and storage while dilatancy and migration of water from granular lenses can lead to deterioration and lower values.CBR testing of boulder clay soils also needs careful consideration, mainly with the preparation method employed. Design engineers need to be aware of this, as it can have an order of magnitude difference in results. Static compaction of boulder clay soils is advised as compaction with the 2.5 or 4.5kg rammer often leads to high excess pore pressures being generated – hence very low CBR values can result. Also, curing of compacted boulder clay samples is important as this allows excess pore water pressures to dissipate.5. ENGINEERING CLASSIFICATION OF SOILSIn accordance with the NRA SRW, general cohesive fill is categorised in Table 6.1 as follows:▪2A Wet cohesive▪2B Dry cohesive▪2C Stony cohesive▪2D Silty cohesiveThe material properties required for acceptability are given and the design engineer then determines the upper and lower bound limits on the basis of the laboratory classification and engineering performance tests. Irish boulder clay soils are predominantly Class 2C.Clause 612 of the SRW sets out compaction methods. Two procedures are available:▪Method Compaction▪End-Product CompactionEnd product compaction is considered more practical, especially when good compaction control data becomes available during the early stages of an earthworks contract. A minimum Target Dry Density (TDD) is considered very useful for the contractor to work with as a means of checking compaction quality. Once the material has been approved and meets the acceptability limits, then in-situ density can be measured, preferably by nuclear gauge or sand replacement tests where the stone content is low.As placing and compaction of the fill progresses, the in-situ TDD can be checked and non-conforming areas quickly recognised and corrective action taken. This process requires the design engineer to review the field densities with the laboratory compaction plots and evaluate actual with ‘theoretical densities’.6. SUPPLEMENTARY GROUND INVESTIGATION METHODS FOR EARTHWORKSThe more traditional methods and procedures have been outlined in Section 2. The following are examples of methods which are believed to enhance ground investigation works for road projects:▪Phasing the ground investigation works, particularly the laboratory testing▪Excavation & sampling in deep trial pits▪Large diameter high quality rotary core drilling using air-mist or polymer gel techniques▪Small-scale compaction trials on potentially suitable cut material6.1PHASINGPhasing ground investigation works for many large projects has been advocated for many years –this is particularly true for road projects where significant amounts of geotechnical data becomes available over a short period. On the majority of large ground investigation projects no period is left to ‘digest’ or review the preliminary fi ndings and re-appraise the suitability of the methods.With regard to soil laboratory testing, large testing schedules are often prepared with no real consideration given to their end use. In many cases, the schedule is prepared by a junior engineer while the senior design engineer who will probably design the earthworks will have no real involvement.It is highlighted that the engineering performance tests are expensive and of long duration (e.g. 5 point compaction with CBR & MCV at each point takes in exc ess of two weeks). When classification tests (moisture contents, particle size analysis and Atterberg Limits) are completed then a more incisive evaluation can be carried out on the data and the engineering performance tests scheduled. If MCV’s are perform ed during trial pitting then a good assessment of the soil suitability can be immediately obtained.6.2DEEP TRIAL PITSThe excavation of deep trial pits is often perceived as cumbersome and difficult and therefore not considered appropriate by design engineers. Excavation of deep trial pits in boulder clay soils to depths of up to 12m is feasible using benching techniques and sump pumping of groundwater.In recent years, IGSL has undertaken such deep trial pits on several large road ground investigation projects. The data obtained from these has certainly enhanced the geotechnical data and provided a better understanding of the bulk properties of the soils.It is recommended that this work be carried out following completion of the cable percussion boreholes and rotary core drill holes. The groundwater regime within the cut area will play an important role in governing the feasibility of excavating deep trial pits. The installation ofstandpipes and piezometers will greatly assist the understanding of the ground water conditions, hence the purpose of undertaking this work late on in the ground investigation programme.Large representative samples can be obtained (using trench box) and in-situ shear strength measured on block samples. The stability of the pit sidewalls and groundwater conditions can also be established and compared with levels in nearby borehole standpipes or piezometers. Over a prominent cut area of say 500m, three deep trial pits can prove invaluable and the spoil material also used to carry out small-scale compaction trials.From a value engineering perspective, the cost of excavating and reinstating these excavations can be easily recovered. A provisional sum can be allocated in the ground investigation and used for this work.7. CONCLUSIONS▪Close co-operation is needed between ground investigation contractors and consulting engineers to ensure that the geotechnical investigation work for the roads NDP can be satisfactorily carried out.▪Many soils are too easily rejected at selection / design stag e. It is hoped that the proposed methods outlined in this paper will assist design engineers during scoping and specifying of ground investigation works for road projects.▪With modern instrumentation, monitoring of earthworks during construction is very straightforward. Pore water pressures, lateral and vertical movements can be easily measured and provide important feedback on the performance of the engineered soils.▪Phasing of the ground investigation works, particularly laboratory testing is considered vital so that the data can be properly evaluated.▪Disposal of ‘marginal’ soils will become increasingly difficult and more expensive as the waste licensing regulations are tightened. The advent of landfill tax in the UK has seenthorough examination of all soils for use in earthworks. This is likely to provide a similar incentive and challenge to geotechnical and civil engineers in Ireland in the coming years.▪ A certification approach comparable with that outlined should be considered by the NRAfor ground investigation and earthwork activitie▪土方工程的地基勘察与施工摘要：当工程场地的处理面积有限且填方工程费用大量增加时，土方工程的地基勘察设计与施工已逐渐地变得重要。
土建外文翻译word版
Residual bond strength between steel bars and concrete after elevated temperaturesA. Ferhat Bingöl Rüstem GülCivil Engineering Department, Atatürk University, Erzurum, TurkeyARTICLEArticle historyReceived in revised formRevised 28 March 2009.Accepted 3 April 2009.A vailable online 6 May 2009.KeywordsConcrete;Elevated temperatures;Pull-out;Bond strength;Cooling regimesAbstractThe effects of elevated temperatures and cooling regimes on the residual (after cooling) bond strength between concrete and steel bars are investigated. For this study, ribbed steel bars of 8 mm diameter are embedded in to C20 and C35 concrete blocks with embedment lengths of 6, 10 and 12 cm. Unsealed specimens are heated to 12 different temperatures ranging between 50 and 700 °C and then cooled in water or in air. Pull-out tests are carried out on the specimens, and the effects of elevated temperatures on the residual bond strength are investigated by comparing the results against unheated specimens.Increases in bond strength are observed for temperatures up to 150 °C; however,there is decrease for all other temperatures. The effect of the cooling regime is less pronounced for the concrete-bar bond strength. Moreover, it is concluded that concrete-bar bond strength increases with the increase in compressive strength of concrete and embedment length of the bar.1. IntroductionReinforced concrete, one of the most widely used construction materials for a variety of structures, is a composite material consisting of reinforcing bars in a hardened concrete matrix. Concrete is unique for its versatility and large capacity to resist compressive stresses. However, its low tensile capacity makes it imperative to incorporate another material capable of resisting and transmitting tensile stresses. Steel is recognised worldwide as the most competent reinforcing material in structural concrete due to its high tensile capacity and similar rate of thermal expansion and Poisson's ratio as of concrete [1].More attention has been paid to the mechanical properties of concrete at high temperature or to the residual properties of concrete after exposure to high temperatures. Concrete may be exposed to elevated temperatures during a fire or when it is closer to furnaces and nuclear reactors. Its mechanical properties such as strength, modulus of elasticity and volume deformation decrease and this results in structural quality deterioration of concrete [2], [3], [4], [5], [6], [7] and [8]. Of particular importance are loss in strength and elastic modulus, cracking and spalling, ductility, and loss of bond with any steel reinforcement [3] and [9]. An assessment of the degree of deterioration of theconcrete structure after exposure to high temperatures can help engineers to decide whether a structure can be repaired rather than required to be demolished [10].Deterioration in mechanical properties of concrete upon heating may be attributed to material factors and environmental factors. Material factors are properties of aggregate, properties of cement paste and aggregate–cement paste bond and their thermal incompatibility between each other. Environmental factors can be listed as heating rate, duration of exposure to maximum temperature, cooling rate, loading conditions and moisture regime [11] and [12]. Siliceous aggregates containing quartz may cause distress in concrete at about 573 °C since the transformation of quartz from αto βform is associated with a sudden expansion of 0.85% [11].The structure of concrete material can be approximately classified into micro level (less than 1 μm), meso level (between 1 μm and 1 cm), and macro level (greater than 1 cm). For concrete subjected to high temperature, with the increase in temperature, strength and Young's modulus decrease at macro level, internal structures degenerate and micro defects develop at micro and meso levels [13].The effect of fire and high temperature on the behaviour and properties of reinforced concrete studies includes compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, shear modulus, thermal conductivity, specific heat and creep of concrete along with modulus of elasticity and coefficient of thermal expansion and tensile strength of reinforcing steel. Information on the bond between concrete and steel is limited. In studying bond strength, pull-out tests are applied and average loads are used to calculate average bond strength [14].Some previous work was conducted on the bond between steel bars and concrete, the bond between fibres and concrete and the bond in other fibre-reinforced composites [15], [16], [17], [18], [19], [20] and [21].Most research data of residual properties of concrete after exposure to high temperature were obtained under conditions of natural cooling, which should differ obviously from cooling regimes in a real fire, where water spraying is usually used for fire extinguishing and consequently thermal shock is induced to concrete. It has been reported that water cooling caused more severe decrease in strength compared to natural cooling. Therefore, the effect of cooling regimes on the mechanical properties of concrete is of great concern [22], [23], [24] and [25].As a result of these reasons summarised above, the effects of elevated temperatures and cooling regimes after the heating process on the residual bond strength between concrete and steel bars are examined in this experimental investigation. Normal strength concrete mixtures with the initial compressive strengths of 20 and 35 MPa, which are commonly used in buildings in Turkey, are tested throughout the study. Reinforcement bars are embedded into concrete specimens with 3 different embedment lengths of 6, 10 and 16 cm. Specimens are cooled either in water or in air, after heating processes.2. Materials and methodsASTM Type I, Portland Cement (PC), from Aşkale Cement Factory in Erzurum, Turkey, was used in this investigation. Natural aggregate (NA) with a maximum size of 16 mm was obtained from Altunkent region in Erzincan, Turkey. Aggregate used in this studywas river sand and gravel and it was siliceous aggregate. The chemical composition of PC is summarised in Table 1, physical and mechanical properties of PC are given in Table 2 and the properties of aggregate are shown in Table 3. The diameter of the ribbed steel bars was 8 mm and the properties of the bars are listed in Table 4.Two different concrete mixes with initial compressive strengths of 20 and 35 MPa are produced in laboratory-type mixer with the capacity of 60 dm3. Ribbed steel bars 8 mm in diameter are embedded into concrete blocks with the embedment lengths of 6, 10 and 16 cm. For each group, six samples of 100 mm diameter and 200 mm height cylinders are prepared for all temperature values. Three of them are cooled in water and the other three specimens are cooled in laboratory conditions after heating. The specimens are placed ina water tank at 23±2 °C, 24 h after the casting and cured until the 26th day. At the end of28 days of water curing, the specimens are dried and heated up to target tempera tures and then cooled to room temperature either in air gradually or in water rapidly. Pull-out tests are conducted 24 h after the specimens are cooled to room temperature and the residual bond strengths are determined. The pull-out test is commonly used to measure the steel–concrete bond strength [26], because it is easier according to other test methods and suitable for comparing relative bond properties [27]. The pull-out test machine, used in this study, is shown in Fig. 1.For investigating the effect of high temperatures over the bond strength between concrete–steel bars, the temperature values are chosen as 50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 600 and 700 °C in this study. Also unheated specimens are produced and tested for comparing with the heated specimens. For the heating process alaboratory-type furnace, capacity of 1000 °C, is used. The rate of temperature increase of the furnace is 12–20 °C/min. After heating specimens up to the reference temperature, the furnace temperature is kept constant for 3 h. All groups are cooled to room temperature either in air in laboratory conditions or in water, and the effects of cooling regimes are investigated. For each group 3 specimens are tested and the average of these specimens’ test results is recorded as the group's residual bond strength.3. Results and discussion3.1. Bond strength between concrete–steel bars exposed to elevated temperaturesAfter the effect of the elevated temperatures in a range of 50–700 °C, the bond strengths are shown in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 for C20 and C35 concretes, respectively. The change ratios of the bond strengths by the effect of elevated temperatures are also presented in Table 6, Table 7 and Table 8, and are discussed below.Increases in residual bond strengths are observed up to 150 °C for all embedment lengths. This is thought to be due to the increase in residual compressive strength for the same temperatures. The highest increase amounts of 6 cm embedment length are 14% and 12% for C20 and C35 concretes, respectively. These values are both taken from the specimens that are heated to 50 °C and then cooled in water. Above 150 °C, bond strength decreases with increase in temperature. For the temperature of 700 °C, bond strengths are recorded as minimum values. C20 samples lost 89% and C35 samples lost 76% of their initial bond strengths for this temperature. Effect of cooling regimes is notdistinguished for 6 cm embedment length. This is considered to be due to the insufficiency of embedment length. Steel bars slipped from the concrete at low pull-out strengths for both air- and water-cooled specimens.For 10 cm embedment length, bond strengths of C20 specimens increased 10% and 9% for 50 and 100 °C, but then there are decreases for all other temperatures. Bond strengths of specimens produced with C35 concrete showed losses for all temperatures, except for an increase with the amount of 5% for 100 °C. Above 100 °C, both air-cooled and water-cooled specimens’bond strengths are found to be less than the unheated specimens for C20 and C35. The maximum strength loss is observed for 700 °C. For this temperature, the loss amount is 74% for C20 concretes, while this value is 60% for C35. These bond strength losses are both obtained from the water-cooled specimens. At this temperature strength losses for air-cooled specimens are 72% and 55% for C20 and C35, respectively.Bond strength of samples with 16 cm embedment length was similar to 10 cm embedment length, at elevated temperatures. Increases in residual bond strength were recorded up to 150 °C for C20 and up to 100 °C for C35, but bond strengths decreased at higher temperatures. The bond strength losses of 16 cm embedment length are 45% for C20 and 47% for C35. These losses are obtained after 700 °C on the air-cooled samples.The effect of cooling regimes was more significant for C20 specimens. Water-cooled samples lost more residual bond strength compared with air-cooled samples for the same temperature. But this effect is less pronounced for C35. For both concrete types effect ofcooling regime cannot be seen at 6 cm embedment length.3.2. Compressive strength–bond strength relationshipCompressive strengths of concretes after elevated temperatures were determined for both air- and water-cooled specimens, and the relationship between compressive strengths and bond strengths is illustrated in Fig. 4 for C20, and in Fig. 5 for C35. With the increase of temperature residual compressive strength and residual bond strength losses were observed. As it can be seen briefly from the graphics, the bond strengths of specimens increase with the increase of compressive strength, for both concrete type and for all embedment lengths. So it can be concluded that there is a linear relationship between compressive strength and bond strength of concrete–steel bars.4. ConclusionsThe results of this experimental study can be concluded as follows.In the range of 50–150 °C, an increase in residual bond strength was observed for C20 and C35 concretes. Also residual compressive strengths increased for these temperatures, so increase in the residual bond strength is a result of increase in residual compressive strength. Above 150 °C, residual bond strength between concrete and ribbed steel bars decreased for both concrete type and for all embedment lengths. Increase in the embedment length and in compressive strength of concrete caused increase in residual bond strength. Effect of cooling regime is not significant for 6 cm embedment length, but for 10 cm and 16 cm embedment lengths water-cooled specimens show more residual bond strength loss than air-cooled specimens. This effect was morepronounced for C20 concrete. Water cooling causes thermal shock due to rapid cooling and sudden temperature differences, and hence causes more severe damage to the concrete residual properties.References[1]C.K. KankamBond strength of reinforcing steel bars milled from scrap metalsMaterials and Design, 25 (2004), pp. 231–238[2]Ö. ArıözEffects of elevated temperatures on properties of concreteFire Safety Journal, 42 (8) (2007), pp. 516–522[3]I. Janotka, T. NürnbergerovaEffect of temperature on structural quality of the cement paste and high-strength concrete with silica fumeNuclear Engineering and Design, 235 (2005), pp. 2019–2032[4]K. Sakr, E. El-HakimEffect of high temperature or fire on heavy weight concrete propertiesCement and Concrete Research, 35 (2005), pp. 590–596[5]O.N. Oktar, H. Moral, M.A. TasdemirFactors determining the correlation between concrete propertiesCement and Concrete Research, 26 (1996), pp. 1629–1637[6]W.M. Lin, T.D. Lin, L.J. Powers-CoucheMicrostructures of fire-damaged concreteACI Materials Journal, 93 (1996), pp. 199–205[7]M. HeikalEffect of temperature on the physico-mechanical and mineralogical properties of Homra pozzolanic cement pastesCement and Concrete Research, 30 (2000), pp. 1835–1839[8]Y. Xu, Y.L. Wong, C.S. Poon, M. AnsonImpact of high temperature on PFA concreteCement and Concrete Research, 31 (2001), pp. 1065–1073[9]S.Y.N. Chan, G.-F. Peng, M. AnsonFire behaviour of high performance concrete made with silica fume at various moisture contentsACI Materials Journal, 96 (1999), pp. 405–409[10]C.S. Poon, Z.H. Shui, L. LamCompressive behaviour of fibre reinforced high-performance concrete subjected to elevated temperaturesCement and Concrete Research, 34 (2004), pp. 2215–2222[11]S. Aydın, B. BaradanEffect of pumice and fly ash incorporation on high temperature resistance of cement-based mortarsCement and Concrete Research, 37 (6) (2007), pp. 988–995[12]G.A. KhouryEffect of fire on concrete and concrete structuresProgress in Structural Engineering Materials, 2 (2000), pp. 429–447[13]Y.N. Chan, X. Luo, W. SunCompressive strength and pore structure of high-performance concrete after exposure to high temperature up to 800 °CCement and Concrete Research, 30 (2000), pp. 247–251[14]M. El-Hawary, S.A. HamoushBond shear modulus of reinforced concrete at high temperaturesEngineering Fracture Mechanics, 55 (1996), pp. 991–999[15]U. Diederichs, U. SchneiderBond strength at high temperaturesMagazine of Concrete Research, 33 (115) (1981), pp. 75–84[16]A. Katz, N. BermanModeling the effect of high temperature on the bond of FRP reinforcing bars to concrete Cement and Concrete Composites, 22 (2000), pp. 433–443[17]C.H. Chiang, C.L. Tsai, Y.C. KanAcoustic inspection of bond strength of steel-reinforced mortar after exposure to elevated temperaturesUltrasonics, 38 (2000), pp. 534–536[18]C.H. Chiang, C.L. TsaiTime-temperature analysis of bond strength of a rebar after fire exposureCement and Concrete Research, 33 (2003), pp. 1651–1654[19]A. Abbasi, P.J. HoggTemperature and environmental effects on glass fiber rebar: modulus, strength and interfacial bond strength with concreteComposites: Part B, 36 (2005), pp. 394–404[20]R.H. Haddad, L.G. ShannisPost-fire behavior of bond between high strength pozzolanic concrete and reinforcing steelConstruction and Building Materials, 18 (2004), pp. 425–435[21]R.H. Haddad, R.J. Al-Saleh, N.M. Al-AkhrasEffect of elevated temperature on bond between steel reinforcement and fiber reinforced concreteFire Safety Journal, 43 (5) (2008), pp. 334–343[22]X. Luo, W. Sun, S.Y.N. ChanEffect of heating and cooling regimes on residual strength and microstructure of normal strength and high-performance concreteCement and Concrete Research, 30 (2000), pp. 379–383[23]G.F. Peng, S.H. Bian, Z.Q. Guo, J. Zhao, X.L. Peng, Y.C. JiangEffect of thermal shock due to rapid cooling on residual mechanical properties of fiberconcrete exposed to high temperaturesConstruction and Building Materials, 22 (2008), pp. 948–955[24]S.Y.N. Chan, X. Luo, W. SunEffect of high temperature and cooling regimes on the compressive strength and pore properties of high performance concreteConstruction and Building Materials, 14 (2000), pp. 261–266[25]A.F. Bingöl, R. GülEffect of elevated temperatures and cooling regimes on normal strength concreteFire and Materials Journal, 33 (2009), pp. 79–88[26]X. Fu, D.D.L. ChungImproving the bond strength between steel rebar and concrete by increasing the water/cement ratioCement and Concrete Research, 27 (12) (1997), pp. 1805–1809[27]U. ErsoyReinforced Concrete. Evrim Yayınevi(third ed.) (1985) (In Turkish)。
土木工程专业建筑施工外文翻译文献
土木工程专业建筑施工外文翻译文献原文：Building construction concrete crack ofprevention and processingAbstractThe crack problem of concrete is a widespread existence but again difficult in solve of engineering actual problem, this text carried on a study analysis to a little bit familiar crack problem in the concrete engineering, and aim at concrete the circumstance put forward some prevention, processing measure.Keyword:Concrete crack prevention processingForewordConcrete's ising 1 kind is anticipate by the freestone bone, cement, water and other mixture but formation of the in addition material of quality brittleness not and all material.Because the concrete construction transform with oneself, control etc. a series problem, harden model of in the concrete existence numerous tiny hole, spirit cave and tiny crack, is exactly because these beginning start blemish of existence just make the concrete present one some not and all the characteristic of quality.The tiny crack is a kind of harmless crack and accept concrete heavy, defend Shen and a little bit other use function not a creation to endanger.But after the concrete be subjected to lotus carry, difference in temperature etc. function, tiny crack would continuously of expand with connect, end formation we can see without the aid of instruments of macro view the crack be also the crack that the concrete often say in the engineering.Concrete building and Gou piece usually all take sewer to make of, because of crack of existence and development usually make inner part of reinforcing bar etc. material creation decay, lower reinforced concrete material of loading ability, durable and anti- Shen ability, influence building of external appearance, service life, severity will threat arrive people's life and property safety.A lot of all of crash of engineerings is because of the unsteady development of the crack with the result that.Modern age science research with a great deal of of the concrete engineeringpractice certificate, in the concrete engineering crack problem is ineluctable, also acceptable in certainly of the scope just need to adopt valid of measure will it endanger degree control at certain of scope inside.The reinforced concrete norm is also explicit provision:Some structure at place of dissimilarity under the condition allow existence certain the crack of width.But at under construction should as far as possible adopt a valid measure control crack creation, make the structure don't appear crack possibly or as far as possible decrease crack of amount and width, particularly want to as far as possible avoid harmful crack of emergence, insure engineering quality thus.Concrete crack creation of the reason be a lot of and have already transformed to cause of crack:Such as temperature variety, constringency, inflation, the asymmetry sink to sink etc. reason cause of crack;Have outside carry the crack that the function cause;Protected environment not appropriate the crack etc. caused with chemical effect.Want differentiation to treat in the actual engineering, work°out a problem according to the actual circumstance.In the concrete engineering the familiar crack and the prevention1.Stem Suo crack and preventionStem the Suo crack much appear after the concrete protect be over of a period of time or concrete sprinkle to build to complete behind of around a week.In the cement syrup humidity of evaporate would creation stem Suo, and this kind of constringency is can't negative.Stem Suo crack of the creation be main is because of concrete inside outside humidity evaporate degree dissimilarity but cause to transform dissimilarity of result:The concrete is subjected to exterior condition of influence, surface humidity loss lead quick, transform bigger, inner part degree of humidity variety smaller transform smaller, bigger surface stem the Suo transform to be subjected to concrete inner part control, creation more big pull should dint but creation crack.The relative humidity is more low, cement syrup body stem Suo more big, stem the Suo crack be more easy creation.Stem the Suo crack is much surface parallel lines form or the net shallow thin crack, width many between 0.05-0.2 mm, the flat surface part much see in the big physical volume concrete and follow it morein thinner beam plank short to distribute.Stem Suo crack usually the anti- Shen of influence concrete, cause the durable of the rust eclipse influence concrete of reinforcing bar, under the function of the water pressure dint would creation the water power split crack influence concrete of loading dint etc..Concrete stem the Suo be main with water ash of the concrete ratio, the dosage of the composition, cement of cement, gather to anticipate of the dosage of the property and dosage, in addition etc. relevant.Main prevention measure:While being to choose to use the constringency quantity smaller cement, general low hot water mire and powder ash from stove cement in the adoption, lower the dosage of cement.Two is a concrete of stem the Suo be subjected to water ash ratio of influence more big, water ash ratio more big, stem Suo more big, so in the concrete match the ratio the design should as far as possible control good water ash ratio of choose to use, the Chan add in the meantime accommodation of reduce water.Three is strict control concrete mix blend with under construction of match ratio, use of concrete water quantity absolute can't big in match ratio design give settle of use water quantity.Four is the earlier period which strengthen concrete to protect, and appropriate extension protect of concrete time.Winter construction want to be appropriate extension concrete heat preservation to overlay time, and Tu2 Shua protect to protect.Five is a constitution the accommodation is in the concrete structure of the constringency sew.2.The Su constringency crack and preventionSu constringency is the concrete is before condense, surface because of lose water quicker but creation of constringency.The Su constringency crack is general at dry heat or strong wind the weather appear, crack's much presenting in the center breadth, both ends be in the centerthin and the length be different, with each other not coherent appearance.Shorter crack general long 20-30 cm, the longer crack can reach to a 2-3 m, breadth 1-5 mm.It creation of main reason is:The concrete is eventually almost having no strength or strength before the Ning very small, perhaps concrete just eventually Ning but strength very hour, be subjected to heat or compare strong wind dint of influence, the concrete surface lose water to lead quick,result in in the capillary creation bigger negative press but make a concrete physical volume sharply constringency, but at this time the strength of concrete again can't resist its constringency, therefore creation cracked.The influence concrete Su constringency open the main factor of crack to have water ash ratio, concrete of condense time, environment temperature, wind velocity, relative humidity...etc..Main prevention measure:One is choose to use stem the Suo value smaller higher Huo sour salt of the earlier period strength or common the Huo sour brine mire.Two is strict the control water ash ratio, the Chan add to efficiently reduce water to increment the collapse of concrete fall a degree and with easy, decrease cement and water of dosage.Three is to sprinkle before building concrete, water basic level and template even to soak through.Four is in time to overlay the perhaps damp grass mat of the plastics thin film, hemp slice etc., keep concrete eventually before the Ning surface is moist, perhaps spray to protect etc. to carry on protect in the concrete surface.Five is in the heat and strong wind the weather to want to establish to hide sun and block breeze facilities, protect in time.3.Sink to sink crack and preventionThe creation which sink to sink crack is because of the structure foundation soil quality not and evenly, loose soft or return to fill soil dishonest or soak in water but result in the asymmetry sink to decline with the result that;Perhaps because of template just degree shortage, the template propped up to once be apart from big or prop up bottom loose move etc. to cause, especially at winter, the template prop up at jelly soil up, jelly the soil turn jelly empress creation asymmetry to sink to decline and cause concrete structure creation crack.This kind crack many is deep enter or pierce through sex crack, it alignment have something to do with sinking to sink a circumstance, general follow with ground perpendicular or present 30 °s-45 °Cape direction development, bigger sink to sink crack, usually have certain of wrong, crack width usually with sink to decline quantity direct proportion relation.Crack width under the influence of temperature variety smaller.The foundation after transform stability sink to sink crack also basic tend in stability.Main prevention measure:One is rightness loose soft soil, return to fill soilfoundation a construction at the upper part structure front should carry on necessity of Hang solid with reinforce.Two is the strength that assurance template is enough and just degree, and prop up firm, and make the foundation be subjected to dint even.Three is keep concrete from sprinkle infusing the foundation in the process is soak by water.Four is time that template tore down to can't be too early, and want to notice to dismantle a mold order of sequence.Five is at jelly soil top take to establish template to notice to adopt certain of prevention measure.4.Temperature crack and preventionTemperature crack much the occurrence is in big surface or difference in temperature variety of the physical volume concrete compare the earth area of the concrete structure.Concrete after sprinkling to build, in the hardening the process, cement water turn a creation a great deal of of water turn hot, .(be the cement dosage is in the 350-550 kg/m 3, each sign square the rice concrete will release a calories of 17500-27500 kJ and make concrete internal thus the temperature rise to reach to 70 ℃or so even higher)Because the physical volume of concrete be more big, a great deal of of water turn hot accumulate at the concrete inner part but not easy send forth, cause inner part the temperature hoick, but the concrete surface spread hot more quick, so formation inside outside of bigger difference in temperature, the bigger difference in temperature result in inner part and exterior hot the degree of the bulge cold Suo dissimilarity, make concrete surface creation certain of pull should dint.When pull should dint exceed the anti- of concrete pull strength extreme limit, concrete surface meeting creation crack, this kind of crack much occurrence after the concrete under construction period.In the concrete of under construction be difference in temperature variety more big, perhaps is a concrete to be subjected to assault of cold wave etc., will cause concrete surface the temperature sharply descend, but creation constringency, surface constringency of the concrete be subjected to inner part concrete of control, creation very big of pull should dint but creation crack, this kind of crack usually just in more shallow scope of the concrete surface creation.The alignment of the temperature crack usually none settle regulation, big areastructure the crack often maneuver interleave;The size bigger structure of the beam plank length, the crack run parallel with short side more;Thorough with pierce through sex of temperature crack general and short side direction parallelism or close parallelism, crack along long side cent the segment appear, in the center more airtight.Crack width the size be different, be subjected to temperature variety influence more obvious, winter compare breadth, summer more narrow.The concrete temperature crack that the heat inflation cause is usually in the center the thick both ends be thin, but cold Suo crack of thick thin variety not too obvious.The emergence of the this kind crack will cause the rust eclipse of reinforcing bar, the carbonization of concrete, the anti- jelly which lower concrete melt, anti- tired and anti- Shen ability etc..Main prevention measure:One is as far as possible choose to use low hot or medium hot water mire, like mineral residue cement, powder ash from stove cement...etc..Two is a decrease cement dosage, cement dosage as far as possible the control is in the 450 kg/m 3 following.Three is to lower water ash ratio, water ash of the general concrete ratio control below 0.6.Four is improvement the bone anticipate class to go together with, the Chan add powder ash from stove or efficiently reduce water etc. to come to reduce cement dosage and lower water to turn hot.Five is an improvement concrete of mix blend to process a craft, lower sprinkle of concrete to build temperature.Six is the in addition that the Chan add a have of fixed amount to reduce water and increase Su, slow Ning etc. function in the concrete, improvement the concrete mix to match a thing of mobility, protect water, lower water to turn hot, postpone hot Feng of emergence time.Seven is the heat season sprinkle to build can the adoption take to establish to hide sun plank etc. assistance measure control concrete of Wen Sheng, lower to sprinkle temperature of build the concrete.Eight is the temperature of big physical volume concrete should the dint relate to structure size, concrete structure size more big, temperature should dint more big, so want reasonable arrangement construction work preface, layering, cent the piece sprinkle to build, for the convenience of in spread hot, let up control.Nine is at great inner part constitution of the physical volume concrete cooloff piping, cold water perhaps cold air cool off, let up concrete of inside outside difference in temperature.Ten is the supervision which strengthen concrete temperature, adopt to cool off in time, protection measure.11 is to reserve temperature constringency to sew.12 is to let up to control, sprinkle proper before building concrete in the Ji rock and old concrete top build a 5 mm or so sand mat a layer or usage asphalt etc. material Tu2 Shua.13 is to strengthen concrete to protect, the concrete after sprinkle build use moist grass Lian in time, hemp slice's etc. overlay, and attention sprinkle water to protect, appropriate extension protect time, assurance the concrete surface be slow-moving cool off.At the cold season, concrete surface should constitution heat preservation measure, in order to prevent cold wave assault.14 is the allocation be a little amount in the concrete of reinforcing bar perhaps add fiber material concrete of temperature crack control at certain of scope inside.5.Crack and prevention that the chemical reaction causeAlkali bone's anticipating the crack that reaction crack and reinforcing bar rust eclipse cause is the most familiar in the reinforced concrete structure of because of chemical reaction but cause of crack.The concrete blend a future reunion creation some alkalescence ion, these ion with some activity the bone anticipate creation chemical reaction and absorb surroundings environment in of water but the physical volume enlarge, make concrete crisp loose, inflation open crack.In this kind of crack general emergence concrete structure usage period, once appear very difficult remediable, so should at under construction adopt valid the measure carry on prevention.Main of prevention measure:While being to choose to anticipate with the alkali activity small freestone bone.Two is the in addition which choose to use low lye mire with low alkali or have no alkali.Three is the Chan which choose to use accommodation with anticipate to repress an alkali bone to anticipate reaction.Because the concrete sprinkle to build, flap Dao bad perhaps is a reinforcing bar protection layer thinner, the harmful material get into concrete to make reinforcing bar creation rust eclipse, the reinforcing bar physical volume of the rusteclipse inflation, cause concrete bulge crack, the crack of this kind type much is a crack lengthways, follow the position of reinforcing bar ually of prevent measure from have:One is assurance reinforcing bar protection the thickness of the layer.Two is a concrete class to go together with to want good.Three is a concrete to sprinkle to note and flap Dao airtight solid.Four is a reinforcing bar surface layer Tu2 Shua antisepsis coating.Crack processingThe emergence of the crack not only would influence structure of whole with just degree, return will cause the rust eclipse of reinforcing bar, acceleration concrete of carbonization, lower durable and anti- of concrete tired, anti- Shen ability.Therefore according to the property of crack and concrete circumstance we want differentiation to treat, in time processing, with assurance building of safety usage.The repair measure of the concrete crack is main to have the following some method:Surface repair method, infuse syrup, the Qian sew method, the structure reinforce a method, concrete displacement method, electricity chemistry protection method and imitate to living from heal method.Surface repair the method be a kind of simple, familiar of repair method, it main be applicable to stability and to structure loading the ability don't have the surface crack of influence and deep enter crack of processing.The processing measure that is usually is a surface in crack daubery cement syrup, the wreath oxygen gum mire or at concrete surface Tu2 Shua paint, asphalt etc. antisepsis material, at protection of in the meantime for keeping concrete from continue under the influence of various function to open crack, usually can adoption the surface in crack glue to stick glass fiber cloth etc. measure.1, infuse syrup, the Qian sew methodInfuse a syrup method main the concrete crack been applicable to have influence or have already defend Shen request to the structure whole of repair, it is make use of pressure equipments gum knot the material press into the crack of concrete, gum knot the material harden behind and concrete formation one bewhole, thus reinforce of purpose.The in common use gum knot material has the cement the syrup, epoxy, A Ji C Xi sour ester and gather ammonia ester to equalize to learn material.The Qian sew a method is that the crack be a kind of most in common use method in, it usually is follow the crack dig slot, the Qian fill Su in the slot or rigid water material with attain closing crack of purpose.The in common use Su material has PVC gum mire, plastics ointment, the D Ji rubber etc.;In common use rigid water material is the polymer cement sand syrup.2, the structure reinforce a methodWhen the crack influence arrive concrete structure of function, will consideration adopt to reinforce a method to carry on processing to the concrete structure.The structure reinforce medium in common use main have the following a few method:The piece of enlargement concrete structure in every aspect accumulate, outside the Cape department of the Gou piece pack type steel, adoption prepare should the dint method reinforce, glue to stick steel plate to reinforce, increase to establish fulcrum to reinforce and jet the concrete compensation reinforce.3, concrete displacement methodConcrete displacement method is processing severity damage concrete of a kind of valid method, this method be first will damage of the concrete pick and get rid of, then again displacement go into new of concrete or other material.The in common use displacement material have:Common concrete or the cement sand syrup, polymer or change sex polymer concrete or sand syrup.4, the electricity chemistry protection methodThe electricity chemistry antisepsis is to make use of infliction electric field in lie the quality of electricity chemical effect, change concrete or reinforced concrete the environment appearance of the place, the bluntness turn reinforcing bar to attain the purpose of antisepsis.Cathode protection method, chlorine salt's withdrawing a method, alkalescence to recover a method is a chemistry protection method in three kinds of in common use but valid method.The advantage of this kind of method is aprotection method under the influence of environment factor smaller, apply reinforcing bar, concrete of long-term antisepsis, since can used for crack structure already can also used for new set up structure.5, imitate to living from legal moreImitate to living from heal the method be a kind of new crack treatment, its mimicry living creature organization secrete a certain material towards suffering wound part auto, but make the wound part heal of function, join some and special composition(such as contain to glue knot of the liquid Xin fiber or capsule) in the concrete of the tradition the composition, at concrete inner part formation the intelligence type imitate to living from heal nerve network system, be the concrete appear crack secrete a parts of liquid Xin fiber can make the crack re- heal.ConclusionThe crack is widespread in the concrete structure existence of a kind of phenomenon, it of emergence not only will lower the anti- Shen of building ability, influence building of usage function, and will cause the rust eclipse of reinforcing bar, the carbonization of concrete, lower the durable of material, influence building of loading ability, so want to carry on to the concrete crack earnest research, differentiation treat, adoption reasonable of the method carry on processing, and at under construction adopt various valid of prevention measure to prevention crack of emergence and development, assurance building and Gou piece safety, stability work.中文：建筑施工混凝土裂缝的预防与处理混凝土的裂缝问题是一个普遍存在而又难于解决的工程实际问题，本文对混凝土工程中常见的一些裂缝问题进行了探讨分析，并针对具体情况提出了一些预防、处理措施。
土木工程建筑工程毕业设计外文翻译
大连交通大学2011届本科生毕业设计（论文）外文翻译Seismic Collapse Safety of Reinforced Concrete Buildings:I. Assessment of Ductile Moment FramesCurt B. Haselton1, Abbie B. Liel2, Gregory G. Deierlein3, Brian S. Dean4, Jason H. Chou5Ground motions used for the nonlinear dynamic analyses are recordings from large magnitude earthquakes (magnitude 6.5 to 7.6) recorded at moderate fault rupturedistances (10 to 45 km). The 39 ground motion record pairs (each with two orthogonal horizontal components) and their selection criteria are documented in Haselton and Deierlein (2007). This ground motion set is an expanded version of the far-field ground motion set utilized in the FEMA P-695 (FEMA 2009).Ground motion records are selected and scaled without considering the distinctive spectral shape of rare (extreme) ground motions, due to difficulties in selecting and scaling a different set of records for a large set of buildings having a wide range of first- mode periods. To account for the important impact of spectral shape on collapse assessment, shown by Baker and Cornell (2006), the collapse predictions made using the general set of ground motions are modified using a method proposed by Haselton et al. (2009). The expected spectral shape of rare (large) California ground motions isaccounted for through a statistical parameter referred to as epsilon (ε), which is a measure of the difference between the spectral acceleration of a recorded ground motion and the median value predicted by ground motion prediction equation. A target value of ε=1.5 is used to approximately represent the expected spectral shape of severe ground motions that can lead to collapse of code-conforming buildings (Appendix B of FEMA P-695 2009; Haselton et al. 2010).Page 1 of 7大连交通大学2011届本科生毕业设计（论文）外文翻译STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MODEL AND COLLAPSE ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGYA two-dimensional three-bay nonlinear analysis frame model is created for each archetype RC SMF using the OpenSees structural analysis platform (OpenSees 2009), as illustrated in Figure 1. Three bays are assumed to be the minimum number necessary to reflect the differences between interior and exterior columns and joints, and their impact on frame behavior. Strength and stiffness of the gravity system are not represented in the model, but the destabilizing P-Δ effectsare accounted for by applying gravity loads on a leaning column in the analysis model. Previous research by the authors has shown that neglecting the strength and stiffness of the gravity system in RC SMF systems is slightly conservative, underestimating the median collapse capacity by approximately 10% (Haselton et al. 2008a). It is also assumed that the damage to the slab-column connections of the gravity system will not result in a vertical collapse of the slab; test data for slab-column connections with modern detailing are still needed to verify this assumption. The foundation rotation stiffness is calculated from typical grade beam design and soil stiffness properties. Rayleigh damping corresponding to 5% of critical damping in the first and third modes is applied.Element modeling consists of lumped plasticity beam-column elements and finite joint shear panel springs. Lumped plasticity elements were used in lieu of fiber-type element models, since only the former are able to capture the strain softening associated with rebar buckling and spalling phenomena that are critical for simulating structural collapse in RC frame structures. The beam-columns are modeled using a nonlinear hinge model with degrading strength and stiffness, developed by Ibarra et al. (2005). As illustrated in Figure 2, the Ibarra et al. model captures the important modes of monotonicPage 2 of 7大连交通大学2011届本科生毕业设计（论文）外文翻译and cyclic deterioration that precipitate sidesway collapse. Key parameters of the modelinclude the plastic rotation capacity, θcap,pl, the post-capping rotation capacity, θpc, theratio of maximum to yield moment, Mc / My, and an energy-based degradation parameter,. Based on calibration to test data for RC columns and beams with ductile detailing andlow to moderate axial load, the typical mode parameter values are θcap,pl between 0.035 to0.085 radians, depending on the level of axial load in the beam-column, θpc equal to 0.10radians, Mc / My between 1.17 and 1.21, and between 85 and 130 (Haselton et al. 2007,2008b). The post-capping deformation capacity, θpc, of 0.10 is a conservative value used dueto lack of data; this value would likely be much larger if additional data were availablewith specimens tested to larger levels of deformation.The collapse capacities of the archetype building designs are evaluated using aperformance-based methodology, key features of which are briefly summarized as follows:1. Select ground motions for nonlinear dynamic analysis. In this study, 39 pairs offar-field ground motions are used. Issues related to record selection and scaling have been discussed previously.2. Utilize incremental dynamic analysis (IDA) to organize nonlinear dynamiccollapse analyses of the archetype models subjected to the recorded ground motions (Vamvatsikos and Cornell 2002). Using the IDA approach, each horizontal component of ground motion is individually applied to the two-dimensional frame model.In this study, ground motion records are amplitude scaled according to thespectral acceleration at the first mode period, Sa(T1). The ground motions are increasingly scaled until collapse occurs. In this paper, collapse is defined as the Page 3 of 7大连交通大学2011届本科生毕业设计（论文）外文翻译point of dynamic instability, where the lateral story drifts of the building increase without bounds (often referred to as sidesway collapse). This occurs when the IDA curve becomes flat. Vertical collapse mechanisms, which are not directly simulated in the structural model, are not considered in this assessment. The companion paper (Liel et al. 2010) provides explanation for how these additional collapse modes but could be accounted for.Figure 3a presents sample results from incremental dynamic analysis for a four-story space frame building (ID1008). For this structure, the median collapse capacity (in terms of Sa(0.94s)) is 1.59g for the set of 39 ground motion pairs.3. Construct a collapse fragility function based on the IDA results, which represents the probability of collapse as a function of ground motion intensity. To approximately account for three-dimensional ground motion effects (i.e. themaximum ground motion component), the lower collapse capacity (in terms of Sa(T1)) from each pair of motions is recorded as the building collapse capacity. From the resulting collapse data, the median collapse capacity and dispersion, due to record-to-record variability, are then computed.Figure 3b presents such collapse fragility curves for the four-story building usedpreviously in Figure 3a. The square markers show the empirical cumulative distribution function of the collapse data from Figure 3a (i.e. each point represents the collapse capacity for a single earthquake record), and the solid line shows the lognormal distribution fit to the empirical data. The fitted median collapse capacity (in terms of Sa(0.94s)) is 1.59g and the fitted logarithmic standardPage 4 of 7大连交通大学2011届本科生毕业设计（论文）外文翻译deviation, representing the so-called record-to-record (RTR) variability (LN,RTR), is 0.38.4. Increase the dispersion in the collapse fragility to account for structural modeling uncertainties.Figure 3b shows this adjusted collapse capacity distribution by the dashed line. Liel et al. (2009) and Haselton and Deierlein (2007) have shown how introducing this additional dispersion in the collapse fragility can approximately account for the effects of uncertainties in the structural modeling parameters, but this approximation is only suitable for collapse probabilities in the lower tail of the fragility curve (Liel et al. 2009). Based on uncertainties in the nonlinearcomponent models (e.g., the capping rotation and post-peak softening slope shown in Figure 2), the modeling uncertainty is calculated as σLN,modeling = 0.5 (Haselton and Deierlein 2007). When combined with the record-to-record uncertainty of LN,RTR = 0.38, the resulting total dispersion is LN,total = 0.63, shown by the dashed curve labeled RTR+Model.5. Adjust (increase) the median of the collapse fragility curve to account for the ground motion spectral shape effect.Figure 3b shows this adjusted collapse capacity distribution by the dotted line. For this example, the median collapse intensity is increased from 1.59g to 2.22g (by a factor of 1.4). As described by Haselton et al. (2010) and FEMA P-695 (FEMA 2009, Appendix B), this so-called ε adjustment is based on the large ductility of the RC SMF structures and associated period shift that occurs before collapse, combined with a target value of ε = 1.5 for rare ground motions in thePage 5 of 7大连交通大学2011届本科生毕业设计（论文）外文翻译high seismic regions of California. Buildings with lower deformation capacity, as well as sit es and hazard levels with lower expected values of ε, would have a smalleradjustment.6. Compute the collapse risk metrics of interest.For the example in Figure 3b, the collapse margin ratio is 2.6, the conditional collapse probability (P(C|Sa2/50)) is 7%, and the mean annual frequency ofcollapse (λcol) is 1.7x10-4 collapses/year.COLLAPSE RISK FOR RC SMF BUILDINGS DESIGNED ACCORDING TO ASCE 7-02Collapse analysis results for the 30 building archetypes are summarized in Table 1. Pertinent data includes the fundamental period of each archetype structural model, static overstrength from pushover analysis, collapse risk predictions, and maximum story and roof drifts at the onset of collapse. The resulting collapse risks are described by the following three measures, as listed in Table 1 and plotted in Figure 4: Collapse Margin: The collapse margin is the ratio between the median collapse capacity and the 2% in 50 year ground motion level. This metric is similar in concept to a simple factor of safety. Overall, the collapse margins for the 30 RC SMF buildings range from 1.7 to 3.4, with an average value of 2.3.Conditional Collapse Probability: The probability of collapse for the 2% in 50 year level of ground motion intensity, denoted P(C|Sa2/50), can be read directly from the fragility curve. This is a convenient metric to gauge the collapse safety relative to the extreme ground motion intensity that is used as the basis of design in building codes . Overall, the RC SMF buildings have an average P(C|Sa2/50) of 11%, with a range from 3% to 20%.Page 6 of 7大连交通大学2011届本科生毕业设计（论文）外文翻译Mean Annual Frequency of Collapse: The mean annual frequency of collapse (λcol) is obtained by integrating the collapse fragility with the site-specific hazard curve. Using the hazard curve from the Los Angeles site, the RC SMF buildings have an average λcol of 3.1x10-4 collapses/year, with a range from 0.7x10-4 to7.0x10-4 collapses/year. This range translates to a probability of collapse in 50 years of 0.4% to 3.4%.While there are no clear standards that define the maximum acceptable collapse risk for buildings, there is some consensus that calculated values for the RC SMF archetypes are in a reasonable range. For example, the FEMA P-695 (FEMA 2009) Methodology to determine seismic response factors for new building systems, is based on a maximum collapse risk of 10% to 20%, conditioned on the maximum considered earthquakeintensity. Additionally, the ASCE/SEI 7 building code has recently adopted new “risk consistent” seismic design maps, which have an implied collapse risk of 1% in 50 years (Luco et al. 2007), and which were developed based on an assumed collapse probability of 10%, conditioned on the maximum considered earthquake intensity. Finally, it is important to remember that the collapse risks reported herein were calculated from archetype designs that conform to current building code provisions. So, to the extent that the evolution of building codes reflects societal values, the calculated collapse risks have legitimacy implicit in the natural progression of building codes and standards.Page 7 of 7钢筋混凝土建筑的抗震安全设计大连交通大学2011届本科生毕业设计（论文）外文翻译I.延性框架的分析Curt B. Haselton1, Abbie B. Liel2, Gregory G. Deierlein3, Brian S. Dean4, Jason H. Chou5应用于非线性动态分析的地面运动是中等深度(10 到45 千米)断层错动引起的震级为6.5至7.6的大地震。
土木工程外文翻译
外文翻译Reinforced concrete structure of the basic ideologicalearthquakeSummary :Greater resistance to mainly rely on extensive structural role of the non-seismic deformation flexibility, the role of the earthquake, the structure of the piping and structural strength are equally important significance. Lower coefficient of earthquake seismic intensity of the security role in the decision to lower the overall structure of the yield of standard size and structure of the extensive demand. Currently, the law has design capacity for universal acceptance, through capacity design law, a rational energy mechanism for plasticity pair appeared in remote parts easy assurance; Ensure that the structure does not meet the extensive needs of the former does not lapse sheared; Construction and the adoption of measures to ensure remote parts of the full play.Keywords :Extensive seismic intensity earthquake capacity factorEarthquake disaster facing humanity is one of the serious natural disasters. Earthquake characteristics are outbursted, so far predictability in remains low. Strong earthquakes often cause tremendous personal and property losses. China is earthquake-prone countries, the need to consider our earthquake-proof cover a vast area, and therefore the structure of the earthquake research in the country with full performance of the need.To better implement norms on earthquake norms must be clearly formulated basic idea, the basic principles of clear earthquake design. The emphasis is in the following a- reas to be addressed.1 role in the earthquake, the intensity and structure of blindly pursuing undesirable, the piping structure is very importantEarthquake is divided into small ,tremendous, and intermediate. Often refers to the so-called small Zhen earthquake, the probability is about 50 years in 63%, again for 50 years. China Zhen is a probability that 50 years is about 10%, again for 475 years. A-nd the second refers to the rare event of an earthquake, the probability of a 50-year 2%～３％, again for 1641～2475 years. For students and the random nature of a great earthquake load, the intensity will be greater than the structure response, almost imposs-ible, but it is not the economy. The ability to bear the expense of social and economic f-actors constraining, we can only from the perspective of probability, the probability that the structure of a certain safety function properly. This determines the basic principles of earthquake design in our more commonly known as the "small tremors are not bad,i-ntermediate earthquake may repair, not just turkey."Small earthquake is role, without injury or without structural repairs will be able to use. From the perspective of the analysis of structural earthquake, the structure is ca-lled "small earthquake " role of a quasi-state response flexibility, without access to the b-uildings had been used and non-structural components of the non-flexible response to the state; At the same time the structure of the lateral deformation within a reasonable limit should be controlled within the purpose of enabling the structure had enough pow-er to resist lateral rigidity.China earthquake roughly equivalent of to our security intensity earthquake, when encountered, earthquake role,buildings can be a certain degree of damage, the repair or restoration can continue to use without. From an economic perspective, the maintenance costs can not be too high.Very small probability of occurrence of an earthquake Ying Han ( "second" high -intensity than once about security intensity around). When asked structures encounter-ed in the "second" role, not a life-threatening collapse or serious damage.Such a goal is very reasonable economic earthquake security. Because the earthq-ake occurred too casually, if we blindly pursue structural strength to ensure that the role of the earthquake tremors or even not bad structure, which would make a very large am-ount of material in most of the time, even in the whole life are not fully play its role in t-he state, this is unwise.The guiding principle in the design of the structure in such a situation requires : When small Zhen season, should ensure that all components of the structure in earthq-uake resistance effort, sufficient strength to make it essentially a flexible state. And thr-ough who checked the small role of the flexible shift Zhen common structure to ensure not bad. At this stage will not happen obvious structural components nonlinear distorti-on, without the need for special construction measures. earthquake role in China, the st-ructure of certain key strength than flexibility, entered into, and there is a greater defor- mation, to the non-linear stage, then, we will make extensive special requirements (rem- ote that when the earthquake occurred force structure larger nonlinear distortion, struc- ture still maintain its initial intensity capacity is a flexible structure over the stage defor- mation capacity It is a sign of strength structural earthquake capacity. It includes the ab- ility to withstand extreme deformation and energy absorption characteristics by sluggish back capacity, it is a very important earthquake design of the character). These Zhen ar- rival time because of a non-structural characteristics of flexibility, some of the key areas over its roundsSexual intensity goes into plasticity state. Because it some remote, it can be assu- med nonlinear plasticity deformation, it can spend in the deformationAnd absorb earthquake energy. Cost is likely to lead to a broad cracks, the conc- rete epidermis of carcasses, off may have some residual deformation, but does not lead to security failures to meet the security objectives, Zhen may repair. At this stage the st- ructure, piping will make corresponding requirements, and extensive detail on the cons- truction depends on the measures designed to guarantee. When the second season when the structure of the very large nonlinear distortion may occur irreparably damaged. At this stage the structure requires the adoption of its structure would not collapse to ensure Tansuxing deformation.Therefore, we usually only with small effects and other load Zhen role of the basic effect combinations, who checked the structure and components of what cross-sectionof earthquake flexible deformation. And the effect of Zhen role requires a certain struc- ture on the plasticity deformation capacity (remote) resistance. So extensive structure of the building earthquake is extremely important.2 earthquakes of the size reduction coefficient determines the design of earthq- uake choose size to determine the size of the piping requirements On the basis of the above, the seismic design for what could be the role for small level of the earthquakes, when the advent of greater earthquakes, depending on the str- ucture of the piping to resist. Therefore, we do not access security intensity earthquake effort to structure what design and the security needs of a lower coefficient of intensity earthquakes, known as seismic capacity factor.Seismic capacity factor greater access is on a smaller role in the design of earthq- uake; Obtain lower coefficient of smaller earthquakes, seismic design on a greater role. In the same security intensity of earthquakes of greater access to lower coefficient, the more the role of small earthquakes, then this small earthquakes role designed structure more low-yield standard means that the corresponding structure in a strong degree of non-seismic deformation greater flexibility, This requires a larger structure to ensure its larger non-ductile deformation of achieving flexibility, and thus to the request for more extensive. This extensive grading structure is lower seismic design requirements of the remote choose two higher "high extensive hierarchical" structure. Earthquake power to obtain lower coefficientSmaller, the greater the role of the earthquake, then this big earthquake role desi- gned structure on the higher yield levels, means that the corresponding structure in the strong earthquakes of a level of the non-flexible deformation more small, which only need a structure for the smaller piping to ensure it smaller non-realization of a flexible deformation, and thus to remote request gets. This extensive grading structure is a hig- her power choose two lower extensive seismic design requirements "low extensive hie- archical" structure. In the same security intensity of the earthquake is in the middle of lwer coefficient for the earthquake role for the middle, resulting in extensive request for the middle. This extensive grading structure for the middle of choose mdium extenve seismic design requirements of the "middle-class remote" structure. Thus, the earthqua-ke of the size factor in the decision to reduce the size of the design seismic forces choo-se to determine the size of piping required.3 several kind of basic earthquake resistances systems performance3.1 Frame construction system: According to the above ability design mentality, t-hrough the reasonable design, may make the portal frame construction the ductility fra-me. The ductility frame under the big quake function, after appears beam hinge first, ap-pears the column articulation such one kind to consume energy the organization diffuse-on massive earthquakes energy, the structure can withstand the certain lateral deformati-on. Therefore the pure portal frame construction is one kind of earthquake resistance pe-rformance very good structure. But at the same time us also saw to as a result of pure fr-ame anti- side rigidity small, creates the side moves the value quite in a big way, thereo-fre the constructive height not suitable too is high. Non- structural unit for instance pac-king wall under earthquake function, also possibly appears the crack and the destruction. Between the frame and the packing wall rigid joint creates the rigidity increases the ef-fect also possibly to create designs on had not considered to increases side force. If is h-alf high packing wall, but also can cause to form the short stump, the rigidity increases, the withstanding very big shearing force, creates the pillar the shearing failure.3.2 Shear wall structure system: Shearing force wall structure supporting capacity and rigidity all very big, the side moves distorts slightly, therefore its use scope may be higher than the pure portal frame construction. Is suitable also may use in the shearing force wall in the portal frame construction component non- linear earthquake resistance performance principle overall, also may design into the shearing force wall the ductility shearing force wall, also may come the diffusion earthquake energy by the stable way. But, in shearing force wall no matter is wall extremity binding beam, its section characteristic is short but high, this kind of component to detrusion quite sensitive, is easy to appear the crack, is easy to appear the brittle shearing failure. Therefore must carry on the careful reasonable design, only then can enable the shearing force wall to have the good earthquake resistance performance and the good ductility ability. The shearing force wall destruction shape if cuts steps compared to have the very big relations, to cuts steps compared to the very small low wall, by the shearing failure shape primarily, the plastic deformation ability is very bad, therefore should avoid in the anti-seismic structure using the low wall. Regarding the bracket wall energy aerodynamic, mainly is leaves the articulation through the wall bottom to carry on. But regarding the joint extremity wall, passes through reasonably supposes as follows the hole position, enable its energy aerodynamic mechanism with to have the strong column weak bream's bream articulation organization to be similar, forms strong wall weak bream, namely binding beam the bream end leaves the articulation, the wall bottom leaves the articulation, but the wall other places, do not appear the plastic hinge. Otherwise, if binding beam stronger than wall extremity, then can appear with the column articulation organization same level distortion organization. Regarding the long bracket wall, usually through artificial opens the hole to cause it to turn the joint extremity wall, because the bracket wall took calmly decides the structure, once has a section destruction to expire, can cause the structure to expire and to collapse, but unites the extremity wall then may design Cheng Qiangqiang weak bream, leaves the articulation number to be many, consumes energy in a big way. Cuts weakly with frame design is curved same, bindingbeam pole strength the extremity also needs to pass "strongly cuts weakly is curved" enhances its anti- cuts the bearing capacity, postpones the shearing failure, thus improves its ductility. But its own section characteristic influence, the component still cannot guarantee does not have the shearing failure, specially binding bea m, in the ordinary circumstances ordinary matches when muscl binding beamis difficult to realizes the high ductility, the design, must specially take the measure to change its performance.3.3frame shear walls structure system: Is the frame and the shearing force wall unifies in together resists vertical and the horizontal load one kind of system together, it uses the shearing force wall the high anti- lateral force rigidity and the supportingcapacity, makes up the portal frame construction anti- side rigidity to be bad, distortion big weakness. As a result of the shearing force wall and the frame joint operation, improved the pure frame and the pure shear wall distortion performance, always distorts reduces, the level distorts reduces, moreover about tends to evenly, about the frame various story posts stress quite is also even. Moreover, under the earthquake function, the shearing force wall undertook the majority of shearing force, the frame has undertaken very small part of shearing force only, usually all was the shearing force wall submits first, after the shearing force wall will submit has the endogenic force redistribution, the frame assignment shearing force can increase, if the earthquake function continued to increase, the portal frame construction also could submit, causes it to form the curve distribution to tally well.钢筋混凝土结构的基本抗震思想摘要：结构主要靠延性来抵抗较大地震作用下的非弹性变形，因此，地震作用下，结构的延性与结构的强度具有同等重要的意义。
土木工程外文翻译-原文
外文原文Response of a reinforced concrete infilled-frame structure to removal of twoadjacent columnsMehrdad Sasan_iNortheastern University, 400 Snell Engineering Center, Boston, MA 02115, UnitedStatesReceived 27 June 2007; received in revised form 26 December 2007; accepted 24January 2008Available online 19 March 2008AbstractThe response of Hotel San Diego, a six-story reinforced concrete infilled-frame structure, is evaluated following the simultaneous removal of two adjacent exterior columns. Analytical models of the structure using the Finite Element Method as well as the Applied Element Method are used to calculate global and local deformations. The analytical results show good agreement with experimental data. The structure resisted progressive collapse with a measured maximum vertical displacement of only one quarter of an inch mm). Deformation propagation over the height of the structure and the dynamic load redistribution following the column removal are experimentally and analytically evaluated and described. The difference between axial and flexural wave propagations is discussed. Three-dimensional Vierendeel (frame) action of the transverse and longitudinal frames with the participation of infill walls is identified as the major mechanism for redistribution of loads in the structure. The effects of two potential brittle modes of failure (fracture of beamsections without tensile reinforcement and reinforcing bar pull out) are described. The response of the structure due to additional gravity loads and in the absence of infill walls is analytically evaluated.c 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.Keywords: Progressive collapse; Load redistribution; Load resistance; Dynamic response; Nonlinear analysis; Brittle failure 1. IntroductionThe principal scope of specifications is to provide general principles and computational methods in order to verify safet y of structures. The “ safety factor ” , which according t o modern trends is independent of the nature and combination of the materials used, can usually be defined as the rati o between the conditions. This ratio is also proportional tothe inverse of the probability ( risk ) of failure of the structure. Failure has tobe considerednot only asoverall collapseo f thestructure but also as unserviceability or,accordingtes of limit stateof the structure; failure of somesections and subsequent transformation of the structure into a mechanism; failureby fatigue;elastic or plasticdeformation or creep that cause a substantial change of the geometry of the structure; and sensitivity of the structure to alte rnating loads, to fire and to explosions.o a more precise.Common definition. As the reaching of alimit state ” which causes the construction not to acco mplish the task itwas designed for. There aretwo categori(1)Ultimate limit sate, which corresponds to the highest valu e of the load-bearingcapacity. Examples includelocal buckling or global instability(2)Service limit states, which are functions of the use and durability of the structure.Examples include excessive deformations and displacements without instability; early or exces sive cracks; large vibrations; and corrosion.Computational methods used to verify structures with respectto the different safety conditions can be separated into:(1)Deterministic methods, in which the main parameters are co nsidered as nonrandom parameters.(2)Probabilistic methods, in which the main parameters are co nsidered as random parameters.Alternatively, with respect to the different use of factorsof safety, computational methods can be separated into:(1)Allowable stress method, in which the stresses computed un der maximum loads are compared with the strength of the mat erial reduced by given safety factors.(2)Limit states method, in which the structure may be proportioned on the basis of its maximum strength . This strength,as determined by rational analysis, shall not be less thanthat required to support a factored load equal to the sumof the factored live load and dead load ( ultimate state).The stresses corresponding to working ( service ) conditionswith unfactored live and dead loads are compared with pres cribed values ( service limit state ) . From the four possible combinations of the first two and second two methods,we can obtain some useful computational methods. Generally, t wo combinations prevail:(1)deterministic methods, which make use of allowable stresses. (2)Probabilistic methods, which make use of limit states.The main advantage of probabilistic approaches is that, at l east in theory, it is possible to scientifically take into account all random factors of safety, which are then combine d to define the safety factor. probabilistic approaches depend upon :(1) Random distribution of strength of materials with respectto the conditions of fabrication and erection ( scatter of the values of mechanical properties through out the structure ); (2) Uncertainty of the geometry of the cross-section sand of the structure( faults and imperfections due to fab rication and erection of the structure );(3) Uncertainty of the predicted live loads and dead loadsacting on the structure; (4)Uncertainty related to the approx imation of the computational method used ( deviation of theactual stresses from computed stresses ). Furthermore, proba bilistic theories mean t hat the allowable risk can be basedon several factors, such as :(1) Importance of the construction and gravity of the damageby its failure; (2)Number of human lives which can be thr eatened by this failure; (3)Possibility and/or likelihood of repairing the structure; (4) Predicted life of the structure.All these factors are related to economic and social consi derations such as：(1) Initial cost of the construction;(2) Amortization funds for the duration of the construction;Adverse impact on society; Moral and psychological views.part of mitigation programs to reduce the likelihood of mass casualties following local damagein structures, the General Services Administration [ 1] and the Department of Defense [ 2] developed regulations to evaluateprogressive collapse resistance of structures. ASCE/SEI 7 [ progressive collapse as the spread of an initial local failure fromelement to element eventually resulting in collapse of an entire structure or a disproportionately large part of it. Following the approaches proposed by Ellinwood and Leyendecker [4], ASCE/SEI 7 [ 3] defines twogeneral methods for structural design of buildings to mitigate damage due tothe difficulty of carrying out a complete probabilistic analysishas tobe taken intoaccount. For such an analysis t he laws of the distribution of the live load and its induc ed stresses, of the scatter of mechanicalproperties ofmaterials, and ofthe geometryof the cross-sections and the st ructure have to be known.Furthermore, itis difficult to i nterpret the interaction between the law of distribution of strength and that of stresses because both depend uponthe natureof thematerial, onthe cross-sectionsand upon theload acting on the structure. These practicaldifficulties caconstruction ety at differentapplyn be overcomethe optimum cost. However, is toin two ways. The first factor, allows(3)Cost of physical and materialdamage due to the failureof the construction;(4) (5)The definition of all these parameters, for a given safsafety factorsto the material andto the loads, without necessarily adopting the probabilistic criterion.The second is an approximate probabilisticmethod which introducessome simplifying assumptions ( semi-probabilistic methods ) As3] definesprogressive collapse: indirect and direct design methods. General building codes and standards [ 3,5] use indirect design by increasingoverall integrity of structures. Indirect design is also used in DOD [ 2]. Although the indirect design method can reduce the risk of progressive collapse [ 6,7] estimation of post-failure performance ofstructures designed based on such a method is not readily possible. One approach based on direct design methods to evaluate progressive collapse of structures is to study the effects of instantaneous removal of load-bearing elements, such as columns. GSA [ 1] and DOD [ 2] regulations require removal of one load bearing element. These regulations are meant to evaluate general integrity of structures and their capacity of redistributing the loads following severe damage to only one element. While such an approach provides insight as to the extent to which the structures are susceptible to progressive collapse, in reality, the initial damagecan affect more than just one column. In this study, using analytical results that are verified against experimental data, the progressive collapse resistance of the Hotel San Diego is evaluated, following the simultaneous explosion (sudden removal) of two adjacent columns, one of which was a corner column. In order to explode the columns, explosives were inserted into predrilled holes in the columns. The columns were then well wrapped with a few layers of protective materials. Therefore, neither air blast nor flying fragments affected the structure.I. A sGuih view of hcxel San IJiego, Center sinicmrr is siudrd in ihis paper.Lig.工S<cund 门血卜「of building (Looking south>2. Buildi ng characteristicsHotel San Diego was con structed in 1914 with a south annex added in1924. The annex in cluded two separate build in gs. Fig. 1 shows a south view of the hotel. Note that in the picture, the first and third stories of the hotel are covered with black fabric. The six story hotel had a non-ductile rein forced con crete (RC) frame structure with hollow clay tile exterior infill walls. The in fills in the annex con sisted of two withes (layers) of clay tiles with a total thick ness of about 8 in (203 mm). The height of the first floor was about 190 - 800 m). The heightof other floors and that of the top floor were 100 - 600 m) and 160 - 1000 m), respectively. Fig. 2 shows the sec ond floor of one of the annexbuild in gs. Fig. 3 shows a typical pla n of this build ing, whose resp onsefollowing the simultaneous removal (explosion) of columns A2 and A3 in the first (ground) floor is evaluated in this paper. The floor system consisted of one-way joists running in the longitudinal direction (North - South), as shown in Fig. 3 . Based oncompression tests of two concrete samples, the average concrete compressive strength was estimated at about 4500 psi (31 MPa) for a standard concrete cylinder. The modulus of elasticity of concrete was estimated at 3820 ksi (26 300 MPa) [ 5]. Also, based on tension tests of two steel samples having 1/2 in mm) square sections, the yield and ultimate tensile strengths were found to be 62 ksi (427 MPa) and 87 ksi (600 MPa), respectively. The steel ultimate tensile strain was measured at . The modulus of elasticity of steel was set equal to 29 000 ksi (200 000 MPa). The building was scheduled to be demolished by implosion. As part of the demolition process, the infill walls were removed from the first and third floors. There was no live load in the building. All nonstructural elements including partitions, plumbing, and furniture were removed prior to implosion.Only beams, columns, joist floor and infill walls on the peripheral beams were present.3. SensorsConcrete and steel strain gages were used to measure changes in strains of beams and columns. Linear potentiometers were used to measure global and local deformations. The concrete strain gages were in (90 mm) long having a maximumstrain limit of ±. The steel strain gages could measure up to a strain of ±. The strain gages could operate up to a several hundred kHz sampling rate. The sampling rate used in the experiment was 1000 Hz. Potentiometers were used to capture rotation (integral of curvature over a length) of the beamend regions and global displacementin the building, as described later. The potentiometers had a resolution of about in mm) and a maximumoperational speed of about 40 in/s m/s), while the maximum recorded speed in the experime nt was about 14 in/sm/s).B丄6E4.98 m4 gm m4gtp34brE3P® 3. TS'pical plan of Hokl San (South Anne?! I First floor K mowdl columns arc crossed.Rg.丄 Li:ifui\.^J i K?nc dk uil u>fculuiiin^ JXH J 4a) Beiu 叮 A3^B3 LII stvuiki fluui; uiid (bi Bcdiii M- A 24. Fin ite eleme nt modelUsing the finite element method (FEM), a model of the building was developed in the SAP2000 [8] computer program. The beams and colu mnsare modeled with Berno ulli beam eleme nts. Beams have T or L sect ions with effective flange width on each side of the web equal to four times the slab thick ness [5]. Plastic hin ges are assig ned to all possiblelocations where steel bar yielding can occur, including the ends of eleme nts as well as the reinforcing bar cut-off and bend locati ons. The characteristics of the plastic hinges are obtained using section analyses of the beams and columns and assuminga plastic hinge length equal to half of the section depth. The current version of14-41 —■」5 0 (18 rmn)VE«TTiXflrtl<EF)直由 t&A IFffl FA1l -20 SflHTGnn^Msffir-3i 口 W (10 EK IIM 吟IA2J 口軸]-iftlwMl5CIB ITE2 □ SiS" 1A mm).#2 ^py ^ur wren [M rnm V' gT FPH JSAP2000 [ 8] is not able to track formation of cracks in the elements. In order to find the proper flexural stiffness of sections, an iterative procedure is used as follows. First, the building is analyzed assuming all elements are uncracked. Then, moment demands in the elements are compared with their cracking bending moments, Mcr . The moment of inertia of beam and slab segments are reduced by a coefficient of [ 5], where the demand exceeds the Mcr. The exterior beam cracking bending moments under negative and positive moments, are 516 k in kN m) and 336 k in kN m), respectively. Note that no cracks were formed in the columns. Then the building is reanalyzed and moment diagrams are re-evaluated. This procedure is repeated until all of the cracked regions are properly identified and modeled.The beams in the building did not have top reinforcing bars except at the end regions (see Fig. 4 ). For instance, no top reinforcement was provided beyond the bend in beam A1 - A2, 12 inches away from the face of column A1 (see Figs. 4 and 5). To model the potential loss of flexural strength in those sections, localized crack hinges were assigned at the critical locations where no top rebar was present. Flexural strengths of the hinges were set equal to Mcr. Such sections were assumed to lose their flexural strength when the imposed bending moments reached Mcr.The floor system con sisted of joists in the Ion gitudi nal directi on(North — South). Fig. 6 shows the cross sect ion of a typical floor. I norder to acco unt for pote ntial non li near resp onse of slabs and joists, floors are molded by beam eleme nts. Joists are modeled with T-secti ons, having effective flange width on each side of the web equal to four times the slab thick ness [ 5]. Give n the large joist spac ing betwee n axes 2and 3, two rectangular beamelements with 20-inch wide sections are usedbetwee n the joist and the Ion gitud inal beams of axes 2 and 3 to model the slab in the Ion gitud inal directi on. To model the behavior of the slab in the transverse direction, equally spaced parallel beams with20-i nch wide recta ngular sect ions are used. There is a differe nee betwee n the shear flow in the slab and that in the beamelements with rectangular secti ons modeli ng the slab. Because of this, the torsi onal stiff ness is setequal to on e-half of that of the gross sect ions [The building had infill walls on 2nd, 4th, 5th and 6thfloors on the spandrel beams with some openings . windows and doors). As9].Fig, 5, Location of bends in beam top re infnicenient (in an adjacent inncKbuilding at u location similar to beam Al A2. close to column A11mentioned before and as part of the demolition procedure, the infill walls in the 1st and 3rd floors were removed before the test. The infill walls were made of hollow clay tiles, which were in good condition. The net area of the clay tiles was about 1/2 of the gross area. The in-plane action of the infill walls contributes to the building stiffness and strength and affects the building response. Ignoring the effects of the infill walls and excluding them in the model would result in underestimating the building stiffness and strength.Using the SAP2000 computer program [8], two types of modeling for the infills are considered in this study: one uses two dimensional shell elements (Model A) and the other uses compressive struts (Model B) as suggested in FEMA356 [10] guidelines. . Model A (infills modeled by shell elements)Infill walls are modeled with shell elements. However, the current version of the SAP2000 computer program includes only linear shell elements and cannot account for cracking. The tensile strength of the infill walls is set equal to 26 psi, with a modulus of elasticity of 644 ksi [10]. Because the formation ofcracks has a significant effect on the stiffness of the infill walls, the following iterative procedure is used to account for crack formation:(1) Assuming the infill walls are linear and uncracked, a nonlinear time history analysis is run. Note that plastic hinges exist in the beam elements and the segments of the beamelements where momentdemandexceeds the cracking moment have a reduced moment of inertia.(2) The cracking pattern in the infill wall is determined by comparingstresses in the shells developed during the analysis with the tensile strength of infills.(3) Nodes are separated at the locations where tensile stress exceeds tensile strength. These steps are continued until the crack regions are properly modeled.. Model B (infills modeled by struts)Infill walls are replaced with compressive struts as described in FEMA 356 [ 10] guidelines. Orientations of the struts are determined from the deformed shape of the structure after column removal and the location of openings.. Column removalRemoval of the columns is simulated with the following procedure.(1) The structure is analyzed under the permanent loads and the internal forces are determined at the ends of the columns, which will be removed.(2) The model is modified by removing columns A2 and A3 on the first floor. Again the structure is statically analyzed under permanent loads. In this case, the internal forces at the ends of removed columns found in the first step are applied externally to the structure along with permanent loads. Note that the results of this analysis are identical to those of step 1.(3) The equal and opposite column end forces that were applied in the second step are dynamically imposed on the ends of the removed column within one millisecond [ 11] to simulate the removal of the columns, anddynamic analysis is conducted.. Comparison of analytical and experimental resultsThe maximum calculated vertical displacement of the building occursFig. 7 shows the experimental and analytical (Model A) at joint A3 in the second floor.vertical displacements of this joint (the AEMresults will be discussed in the next section). Experimental data is obtained using therecordings of three potentiometers attached to joint A3 on one of their ends,and to the ground on the other ends. The peak displacements obtainedexperimentally and analytically (Model A) are in mm) and in mm),respectively, which differ only by about 4%. The experimental and analyticaltimes corresponding to peak displacement are s and s, respectively. Theanalytical results show a permanent displacement of about in mm), which isabout 14% smaller than the corresponding experimental value of in mm).Fig. 8 compares vertical displacement histories of joint A3 in the second floor estimated analytically based on Models A and B. As can be seen, modeling infills with struts (Model B) results in a maximumvertical displacement of joint A3 equal to about in mm), which is approximately 80% larger than the value obtained from Model A. Note that the results obtained from Model A are in close agreement with experimental results (see Fig. 7 ), while Model B significantly overestimates the deformation of the structure. If the maximum vertical displacement were larger, the infill walls were more severely cracked and the struts were more completely formed, the difference between the results of the two models (Models A and B) would be smaller.Fig. 9 compares the experimental and analytical (Model A) displacement of joint A2 in the second floor. Again, while the first peak vertical displacement obtained experimentally and analytically are in good agreement, the analytical permanent displacement under estimates the experimental value.Analytically estimated deformed shapes of the structure at the maximumvertical displaceme nt based on Model A are show n inFig. 10 with a magn ificati on factor of 200. The experime ntally measured deformed shape over the end regi ons of beams A1 —A2 and A3 —B3 in the sec ond floor are represented in the figure by solid lines. A total of 14 potentiometers were located at the top and bottom of the end regions of the second floor beams A1— A2 and A3 —B3, which were the most critical elements in load recordings were used to calculate rotation between the sections where the potentiometer ends were connected. This was done by first finding the difference between the recorded deformations at the top and bottom of the beam, and then dividing the value by the distance (along the height of the beamsection) between the two potentiometers. The expected deformed shapes between the measured end regions of the second floor beams are shown by dashed lines. As can be seen in the figures, analytically estimated deformed shapes of the beams are in good agreement with experimentally obtained deformed shapes.redistributio n. The beam top and corresponding bottom potentiometer3Ktg. in hf Kid jotsl tkwr 疔!-0-3 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1l 1 1 1 1 1 1 1O J O Q.2 04 QiG 08 10 12 14 1.6Tirre (s)7- Lix peri mental end analytical vertical displace m^nts cf joinl A3 in second flocH■_0.0-柑」■gr7^ -riovBA L 口--2 500 02 C.4 D6 0B 1.D 12 1 J 1.CTmaFi|, S, Vcrtital Jbfplaxmcm hiisiorics wf joint A3 in flLMn c^tiiTiatcdaruljtit^II Y U IM U on M^xkls A airnd B fJTM ),Fi^. IQ Ajk41)ik J 'H;M. Midte 】/U dkRAiisJ Miiipcs yf HribLtiiiv iScumd flwi rxpt litHaulh* tMiitukd Urruiaikcd 如厅产、alt 虐】沁 寸凯曲対). Analytical results of Model A show that only two plastic hinges areformed in dicati ng rebar yield ing. Also, four sect ions that did not haven egative (top) rein forceme nt, reached crack ing mome nt capacities andtherefore cracked. Fig. 10 shows the locations of all the formed plastic hin ges and cracks.B3F :it .比 bp. \ IJIL 'akil JI d .ILJ I ^I'.iLd ；山spldf I ；L II ul' UHEIL A 2 ia id do >L【uo -Lv一匸严.>A1 a noo hP Floor* HVHMC 叭 PCME■ 0«d4fe AeihClMiiOHti 册Et 列。
新意法(ADECO-RS法)
1.2
新意法（ADECO-RS）与其它隧道设计施工方法的区别
ADECO-RS 法隧道设计和施工就时间和实践而言，表现出是具有明显区别的两阶段； ADECO-RS 法采用新型的对于所有隧道均基于一个单一参数（掌子面～超前核心土体系的应 力～应变特性）的地下工程基本理念框架； ADECO-RS 法的基础是对围岩对开挖的变形反应进行预测、监控和分析，且围岩对开挖的变形 反应成了隧道设计与施工的唯一参考参数。首先，从理论上对围岩的变形反应进行预测和调节， 然后对变形反应进行实测、分析和实验，在此基础上对施工设计进行调整； 引进超前约束理念，对众所周知的约束理念进行完善；另外，引进超前约束理念后，即使在最 困难的静力条件下，也可以按预定计划有序进行隧道施工，而无需在施工期间再采取加固措施； ADECO-RS 法包括采用地层防护技术， 其目的在于保护地层的地质特性和结构特性。 ADECO-RS 法把地层看作“施工材料” ，在隧道施工中发挥极为重要的作用，应尽
与传统土木工程施工相比，隧道开挖“介质”（围岩）显示了极其不规则的特性：非连续性、 非均质性以及各向异性。对于地下工程而言，围岩特性根据应力状态的改变而改变，从而影响对隧 道开挖的反应。 当隧道掌子面在开挖介质中向前推进时，形成“隧道开挖”。这显然是一个动态现象：隧道掘 进可以形象地比喻为一个圆盘不停地以速度V向前移动，并在其后形成临空面。在隧道掘进的同时， 在纵向与横向上对开挖介质产生扰动，最终改变原始应力状态。 在扰动区域，原始应力场通过隧道开挖发生变化，并且在其附近产生应力增加。增加应力的大 小决定了每种介质受扰动的范围（在受扰动的开挖介质中，围岩随受扰动介质体积的增加而损失其 岩土力学特性），因此，隧道变形特性与围岩强度σgd相关。 靠近隧道掌子面的扰动区域的范围取决于掌子面影响半径Rf，设计工程师必须高度重视隧道开 挖扰动区域的范围，在此范围内空间应力转变为平面应力状态（掌子面或过渡区域）；隧道研究要 求用三维法进行计算而不是只考虑二维空间。 “反应”是指开挖介质对隧道开挖行为的变形反应。变形在掌子面前方扰动区域内随着围岩周 围应力的增加提前发生，变形大小取决于开挖介质的强度以及隧道掌子面开挖的影响范围。变形的 大小，决定围岩是否侵入隧道设计理论开挖断面。发生隧道开挖设计净空侵限，也标志着隧道边墙 失稳。 可能发生以下三种基本情况： 假如隧道掘进过程中从空间应力状态转变为平面应力状态时，隧道掌子面应力递减（σ3=0）， 造成隧道掌子面前方的应力处于弹性范围内，从而使开挖形成的隧道边墙（或掌子面）发生较 小的变形，或变形可以忽略，从而可以保持稳定；在此情形下，在开挖轮廓线较近的位置产生 围绕隧道开挖轮廓面的自然应力路径（或称“成拱效应”）。 假如隧道掌子面应力状态递减（σ3=0），使掌子面前方的应力处于弹～塑性范围内，那么此时 围岩的反应极为重要，隧道边墙和掌子面将向隧道内产生弹～塑性变形，并且维持短期稳定状 态。这意味着如果不采取任何措施，将引发塑性变形，并且塑性变形从开挖轮廓周围以径向、 纵向扩散，使“成拱效应”从开挖轮廓线周围转移到围岩中。此类“转移”只有通过采取足够 的稳定及支护措施才能得到控制。 假如隧道掌子面应力状态递减（σ3=0），使掌子面前方的应力处于破坏/坍塌范围内，那么变 形反应是不可接受的，而且隧道掌子面前方围岩变得极不稳定，从而不能形成“成拱效应”。 这种情况发生在粘结力差的地层中或松散地层中。在这种情况下，由于不能自然形成“成拱效 应”，必须采取人工措施形成“成拱效应”。 因此，隧道“成拱效应”的形成及其位置取决于隧道开挖介质对开挖施工的“变形反应”的特 性及大小（通过“成拱效应”，我们可以了解到隧道结构处于长期稳定还是处于短期稳定）。 在此基础上，早在20世纪70年代，便开始着手研究由于隧道掘进/开挖导致的应力状态改变与相 应的隧道变形反应之间的关系。
土木工程专业外文翻译--高层建筑可编辑
土木工程专业外文翻译--高层建筑外文原文Tall Buildings Although there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general, spectacular achievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings.The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing. Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes. The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structural systems.Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limitExcessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions, ceilings, and other architectural details. In addition, excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because of their perception of such motion. Structural systems of reinforced concrete, as well as steel, take full advantage of the inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore do notrequire additional stiffening to limit the sway In a steel structure, for example, the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building. Curve A in Fig. 1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame; Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium Systems in steelTall buildings in steel developed as a result of several types of structural innovations. The innovations have been applied to the construction of both office and apartment buildings Frames with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior columns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses, a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used. A good example of this system is the First Wisconsin Bank Building 1974 in Milwaukee Framed tube. The imum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building, for both strength and stiffness, to resist wind load can be achieved only if all column elements can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground. This particular structural system was probably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut ApartmentBuilding in Chicago. The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 110-story World Trade Center building in New York Column-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with. Diagonal members intersecting at the center line of the columns and beams. This simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Center in Chicago, using as much steel as is normally needed for a traditional story buildingFig. 1. Graphical relationship between design quantities of steel and building heights for a typical building frameCurves A and B correspond to the boundary conditions indicated in the two building diagrams. 1 psf 0. 048kPaBundled tube. With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency. The i10-story Sears Roebuck Headquarters Building in Chicago has nine tubes, bundled at tile base of the building in three rows. Some of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of the building, demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural concept. The Sears tower, at a height of 1450 ft 442 m, is the world's tallest buildingStressed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces wind or earthquake and the control of driftlateral building movement in high-rise building. The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further. The development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the facade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing an efficient way of resisting lateral loads in high-rise buildings, and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor areaBecause of the contribution of the stressed-skin facade, the framed members of the tube require less mass, and are thus lighter and less expensive. All the typical columns and spandrel beams are standard rolled shapes, minimizing the use and cost of special built-up members. The depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space, is minimized. The structural system has been used on the 54-story One Mellon Bank Center in Pittsburgh Systems in concrete. While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive challenge to structural steel systems for both office and apartment buildings Framed tube. As discussed above, the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building. In this building, exterior columns were spaced at 5.5-ft 1.68-m centers, and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in.-thick 20-cm flat-plate concrete slabs Tube in tube. Anothersystem in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area. The system Fig.2, known as the tube-in-tube system, made it possible to design the world's present tallest 714 ft or 218m lightweight concrete Building in Houstonfor structure of only 35 s oriel building the unit 52?story One Shell Plaza of a traditional shear wall Systems compiling both concrete and steel have also been developed,an example of which is the composite system developed by Skidmore,Owings & Merrill in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing,thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structuralsteel systems.The 52?story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system.NEW WORDS AND PHRASES1.spectacular 壮观的,惊人的,引人注意的2.sway 摇动,摇摆,歪,使倾斜3.residential 居住的,住宅的,作住家用的4mercial 商业的,商业上的,商务的5.innovation 革新,创新,新方法,新事物6.boundary 分界线,边界7.eliminate 排除,消除,除去8.apartment 公寓住宅,单元住宅9.column 柱,支柱,圆柱,柱状物10.demonstrate 示范,证明,演示,11.project 凸出,投射,计划,工程12.stress 应力,压力13.truss 构架,桁架14.bundle 捆,束,包15.terminate 使终止,使结尾,结束16.facade 房屋的/E面,立面,表面17.perimeter 周,周围,周界,周长18.encroach 侵犯,侵占,蚕食19.high?rise building 高层建筑20.reinforced concrete 钢筋混凝土21.spandrel beam 窗下墙的墙托梁22.shear wall 剪力墙中文译文高层建筑大体上建筑施工工艺学方面已经有许多进步, 在超高层的设计和施工上已经取得了惊人的成就。
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附录附录A：外文翻译新意法的设计与施工10.4施工期间监控量测系统的设计施工期间监控量测系统的设计，应基于量测阶段预期出现的变形现象的类型和大小。
由于掌子面稳定的重要性，所以当一个隧道设计工程师在设计一个监测系统时，他将拟定一项计划对掌子面核心土的应力应变进行监测并通过对其监测结果进行分析和预测，然后通过这些信息与诊断阶段和处治阶段的预测结构进行对比分析。
过程如下：• 在掌子面核心土稳定的条件下时(如围岩性质比较坚硬)，工程施工就应该立即大致地对开挖面地层的弹性范围和变形影响进行监测，但是没有必要反复监测和使用的精密的监测仪器，一般是在监测特殊的地质环境出现局部失稳时（例如岩石滑坡或岩石脱落）或者是在围岩性质不连续和出现裂痕的方向平行于隧道轴向需要用到刚性材料时才会用到精密的监测仪器，以此来预防发生岩爆。
因此，在这样的情况下通常都会在隧道内每个100米设置系统量测站和监控量测站来达到要求。
•(围岩的粘性现象)掌子面核心土虽然可以短期稳定，而且围岩应力在弹塑性范围内，但变形发生会在后期发生，而且是不可忽略的量级。
所以设计工程师在施工中通过挤出量测站、主量测站、监控量测站(与隧道埋深有关)及系统量测站，对变形和应力的大小及发展趋势进行及时监测尤为重要。
对测量进行校准和完善，这是得到的必要资料的唯一方法，可以此来评估经开挖后掌子面核心土是否充分稳定。
其中各种类型的量测站安装使用的频率将取决于当地地理环境和地质构造特征。
还应该设置掌子面挤出变形的量测站，因为在整个施工中要随时预测掌子面前方地层发生大幅度的塑性变形或是通过它来选择开挖方式和调控稳定监测技术，这项工作最好在隧道开挖停止7天后进行。
如果超前核心土在这种情况下没有充分保护，在过去的许多经验证明其实，在施工中，由于开挖使围岩内部缺少大量岩体将会产生一系列导致隧道不稳定的因素。
挤出变形量测站最好在系统量测站安装后，错开四分之一洞径的距离，以便量测掌子面核心土两侧的三维变形。
最后，通常每隔20~40米监控量测站与系统监测站隔开设置监测阶段所使用的测量仪器滑动变形计滑动变形计是滑动测微计的经济版本，应用广泛，操作简单，坚固可靠。
尽管滑动测微计有更高的精度，但滑动变形计0.02毫米/米的精度是可以满足要求的，可以不必采用高精度的滑动测微计。
滑动测微计是由一系列外径32mm的PVC管(每节长3m)组成。
管和管之间用套管连接组装成一个整体。
每隔1m设一个探测点。
测管的现场安装需钻约56mm的钻孔，然后用膨胀水泥锚固。
探测器的安装是通过球形头，它可以在管内安装的沟槽自由滑动，量测过程也是这样的。
M0是指探头与测量点之间的距离，这个值经过机器从测量杆上不间断的传送到位于测量管外的位移传感器上。
随后的测量是探头和测量点之间的新的距离（M1），L0的位移ΔL是由M1与M0之间的差值求得。
这些测量线上位移的差值就使得变形沿测斜管分布，测量线上的总位移可以通过所有的变形计算出来。
• 在掌子面核心土不稳定的情况下时（如围岩性质比较松散），在施工阶段如果没有对开挖土体进行适当的控制和加固等超前约束的话，地层的变形就会慢慢变大而导致不稳定。
所以设计工程师就应该立即指定安装极为频繁的挤出变形量测站、主量测站、监控量测站和系统量测站（相隔10~20米）。
通常从围岩稳定状态到围岩失稳状态是很突然的而且变形量很小。
如果变形在工程施工中期出现小的特殊变化或是恶化都将会足以引起极其严重和不可逆转的变形，例如会导致掌子面核心土失稳和隧道洞身的塌陷，所以对掌子面的挤出变形的量测是至关重要的。
在实际施工中当应力—应变状况难以监控时，单是收敛变形是不足以保持围岩的变形效应基本都处于控制范围内以及防止隧道塌方的，这是因为收敛变形处于整个变形过程的最后阶段，因此就出现无法控制的现象，这是隧道洞身周围岩体发生塑性变形的结果。
众所周知，塑性变形一旦明显以后就难以控制。
另一方面，掌子面的挤出变形是整个变形过程的第一阶段，如果经过妥善的监测的话,它将会出现大量的预收敛变形和收敛变形的现象，但是不会出现隧道塌方的现象，因为它有充足的时间来给隧道进行支护和加固等。
监测必须认真地按照具体情况执行。
例如当隧道内某区段受大型构造断裂带影响时，可能会遇到各种不同性质的材料和施工组织的混乱等情况，这种情况有时是难以预测。
在这种情形下，材料的地质力学预测是十分困难的，尤其是材料的变形性能。
模拟计算会变得很困难，只能通过精密仪器量测开挖期间和开挖后的变形的类型和大小。
了解地层压力张量也是十分有益的，或者是简单的水平与竖直压力的比例，通常是其中一个压力更大而使结构受力不均。
这时必须安装监控量测站进行隧道周边变形的量测，围岩内部位移的量测，以及围岩内部应力的量测，为了确定是否残余应力起作用。
这可以根据隧道承受的荷载情况确定是安装主量测站还是监控量测站。
如果在可能发生围岩滑坡的地方出现了破裂面或断层时，最好的方法是在围岩各个方向个不连续性处将测量器具综合使用。
然后工程师根据特殊的地理环境和地质情况等因素选择测量器械的种类、数量和测量位置。
在构造作用强烈的地区，水文地质量测是非常重要的。
因为岩性往往在水的渗透以及压力作用下将会方生急剧变化。
如果没有得到迅速的控制，强大水力梯度可能会严重影响隧道长期和短期稳定性。
监测阶段所使用的量测仪器磁力变形计磁力变形计主要广泛应用于测量施工期间道路路基的垂直沉降位移和大坝的水平位移。
它由一对受保护的波纹外套管保护着的检查管组成, （测量点）每隔一定的距离加上金属磁圈。
当检查管插入到钻孔内时，金属磁圈就固定到地层中了。
测量工作是将一个探头滑入检查管内测量金属磁圈的位置，因此在各个测量点就产生了位移。
磁力变形计每个金属磁圈的精确度可以达到± 1毫米左右,如果该测量精度达不到的话也要满足整个测量工作以及掌子面核心土的挤出变形的要求。
隧道开挖在遇到地下水层时对水的截断是非常重要的，所以要在衬砌后修输水渠道，然后进行系统地分析和测量排水流量。
必须弄清楚测压水位变化与弹簧两者在隧道附近产生影响之间的关系。
为了建立一个更为贴近实际而且能更好地评估在含水层隧道中排水设备所产生长期影响的水文地质模型，设计工程师也必须监控隧道浅埋段产生的围岩变形以及测量由于隧道开挖深度和水平地面沉降而引起的变形。
无论测量的结果是什么，对隧道在穿越下表结构时的施工都特别的重要，例如道路、建筑物或是当在河床下进行开挖工作时。
再者，表层结构本身就需要适当的仪器对其监测（表面测角器、不均匀沉降压力表等），通过监测来验证它的原始状况没有变化（绝对沉降和差异沉降监测、监测所有裂缝开放及受振动造成的影响等）。
在做好这些后对水文地质情况的监测也要必须进行，在监控隧道如何排除地表水流，并确保在隧道施工中不会出现任何静电干扰和安全问题上的监测工作是不可或缺的。
在隧道位于城市地区有可能毁坏一些基础设施时，设计工程师将更注重所有具有实用功能的基础设施。
由于地下隧道的通过甚至可能会导致下水道和天然气的泄漏而形成渡槽引起巨大的危险，高压电力线路也会因为受轻微的扰动将不再工作。
在这方面使用一个综合监测系统将是不可缺少的，以便交叉测量与数据重复处理能够同时进行，以消除或至少大大减少了因潜在的不准确的测量误差所产生错误的可能性。
10.5 隧道在使用时的监测如果该地下工程具有巨大的价值或者可能对周边环境产生正面或负面的影响时，就必须对其安全性和产生的效果进行清晰连续的监测，这项工作的持续时间应该是施工后和其整个使用寿命时间范围内。
在几年前这种类型的监测不是很常见，部分原因是在监测中可能要中断工程的使用以便给维修人员时间来采取必要的测量。
但是今天，远程遥控自动装置可以测量到关于监测该地下建筑可以正常运行的很多参数。
这就意味着一个监测系统可以在施工期间被使用，就能够在多年后还能继续提供数据来保证隧道不受外界影响以及隧道的正常使用。
根据隧道的情况在施工时结合现代化的最新信息这种方法使用以后，对地面结构体系的应力应变作用就有了足够的认识，在工程维护和修理的问题上就可以用科学的方法来解决。
检测阶段所使用的测量工具单点和多点式位移计单点和多点式位移计是用来测量地层沿钻孔轴线方向的移动，以此来保证洞口处不同深度测量点的数量。
是选用单点或是多点位移计取决于它安装的测量点的数量。
单点式位移计使用时需要一个有直径约4.5厘米的钻孔，而多点式位移计则需要一个直径约10厘米的钻孔。
它们都是用于测量隧道洞室周围岩体的变形。
该系统的组成是在地层中钻孔安装锚杆通过钢丝与地表相连接，殷钢和玻璃纤维杆受高强的润滑剂外壳保护。
因为殷钢的膨胀系数即大约高于普通钢的十分之一，所以在预计温度将要发生大幅度变化时选用殷钢更好。
玻璃纤维杆因为其实用性现在已经被广泛推广（它的伸长量可达到为准备安装的基本的折叠），但是当该测点的安装长度大于70 - 80米它不能用于测量收缩量。
玻璃纤维杆可以在保护壳内锚杆点与位移计口之间自由滑动，而它的每一次动作都将被数值比较器或电位仪传感器测量记录下来。
施工期间大部分用于监测的的仪器将被安装在测量站，其目的是提到监控量测的质量。
尤其是，如果在隧道的使用中采用解释的测量，与类似的测量直进行接比较的的话更容易理解和更有意义。
显然这些需要仔细监测服的隧道在使用时最务时将会因为一些随时间变化不稳定因素而受到影响。
例如发生隧道滑坡和严重的tectonised，或是在任何情况下受到大量粘性和徐变现象等。
对于浅埋隧道洞口段的施工方法应在整个施工工作中进行监测，因为由于周围环境任何时候的大幅扰动它将受到影响（如地震活动的结果）,即使建设完成以后也一样。
那哪个才是隧道在运行时最合适的测量呢？在回答这个问题之前我们必须明确一个长期的监测目的。
它必须要做到以下几点：• 核实监测的作用，要知道所有的监测行为是为了确保地下洞室的稳定性和完整性，是工程设计活得符合规定的安全系数的保证。
• 给建筑对周围环境的影响进行监测和评估, 特别重视早已存在的水文地质环境的均衡性（监测范围应包括由于地表水位下降可能会使农作业土壤肥力减少或者是在它包含有害物质溶液或悬浮液时存在排水困难现象等潜在的危害）。
因此对于隧道使用时的监测应包括获得一些关于隧道洞身周围水文地质条件的变化和稳定器械应力——应变状态发生改变的数据。
该仪器在施工阶段就已经安装上而不可缺少，可直接测量在初期支护和二次衬砌时的压力分布。
设计工程师应该注意那些通常有数据模型预测不了的，特别是以前就存在地应力状态可能出现的不对称荷载。
收敛变形的量测在监测工作中占有重要的地位，它包括对衬砌内部轮廓的基本测量以及查明它不会随时间发生变形（即检查隧道断面是否会变成椭圆形）。
一般来说测距计、收敛钉和地形指标通常都可以满足这种类型的测量，但是这些系统必须保证对隧道的运行产生的影响很小甚至没有，比如雷达或电视等都可在特定情况下使用。