商业银行信贷风险管理外文翻译

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商业银行信贷风险管理外文文献翻译中文3000多字

商业银行信贷风险管理外文文献翻译中文3000多字Credit risk management is a XXX business。

financing ns。

payment and settlement。

and other XXX。

credit XXX risk factor for commercial banks。

XXX such as life risk and uncertainty.Effective credit risk management is essential for commercial banks to minimize the impact of credit losses。

This involves identifying and assessing potential risks。

XXX strategies。

XXX。

By doing so。

commercial banks XXX the potential for credit losses.One of the key components of credit risk management iscredit analysis。

This involves evaluating the orthiness of borrowers to determine the likelihood of default。

Credit analysis XXX's financial history。

credit score。

collateral。

XXX credit analysis。

commercial banks can make informed lending ns and minimize the risk of default.Another important aspect of credit risk management is credit XXX can also help commercial banks XXX.In n。

商业银行风险管理外文及翻译

外文文献翻译Commercial Bank Risk Management: An Analysis of the Process外文文献：Commercial Bank Risk Management: An Analysis of the Process AbstractThroughout the past year, on-site visits to financial service firms were conducted to review and evaluate their financial risk management systems. The commercial banking analysis covered a number of North American super-regionals and quasi±money-center institutions as well as several firms outside the U.S. The information obtained covered both the philosophy and practice of financial risk management. This article outlines the results of this investigation. It reports the state of risk management techniques in the industry. It reports the standard of practice and evaluates how and why it is conducted in the particular way chosen. In addition, critiques are offered where appropriate. We discuss the problems which the industry finds most difficult to address, shortcomings of the current methodology used to analyze risk, and the elements that are missing in the current procedures of risk management.1. IntroductionThe past decade has seen dramatic losses in the banking industry. Firms that had been performing well suddenly announced large losses due to credit exposures that turned sour, interest rate positions taken, or derivative exposures that may or may not have been assumed to hedge balance sheet risk. In response to this, commercial banks have almost universally embarked upon an upgrading of their risk management and control systems.Coincidental to this activity, and in part because of our recognition of the industry's vulnerability to financial risk, the Wharton Financial Institutions Center, with the support of the Sloan Foundation, has been involved in an analysis of financial risk management processes in the financial sector. Through the past academic year, on-site visits were conducted to review and evaluate the risk management systems and the process of risk evaluation that is in place. In the banking sector, system evaluation was conducted covering many of North America'ssuper-regionals and quasi±money-center commercial banks, as well as a number of major investment banking firms. These results were then presented to a much wider array of banking firms for reaction and verification. The purpose of the present article is to outline the findings of this investigation. It reports the state of risk management techniques in the industry—questions asked, questions answered, and questions left unaddressed by respondents. This report can not recite a litany of the approaches used within the industry, nor can it offer an evaluation of each and every approach. Rather, it reports the standard of practice and evaluates how and why it is conducted in the particular way chosen. But, even the best practice employed within the industry is not good enough in some areas. Accordingly, critiques also will be offered where appropriate. The article concludes with a list of questions that are currently unanswered, or answered imprecisely in the current practice employed by this group of relatively sophisticated banks. Here, we discuss the problems which the industry finds most difficult to address, shortcomings of the current methodology used to analyze risk, and the elements that are missing in the current procedures of risk management and risk control.2. What type of risk is being considered?Commercial banks are in the risk business. In the process of providing financial services, they assume various kinds of financial risks. Over the last decade our understanding of the place of commercial banks within the financial sector has improved substantially. Over this time, much has been written on the role of commercial banks in the financial sector, both in the academic literature and in the financial press. These arguments will be neither reviewed nor enumerated here. Suffice it to say that market participants seek the services of these financial institutions because of their ability to provide market knowledge, transaction efficiency and funding capability. In performing these roles, they generally act as a principal in the transaction. As such, they use their own balance sheet to facilitate the transaction and to absorb the risks associated with it.To be sure, there are activities performed by banking firms which do not have direct balance sheet implications. These services include agency and advisoryactivities such as(1) trust and investment management;(2) private and public placements through ``bestefforts'' or facilitating contracts;(3) standard underwriting through Section 20 Subsidiaries of the holding company;(4) the packaging, securitizing, distributing, and servicing of loans in the areas of consumer and real estate debt primarily.These items are absent from the traditional financial statement because the latter rely on generally accepted accounting procedures rather than a true economic balance sheet. Nonetheless,the overwhelming majority of the risks facing the banking firm are on-balance-sheet businesses. It is in this area that the discussion of risk management and of the necessary procedures for risk management and control has centered. Accordingly, it is here that our review of risk management procedures will concentrate.3. What kinds of risks are being absorbed?The risks contained in the bank's principal activities, i.e., those involving its own balance sheet and its basic business of lending and borrowing, are not all borne by the bank itself. In many instances the institution will eliminate or mitigate the financial risk associated with a transaction by proper business practices; in others, it will shift the risk to other parties through a combination of pricing and product design.The banking industry recognizes that an institution need not engage in business in amanner that unnecessarily imposes risk upon it; nor should it absorb risk that can be efficiently transferred to other participants. Rather, it should only manage risks at the firm level that are more efficiently managed there than by the market itself or by their owners in their own portfolios. In short, it should accept only those risks that are uniquely a part of the bank's array of services. Elsewhere (Oldfield and Santomero, 1997) it has been argued that risks facing all financial institutions can be segmented into three separable types, from a management perspective. These are:1. risks that can be eliminated or avoided by simple business practices;2. risks that can be transferred to other participants;3. risks that must be actively managed at the firm level.In the first of these cases, the practice of risk avoidance involves actions to reduce the chances of idiosyncratic losses from standard banking activity by eliminating risks that are superˉuous to the institution's business purpose. Common risk-avoidance practices here include at least three types of actions. The standardization of process, contracts, and procedures to prevent inefficient or incorrect financial decisions is the first of these. The construction of portfolios that benefit from diversification across borrowers and that reduce the effects of any one loss experience is another. The implementation of incentivecompatible contracts with the institution's management to require that employees be held accountable is the third. In each case, the goal is to rid the firm of risks that are not essential to the financial service provided, or to absorb only an optimal quantity of a particular kind of risk.There are also some risks that can be eliminated, or at least substantially reduced through the technique of risk transfer. Markets exist for many of the risks borne by the banking firm. Interest rate risk can be transferred by interest rate products such as swaps or other derivatives. Borrowing terms can be altered to effect a change in their duration.Finally, the bank can buy or sell financial claims to diversify or concentrate the risks that result from servicing its client base. To the extent that the financial risks of the assets created by the firm are understood by the market, these assets can be sold at their fair value. Unless the institution has a comparative advantage in managing the attendant risk and/or a desire for the embedded risk which they contain, there is no reason for the bank to absorb such risks, rather than transfer them.However, there are two classes of assets or activities where the risk inherent in the activity must and should be absorbed at the bank level. In these cases, good reasons exist for using firm resources to manage bank level risk. The first of these includes financial assets or activities where the nature of the embedded risk may be complex and difficult to communicate to third parties. This is the case when the bank holds complex and proprietary assets that have thin, if not nonexistent, secondarymarkets. Communication in such cases may be more difficult or expensive than hedging the underlying risk. Moreover, revealing information about the customer may give competitors an undue advantage. The second case includes proprietary positions that are accepted because of their risks, and their expected return. Here, risk positions that are central to the bank's business purpose are absorbed because they are the raison of the firm. Credit risk inherent in the lending activity is a clear case in point, as is market risk for the trading desk of banks active in certain markets. In all such circumstances, risk is absorbed and needs to be monitored and managed efficiently by the institution. Only then will the firm systematically achieve its financial performance goal.4. How are these risks managed?In light of the above, what are the necessary procedures that must be in place in order to carry out adequate risk management? In essence, what techniques are employed to both limit and manage the different types of risk, and how are they implemented in each area of risk control? It is to these questions that we now turn. After reviewing the procedures employed by leading firms, an approach emerges from an examination of large-scale risk management systems. The management of the banking firm relies on a sequence of steps to implement a risk management system. These can be seen as containing the following four parts:1. standards and reports,2. position limits or rules,3. investment guidelines or strategies, and4. incentive contracts and compensation.In general, these tools are established to measure exposure, define procedures to manage these exposures, limit individual positions to acceptable levels, and encourage decision makers to manage risk in a manner that is consistent with the firm's goals and objectives. To see how each of these four parts of basic risk-management techniques achieves these ends, we elaborate on each part of the process below. In section 4 we illustrate how these techniques are applied to manage each of the specific risks facing the banking community.1.Standards and reports.The first of these risk-management techniques involves two different conceptual activities, i.e., standard setting and financial reporting. They are listed together because they are the sine qua non of any risk system. Underwriting standards, risk categorizations, and standards of review are all traditional tools of risk management and control. Consistent evaluation and rating of exposures of various types are essential to an understanding of the risks in the portfolio, and the extent to which these risks must be mitigated or absorbed.The standardization of financial reporting is the next ingredient. Obviously, outside audits, regulatory reports, and rating agency evaluations are essential for investors to gauge asset quality and firm-level risk. These reports have long been standardized, for better or worse. However, the need here goes beyond public reports and audited statements to the need for management information on asset quality and risk posture. Such internal reports need similar standardization and much more frequent reporting intervals, with daily or weekly reports substituting for the quarterly GAAP periodicity.2.Position limits and rules.A second technique for internal control of active management is the use of position limits, and/or minimum standards for participation. In terms of the latter, the domain of risk taking is restricted to only those assets or counterparties that pass some prespecified quality standard. Then, even for those investments that are eligible, limits are imposed to cover exposures to counterparties, credits, and overall position concentrations relative to various types of risks. While such limits are costly to establish and administer, their imposition restricts the risk that can be assumed by anyone individual, and therefore by the organization as a whole. In general, each person who can commit capital will have a well-defined limit. This applies to traders, lenders,and portfolio managers. Summary reports show limits as well as current exposure by business unit on a periodic basis. In large organizations with thousands of positions maintained, accurate and timely reporting is difficult, but even more essential.3.Investment guidelines and strategies.Investment guidelines and recommended positions for the immediate future are the third technique commonly in use. Here, strategies are outlined in terms of concentrations and commitments to particular aras of the market, the extent of desired asset-liability mismatching or exposure, and the need to hedge against systematic risk of a particular type.4.Incentives schemes.To the extent that management can enter incentive compatible contracts with line managers and make compensation related to the risks borne by these individuals, then the need for elaborate and costly controls is lessened. However, such incentive contracts require accurate position valuation and proper internal control systems.中文译文：商业银行的风险管理：一个分析的过程摘要在过去一年里,我们通过现场参观金融服务公司来进行审查和评估其金融风险管理系统。

商业银行信贷风险管理外文文献翻译中文3000多字

文献出处：Cornett M, Strahan P. The credit risk management of commercial banks [J]. Journal of Financial Economics, 2015, 101(2): 297-312.原文The credit risk management of commercial banksCornett M, Strahan PAbstractCredit risk is one of the most usual ones which any commercial banks may encounter during their operation. Credit risks of commercial banks not only cause losses which result in bankruptcy but also cause the most serious issues of financial and economic crisis of one nation. Referring to credit risk management of Vietnam commercial bank system，the capability of credit risks management of Vietnam commercial banks is still low; The rate of bad debt in the entire system is still much higher than international standards. Take this situation in consideration together with referring to a great number of documentations, I have studied credit risk management of the three typical commercial bank in Vietnam and analyzed and evaluated the remaining issues in the process of credit risk control by these banks and offer some relevant solutions to the entire system of domestic banks. In credit risk management, I shall focus mainly on unscientific features in econometrics methods of credit risk management issued by commercial banks in Vietnam，which is inclusive of combination of unclear mathematic method and class analysis one to calculate credit risks. Due to the fact that credit risk management after disbursement by most of commercial banks is still weak, it is quite needed to study management after disbursement, particularize the method of identifying credit asset debt, build five-class classification, carry out actual management of credit asset and base on tendency of bad debt to offer solutions for every time period. In conclusion, what motioned herein comes from credit risk management in consideration of prevention, calculation, change and solution as well as risk management institutions.Key words: Risk, credit risk, commercial bank credit.1 Commercial bank credit risk management theoryAlthough Banks have a long history, but the theoretical analysis of credit risk is a relatively short history. By kea ton (Keeton, 1979), stag Ritz and Weiss (Mr. Weiss, 1981) development and formation of the "incomplete information credit rationing models on the market", it is pointed out that the credit market credit risk not only the two typical forms of...Adverse selection and moral hazard, and demonstrates the root of the credit risk, information asymmetry caused by the principal-agent relationship, lead to the emergence of credit rationing. Credit risk management refers to the commercial Banks through the scientific method of various subjective factors could lead to credit losses effectively forecast, analysis, prevention, control and processing. In order to reduce the credit risk, reduce the credit losses and improve the quality of credit, to enhance the capacity of the commercial bank risk control and loss compensation ability of a credit management activity. Depth understanding of credit risk management from the following four to grasp. One is the basis of credit risk management is according to the characteristics of credit requirements, not against the objective law of credit; The second is the credit risk management is scientific, modernization, standardization, quantitative and comprehensive; Three is the credit risk management method is mainly credit risk analysis, risk identification, risk measurement, risk control and risk management; Four is the credit risk management goal is to reduce risk, reduce loss, enhance the ability of commercial Banks operating risk.In order to guarantee bank loans will not be against its customers, to customers, companies, enterprises, such as different customer types before they are allowed to make loans to consider some problems. Also the question bank standard of 5 cabaña will select credit analysis of 5 c as a measure of the basic elements of corporate credit risk:1.1 QualityThe debtor to meet its debt obligations will, is the first indicator of evaluate the credit quality of the debtor. Regarding the quality of the wholesale banking, measure, or can be based on the reputation of the company management/owner eventually andcompany strategy.1.2 AbilityThe debtor's solvency, include the trend of the vision of the industry, the sustainable development of the company; the financial data mainly embodied in the current ratio and quick ratio. The stability of the corporate cash income directly determines its solvency and probability of default.1.3 CapitalRefers to the capital structure of the debtor or quotas, which indicates that the background of the customer may repay debt, such as debt ratio) or the net value of fixed assets and other financial indicators, etc.Shadow of the company's capital structure financing strategy: equity financing and debt financing.1.4 EnvironmentCompany locates the environment and the adaptability to the environment. Including solvent could affect the debtor's political, economic and market environment, such as the dong to rise and cancel the export tax rebate. As the "green credit, supported by more and more countries and companies, sustainable risk also be incorporated into the environmental risk considerations.1.5 MortgageRepayment of the debt of other potential resources and the resources provided by the additional security. Refuse or insolvent debtor can be used as mortgage/collateral assets, for no credit record (such as trading for the first time) or credit record disputed the debtor2 The commercial bank credit risk management processIn order to effective credit risk management, commercial Banks should grasp the basic application of credit risk management. In general, the credit risk management process can be divided into credit credit risk identification, risk estimate and credit risk handling three phases:2.1 Credit risk identificationCredit risk identification is before in all kinds of credit risk, the risk types and to determine the cause of occurrence of a risk, analysis, in order to achieve the credit riskmeasurement and processing. Credit risk identification is a qualitative analysis of the risk, is the first step of credit risk management, which is the basis for the rest of the credit risk management. Customer rating system and credit risk classification of the two dimensional rating system is constitute the important content of risk identification. This chapter will make detailed description of the two parts. Before the credit investigation is the commercial bank credit risk identification is the most basic steps, bank loans to the customer before must know the borrowing needs of the clients and purpose. Credit investigation before the concrete has the following contents: understand the purpose of credit, credit purpose including: type, in line with the needs of the business purpose and credit product mix and match the borrower repayment source of credit and credit term and effective mortgage guarantee/warranty or other intangible support.2.2 Credit risk estimateCredit risk estimation is the possibility of Banks in credit risk and the fact that the risk to evaluate the extent of the losses caused by measurement. Its basic requirements: it is estimated that some expected risk the possibility of credit; 2 it is to measure some credit risk fact may cause the loss of the scale. Objective that is both a difficult problem, but such as is not an appraisal, can't the quantitative corresponding countermeasures to prevent and eliminate. With the development of risk management techniques, in the financial markets open, Vietnam's financial regulators and commercial Banks also pay more and more attention to the risk of quantitative, in credit rating and have a certain progress in capital adequacy.Before Banks to make loans to customers, Banks must also understand the purpose of the customer, more understand the usage of loan customers, whether it is feasible, from now on, find a way to manage future loans to avoid the violation of the customer. As a result, Banks should use the loan examination and approval way to deal with.2.3 The processing of credit riskCredit risk after processing is that the Banks in the recognition and valuation risk, the effective measures taken by different for different size of loan risk take differentprocessing method, make the credit risk is reduced to the lowest degree. Risk treatment methods mainly include: risk transfer refers to the bank assumes the credit risk on to others in some way. Transfer way, it is transferred to the customer, such as Banks to raise interest rates, require the borrower to provide mortgage, pledge or other additional conditions, etc.; 2 it is transferred to the insurance company, the bank will those particularly risky, once happened will loss serious loans directly to the insurance company insured, or by the customer to the insurance company insured to transfer risk;3 Commercial bank credit risk management regulation.In the risk management of commercial Banks to improve themselves at the same time, regulators and external credit rating agencies to the commercial bank credit risk management has a different regulation method.3.1 The China banking regulatory commission five classificationsThe CBRC requires commercial Banks asset quality for five categories, to reflect the face possible credit losses. System is classifying loans into five categories according to the inherent risk level could be divided into normal commercial loans, concern, loss of secondary, suspicious, five categories.The China banking regulatory commission five classifications has the advantage that the bank asset quality can be compared more easily, also can take credit quality of the whole global. Disadvantage is that some small and medium-sized Banks because of the lack of independent audit and internal audit, classification standard is difficult to unity, the China banking regulatory commission five classifications often find selective examination questions.3.2 Stress tests, a rating agencyRating agencies will be according to the information disclosure and audit results and adjusting the bank's credit rating. Stress test is a credit rating agency for checking the quality of commercial bank credit and common ways of anti-risk ability. Because of the influence of the stress tests, for what has happened, to predict the result may worsen the credit quality; Or for the possibility of events, predict the results of the impact of credit quality. Similar stress tests include, an industry is a strong shockcases the possibility of default, or large credit customer default could lead to credit quality decline.3.3 The new Basel capital accordNew Basel capital agreement hereinafter referred to as the new Basel agreement (hereinafter referred to as Basel II) in English, is by the bank for international settlements under the Basel committee on banking supervision (BCBS), and content for 1988 years the old Basel capital accord (Basel I) have had to make significant changes, in order to standardize the international risk management system, improve the international financial services of risk management ability.译文商业银行信贷风险管理作者：Cornett M, Strahan P摘要信贷风险是商业银行经营过程中所面临的最主要的风险之一。

外文翻译---商业银行的风险管理：一个分析的过程

毕业论文外文翻译外文来源Commercial Bank Risk Management: An Analysis of the Process 中文译文商业银行表外业务风险控制2014年 3 月 15 日部（系）商学部专业金融学姓名学号指导老师Commercial Bank Risk Management: An Analysis ofthe ProcessRui HeTrends and issues in Commercial Bank Risk ManagementAbstractThroughout the past year, on-site visits to financial service firms were conducted to review and evaluate their financial risk management systems. The commercial banking analysis covered a number of North American super-regionals and quasi±money-center institutions as well as several firms outside the U.S. The information obtained covered both the philosophy and practice of financial risk management. This article outlines the results of this investigation. It reports the state of risk management techniques in the industry. It reports the standard of practice and evaluates how and why it is conducted in the particular way chosen. In addition, critiques are offered where appropriate. We discuss the problems which the industry finds most difficult to address, shortcomings of the current methodology used to analyze risk, and the elements that are missing in the current procedures of risk management.1. . IntroductionThe past decade has seen dramatic losses in the banking industry. Firms that had been performing well suddenly announced large losses due to credit exposures that turned sour, interest rate positions taken, or derivative exposures that may or may not have been assumed to hedge balance sheet risk. In response to this, commercial banks have almost universally embarked upon an upgrading of their risk management and control systems.Coincidental to this activity, and in part because of our recognition of theindustry's vulnerability to financial risk, the Wharton Financial Institutions Center, with the support of the Sloan Foundation, has been involved in an analysis of financial risk management processes in the financial sector. Through the past academic year, on-site visits were conducted to review and evaluate the risk management systems and the process of risk evaluation that is in place. In the banking sector, system evaluation was conducted covering many of North America's super-regionals and quasi±money-center commercial banks, as well as a number of major investment banking firms. These results were then presented to a much wider array of banking firms for reaction and verification. The purpose of the present article is to outline the findings of this investigation. It reports the state of risk management techniques in the industry—questions asked, questions answered, and questions left unaddressed by respondents. This report can not recite a litany of the approaches used within the industry, nor can it offer an evaluation of each and every approach. Rather, it reports the standard of practice and evaluates how and why it is conducted in the particular way chosen. But, even the best practice employed within the industry is not good enough in some areas. Accordingly, critiques also will be offered where appropriate. The article concludes with a list of questions that are currently unanswered, or answered imprecisely in the current practice employed by this group of relatively sophisticated banks. Here, we discuss the problems which the industry finds most difficult to address, shortcomings of the current methodology used to analyze risk, and the elements that are missing in the current procedures of risk management and risk control.2. What type of risk is being considered?Commercial banks are in the risk business. In the process of providing financial services, they assume various kinds of financial risks. Over the last decade our understanding of the place of commercial banks within the financial sector has improved substantially. Over this time, much has been written on the role of commercial banks in the financial sector, both in the academic literature and in the financial press. These arguments will be neither reviewed nor enumerated here.Suffice it to say that market participants seek the services of these financial institutions because of their ability to provide market knowledge, transaction efficiency and funding capability. In performing these roles, they generally act as a principal in the transaction. As such, they use their own balance sheet to facilitate the transaction and to absorb the risks associated with it.To be sure, there are activities performed by banking firms which do not have direct balance sheet implications. These services include agency and advisory activities such as(1) trust and investment management;(2) private and public placements through ``best efforts'' or facilitating contracts;(3) standard underwriting through Section 20 Subsidiaries of the holding company;(4) the packaging, securitizing, distributing, and servicing of loans in the areas of consumer and real estate debt primarily.These items are absent from the traditional financial statement because the latter rely on generally accepted accounting procedures rather than a true economic balance sheet. Nonetheless, the overwhelming majority of the risks facing the banking firm are on-balance-sheet businesses. It is in this area that the discussion of risk management and of the necessary procedures for risk management and control has centered. Accordingly, it is here that our review of risk management procedures will concentrate.3. What kinds of risks are being absorbed?The risks contained in the bank's principal activities, i.e., those involving its own balance sheet and its basic business of lending and borrowing, are not all borne by the bank itself. In many instances the institution will eliminate or mitigate the financial risk associated with a transaction by proper business practices; in others, it will shift the risk to other parties through a combination of pricing and product design.The banking industry recognizes that an institution need not engage in business in amanner that unnecessarily imposes risk upon it; nor should it absorb risk that canbe efficiently transferred to other participants. Rather, it should only manage risks at the firm level that are more efficiently managed there than by the market itself or by their owners in their own portfolios. In short, it should accept only those risks that are uniquely a part of the bank's array of services. Elsewhere (Old field and Santomero, 1997) it has been argued that risks facing all financial institutions can be segmented into three separable types, from a management perspective. These are:1. risks that can be eliminated or avoided by simple business practices;2. risks that can be transferred to other participants;3. risks that must be actively managed at the firm level.In the first of these cases, the practice of risk avoidance involves actions to reduce the chances of idiosyncratic losses from standard banking activity by eliminating risks that are superˉuous to the institution's business purpose. Common risk-avoidance practices here include at least three types of actions. The standardization of process, contracts, and procedures to prevent inefficient or incorrect financial decisions is the first of these. The construction of portfolios that benefit from diversification across borrowers and that reduce the effects of any one loss experience is another. The implementation of incentive compatible contracts with the institution's management to require that employees be held accountable is the third. In each case, the goal is to rid the firm of risks that are not essential to the financial service provided, or to absorb only an optimal quantity of a particular kind of risk.There are also some risks that can be eliminated, or at least substantially reduced through the technique of risk transfer. Markets exist for many of the risks borne by the banking firm. Interest rate risk can be transferred by interest rate products such as swaps or other derivatives. Borrowing terms can be altered to effect a change in their duration.Finally, the bank can buy or sell financial claims to diversify or concentrate the risks that result from servicing its client base. To the extent that the financial risks of the assets created by the firm are understood by the market, these assets can be sold at their fair value. Unless the institution has a comparative advantage in managing the attendant risk and/or a desire for the embedded risk which they contain, there is noreason for the bank to absorb such risks, rather than transfer them.However, there are two classes of assets or activities where the risk inherent in the activity must and should be absorbed at the bank level. In these cases, good reasons exist for using firm resources to manage bank level risk. The first of these includes financial assets or activities where the nature of the embedded risk may be complex and difficult to communicate to third parties. This is the case when the bank holds complex and proprietary assets that have thin, if not nonexistent, secondary markets. Communication in such cases may be more difficult or expensive than hedging the underlying risk. Moreover, revealing information about the customer may give competitors an undue advantage. The second case includes proprietary positions that are accepted because of their risks, and their expected return. Here, risk positions that are central to the bank's business purpose are absorbed because they are the raison of the firm. Credit risk inherent in the lending activity is a clear case in point, as is market risk for the trading desk of banks active in certain markets. In all such circumstances, risk is absorbed and needs to be monitored and managed efficiently by the institution. Only then will the firm systematically achieve its financial performance goal.4. How are these risks managed?In light of the above, what are the necessary procedures that must be in place in order to carry out adequate risk management? In essence, what techniques are employed to both limit and manage the different types of risk, and how are they implemented in each area of risk control? It is to these questions that we now turn. After reviewing the procedures employed by leading firms, an approach emerges from an examination of large-scale risk management systems. The management of the banking firm relies on a sequence of steps to implement a risk management system. These can be seen as containing the following four parts:1. standards and reports,2. position limits or rules,3. investment guidelines or strategies, and4. incentive contracts and compensation.In general, these tools are established to measure exposure, define procedures to manage these exposures, limit individual positions to acceptable levels, and encourage decision makers to manage risk in a manner that is consistent with the firm's goals and objectives. To see how each of these four parts of basic risk-management techniques achieves these ends, we elaborate on each part of the process below. In section 4 we illustrate how these techniques are applied to manage each of the specific risks facing the banking community.1.Standards and reports.The first of these risk-management techniques involves two different conceptual activities, i.e., standard setting and financial reporting. They are listed together because they are the sine qua non of any risk system. Underwriting standards, risk categorizations, and standards of review are all traditional tools of risk management and control. Consistent evaluation and rating of exposures of various types are essential to an understanding of the risks in the portfolio, and the extent to which these risks must be mitigated or absorbed.The standardization of financial reporting is the next ingredient. Obviously, outside audits, regulatory reports, and rating agency evaluations are essential for investors to gauge asset quality and firm-level risk. These reports have long been standardized, for better or worse. However, the need here goes beyond public reports and audited statements to the need for management information on asset quality and risk posture. Such internal reports need similar standardization and much more frequent reporting intervals, with daily or weekly reports substituting for the quarterly GAAP periodicity.2.Position limits and rules.A second technique for internal control of active management is the use of position limits, and/or minimum standards for participation. In terms of the latter, the domain of risk taking is restricted to only those assets or counterparties that pass some prespecified quality standard. Then, even for those investments that are eligible, limits are imposed to cover exposures to counterparties, credits, and overall positionconcentrations relative to various types of risks. While such limits are costly to establish and administer, their imposition restricts the risk that can be assumed by anyone individual, and therefore by the organization as a whole. In general, each person who can commit capital will have a well-defined limit. This applies to traders, lenders ,and portfolio managers. Summary reports show limits as well as current exposure by business unit on a periodic basis. In large organizations with thousands of positions maintained, accurate and timely reporting is difficult, but even more essential.3.Investment guidelines and strategies.Investment guidelines and recommended positions for the immediate future are the third technique commonly in use. Here, strategies are outlined in terms of concentrations and commitments to particular aras of the market, the extent of desired asset-liability mismatching or exposure, and the need to hedge against systematic risk of a particular type.4.Incentives schemes.To the extent that management can enter incentive compatible contracts with line managers and make compensation related to the risks borne by these individuals, then the need for elaborate and costly controls is lessened. However, such incentive contracts require accurate position valuation and proper internal control systems.商业银行的风险管理：一个分析的过程何瑞商业银行风险管理和相关问题摘要在过去一年里,我们通过现场参观金融服务公司来进行审查和评估其金融风险管理系统。

商业银行风险管理中英文对照外文翻译文献

商业银行风险管理中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)“RISK MANAGEMENT IN COMMERCIAL BANKS”(A CASE STUDY OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECTOR BANKS) - ABSTRACT ONLY1. PREAMBLE:1.1 Risk Management:The future of banking will undoubtedly rest on risk management dynamics. Only those banks that have efficient risk management system will survive in the market in the long run. The effective management of credit risk is a critical component of comprehensive risk management essential for long-term success of a banking institution. Credit risk is the oldest and biggest risk that bank, by virtue of its very nature of business, inherits. This has however, acquired a greater significance in the recent past for various reasons. Foremost among them is the wind of economic liberalization that is blowing across the globe. India is no exception to this swing towards market driven economy. Competition from within and outside the country has intensified. This has resulted in multiplicity of risks both in number and volume resulting in volatile markets. A precursor to successful management of credit risk is a clear understanding about risks involved in lending, quantifications of risks within each item of the portfolio and reaching a conclusion as to the likely composite credit risk profile of a bank.The corner stone of credit risk management is the establishment of a framework that defines corporate priorities, loan approval process, credit risk rating system, risk-adjusted pricing system, loan-review mechanism and comprehensive reporting system.1.2 Significance of the study:The fundamental business of lending has brought trouble to individual banks and entire banking system. It is, therefore, imperative that the banks are adequate systems for credit assessment of individual projects and evaluating risk associated therewith as well as the industry as a whole. Generally, Banks in India evaluate a proposal through the traditional tools of project financing, computing maximum permissible limits, assessing management capabilities and prescribing a ceiling for an industry exposure. As banks move in to a new high powered world of financial operations and trading, with new risks, the need is felt for more sophisticated and versatile instruments for risk assessment, monitoring and controlling risk exposures. It is, therefore, time that banks managements equip themselves fully to grapple with the demands of creating tools and systems capable of assessing, monitoring and controlling risk exposures in a more scientific manner.Credit Risk, that is, default by the borrower to repay lent money, remains the most important risk to manage till date. The predominance of credit risk is even reflected in the composition of economic capital, which banks are required to keep a side for protection against various risks. According to one estimate, Credit Risk takes about 70% and 30%remaining is shared between the other two primary risks, namely Market risk (change in the market price and operational risk i.e., failure of internal controls, etc.). Quality borrowers (Tier-I borrowers) were able to access the capital market directly without going through the debt route. Hence, the credit route is now more open to lesser mortals (Tier-II borrowers).With margin levels going down, banks are unable to absorb the level of loan losses. There has been very little effort to develop a method where risks could be identified and measured. Most of the banks have developed internal rating systems for their borrowers, but there hasbeen very little study to compare such ratings with the final asset classification and also to fine-tune the rating system. Also risks peculiar to each industry are not identified and evaluated openly. Data collection is regular driven. Data on industry-wise, region-wise lending, industry-wise rehabilitated loan, can provide an insight into the future course to be adopted.Better and effective strategic credit risk management process is a better way to Manage portfolio credit risk. The process provides a framework to ensure consistency between strategy and implementation that reduces potential volatility in earnings and maximize shareholders wealth. Beyond and over riding the specifics of risk modeling issues, the challenge is moving towards improved credit risk management lies in addressing banks’readiness and openness to accept change to a more transparent system, to rapidly metamorphosing markets, to more effective and efficient ways of operating and to meet market requirements and increased answerability to stake holders.There is a need for Strategic approach to Credit Risk Management (CRM) in Indian Commercial Banks, particularly in view of;(1) Higher NPAs level in comparison with global benchmark(2) RBI’ s stipulation about dividend distribution by the banks(3) Revised NPAs level and CAR norms(4) New Basel Capital Accord (Basel –II) revolutionAccording to the study conducted by ICRA Limited, the gross NPAs as a proportion of total advances for Indian Banks was 9.40 percent for financial year 2003 and 10.60 percent for financial year 20021. The value of the gross NPAs as ratio for financial year 2003 for the global benchmark banks was as low as 2.26 percent. Net NPAs as a proportion of net advances of Indian banks was 4.33 percent for financial year 2003 and 5.39 percent for financial year 2002. As against this, the value of net NPAs ratio for financial year 2003 for the global benchmark banks was 0.37 percent. Further, it was found that, the total advances of the banking sector to the commercial and agricultural sectors stood at Rs.8,00,000 crore. Of this, Rs.75,000 crore, or 9.40 percent of the total advances is bad and doubtful debt. The size of the NPAs portfolio in the Indian banking industry is close to Rs.1,00,000 crore which is around 6 percent of India’ s GDP2.The RBI has recently announced that the banks should not pay dividends at more than 33.33 percent of their net profit. It has further provided that the banks having NPA levels less than 3 percent and having Capital Adequacy Reserve Ratio (CARR) of more than 11 percent for the last two years will only be eligible to declare dividends without the permission from RBI3. This step is for strengthening the balance sheet of all the banks in the country. The banks should provide sufficient provisions from their profits so as to bring down the net NPAs level to 3 percent of their advances.NPAs are the primary indicators of credit risk. Capital Adequacy Ratio (CAR) is another measure of credit risk. CAR is supposed to act as a buffer against credit loss, which isset at 9 percent under the RBI stipulation4. With a view to moving towards International best practices and to ensure greater transparency, it has been decided to adopt the ’ 90 days’ ‘ over due’ norm for identification of NPAs from the year ending March 31, 2004.The New Basel Capital Accord is scheduled to be implemented by the end of 2006. All the banking supervisors may have to join the Accord. Even the domestic banks in addition to internationally active banks may have to conform to the Accord principles in the coming decades. The RBI as the regulator of the Indian banking industry has shown keen interest in strengthening the system, and the individual banks have responded in good measure in orienting themselves towards global best practices.1.3 Credit Risk Management(CRM) dynamics:The world over, credit risk has proved to be the most critical of all risks faced by a banking institution. A study of bank failures in New England found that, of the 62 banks in existence before 1984, which failed from 1989 to 1992, in 58 cases it was observed that loans and advances were not being repaid in time 5 . This signifies the role of credit risk management and therefore it forms the basis of present research analysis.Researchers and risk management practitioners have constantly tried to improve on current techniques and in recent years, enormous strides have been made in the art and science of credit risk measurement and management6. Much of the progress in this field has resulted form the limitations of traditional approaches to credit risk management and with the current Bank for International Settlement’ (BIS) regulatory model. Even in banks which regularly fine-tune credit policies and streamline credit processes, it is a real challenge for credit risk managers to correctly identify pockets of risk concentration, quantify extent of risk carried, identify opportunities for diversification and balance the risk-return trade-off in their credit portfolio.The two distinct dimensions of credit risk management can readily be identified as preventive measures and curative measures. Preventive measures include risk assessment, risk measurement and risk pricing, early warning system to pick early signals of future defaults and better credit portfolio diversification. The curative measures, on the other hand, aim at minimizing post-sanction loan losses through such steps as securitization, derivative trading, risk sharing, legal enforcement etc. It is widely believed that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. Therefore, the focus of the study is on preventive measures in tune with the norms prescribed by New Basel Capital Accord.The study also intends to throw some light on the two most significant developments impacting the fundamentals of credit risk management practices of banking industry – New Basel Capital Accord and Risk Based Supervision. Apart from highlighting the salient features of credit risk management prescriptions under New Basel Accord, attempts are made to codify the response of Indian banking professionals to various proposals under the accord. Similarly, RBI proposed Risk Based Supervision (RBS) is examined to capture its direction and implementation problems。

商业银行信用卡风险管理外文文献翻译最新译文

商业银行信用卡风险管理外文文献翻译最新译文This article discusses the importance of credit risk management for commercial banks。

Credit risk is a major concern for banks as it can lead to XXX methods used by banks to manage credit risk。

including credit scoring。

credit limits。

and loanXXX to credit risk management。

The article XXX of credit risk to ensure the long-term XXXCredit risk management is a XXX to manage credit risk XXX。

it is essential for banks to adopt us methods to manage credit risk。

These methods include credit scoring。

credit limits。

and loanXXX are used to limit the amount of credit XXXXXX credit risk management。

The credit risk management department should work XXX departments。

such as lending and complianceXXX。

XXX that they are aware of the latest developments in credit risk management。

XXX of credit risk are critical for the long-term XXX that they are effective and up-to-date。

商业银行信用卡风险管理外文文献翻译最新译文

文献出处：Nicely E. The research of commercial bank credit risk management [J]. Research in International Business and Finance, 2015, 8(2): 17-26.原文The research of commercial bank credit risk managementNicely EAbstractCommercial bank credit card business risk management broad sense refers to the commercial bank credit card business, because of various unfavorable factors caused by the issuers, cardholders, specially engaged the possibility of loss. Credit risk refers to the pure credit for credit CARDS are unsecured loans, and credit is not high, the customer more than individual, as well as small amount of single feature, lead to the possibility of loss of card issuers. Through to the commercial Banks to do a good job of credit card risk management put forward the Suggestions and comments, and pay attention to the risks of commercial Banks to establish perfect management system, system, business process research, and put forward the commercial Banks in establishing a system of credit card business management structure, regulations, at the same time, want to notice to each kind of risk identification, measurement, assessment and do a good job in risk loss provisions in personnel management, should pay attention to establish risk rewards and punishment mechanism, pay attention to the positive incentives to the employees.Keywords: Credit CARDS; Risk management; Incentive mechanism1 IntroductionCredit card refers to the bank issued to individuals and units, with the function such as shopping, consumption and access cash bank card. Its striking feature is that the Banks granted to customer a certain line of credit, customers can enjoy the privilege of the reimbursement after be being card first, its form is a positive with the issuing bank name, the period of validity, card number, card, the cardholder's name, article with a magnetic stripe, signature on the back of the information such as bank CARDS. We now call the credit card, generally refers to borrow write down card. Credit risk refers to the bank credit card holders for various reasons failed to fullyrepay bank debt and cause the possibility of default, defaults, bank will because the cardholder does not thereby causing loss to the bank funds paid promptly. Credit card main risk including fraud risk, credit risk, operational risk, accredit card risk management refers to in the process of credit card business, the possible including fraud risk, credit risk, operational risk, etc, all kinds of risk management and control is to reduce the possibility of loss The loss rate of operation and management activities.2 Literature reviewThe concept of risk management since the 30 s of 20th century, after nearly 40 years of development to form a system, gradually by people began to attach importance to and cognition, form a new management discipline. The concept of risk mainly comes from the insurance industry, insurance for risk defined as the uncertainty of loss. In 1964, the United States of the risk management and insurance, it has made the definition: risk book points out that through the risk identification, assessment, and control to achieve with minimum cost to make a management method of minimizing the risk loss. In 1976, eight Gerry, in his book, the risk management of international enterprise, points out that protection of enterprise's financial stability, reduce the loss caused by risk events is the main goal of the enterprise risk management. In 1975, risk management and insurance management society, scholars from all over the world including general principles, risk management was determined by the talk of risk identification and measurement, risk control and other criteria. The establishment of these guidelines, marks all over the world, risk management theory with the preliminary development, management framework has been set up. Also marks the risk management has entered a new stage. In July 2004, Basel 2 rules on commercial Banks, puts forward a new risk management requirements, he fully considered for the bank including market risk, liquidity risk, credit risk and operational risk, a variety of provide for risk identification, risk measurement standard, make risk management work more accurate quantitative measurement. In 2004, the COSO committee issued "enterprise risk management integrated framework", put forward by the enterprise internal control into risk control as the main direction of management thinking. Puts forward the concept of comprehensive risk management,including internal environment, goal setting, time identification, risk evaluation, risk countermeasure, control activities, information and communication and so on eight aspects. American engineer bill fair and Earl joint research and development of the FICO credit score model, since the most card issuers have also been used this model. This model gives the credit scoring system out of a possible 900 points, according to the situation of the borrower's credit history and compare the data with other borrowers, given the borrower credit situation trend in the future.3 Credit card risk3.1 Credit card cash outCredit card cash out to merchants with the bad cardholders or other third party in collusion, or merchants themselves by credit card as the carrier, through the fictitious transactions, asking price, cash return, show the credit card credit behavior, including but not limited to: merchants and cardholders conspired to use point-of-sale terminals (POS), with fictitious transactions, falsely making out the price, cash returns to the behavior of the cardholders to pay cash directly; Or merchants to help paid the cardholder account overdraft, after using the POS machine will advances in fictitious trading way back to their accounts, and collect fees to the cardholder a card such as behavior; Or online merchants cardholders conspired to fictional price, false transactions, such as buying from selling the way, show the credit card for trafficking in fraudulent credit card Internet consumption credit, etc.3.2 False card stolen brushFalse card stolen brush refers to criminals use false card on the POS terminal for credit card transactions to steal bank funds, belong to the important type of fraud. Criminals often by merchants, independent bank terminals, as well as a variety of convenient payment terminal channels, using dedicated track record the equipment needed for the bank card information side track information through various channels, such as the Internet or buy others have steal bank card track information, password access usually by peeping in the cardholder spending places the cardholder password or independent in ATM equipment installed video cameras record customer password, even through ATM keyboard paste, such as false record customer password keyboard,or using client code, easy to guess the cardholder password and other means to obtain the cardholder password.3.3 Online payment fraudOnline payment fraud refers to the fraud part swindled through Internet channels and the cardholder's bank. On-line payment fraud mainly by non-financial institutions or commercial Banks provide online payment channel for fraud. Current fraud activists by phishing site, bank card fraud or Trojan virus, characterized by use of phishing site or Trojan virus to steal the cardholder's bank card number, password and verification code information, phishing cardholders to online trading, to defraud money. Or commercial bank online banking channel for bank card fraud, fraud part using bank online banking vulnerabilities, and the weak link in the online banking fraud.3.4 Operating riskPrevention and control of credit card operation risk, first, to find a good risk points, find out in the hairpin and post-loan risk prone link in the entire process, find out the risk points, and then control the risk. Credit card's life cycle is divided into application stage, audit stage, hairpin used to send phase, activation and post-loan management, such as card renewal phase. First by the applicant voluntarily to the commercial bank to apply for or commercial bank marketing personnel to promote credit card products to the applicant, the applicant according to the guidance of sales people to fill out credit card application form after the above requirements to fill out information, to submit proof of identity is required by the application, work proves that the domicile certificate materials, such as bank marketing personnel will be the applicant's application form submitted to the bank's examination and approval department, by a bank according to the customer qualification examination and approval department for credit card mail after examination and approval to the customer. Customers call the bank customer service special line opened activate the card, the card can normal use, generally the validity of the credit card for 3 ~ 5 years according to the process of the life cycle of credit card sorting operation risk points exist in the whole cycle.4 Conclusions and recommendationsFalse card stolen brush loss brings to the commercial Banks, cardholders Carrie's money is missing, tend to give the feeling of cardholders' money in the bank is not safe, affect the reputation of the bank, bring bank reputation risk. In the process of pursuing for unauthorized, if not solve in time, often commercial Banks must bear a lot of damage. Due to false card stolen brush is not tight to bank losses, and seriously affected the reputation of the bank. So focus on guard against the risk of false card stolen brush is the key of the bank fraud risk control. Commercial bank credit card business is strengthening risk prevention. To do the following: to strengthen the education of the cardholder and prevent unauthorized knowledge propaganda, tip card holders do not use the card to the others, pay attention to protect the password in the daily charge without being stolen. Strengthen the bank back transaction monitoring, summarizes the characteristics of the pseudo card stolen brush, such as the combination of false card stolen brush is easy to occur before time, business category, unauthorized ongoing balance inquiry, around zero, fraud part of bank daily trading limit restrictions for unauthorized transaction monitoring rules set by the characteristics. When the transaction behavior, identity card and cardholders are found not to conform or high transaction should contact the cardholder to confirm authenticity, to confirm that the cardholder to authorize the transaction after I deal correct. Effectively raise Banks to prevent false card stolen brush ability of risk prevention and control. Magnetic stripe card renewal work done as soon as possible because the bank magnetic stripe card refers to magnetic materials for storage medium, such as bank account information recorded in the magnetic stripe CARDS, magnetic stripe card is easy to be copied to the bank money loss, therefore at present a lot of Banks have begun to bank card renewal work, with good safety performance of financial IC card instead of bank magnetic stripe card. In addition, improve the incentive mechanism construction of risk management, on the basis of regular and irregular in the risk assessment results, good for the risk assessment results, comprehensive risk management framework construction perfect mechanism, through the authorization for adjustment, performance ratings, priority support to start newbusiness delegation, adjustment factors of business innovation, management, can be appropriately in the human resources and cost allocation give policy tilt, can give points in performance appraisal review. For risk management body have made outstanding contributions or reduce loss of major risk events offer certain material and spiritual reward employees, and on the personal career advancement channels give sufficient consideration; For all kinds of risk management talents, external training, qualification certification, access to exchange offer certain aspects such as policy tilt, and on the personal career advancement channels will be given full consideration. For all kinds of risk management talents, external training, qualification certification, access to exchange offer certain aspects such as policy tilt, and on the personal career advancement channels will be given full consideration.译文商业银行信用卡风险管理研究Nicely E摘要商业银行信用卡业务风险管理广义上讲是指在商业银行信用卡业务经营中，因各种不利因素而导致的发卡机构、持卡人、特约商户等损失的可能性。

商业银行信贷风险管理外文文献翻译中文3000多字

商业银行信贷风险管理外文文献翻译中文3000多字This article discusses the importance of credit risk management for commercial banks。

It highlights the us methods used by banks to manage credit risk。

including credit scoring。

credit limits。

loan loss ns。

and collateral requirements。

The article also examines the impact of regulatory requirements on credit risk management practices and the role of corporate governance in ensuring effective risk management。

Overall。

the article emphasizes the need for banks to adopt a comprehensive and proactive approach to credit risk management in order to maintain financial stability and avoid costly losses.In today's increasingly complex financial environment。

effective credit risk management is essential for the long-term success of commercial banks。

Banks face numerous challenges in managing credit risk。

商业银行风险管理中英文对照外文翻译文献

信贷全流程风险管理英语

信贷全流程风险管理英语Credit Risk Management throughout the Entire Loan Lifecycle.Credit risk management is a crucial aspect of any financial institution's operations, as it involves identifying, assessing, monitoring, and controlling the potential losses resulting from borrowers' default on their loan obligations. This process extends throughout theentire loan lifecycle, from the initial stages of credit origination to the final stages of loan repayment or write-off. Effective credit risk management not only ensures the financial stability of the institution but also enhancesits ability to offer competitive loan products and services to its customers.1. Credit Origination.The credit origination stage involves theidentification and evaluation of potential borrowers, theassessment of their creditworthiness, and the decision to extend credit. At this stage, credit risk management focuses on the following:Credit Policy and Strategy: Establishing clear credit policies and strategies that align with the institution's risk tolerance and strategic objectives.Borrower Evaluation: Conducting thorough credit appraisals to assess borrowers' financial condition, repayment history, and other relevant factors that impact their creditworthiness.Credit Scoring and Underwriting: Using credit scoring models and underwriting criteria to objectively evaluate borrowers and determine the terms and conditions of the loan.Documentation: Ensuring that all loan documents are complete, accurate, and legally enforceable.2. Credit Monitoring and Surveillance.Once a loan is disbursed, credit risk management shifts to monitoring and surveillance. This involves:Regular Reviews: Conducting periodic reviews of borrowers' financial performance and compliance with loan covenants.Early Warning Signs: Identifying and responding to early warning signs of potential default, such as missed payments or deteriorating financial conditions.Portfolio Analysis: Analyzing the credit portfolio to identify concentrations, trends, and other potential risks.Stress Testing: Assessing the resilience of the loan portfolio to adverse economic scenarios to identify vulnerabilities and prepare contingency plans.3. Credit Risk Mitigation.To mitigate credit risk, financial institutions mayemploy a variety of strategies, including:Diversification: Spreading credit risk acrossdifferent borrowers, industries, and geographies to reduce the impact of any single default.Collateral and Guarantees: Requiring collateral or guarantees from borrowers to secure the loan and ensure repayment in case of default.Pricing: Charging appropriate interest rates and fees to compensate for the risk associated with the loan.Reserve Provisioning: Setting aside provisions to cover expected losses from loans that may default.4. Credit Recovery.In the event of a default, credit risk management focuses on recovering the outstanding loan amount. This may involve:Collections: Initiating collections processes to recover the outstanding loan amount through various means, such as phone calls, letters, or legal action.Loan Restructuring: Negotiating with borrowers to modify the terms of the loan, such as extending the repayment period or reducing the interest rate, tofacilitate repayment.Write-offs: In some cases, loans may be written off as unrecoverable losses, after which the institution may pursue legal remedies or sell the defaulted loan to a third party.5. Credit Risk Reporting and Analytics.Finally, credit risk management involves reporting and analytics, which involves:Reporting: Producing regular reports on credit risk metrics, such as default rates, loss ratios, and provisions coverage ratios, to inform management decisions.Analytics: Utilizing advanced analytics tools and techniques to identify patterns, trends, and correlations in credit risk data to improve risk management strategies.In conclusion, credit risk management is a continuous and comprehensive process that spans the entire loan lifecycle. It requires a combination of sound policies, rigorous underwriting criteria, proactive monitoring, and effective recovery strategies to mitigate credit risk and protect the financial institution's assets. By prioritizing credit risk management, financial institutions can enhance their operational efficiency, profitability, and overall competitiveness in the marketplace.。

金融专业英语阅读：信贷风险管理

金融专业英语阅读：信贷风险管理Risk management is an important part of the overall bank management. If mistakes are made here, it can result in substantial losses to the bank. By comparison, if you as an investor choose the wrong stock investment you will also lose. Loans made by the bank to customers and companies are investments, and this is where risk management comes into use? Investing is essentially a risk-return trade off. However banks tend to be more conservative when it comes to their investments, as higher risk investments may require the bankto allocate more capital to cover it in the event of a loss. This also comes at a cost to the bank.风险管理是银行整体业务的重要组成部分。

如果在这个环节上出了差错，会给银行带来巨大损失。

打个比方说，如果你作为投资者买错了股票，你就会赔钱。

银行借给客户和公司的贷款是投资，也正是风险管理发挥作用的地方。

投资主要是一种风险回报权衡。

但是，银行在投资时更趋于谨慎，因为如果更高风险的投资亏损的话，可能要求银行分配更多的资金来填补它。

这也是银行所付出的代价。

商业银行不良贷款证券化外文文献翻译

外文文献翻译原文+译文原文The study on the securitization of non-performance loans of commercial banksAhmad WAbstractCommercial Banks non-performing assets is to point to in a good operating state, not normal brings to the commercial bank interest income in time even can't take back the principal bank assets in a timely manner. The essence of the non-performing assets is an additional commercial Banks operating costs. The seriousness of the problem, however, far from it, because the bank in the special position in social economic life and the important role of non-performing assets in which could lead to an increase in commercial Banks operating costs at the same time, also implies a higher social costs. Throughout the history of the world, all previous banking crises, financial crisis and the outbreak of the global economic crisis, with Banks non-performing assets. Unwind the bad assets, and eliminate the root causes of bad assets are imperative. Keywords: Non-performing loans; Asset securitization; Commercial Banks1 IntroductionNon-performing assets disposal of the most common method is operated Banks, specific include: collection, debt restructuring, on the basis of repay the principal reduction, litigation and court execution, loan interest cancel after verification, etc. Among them, the collection, a debt restructuring and reduction method of interest is the premise of the borrower has certain repayment sincerity and reimbursement ability. Action to perform, loans verification method is suitable for borrowing the lack of sincerity reimbursement or reimbursement ability. Many reasons for the formation of non-performing assets of commercial Banks, credit conditions are an important reason. Credit system is imperfect, bilk not directly caused a large number of enterprises also phenomenon. Many private enterprises and unable to repay bank loans, its legal representative or the shareholders itself will not be affected by any; moreover, they can through the prior registered a new company to continue to run their business. It is because of bad credit environment, led to made the borrower's subjective repaymentwillingness is not strong, lack of credit consciousness, so the collection way to deal with the effect of bad assets always is not very good, a lot of the time can only play the role of interrupt litigation efficiency., with some success, of course, but generally this borrowing has full mortgage or guarantee. Debt restructuring, breaks the interest is the bank to the borrower has certain repayment willingness, but a kind of measures taken by the reimbursement ability is insufficient. Such treatment clause contains both the preferential policies of the bank to the borrower, and the limitation of the bank. Debt restructuring is mainly for the duration of the loan, mortgage, guarantee, loan, make changes to form new loans, to reduce risk. Reduction of interest by a certain amount of relief, recover all loan principal. These two approaches in the bank received a lot of use. Litigation and court execution way has always been one of the important ways of bad assets disposal, bad credit environment, concentrated in many borrowers bilk not also, the bank must take compulsory means of recovery of the loans. As Banks and borrowers are format contract signed, the guarantor, so the problem of loans made to basically guaranteed. But the problem is the execution phase, if the lack of sufficient assets available for execution, the loans are still hard to fully recover, sometimes even the action to perform advancements cannot take back. Even so, as a result of litigation compulsory execution, these ways of disposal gradually become one of the most main way. Finally, on the premise of any loan, it will not be repaid, Banks into bad debt verification procedures. Visible, the non-performing assets of commercial Banks have formed a set of business process, according to the customer's specific repayment willingness and repayment capacity, formulate the corresponding disposal measures, and the process is in the process of improving.2 The affect factors of the non-performing loan recovery2.1 Loan timeIn theory, the loan last failed to repay the longer, may also produce bad debt loss, the greater the non-performing loans of borrowing the earlier time, time will be long overdue, and recovery rate is generally low. Countries to borrow after transfer, a large number of non-performing loans to appear, but state-owned enterprises did not returnthe bank loans as a must, the idea has not changed, also think that is a country in support, and the commercial bank reform has not yet started, have to bear the certain function of finance. Appear in this phase of the non-performing loan is a big difficulty, in their evaluations, to especially pay attention to this stage of the lent loans, in has been calculated based on the assessment of the value should be lowered accordingly.2.2 Loan sectorDifferent industry development direction, development potential, payment is also different. But more important is the nature of industry difference also means different organic composition, the different proportion of tangible and intangible assets, can be used for the assets of a mortgage. Enterprises of different industries in the face of the repayment pressure or liquidation, creditors can perform an asset and its degree, and thus to creditors have different ability of guarantee. The real estate, construction even if there will be a lot of bad debts occur to pay off the building and construction materials, realizable ability, such as financial services when bad debts occur or bankruptcy is available to sell anything.2.3 The enterprise ownershipNon-performing loan ratio highest is state-owned enterprises and collective enterprises, and foreign enterprises and individual enterprises is generally lower. According to incomplete statistics of non-performing loans of state-owned enterprises and collective enterprises accounted for the big four Banks non-performing loans is about 75% of the total. For a long time, the main commercial Banks is a state of absolute holding, so its loan direction mainly in the face of state-owned enterprises and collective enterprises, in the process of loan, sometimes under the intervention of the government, the bank will be for some, redundant construction, low management level of the product unsalable make loans to the state-owned enterprises, such loans are usually difficult to recover. And many of the state-owned enterprises in the business at the same time also in bear the heavy burden on society, such companies can once cannot reimbursement is not bankruptcy liquidation, because it will affect the stability of the local society to a certain extent. The state-owned enterprises and local government relations are complex, is likely to encounter in the process ofrecovery of loans the government. So we can expect, state-owned enterprises non-performing loan recovery rate is relatively low.2.4 Loan purposesThe purpose of the enterprise loans directly affect the loans become non-performing loans after its recovery, loans for infrastructure construction such as highway, hydropower station, even out of business, but has invested assets can still corresponding cash. As for working capital turnover or to repay debt, once enterprises shut down at this moment, it will be difficult to get a loan.2.5 Enterprise operating conditionsEnterprise only keep operating, will speed up the turnover of assets and value-added, its assets only in continuous operation at the same time, will be to the value of its future cash flow measurement. If the enterprise is unable to maintain normal operation, under the period of shut down or even bankruptcy, on the one hand, the source of enterprises to raise funds dried up, room for turnover decreases, and on the other hand, itself can no longer produce inflows, on the degree of guarantee creditors will decline.3 Theory of asset securitization and the process3.1 DefinitionsOf future earnings of the asset securitization is simply the assets transferred to investors in the form of securities issuance, its low cost, high rate of financing characteristics have drawn the attention of the governments and financial institutions. Since the United States created the beginning of asset securitization, in just a few decades the development has begun to take shape, more developed in many areas, asset securitization has become a of non-performing assets of Banks and other financial institutions to solve the important means. Law fare that asset securitization is savers and borrowers by financial markets to some or all of the matching process and tools, under the arrangement, the development of the market credit replaced by Banks or other financial institutions to provide closed market credibility. American Yale set professor argues that "asset securitization can be broadly defined as a process, through this process will have a common characteristic of loans, consumer installmentcontracts, leases, accounts receivable and other illiquid assets into market-oriented investment characteristics of interest-bearing securities. "Visible, the meaning of asset securitization, which consists of a series of financial asset through restructuring, the construction of asset pool, in order to get more stable cash flow, and then through a variety of credit enhancement, in order to achieve the standard of securities issuance, so as to issue securities, and based on the payment of securities of the asset pool cash flow.3.2 The theory analysisBasic operation principle of asset securitization together is the securitizations of assets, the restructuring its cash flow and handed it to investors. Because our country banking non-performing loans is not completely get rid of the constraint, staying in more than two system, formed the situation of non-performing loans is basically equivalent to default loans. Therefore, for single non-performing loans, because the borrower has defaulted, difficult to timely recovery of the loans in the future through the normal way, so its cash flow is uncertain, extreme without any occurrence of cash flow is possible. So, expect the cash flow of non-performing assets of Banks is a very difficult thing, this factor has become a part of the opposition of non-performing assets securitization of scholars is a major reason.But, in fact, for a group of loans, even though the cash flow is the combination of the combination of each loan sum of cash flows, but because of the role of the law of large Numbers, the combination of the cash flow may present a certain regularity, the premise is the number of borrowers in loan portfolio enough, correlation between small enough, industry and region, the loan scale widely enough and so on. So the individual loans often large deviation, but can the whole portfolio cash flow has credible estimates. On this basis, it can be bad assets together, structural reorganization, and divided the resale market for securities investors. Bad assets the damage to the financial sector and the whole regional economy is self-evident, bad assets for the financial system is always a great safety hidden trouble, while asset securitization is the most common especially in some developed areas in the world of the methods to solve the problem of non-performing assets. This section is to analyzethe necessity and feasibility of securitization of non-performing assets.文献出处：Ahmad W. The study on the securitization of non-performance loans of commercial banks [J]. Journal f Basic and Applied Scientific Research, 2016, 4(3): 241-250.译文商业银行不良贷款证券化研究Ahmad W摘要商业银行不良资产是指处于非良好经营状态，不能及时给商业银行带来正常利息收入甚至不能及时收回本金的银行资产。

金融学专业商业银行信贷风险管理外文文献翻译中3000字

文献出处：Cornett M, Strahan P. The credit risk management of commercial banks [J]. Journal of Financial Economics, 2015, 101(2): 297-312.原文The credit risk management of commercial banksCornett M, Strahan PAbstractCredit risk is one of the most usual ones which any commercial banks may encounter during their operation. Credit risks of commercial banks not only cause losses which result in bankruptcy but also cause the most serious issues of financial and economic crisis of one nation. Referring to credit risk management of Vietnam commercial bank system，the capability of credit risks management of Vietnam commercial banks is still low; The rate of bad debt in the entire system is still much higher than international standards. Take this situation in consideration together with referring to a great number of documentations, I have studied credit risk managementof the three typical commercial bank in Vietnam and analyzed and evaluated the remaining issues in the process of credit risk control by these banks and offer some relevant solutions to the entire system of domestic banks. In credit risk management, I shall focus mainly on unscientific features in econometrics methods of credit risk management issued by commercial banks in Vietnam，which is inclusive of combination of unclear mathematic method and class analysis one to calculate credit risks. Due to the fact that credit risk management after disbursement by most of commercial banks is still weak, it is quite needed to study management after disbursement, particularize the method of identifying credit asset debt, build five-class classification, carry out actual management of credit asset and base on tendency of bad debt to offer solutions for every time period. In conclusion, what motioned herein comes from credit risk management in consideration of prevention, calculation, change and solution as well as risk management institutions.Key words: Risk, credit risk, commercial bank credit.1 Commercial bank credit risk management theoryAlthough Banks have a long history, but the theoretical analysis of credit risk is a relatively short history. By kea ton (Keeton, 1979), stag Ritz and Weiss (Mr. Weiss, 1981) development and formation of the "incomplete information credit rationing models on the market", it is pointed out that the credit market credit risk not only the two typical forms of...Adverse selection and moral hazard, and demonstrates the root of the credit risk, information asymmetry caused by the principal-agent relationship, lead to the emergence of credit rationing. Credit risk management refers to the commercial Banks through the scientific method of various subjective factors could lead to credit losses effectively forecast, analysis, prevention, control and processing. In order to reduce the credit risk, reduce the credit losses and improve the quality of credit, to enhance the capacity of the commercial bank risk control and loss compensation ability of a credit management activity. Depth understanding of credit risk management from the following four to grasp. One is the basis of credit risk management is according to the characteristics of credit requirements, not against the objective law of credit; The second is the credit risk management is scientific, modernization, standardization, quantitative and comprehensive; Three is the credit risk management method is mainly credit risk analysis, risk identification, risk measurement, risk control and risk management; Four is the credit risk management goal is to reduce risk, reduce loss, enhance the ability of commercial Banks operating risk.In order to guarantee bank loans will not be against its customers, to customers, companies, enterprises, such as different customer types before they are allowed to make loans to consider some problems. Also the question bank standard of 5 cabaña will select credit analysis of 5 c as a measure of the basic elements of corporate credit risk:1.1 QualityThe debtor to meet its debt obligations will, is the first indicator of evaluate the credit quality of the debtor. Regarding the quality of the wholesale banking, measure, or can be based on the reputation of the company management/owner eventually and company strategy.1.2 AbilityThe debtor's solvency, include the trend of the vision of the industry, the sustainable development of the company; the financial data mainly embodied in the current ratio and quick ratio. The stability of the corporate cash income directly determines its solvency and probability of default.1.3 CapitalRefers to the capital structure of the debtor or quotas, which indicates that the background of the customer may repay debt, such as debt ratio) or the net value of fixed assets and other financial indicators, etc.Shadow of the company's capital structure financing strategy: equity financing and debt financing.1.4 EnvironmentCompany locates the environment and the adaptability to the environment. Including solvent could affect the debtor's political, economic and market environment, such as the dong to rise and cancel the export tax rebate. As the "green credit, supported by more and more countries and companies, sustainable risk also be incorporated into the environmental risk considerations.1.5 MortgageRepayment of the debt of other potential resources and the resources provided by the additional security. Refuse or insolvent debtor can be used as mortgage/collateral assets, for no credit record (such as trading for the first time) or credit record disputed the debtor2 The commercial bank credit risk management processIn order to effective credit risk management, commercial Banks should grasp the basic application of credit risk management. In general, the credit risk management process can be divided into credit credit risk identification, risk estimate and credit risk handling three phases:2.1 Credit risk identificationCredit risk identification is before in all kinds of credit risk, the risk types and to determine the cause of occurrence of a risk, analysis, in order to achieve the credit risk measurement and processing. Credit risk identification is a qualitative analysis of the risk, is the first step of credit risk management, which is the basis for the rest of the credit risk management. Customer rating system and credit risk classification of the two dimensional rating system is constitute the important content of risk identification. This chapter will make detailed description of the two parts. Before the credit investigation is the commercial bank credit risk identification is the most basic steps, bank loans to the customer before must know the borrowing needs of the clients and purpose. Credit investigation before the concrete has the following contents: understand the purpose of credit, credit purpose including: type, in line with the needs of the business purpose and credit product mix and match the borrower repayment source of credit and credit term and effective mortgage guarantee/warranty or other intangible support.2.2 Credit risk estimateCredit risk estimation is the possibility of Banks in credit risk and the fact that the risk to evaluate the extent of the losses caused by measurement. Its basic requirements: it is estimated that some expected risk the possibility of credit; 2 it is to measure some credit risk fact may cause the loss of the scale. Objective that is both a difficult problem, but such as is not an appraisal, can't the quantitative corresponding countermeasures to prevent and eliminate. With the development of risk management techniques, in the financial markets open, Vietnam's financial regulators and commercial Banks also pay more and more attention to the risk of quantitative, in credit rating and have a certain progress in capital adequacy.Before Banks to make loans to customers, Banks must also understand the purpose of the customer, more understand the usage of loan customers, whether it is feasible, from now on, find a way to manage future loans to avoid the violation of the customer. As a result, Banks should use the loan examination and approval way to deal with.2.3 The processing of credit riskCredit risk after processing is that the Banks in the recognition and valuation risk, the effective measures taken by different for different size of loan risk take different processing method, make the credit risk is reduced to the lowest degree. Risk treatment methods mainly include: risk transfer refers to the bank assumes the credit risk on to others in some way. Transfer way, it is transferred to the customer, such as Banks to raise interest rates, require the borrower to provide mortgage, pledge or other additional conditions, etc.; 2 it is transferred to the insurance company, the bank will those particularly risky, once happened will loss serious loans directly to the insurance company insured, or by the customer to the insurance company insured to transfer risk;3 Commercial bank credit risk management regulation.In the risk management of commercial Banks to improve themselves at the same time, regulators and external credit rating agencies to the commercial bank credit risk management has a different regulation method.3.1 The China banking regulatory commission five classificationsThe CBRC requires commercial Banks asset quality for five categories, to reflect the face possible credit losses. System is classifying loans into five categories according to the inherent risk level could be divided into normal commercial loans, concern, loss of secondary, suspicious, five categories.The China banking regulatory commission five classifications has the advantage that the bank asset quality can be compared more easily, also can take credit quality ofthe whole global. Disadvantage is that some small and medium-sized Banks because of the lack of independent audit and internal audit, classification standard is difficult to unity, the China banking regulatory commission five classifications often find selective examination questions.3.2 Stress tests, a rating agencyRating agencies will be according to the information disclosure and audit results and adjusting the bank's credit rating. Stress test is a credit rating agency for checking the quality of commercial bank credit and common ways of anti-risk ability. Because of the influence of the stress tests, for what has happened, to predict the result may worsen the credit quality; Or for the possibility of events, predict the results of the impact of credit quality. Similar stress tests include, an industry is a strong shock cases the possibility of default, or large credit customer default could lead to credit quality decline.3.3 The new Basel capital accordNew Basel capital agreement hereinafter referred to as the new Basel agreement (hereinafter referred to as Basel II) in English, is by the bank for international settlements under the Basel committee on banking supervision (BCBS), and content for 1988 years the old Basel capital accord (Basel I) have had to make significant changes, in order to standardize the international risk management system, improve the international financial services of risk management ability.译文商业银行信贷风险管理作者：Cornett M, Strahan P摘要信贷风险是商业银行经营过程中所面临的最主要的风险之一。

外文文献翻译越南商业银行不良贷款管理研究

外文文献翻译原文+译文原文The study on non-performing loans management of Vietnam commercial bankPatra DAbstractUnder the market economy, the banking system is the lifeblood of the economy. National bank system smoothly and health is the precondition of financial turnover, allocation and effective use to promote sustainable economic growth. Vietnam is in the process of global economic integration, in particular, this fact gave we began to construct a lot of chance but a major challenge, especially in the field of banking and finance. In this into trend, Vietnam's structure of commercial Banks to further reform, restructuring and improving the financial capacity to compete with the World Bank in capital, technology. However, so far, Vietnam many commercial bank financial capacity is still very weak, backlog amount of total loans ratio is very high. This is Vietnam commercial Banks face the biggest challenge. Problem is Vietnam commercial Banks not only to quickly and thoroughly solve the backlog of bad loans of the left in the previous years and the running of risk management measures, to prevent bad loans increased in order to improve the bank's financial ability and competition ability.Keywords: Non-performing loans; Vietnam; Credit risk; Commercial Banks1 IntroductionAs a member of the world trade organization (WTO), Vietnam's economy accelerated the further integration and the process of globalization. Vietnam trade and the rapid development of financial liberalization, the increasing deeply affected the Vietnam commercial bank system and every commercial Banks, this means that not only Vietnam various commercial Banks have to face more fierce competition at home and abroad, also prompted each commercial bank must carry out further reform. At the same time, in order to support and meet the needs of the development of the economy, Vietnam commercial Banks especially state-owned commercial Banks to expand their scope of business activities, expand and increase the size of the creditand the credit business. Because of the credit business in the current and foreseeable future commercial bank is still the main source of income, so the control of the credit quality is the key to the management of commercial bank. Bad loans to prevent occurrence and control the level of non-performing loans in a reasonable range the most important thing is all commercial bank management strategy. In Vietnam, the commercial bank non-performing loans in the last few years to get bank managers and decision makers attention, too high non-performing loans become the burden of commercial Banks, seriously hindered the reform and development of Vietnam's commercial banking system. Because of this, non-performing loans management is more and more get the government and Vietnam attaches great importance to commercial Banks, especially state-owned commercial Banks. Vietnam's non-performing loans increased from the financial crisis and partly due to the influence of the global economic recession, Vietnam's economy suffered a lot of negative effects, some disadvantages macroeconomic factors. The business activities of enterprises encounter a lot of difficulties, and Vietnam in the financial system is weak, the concern of which is the following reasons: bank legal environment, commercial bank credit risk management is still weak, Vietnam bank technology underdeveloped and from some of the bank staff and customers of professional ethics.2 Literature reviewThere are different points of view about non-performing loans. Different definitions of non-performing loans, in fact, there is no global standard, a lot of different views in parallel. The first is the European central bank (ECB) ideas about non-performing loans, the bank said: "a bad loan is not ability or not full specified amount to repay the loan bac k.” In this way, the view is based on bank customer’s last reimbursement results. The international monetary fund (IMF) believed to be unprofitable (non-performing loans) to pay interest and/or overdue 90 days or more of the principal or the interest of more than 90 days have been restructuring or debt restructuring, or payment of less than 90 days, but we have reason to suspect that debt full implementation of ". This idea, non-performing loans is determined by two angles within the time limit of time and solvent. The international accounting standards IASmentioned frequently mentioned concept of loss loans rather than the concept of non-performing loans. About non-performing loans management activities, the Basel committee on banking supervision (2005) : "bad loans management is to develop and implement strategic management, policy and credit management process in order to realize the safe, efficient and sustainable development goals. Which strengthen the measures to prevent and limit of non-performing loans, and treatment measures in non-performing loans, to increase revenue, reduce costs and improve the quality of the commercial bank's short - and long-term business operations, and efficiency.Sinker studied some large commercial Banks to study in the United States believe that the bank internal and external factors are causes of the credit crunch. The authors found the subjective factors such as high bad debt ratio and bank interest, excessive lending some positive relationship. Same with previous research, Sinker that's macro economic conditions in the region also explains the occurrence of bad bank loans. Macroeconomic factors include economic growth, annual inflation rate or exchange rate, etc. Research is using a large bank of simple linear regression model in the United States. Research shows the growth of credit loans and assets of the close relationship between the weakening ability. Specific, Keeton for rapid credit growth combined with lower lending standards for some American states loans caused serious damage. In this study, non-performing loan is defined as overdue 90 days or does not pay interest on loans. In other research results in the financial system, it is to study in the United States. Brcoff, for example, studied the Argentina commercial bank non-performing loans think its non-performing loans by Banks and macroeconomic factors such as the serious influence. The author studied the internal and the influence of macroeconomic factors such as to see how the influence of each factor. Salas investigation result in Spanish Banks non-performing loans. Studies show that economic growth rate of GDP and rapid of bad credit loans for nearly 10 years, attracting more and more attention. Most of the research believed that the banking system is the direct consequence of the non-performing loan ratio increase bank failures. A lot of research about the cause of bank failures is pointed out that asset quality is very important elements of statistical budget bankruptcy, bankinginstitutions before bankruptcy. I always have very high non-performing loans. A lot of argument is that economic stagnation is a major cause of bad bank loans. Each regional financial non-performing loans are regarded as weak and non-profit enterprises reflect, you can see on this point to reduce non-performing loans is to improve economic conditions and necessary conditions. If non-performing loans still exist and increase resources, it will be stuck in the nonprofit sector. Restrict economic growth and reduce the economic efficiency. Expansion, the expansion of Banks, capital ratios, Banks in the various financial market position, leading to the different proportion of non-performing loans.3 Non-performing loans of VietnamConcept of non-performing loans in Vietnam appear from April 24, 2005 state-owned bank governor announced 493 decisions, including the non-performing loan classification, and establishment of regulations on the use of reserves to manage credit risk. Decided to allow credit institutions also have no. 439 according to the method of qualitative classification of loans and the establishment of loss reserves rights. Loan according to the proposed method and quantitative method is the same as the article 6 is divided into five groups of loans, but not necessarily according to repay extended and according to the internal credit rating system and be approved by the state bank of credit institutions risk prevention policies to determine loan risk level.According to the Basel committee, commercial bank non-performing loans management can be understood as: "commercial Banks non-performing loans management construction and management, the management of credit policy, the policy process in order to achieve safe, The strengthen strategies to guard against bad loans, combination of non-performing loans has processing measures to increase sales, reduce costs, improve the commercial bank short-term and long-term business operation quality and effect."3.1 Identification of non-performing loansAccording to each country or each commercial bank on the provision of bad loans and the classification system and to establish a different loan loss provisions, recognition of non-performing loans is the first step in the process of bankmanagement of non-performing loans. In spite of this, identify the non-performing loans have in common is based on 90 days overdue repayment time, but can be by customers to repay the ability to identify bad loans, and the solvent is evaluated on the basis of the possibility of high risk. After identification of non-performing loans, it will be according to the different risk degree of qualitative or quantitative method into lending groups. Every national and international financial institution have their own bad loan classification system, usually bad loans belong to two kinds: doubtful loans and loan losses.3.2 Measurements of non-performing loansAfter identification of non-performing loans, Banks will lead to the probability of bank failures of the non-performing loans and loss to measure, measure. If Banks can calculate the failure probability that the bank according to the method of quantitative measurement of non-performing loans, in turn, if so the bank is expected but not measure the loss probability is based on the qualitative method of measuring bad loans.3.3 Against bad loansThe Basel committee on banking supervision said: "bad loans management is construction and implement credit management strategy, management policy process in order to achieve safe, effective and the goal of sustainable development, including strengthening measures to prevent, restrict the generation of bad loans, combination of non-performing loans has processing to increase their income, reduce costs, improve the quality of long-term and short-term operation of commercial Banks and effect". Therefore, in order to prevent bad loans to solve the following problems:(1) The credit risk management model to constructCredit risk management model construction is to build a bank's overall credit risk management, which can reflect the organizational structure. Management implements the credit process, identification, measurement, control, in order to control credit risk according to risk of profit maximization principle under a certain limit. Credit risk management model to construct help bank to bank business prospects in the future have a more accurate view, able to plan out the corresponding management policyfrom now on.(2) To develop risk management strategyNeed to have a set of in line with the bank every period of operation strategy of risk management strategy, the strategy will be changed with the credit market, the flexibility to adjust. In the business activities from the priority order to target the strategy needs to be conflict consistently planning. Prevent, limit risk strategy in accord with the bank needs to pay attention to the diversification of credit list an organic component of the overall business strategy will be formed the basis of cost based on the rational allocation of capital and risk management. Bank strategy reflects a bank's degree of risk to a certain profit level acceptance.文献出处：Patra D. Management of NPA via Capital Adequacy Norms: Its Effect Upon The Profile of Indian Banks and Credit Deposit Ratio[J]. International Journal of Finance & Banking Studies, 2016, 3(1): 62-70.译文越南商业银行不良贷款管理研究Patra D摘要在市场经济上，银行系统就像是经济的命脉。

金融风险管理外文翻译文献

金融风险管理外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Enterprise Risk Management in InsuranceEnterprise Risk Management (hereinafter referred as “ERM”) interests a wide range of professions (e.g., actuaries, corporate financial managers, underwriters, accountants,and internal auditors), however, current ERM solutions often do not cover all risks because they are motivated by the core professional ethics and principles of these professions who design and administer them. In a typical insurance company all such professions work as a group to achieve the overriding corporate objectives.Risk can be defined as factors which prevent an organization in achieving its objectives and risks affect organizations holistically. The management of risk in isolation often misses its big picture. It is argued here that a holistic management of risk is logical and is the ultimate destination of all general management activities.Moreover, risk management should not be a separate function of the business process;rather, managing downside risk and taking the opportunities from upside risk should be thekey management goals. Consequently, ERM is believed as an approach to risk management, which provides a common understanding across the multidisciplinary groups of people of the organization. ERM should be proactive and its focus should be on the organizations future. Organizations often struggle to see and understand the full risk spectrum to which they are exposed and as a result they may fail to identify the most vulnerable areas of the business. The effective management of risk is truly an interdisciplinary exercise grounded on a holistic framework.Whatever name this new type of risk management is given (the literature refers to it by diverse names, such as Enterprise Risk Management, Strategic Risk Management, and Holistic Risk Management) the ultimate focus is management of all significant risks faced by the organization. Risk is an integral part of each and every action of the organization in the sense that an organization is a basket of contracts associated with risk (in terms of losses and opportunities). The idea of ERM is simple and logical, but implementation is difficult. This is because its involvement with a wide stakeholder community, which in turn involves groups from different disciplines with different beliefs and understandings. Indeed, ERM needs theories (which are the interest of academics) but a grand theory of ERM (which invariably involves an interdisciplinary concept) is far from having been achieved.Consequently, for practical proposes, what is needed is the development of a framework(a set of competent theories) and one of the key challenges of this thesis is to establish the key features of such a framework to promote the practice of ERM. Multidisciplinary Views of RiskThe objective of the research is to study the ERM of insurance companies. In line with this it is designed to investigate what is happening practically in the insurance industry at the current time in the name of ERM. The intention is to minimize the gap between the two communities (i.e., academics and practitioners) in order to contribute to the literature of risk management.In recent years ERM has emerged as a topic for discussion in the financial community,in particular, the banks and insurance sectors. Professional organizations have published research reports on ERM. Consulting firms conducted extensive studies and surveys on the topic to support their clients. Rating agencies included theERM concept in their rating criteria. Regulators focused more on the risk management capability of the financial organizations. Academics are slowly responding on the management of risk in a holistic framework following the initiatives of practitioners.The central idea is to bring the organization close to the market economy. Nevertheless,everybody is pushing ERM within the scope of their core professional understanding.The focus of ERM is to manage all risks in a holistic framework whatever the source and nature. There remains a strong ground of knowledge in managing risk on an isolated basis in several academic disciplines (e.g., economics, finance, psychology,sociology, etc.). But little has been done to take a holistic approach of risk beyond disciplinary silos. Moreover, the theoretical understanding of the holistic (i.e., multidisciplinary)properties of risk is still unknown. Consequently, there remains a lack of understanding in terms of a common and interdisciplinary language for ERM.Risk in FinanceIn finance, risky options involve monetary outcomes with explicit probabilities and they are evaluated in terms of their expected value and their riskiness. The traditional approach to risk in finance literature is based on a mean-variance framework of portfolio theory, i.e., selection and diversification. The idea of risk in finance is understood within the scope of systematic (non-diversifiable) risk and unsystematic (diversifiable)risk. It is recognized in finance that systematic risk is positively correlated with the rate of return. In addition, systematic risk is a non-increasing function of a firm’s growth in terms of earnings. Another established concern in finance is default risk and it is argued that the performance of the firm is linked to the firm’s default risk. A large part of finance literature deals with severa l techniques of measuring risks of firms’ investment portfolios (e.g., standard deviation, beta, VaR, etc.). In addition to the portfolio theory, Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) was discovered in finance to price risky assets on the perfect capital markets. Finally, derivative markets grew tremendously with the recognition of option pricing theory.Risk in EconomicsRisk in economics is understood within two separate (independent) categories,i.e.,endogenous (controllable) risk and background (uncontrollable) risk. It is recognized that economic decisions are made under uncertainty in the presence of multiple risks.Expected Utility Theory argues that peoples’ risk attitude on the size of risk (small,medium, large) is derived from the utility-of-wealth function, where the utilities of outcomes are weighted by their probabilities. Economists argue that people are risk averse (neutral) when the size of the risks is large (small).Prospect theory provides a descriptive analysis of choice under risk. In economics, the concept of risk-bearing preferences of agents for independent risks was described under the notion of “ standard risk aversion.” Most of the economic research on risk is originated on the study of decision making behavior on lotteries and other gambles. Risk in PsychologyWhile economics assumes an individual’s risk preference is a function of probabilistic beliefs, psychology explores how human judgment and behavior systematically forms such beliefs. Psychology talks about the risk taking behavior (risk preferences).It looks for the patterns of human reactions to the context, reference point,mental categories and associations that influence how people make decisions.The psychological approach to risk draws upon the notion of loss aversion that manife sts itself in the related notion of “regret.” According to Willett; “risk affects economic activity through the psychological influence of uncertainty.” Managers’ attitude of risk taking is often described from the psychological point of view in terms of feelings.Psychologists argue that risk, as a multidisciplinary concept, can not be reduced meaningfully by a single quantitative treatment. Consequently, managers tend to utilize an array of risk measurers to assist them in the decision making process under uncertainty. Risk perception plays a central role in the psychological research on risk, where the key concern is how people perceive risk and how it differs to the actual outcome. Nevertheless, the psychological research on risk provides fundamental knowledge of how emotions are linked to decision making.Risk in SociologyIn sociology risk is a socially constructed phenomenon (i.e., a social problem) and defined as a strategy referring to instrumental rationality. The sociologicalliterature on risk was originated from anthropology and psychology is dominated by two central concepts. First, risk and culture and second, risk society. The negative consequences of unwanted events (i.e., natural/chemical disasters, food safety) are the key focus of sociological researches on risk. From a sociological perspective entrepreneurs remain liable for the risk of the society and responsible to share it in proportion to their respective contributions. Practically, the responsibilities are imposed and actions are monitored by state regulators and supervisors.Nevertheless, identification of a socially acceptable threshold of risk is a key challenge of many sociological researches on risk.Convergence of Multidisciplinary Views of RiskDifferent disciplinary views of risk are obvious. Whereas, economics and finance study risk by examining the distribution of corporate returns, psychology and sociology interpret risk in terms of its behavioral components. Moreover, economists focus on the economic (i.e., commercial) value of investments in a risky situation.In contrast, sociologists argue on the moral value (i.e., sacrifice) on the risk related activities of the firm. In addition, sociologists’ criticism of economists’concern of risk is that although they rely on risk, time, and preferences while describing the issues related to risk taking, they often miss out their interrelationships(i.e., narrow perspective). Interestingly, there appears some convergence of economics and psychology in the literature of economic psychology. The intention is to include the traditional economic model of individuals’ formal rational action in the understanding of the way they actually think and behave (i.e., irrationality).In addition, behavioral finance is seen as a growing discipline with the origin of economics and psychology. In contrast to efficient market hypothesis behaviour finance provides descriptive models in making judgment under uncertainty.The origin of this convergence was due to the discovery of the prospect theory in the fulfillment of the shortcomings of von Neumann-Morgenstern’s utility theory for providing reasons of human (irrational) behavior under uncertainty (e.g., arbitrage).Although, the overriding enquiry of disciplines is the estimation of risk, they comparing and reducing into a common metric of many types of risks are there ultimate difficulty. The key conclusion of the above analysis suggests that there existoverlaps on the disciplinary views of risk and their interrelations are emerging with the progress of risk research. In particular, the central idea of ERM is to obscure the hidden dependencies of risk beyond disciplinary silos.Insurance Industry PracticeThe practice of ERM in the insurance industry has been drawn from the author’s PhD research completed in 2006. The initiatives of four major global European insurers(hereinafter referred as “CASES”) were studied for this purpose. Out of these four insurers one is a reinsurer and the remaining three are primary insurers. They were at various stages of designing and implementing ERM. A total of fifty-one face-to-face and telephone interviews were conducted with key personnel of the CASES in between the end of 2004 and the beginning of 2006. The comparative analysis (compare-and-contrast) technique was used to analyze the data and they were discussed with several industry and academic experts for the purpose of validation. Thereafter,a conceptual model of ERM was developed from the findings of the data.Findings based on the data are arranged under five dimensions. They are understanding;evaluation; structure; challenges, and performance of ERM. Understanding of ERMIt was found that the key distinction in various perceptions of ERM remains between risk measurement and risk management. Interestingly, tools and processes are found complimentary. In essence, meaning that a tool can not run without a process and vice versa. It is found that the people who work with numbers (e.g.,actuaries, finance people, etc.) are involved in the risk modeling and management(mostly concerned with the financial and core insurance risks) and tend to believe ERM is a tool. On the other hand internal auditors, company secretaries, and operational managers; whose job is related to the human, system and compliance related issues of risk are more likely to see ERM as a process.ERM: A ProcessWithin the understanding of ERM as a process, four key concepts were found. They are harmonization, standardization, integration and centralization. In fact, they are linked to the concept of top-down and bottom-up approaches of ERM.The analysis found four key concepts of ERM. They are harmonization,standardization,integration and centralization (in decreasing order of importance). It was also found that a unique understanding of ERM does not exist within the CASES, rather ERM is seen as a combination of the four concepts and they often overlap. It is revealed that an understanding of these four concepts including their linkages is essential for designing an optimal ERM system.Linkages Amongst the Four ConceptsAlthough harmonization and standardization are seen apparently similar respondents view them differently. Whereas, harmonization allows choices between alternatives,standardization provides no flexibility. Effectively, harmonization offers a range of identical alternatives, out of which one or more can be adopted depending on the given circumstances. Although standardization does not offer such flexibility,it was found as an essential technique of ERM. Whilst harmonization accepts existing divergence to bring a state of comparability, standardization does not necessarily consider existing conventions and definitions. It focuses on a common standard, (a “top-down” approach). Indeed, integration of competent policies and processes,models, and data (either for management use, compliance and reporting) are not possible for global insurers without harmonizing and standardizing them. Hence, the research establishes that a sequence (i.e., harmonization, standardization, integration,and then centralization) is to be maintained when ERM is being developed in practice (from an operational perspective). Above all, the process is found important to achieve a diversified risk culture across the organization to allocate risk management responsibilities to risk owners and risk takers.ERM: A ToolViewed as a tool, ERM encompasses procedures and techniques to model and measure the portfolio of (quantifiable) enterprise risk from insurers’ core disciplinary perspective. The objective is to measure a level of (risk adjusted) capital(i.e., economic capital) and thereafter allocation of capital. In this perspective ERM is thought as a sophisticated version of insurers’ asset-liability management.Most often, extreme and emerging risks, which may bring the organization down,are taken into consideration. Ideally, the procedure of calculating economic capital is closely linked to the market volatility. Moreover, the objective is clear, i.e., meetingthe expectation of shareholders. Consequently, there remains less scope to capture the subjectivity associated with enterprise risks.ERM: An ApproachIn contrast to process and tool, ERM is also found as an approach of managing the entire business from a strategic point of view. Since, risk is so deeply rooted in the insurance business, it is difficult to separate risk from the functions of insurance companies. It is argued that a properly designed ERM infrastructure should align risk to achieve strategic goals. Alternatively, application of an ERM approach of managing business is found central to the value creation of insurance companies.In the study, ERM is believed as an approach of changing the culture of the organization in both marketing and strategic management issues in terms of innovating and pricing products, selecting profitable markets, distributing products, targeting customers and ratings, and thus formulating appropriate corporate strategies. In this holistic approach various strategic, financial and operational concerns are seen integrated to consider all risks across the organization.It is seen that as a process, ERM takes an inductive approach to explore the pitfalls (challenges) of achieving corporate objectives for broader audience (i.e.,stakeholders) emphasizing more on moral and ethical issues. In contrast, as a tool,it takes a deductive approach to meet specific corporate objectives for selected audience(i.e., shareholders) by concentrating more on monitory (financial) outcomes.Clearly, the approaches are complimentary and have overlapping elements. 作者：M Acharyya译文：保险业对企业风险管理的实证研究企业风险管理涉及各种行业(如保险精算师、公司财政经理、保险商、会计和内部审计员)，当前企业风险管理解决方案往往不能涵盖所有的风险，因为这些方案取决于决策者和执行则的专业道德和原则。

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文献信息：文献标题：Credit Risk Management Strategies and Their Impact on Performance of Commercial Banks in Kenya（信贷风险管理策略及其对肯尼亚商业银行绩效的影响）国外作者：Samuel Warui Mutua，Muoni Gekara文献出处：《Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research》,2017, 3(4):1896-1904字数统计：英文2891单词，15678字符；中文4915汉字外文文献：Credit Risk Management Strategies and Their Impact on Performance of Commercial Banks in Kenya Abstract Credit risk management strategies are amongst the most critical factors to consider for any financial institution involved in any lending activity. Financial institutions have often find themselves making decisions between lending to potential borrowers thus effectively growing their balance sheets and effectively increasing their returns and being cautious in lending to caution themselves against any potential losses. Specifically, the research sought to examine credit risk management strategies and their impact on performance of commercial banks in Kenya. The research was guided by the liquidity theory of credit, portfolio theory, credit risk theory and the tax theory of credit.The research was based on a descriptive design which involves describing the current state of affairs by use of data collected through questionnaires and interviews. The research was focused on selected Tier III commercial banks in Kenya namely Consolidated Bank, African Banking Corporation and Credit Bank with reference to the loans department. The sampled population consists of 62 staff members from loans department of Consolidated Bank, African Banking Corporation and CreditBank. Primary data was collectedthrough the use of closed ended questionnaires, pick and drop procedure was used to collect data through use of the registered offices of the targeted loans departments of the target banks. Data analysis was done both quantitatively using tables and charts; this was then summarized, coded, tabulated and analyzed using both descriptive statistics and measures of variability with aid of SPSS package. Tables and graphs were used to present the data collected for ease of understanding and analysis. From the findings, the study concludes that credit risk management strategies including credit risk rating risks, credit approval risks, portfolio management risks and security perfection risks positively affect performance of commercial banks in Kenya.Key words: Credit risk management practices, commercial banks1.IntroductionCredit risk refers to the potential for loss as a resultof failure of counter party to meet their obligations of paying the financial institution according to the agreed terms. Credit exposures may arise from both banking and trading books. Management of credit risks requires a framework of well set out policies and procedures covering measurement and management of the credit risk (Barth et al, 2004).While financial institutions have faced difficulties over the years for a multitude of reasons, the major cause of serious banking problems continues to be directly related to lax credit standards for borrowers and counterparties, poor portfolio risk management, or a lack of attention to changes in economic or other circumstances that can lead to a deterioration in the credit standing of a bank’s counterparties. This experience is common in both the developed and developing countries.For most banks, loans are the largest and most obvious source of credit risk; however, other sources of credit risk exist throughout the activities of a bank,including in the banking book and in the trading book, and both on and off the balance sheet. Banks are increasingly facing credit risk (or counterparty risk) in various financial instruments other thanloans, including acceptances, interbank transactions, trade financing, foreign exchange transactions, financial futures, swaps,bonds, equities, options, and in the extension of commitments and guarantees, and the settlement of transactions.Each bank should develop a credit risk strategy or plan that establishes the objectives guiding thebank’s credit-granting activities and adopt the necessary policies and procedures for conducting such activities. The credit risk strategy, as well as significant credit risk policies, should be approved and periodically (at least annually) reviewed by the board of directors. The board needs to recognize thatthe strategy and policies must cover the many activities of the bank in which credit exposure is a significant risk (Haron et al, 2007).Credit Management is a financial management aspect that includes credit underwriting that encompasses analysis, approval, security perfection, portfolio management and debt recovery. Nzotta (2004) indicated that credit management directly influences the success or failures of financial institution involved in lending activities. He indicated that on the hindsight of lending being directly proportionalto the quantum of deposits received from the public, any unwise credit underwriting would translateto loss of depositors’ funds and losses to the financial institutions thereof.According to a report by Earnest and Young of 2013 on the banking environment in East Africa, it is reported that banks in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Rwanda recorded growth rates in asset book of 16%, 14%, 13% and 12% respectively. This was on the advent of introduction of credit bureaus that was expected to improve on credit underwriting by improving decision making by 89% and effectively help reduce Non Performing portfolios across the board by 94%. Between the year 2009 and 2013, banks in Tanzania grew their CAGR by 17.5% with loans and advances outpacing overall asset growth which grew by 22.5% over the same period. In Uganda, the CAGR of banks grew by 13% whilst the growth in Rwanda was 12% in an economy that grew by 4.6%. In the period under review high loan provisioning occasioned by aggressive pursuit by various players to grow their balance sheets withouta simultaneous enhanced credit underwriting amongst other factors was highlighted as a reason high provisions were witnessed.Josiah Aduda and James Gitonga (2011) carried out a research on the relationship between credit risk management and profitability among the commercial banks in Kenya. They found out that a strong relationship does exist between credit management and profitability and that most banks held to this belief. Gatuhu (2011) conducted a research on the effect of financial performance of credit management on the financial performance of microfinance institutions in Kenya. Gatuhu found that there existed a strong relationship between credit appraisal of microfinance institutions, credit risk control and collection policy and the overall performance of microfinance institutions in Kenya. The period commencing second half of the year 2015 to the first half of 2016 witnessed particularly difficult times for the banking industry in Kenya with 3 out the then existing 43 commercial banks going under or being placed under statutory management. These were influenced by in one way directly or indirectly to issues revolving around weak credit management strategies.2.Statement of the ProblemThe main objective of any institution involved in money lending is to ensure that a healthy return is realized adequate to cover for all the risks assumedin addition to covering the foregone time value for money. In trying to attain this objective, prudence must be exercised to en sure that unnecessaryrisk isn’t taken that would most probably lead to unprecedented losses. It is for this reason that various institutions involved in money lending are guided by various frameworks to ensure care is exercised in making such decisions.There is an extensive literature on the managementof credit risk in commercial banks. Kealhofer (2003) did a research study on risk-adjusted performance measures in commercial banks. The measures, however, focus on risk-return trade-off, i.e. measuring the risk inherent in each activity and charge it accordingly for the capital required to support it. Greuning and Bratanovic (2003), studied sound credit granting process; maintaining an appropriate credit administration that involves monitoring process as well as adequate controls over credit risk.Clear established process for approving new credits and extending the existingcredits has been observed to be very important while managing credit risk (Heffernan, 2003). Mwirigi, (2006) didan assessment of the credit risk management techniques adopted by various MFIs in Kenya and ascertained that a considerable number of them had credit policies to enable them make informed credit decisions that stroke a balance between businessandrisk perspectives. Ndwiga, (2010) and Chege, (2010) both did a research to ascertain the relationship between credit risk management and the financial performance of MFIs in Kenya.There is no known study that has been done on strategic credit policies for risk management, thus knowledge gap. This study aims at establishing the credit risk management used by commercial banks and how they affect performance of the commercial banks. This research study is motivated to bridge the gap by investigating credit risk management strategies employed by commercial banks, especially Tier III banks in Kenya and how this impacts on their financial performance. In the commercial banks, management of credit risk has caused bank losses in developing countries, including Kenya. Effective credit risk management system minimizes the credit risk, hence the level of loan losses.3.Theoretical Review3.1.Liquidity Theory of CreditThis theory, first proposed by (Emery, 2009), proposes that credit rationed firms use more trade credit than those with normal access to financial institutions. The central point of this notion is that when a firm is financially inhibited the offer of trade credit can make up for the decline of credit offer from lending institutions.Inaccordwith thisview,those firms presenting good liquidity or better access to capital markets can finance those that are credit rationed. Several methodologies have tried to obtain empirical confirmation in order to support this assumption. Nielsen (2012), using small firms as proxy for credit rationed firms, firms find that when there is liquidity tightening in the economy, to ensure their sustainability, they are obligated to advance credit terms to their customers. As financially liberal firms are less likely to seek trade credit terms and more likely toextend the same, a negative relation between a buyers’ access to other sources of financing and trade credit is expected. (Petersen & Rajan, 2007) obtained evidence supporting this negative relation.3.2.Portfolio TheoryPortfolio theory of investment tries to optimize the expected portfolio return for a given proportion of portfolio risk or equivalently decrease the risk for a given level of anticipated return, by carefully choosing the mixed proportions of several assets. Portfolio theory is extensively used in practice in the financial sector and several of its inventors won a Nobel Prize for the same. In modern years the basic portfolio theory has been widely criticized by fields such as behavioral economics (Markowitz, 1952). Portfolio theory was devel oped in 1950’s all through to the early 1970’s and was considered a vital progression in the mathematical modeling of finance. Many theoretical and practical criticisms have since been developed against the same. This include the fact that financial returns do not follow a Gaussian distribution or indeed any symmetric distribution and those correlations between asset classes (Sproul, 1998)3.3.Tax Theory of CreditThe rationale of whether or not to accept a trade credit is based on the ability to access other sources of finances. A buyer is obliged to compare different financing options to find out which will be the most economically viable for them in making cost savings. In any business deal, payment may be on the spot or deferred to a date in the future, in which case a deferred cost element is attached to it in the form of interest. Thus, to find the best sources of funding, the buyer ought to investigate the real cost of borrowing. (Brick and Fung, 1984) suggest that, the tax effect should be considered in order to compare the trade credit cost with the cost of other financing options. The main reason for this is that if sellers and buyers are in different tax brackets, they have different costs of borrowing as their interests are tax allowable. The autho rs’ hypothesis is that; businesses in a high tax bracket tend to advance more trade credit thanthosein low brackets. Subsequently, only buyers in a low tax bracket than the seller will accept credit terms, since those in a higher tax brackets couldborrow more cheaply and directly from a financial organization. Another assumption is that businesses associated with a given sector and placed in a tax bracket below the specific sector average; cannot benefit from offering trade credit. Thus, (Brick and Fung 1984) propose that firms can’t use and offer trade credit.3.4.Credit Risk TheoryUntil barely the 1970s’, Credit risk had not been widely studied, although people have been facing credit risk ever since the very early times. Before 1974, early literature on credit risk used traditional actuarial methods of assessing the same, whosemajor challenge lies in their extensive dependence on historical data. Up to now there are three quantitative approaches of analyzing credit risk: structural approach, reduced form appraisal and incomplete information approach (Crosbie et al, 2003). Melton 1974, presented the credit risk theory else called the structural theory; which said the default event originates from a firm’s asset development displayed by a diffusion process with constant parameters.Such models are ordinarily defined as ‘Structural model’ and based on variables connected to a particular issuer. An evolution of this grouping is characterized by asset of models where the loss provisional on default is exogenously precise. In these models, the nonpayment can happenthroughout all the life of a corporate bond and not only at maturity (Longstaff and Schwartz, 1995).4.MethodologyThe study used descriptive research designAccording to Oso and Onen (2009) prior to carrying out the study there is need to determine the respondents, the data collection procedures, tools and instruments which would aid in data collection. According to Kothari, 2007. It involves describing the current state of affairs by use of data collected through questionnaires and interviews. Descriptive research design is qualitative whose main purpose is description of the state of affairs as it exists.Descriptive research seeks to establish factors associated with certain occurrences, outcomes, conditions or types of behavior. A complete set of people, events or objects from which the study seeks to generalize the results is known aspopulation (Mugenda, 2009). The study will concentrate on the 20 Tier III Commercial Banks Licensed by Central Bank of Kenya.Stratified sampling technique will be used in the collectionofsampleswherethe20TierIIIcommercial banks will be stratified into three categories which are; Government owned, Local Investors owned and Foreign Investor owned, further into male and female, also a mix of Experienced Managers, Senior Officers and Junior Credit officers, out of which 62 Employees will be selected to participate in the study. Purposive sampling will also be used so as to include Heads of Credit Units and also ensure all key credit operational areas are covered in the sample.In this study, a population consists of 62 staff from loans department of Consolidated Bank, African Banking Corporation and Credit Bank.The main tool for data collection in this study was a questionnaire. A closed ended questionnaire was preferred. The questions were designed based on Likert scale which allowed the respondentsto express their view on the study variables. According to Kothari (2007) open - ended questions allow respondents to give answers in their own way, whilst Closed - ended questions or forced choice questions provide an assortment of alternative answers from which the respondent is constrained to choose.The data collected was analyzed and interpretations drawn based on the analysis. Descriptive statistics was used in the analysis of quantitative data. The statistical tool for the analysis was the statistical package for the social sciences (SPSS) Version 20, which was used to analyze the data whereby the questionnaires would be coded and frequency distributions and percentages run.5.ConclusionsThey have a positive significant relationship on performance of commercial banksin Kenya. Sound credit rating mechanism is perceived as a great contributor towards the performance of credit facilities in commercial banks. This by and large affects the performance of the banks as a whole since the banks’ profitability are hinged on its credit services. There needs to be frequent credit trainings to improve onstaff competencies to ensure they are always kept abreast with developments in the industry to ensure appropriate credit underwriting is always done, this will inturn ensure, proper segmentation and accounts review is also done with an aim to ensure the credit element in a bank is well covered.There is need for inclusion of collateral appraisal. Since the credit approval risks are in turn influenced by therisk appetite of various commercial banks, a matrix acceptable to all banks based on factors such as capital strength and customer bases should be developed to ensure that an institution doesn’t necessarily take up risks that is too high that might impairably damage their overall financial strength and health should any unprecedented shocks materialize due to the risks taken by a bank.There is however need to review the provision requirementsas detailed by the Prudential Guidelines (PGs) to realign the same with the evolving banking environment which has seen a significant shift since the PGs were last reviewed. An all-inclusive forumto realign the provision requirement should be held between all the relevant stakeholders including the regulator (CBK) and the Commercial banks to arrive at ideal reviewed rates in line with the evolved banking environment.There is however need for Tier III banks to be more risk averse to unsecured lending and opt for asset backed lending. This is more so influencedby the fact that their balance sheets are relatively smaller which makes them unable to withstand shocks that may emanate from provisioning that would be occasionedby higherrequirements toprovision forthe unsecured borrowings or weakly secured exposures.中文译文：信贷风险管理策略及其对肯尼亚商业银行绩效的影响摘要信用风险管理策略是所有参与贷款活动的金融机构最重要的考虑因素之一。

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