IV语言学补充
语言学第一二章知识点
Chapte r one Introd uctio n一、定义1.语言学Lin guisti csLingui stics is genera lly define d as the scient ificstudyof langua ge.2.普通语言学G e nera l Lingui s ticsThe studyof langua ge as a wholeis oftencalled Genera l lingui stics.3.语言lang uageLangua ge is a system of arbitr ary vocalsymbol s used for humancommun icati on.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征De signFeaturesIt refers to the defini ng proper tiesof humanlangua ge that distin guish it from any animal system of commun icati on.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrarine ss任意性Productivit y多产性（创造性）Dualit y双重性Displa cemen t移位性Cultural transm i ssio n文化传递5.语言能力Co mpete n ce（抽象）Compet enceis the idealuser‘sknowle dge of the rulesof his langua ge.6.语言运用pe rform ance（具体）Perfor mance is the actual realiz ation of this knowle dge in lingui sticcommun icati on.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。
(完整版)语言学Chapter4Exercises含答案
Chapter 4 From Word to TextI. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:1. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.2. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there isno limit to the number of sentencesnative speakers of thatlanguage are able to produce and comprehend.3. An endocentric construction is also known as headed constructionbecause it has just one head4. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss ofgrammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.5. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonlyrecognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase,infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.6. Number and gender are categories of noun and pronoun.7. Word order plays an important role in the organization of Englishsentences.8. Like English, modern Chinese is a SVO language.9. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the directobject usually follows the verb.10. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.( 1-5 TTFTF 6-10 TTTTT )II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1 A s _________ is a structurally in dependent unit that usuallycomprises a number of words to form a complete statement,question or command2. A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same timestructurally alone is known as an f _____________ clause3. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verbphrase and which says something about the subject isgrammatically called p _______ .4. A c __________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, oneof which is incorporated into the other.5. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause isnormally called an e ________ clause.6. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that newwords are constantly added.7. G ________ relations refer to the structural and logicalfunctional relations between every noun phrase and sentence8. A a __________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.9. A s ___________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, questionor command.10. A s ___________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.Answers:1. sentence2. finite3. predicate4. complex5. embedded6. open7. grammatical 8. simple 9. sentence 10. subjectIII. There are four given choices for each statement below. Markthe choice that can best complete the statement :1 The head of the phrase “ the city Rome ” is ___________A the cityB RomeC cityD the city andRome2. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to theintroductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. PrepositionD. subordinator3 Phrase structure rules have _____ properties.B. grammatical D. functionalA. recursiveC. social4. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understandA. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above.5 The phrase “ on the half ” belongs to _________constructionA endocentricB exocentricC subordinateD coordinate6 . The theory of case condition accounts for the fact thatA. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.7 The sentence structure is _______ .A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. compelD. both linear and hierarchical8. The syntactic rules of any language are _____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite9. The _______ rules are the rules that group words and phrases toform grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational10 The sentence “ They were wanted to remain quiet and not toexposethemselves ” is a___________ s entenceA simpleB coordinateC compoundD complexAnswers:1 D2 D 3. A 4 D 5 B 6 A 7 D 8 C 9 D 10 AIV. Explain the following terms, using examples.1. Syntax2. IC analysis3. Hierarchical structureAnswers :1. Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words arecombined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.2. IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short,refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constitue nts -word groups (phrases), which are in turn an alyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.3. Hierarchical structure: It is the sentence structure that groups wordsinto structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.V. Answer the following questions:1. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.2. What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction?3. Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:The child asked for a new book4. What are the major types of sentences according to traditional approach? Illustrate them with examples ？Answers :1. Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They aresimple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complexsentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause whichcontains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its ownsentence, for example: John reads extensively. A coordinatesentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example:John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for herhistory exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in acomplex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate tothe other. For example: Before John gave her a lecture, Maryshowed no interest in linguistics.2. An endocentric construction is one whose distribution isfunctionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. A typical example is the three small children with children as its head.The exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is definednegatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.3. 略4. Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They aresimple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause whichcontains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its ownsentence, for example: John reads extensively. A coordinatesentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that iscalled coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". Forexample: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more,clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For exam­ple: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin­guistics.。
解析补充
语法一章是整个语言学概论课程的一个学习重点，本章内容很多，而且很多问题是以前所没有接触过，因此学习难度也是比较大的，同时这一章既涉及到很多的分析问题，又涉及到相关外语知识的结合应用，重点多难点也多，可以说不亚于语音一章。
因此，学习语法一章，首先要在思想上引起足够的重视。
我们平时接到的电子信件，询问最多的问题，就是关于语法一章的学习的，网上讨论板中，也是语法部分的问题最为突出，现将有关问题逐一解答，供大家学习参考。
还要说明的是，许多同学问为什么我们有英语课程还要在语言学概论课程里面讲英语知识，我想这是一个误会，我们课程涉及到的英语知识可以说非常少，是讲授一些语言现象必须引例解释的，因为我们的课程的研究对象是人类语言而不是汉语，尽管我们是以汉语为主，但有些现象，是汉语所没有的，比如形态变化问题、单数复数问题、比较级、时态等等，如果没有外语实例，那就无法说清楚，也很空泛，这里就无法回避外语。
当然，我们毕竟不是专门的外语课程，有关英语的内容也只是同我们教学问题有关，并不是全面介绍英语知识，因此大家不必担心。
语言是由语音形式、语义内容、结构关系三个方面构成的统一体，三个方面缺一不可，互相作用，构成了语言。
语音是语言的形式部分，词汇是语言的意义部分，语法是语言单位的关系部分，说的是符号与符号怎样组合的问题。
三个部分在语言中的作用，我们可以这样简单来表述：没有语音形式，语言就无法存在，没有词汇的内容意义，语言就是一个毫无作用的空壳，没有语法，语言就是一盘杂乱而毫无章法的散沙。
例如：生中国新在我们――我们生在新中国明灯的亮天上了――天上的明灯亮了山上草在吃牛儿――牛儿在山上吃草小便不可随处――小处不可随便从上面的一些组合的例子可以看出，语法虽然是看不见摸不着的东西，可是它又是实实在在的，客观存在于语言之中的。
一种语言，即使是最原始的语言，也得有一套语法规则系统，指导人们按照已有的规则去组织符号，构成表达思想的句子，否则，像上面所举的例子那样，同样的意思同样的词语，不同的人完全自说自话，别人就根本不可能理解你说的什么内容，语言也就不可能成为人类的交际工具了。
语言学第四章句法学考研真题
Chapter Four: SyntaxI 名词解释1.（上海外国语大学2000年考题）deep structure考点分析：考查深层结构的定义Answer: Deep structure refers to the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents, such as the relation between the underlying subject and its verb, or a verb and its object.2. (中山大学2004，吉林大学2000年考题) category考点分析：范畴的定义Answer: The term “category” in some approaches refers to classes and functions in a narrow sense, e.g. noun, verb, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. more specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, etc. 3. (华南理工大学2004年考题)constituent考点分析：考查成分的定义Answer: Constituent refers to a component element of a sentence.4. (中山大学2003年考题)immediate constituent analysis考点分析：考查直接成分分析法.Answer: Immediate constituent analysis is the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents –word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.5. (南开大学2003年考题)endocentric construction考点分析：向心结构的定义Answer: Endocentric construction one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. It is also known as a headed construction.6. (南开大学2001年考题) exocentric construction考点分析：离心结构的定义Answer: “Exocentric construction”, the opposite of endocentric construction, refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the whole to the whole group; that is to say, there is no definable center or head inside the group.7.（武汉大学2003年考题）transformational roles考点分析：转换规则的定义Answer: In Noam Chomsky’s Transformational Grammar, transformational rules are those rules which change the deep structures generated by the phrase structure component into surface structures. A transformational rule consists of a sequence of symbols which is rewritten as another sequence according to certain convention.II 填空题1. (中山大学2003年考题）The category of ____ is prominent in the grammar of Latin, with sixdistinctions of nominative, vocative, accusative, genitive, dative and ablative考点分析：考查格范畴在拉丁语中的特点Answer: case2. (中山大学2003年考题)____ construction usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase,predicate (verb + object) construction, and connective (be + complement) construction.考点分析：考查哪些短语属于离心结构Answer: Exocentric3. (电子科技大学2002年考题)In the construction of the phrase “the girl”, the immed iateconstituents of it are _____.考点分析：直接成分及成分名称Answer: the determiner plus the noun phrase4. (苏州大学1997 年考题)Transformational rules are those which relate or transform ____ of a sentence into ____考点分析：转换规则的作用Answer: deep structure; surface structureIII 选择题1.（北京第二外国语学院2004 年考题）____refers to the relations holding between elementsreplaceable with each other at particular place in structure, or between one element present and the others absent.a. Syntagmatic relationb. Paradigmatic relationc. Co-occurrence relation考点分析：考查对横，纵组合关系定义的掌握Answer: b2. (东南大学2002年考题)According to Standard Theory of Chomsky, ____contain all theinformation necessary for the semantic interpretation of sentences.a. deep structureb. surface structurec. transformational rulesd. PS-rules考点分析：乔姆斯基标准理论中的观点Answer: aIV 问答题1.（北京第二外国语学院2004年考题）Distinguish the two pos sible meanings of “more beautiful flowers” by means of IC analysis.考点分析：用直接成分分析法分析有歧义词组的结构Answer:more beautiful flowers more beautiful flowersAdj. Adj. N Adv. Adj. NNP2. (北京第二外国语大学200年考题) Tell is each of the following is endocentric or exocentric construction.1. take a break2. an extremely difficult book3. ladies and gentlemen4. at present5. swimming in the lake考点分析：分析短语属于离心结构还是向心结构Answer: 1. exocentric 2. endocentric 3. endocentric 4. exocentric 5. endocentric 3.（东南大学2001年考题）Explain and exemplify the following PS rules:NP → (D) N (S)AUX →t (M) (have-en) (being)考点分析：考查对某一短语结构的描述Answer:1) The first rule means that a noun phrase can be written as a determiner plus a noun, and may then be followed by a sentence. For example, a) the man who came to see me last night and b) Michael, who had never been there before.2) The second rule means that an auxiliary can be represented by a number of ways. An auxiliary should contain tense element (t) and a modal verb (M), or a past perfect tense (have-en), or be plus an ing of a verb. E.g.Aux --- t (M): May I read your paper?Aux --- t (have-en): Have you finished your paper?Aux --- t (being): Are you reading your paper?4.(大连外国语学院2001，2002年考题)Produce surface structures from the following deep structures without going through the process of transformations.1) Neg she past work last week2) Tag you past meet him3) policemen past be + en beat John4) Q the professor pres be angry SOME REASON5) Q he past do SOMETHING6) Imp you pres will wash you7) [Neg Mary past go to the bookstore] [Neg Lisa past go to the bookstore]8) the girl [the girl pres be beautiful] pres be from China考点分析：讲深层结构转换为表层结构Answer:1) She didn’t work last week2) Y ou me t him, didn’t you?3) The policemen were beaten by John4) Why is the professor angry?5) What did he do?6) Wash yourself7) Mary didn’t go to the bookstore. Lisa didn’t go to the bookstore either8) The girl who is beautiful is from China5.(广东外语外贸大学2004年考题)On the basis of the following data, write out the phrase structure rules for adverb phrases and verb phrases.1) John walked slowly2) Tom talked with Jack very quickly3) Alice discussed the matter with her best friend quite early考点分析：实例分析，归纳副词短语和动词短语的结构规则Answer: Adverbs may be preceded by a very tiny class of adverbs, as shown by the above sentences. The class of adverbs in these sentences leads to the following new Phrase Structure rules:AdvP → (Deg) Adv (Deg stands for degree words)VP → V (NP) (VP) (AdvP)6. (苏州大学1997年考题)Draw a tree diagram according to PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:考点分析：用树形图分析句子的深层结构Answer:S∣∣∣NP VP∣∣-∣∣∣∣∣Det NP V NP adv∣∣∣∣∣The student wrote yesterday∣∣Det N∣∣a letter。
语言学教程第四版 练习 第一章
Chapter One Introduction to LinguisticsI. Mark the choice that best completes the statement.1.All languages’ have three major components: a sound system ,a system of___and a system of semantics.A. morphologyB. lexicogrammarC. syntaxD. meaning2.Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A.treeB.typewriterC.bowwowD.bang3.The function of the sentence Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade is ___.A.interpersonalB.emotivermativeD.performative4.In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say 碎碎（岁岁）平安as a means of controlling the forces which they believe might affect their lives. Which function does it perform?A.interpersonalB.emotivermativeD.performative5.Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place of speaking (due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation)?A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6. What language function does the following conversation play?(The two chatters just met and were starting their conversation by the following dialogue.)A：A nice day, isn’t it?B : Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A.EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonal7.------- refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.A.PerformativepetenceC. LangueD. Parole8.When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists here and now. It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone.This indicates that dog’s language does not have the feature of --------- .A. ReferenceB. ProductivityC. DisplacementD.Duality9.--------- answers such questions as we as infants acquire our first language.A. PsycholinguisticsB. Anthropological linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Applied linguistics10.-------- deals with the study of dialects in different social classes in a particular region.A. Linguistic theoryB. Practical linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Comparative linguisticsII. M ark the following statements with “T” if they are true or “F” if they are false.(10%)1. The widely accepted meaning of arbitrariness was discussed by Chomsky first.2. For learners of a foreign language, it is arbitrariness that is more worth noticing than its conventionality.3. Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handlegeneralizations and abstractions.4. For Jakobson and the Prague school structuralists, the purpose of communication is to refer.5. Interpersonal function is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar.6. Emotive function is also discussed under the term expressive function.7. The relationship between competence and performance in Chomsky’s theory is that between a language community and an individual language user.8.A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic study of language.9.Articulatory phonetics investigates the properties of the sound waves.10.The nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with prescription instead of description.III．Fill in each of the following blanks with an appropriate word. The first letterof the word is already given(10％)1.Nowadays, two kinds of research methods co-exist in linguistic studies, namely,qualitative and q__________ research approaches.2.In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can becombined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed as p__________.nguage has many functions. We can use language to talk about language. This function is m__________function.4.The claim that language originated by primitive man involuntary making vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the y＿theory.5.P________ is often said to be concerned with the organization of speech within specific language, or with the systems and patterns of sounds that occur in particular language.6.Modern linguistics is d＿in the sense that linguist tires to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.7.One general principle of linguistics analysis is the primacy of s___________over writing.8.The description of a language as it changes through time is a d___________ linguistic study.9.Saussure put forward the concept l__________ to refer to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.Linguistic potentia l is similar to Saussure’ s langue and Chomsky’ s c__________. IV. Explain the following concepts or theories.1.Design features2.Displacementpetence4.Synchronic linguisticsV. Answer the following question briefly.(10%)1.Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human languages?Can you tell us what language would be like if it had no such design features?2.How can we use language to do things? Please give two examples to show this point.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with (an) appropriate word(s).1. Language is ____________in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act.2. Language is_____________ and__________ in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction.3.The features that define our human languages can be called_____________, which include____________, _____________, ______________, _____________.4.________is the opposite side of arbitrariness.5.The fact that in the system of spoken language, we have the primary units as words and secondary units as sound shows that language has the property of___________.nguage is resourceful because of its_____________ and its___________, which contributes to the_____________ of language.7._______benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalization and abstractions.8.In Jakobson’s version, there are six functions of language, namely, ____________, _____________, _______________, ________________, ________________and metalingual function.9.When people use language to express attitudes, feelings and emotions, people are using the _____________ function of language in Jakobson’s version.10.In functional grammar, language has three metafunctions, namely, _____________,____________________,__________________.11.Among Halliday’s three metafunctions______________creates relevance to context.12.The________________function of language is primary to change the social status of persons.13.Please name five main branch of linguistics:___________________________,___________________,_____________ _____, _____________________and ____________________.14.In________________phonetics,we study the speech sounds produced by articulatory organs by identifying and classifying the individual sounds.15.In________________phonetics,we focus on the way in which the listener analyzes or processes a sound wave16.________________is the minimal unit of meaning.17.The study of sounds used in linguistic communication is called_______________.18.The study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication is called_________________.19.The study of the way in which symbols represent sounds in linguist communicate are arranged to form words has constituted the branch of study called_____________.20.The study of rules which governs the combinations of words to form permissible sentences constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies that is_________________.21.The fact that we have alliteration in poems is probably because of the__________________ function of language.III. Mark the choice that best completes the statement.1.The description of a language at some print in time is a_______________ study.A.descriptiveB. prescriptiveC. synchronicD. diachronic2. According to Chomsky, a speaker can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentence because_______A. he has come across all of them in his lifeB. he has internalized a set of rules about his languageC. he has acquired the ability through the act of communicating with others language3.Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole is very similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance, but Saussure takes a ____________view of language and Chomsky looks at language from a__________ point of viewA. sociological, psychologicalB. psychological, sociologicalC. biological, psychologicalD. psychological, biological4.The fact that there is no intrinsic connection between the word pen and the thing we write with indicates language is______A. arbitraryB. rule-governedC. appliedD. illogical5.We can understand and produce an infinitely large number of sentence including sentences we never heard before, because language is______A.creativeB. arbitraryC. limitlessD. resourceful6.______means language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situation of the speakerA.DualityB. DisplacementC. productivityD. Arbitrariness7.______examines how meaning is encoded in a languageA.PhoneticsB. syntaxC. SemanticD. Pragmatics8.______is concerned with the internal organization of words.A.MorphologyB. syntaxC. SemanticD. phonology9.______refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaningA.DualityB. Arbitrariness C .Replacement D. Creativity10.______of language makes it potentially creative, and______ of language makes learning a language laboriousA. Conventionality, arbitrarinessB. Arbitrariness, replacementC. Arbitrariness, conventionalityD. Conventionality, arbitrariness11.When people use language to indulge in itself for its own sake, people are using the______ function of languageA.poeticB. creativeC. phaticD. metalingual12.____proposes a theory of metafunctions of language.A.ChomskyB.SaussureC.JacobsonD. Halliday13.____function constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations.A.InterpersonalB. TextualC. LogicalD. Ideational14.Interpersonal function enacts_________ relationship.A.socialB. experientialC. textualD. personal15.By_____________ function people establish and maintain their status in society.A.e xperientialB. referentialC. metalingualD. Interpersonal16.The study of the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech belongs to the study of_____.A.phonologyB. phoneticsC. morphologyD. syntax17.In__________ phonetics, we investigate the properties of the sound waves.A.articulatoryB. acousticC. auditoryD. sound18.French distinguishes between nouns like GARE(station)which is feminine and nouns like TRAIN which is masculine. This shows that French is a language which____.A.is illogicalB. has grammatical genderC.has biological genderD. has two casespetence, in the linguistic sense of the word, is______.A.pragmatic skillB. intuitive knowledge of languageC.perfect knowledge of language skillD. communicative ability20.French has Tu (means: you) aimer a (means: will love) Jean and English has You will love Jean. This shows us that____.A. both languages are alike in expressing future timeB.Both languages have a future tense but English requires more wordsC.English is loose while French is compactD.French forms its future tense by adding a special suffix21.Knowing how to say something appropriate in a given situation and with exactly the effect you intend is a question of the_____A.lexisB. syntaxC. semanticsD. pragmatics22.A(n)_____is a speaker/listener who is a member of homogeneous speech community, who knows language perfectly and is not affected by memory limitations or distractions.A. perfect language userB. ideal language userC. proficient userD. native language userIV. Analyze the following with your linguistic knowledge.e the following two examples to support the idea that language is not all arbitrary.a.They married and had a baby.b.They had a baby and married.2.Examine the way the following words are separated. Comment on the way of separation in relation to Bloomfield’s idea that word is minimal unit of meaning.a.typical,success.ful.ly,organiz.action,hard.ly,wind.y,word3.What is the difference between the following two statements in terms of attitude to grammar? What kind of linguistic concepts do they represent?a.Never put an a before an uncountable noun.b.People usually do not put an a before an uncountable noun.4.How do you understand the sentence Music is a universal language?5.What are the two interpretations of the sentence They are hunting dogs? What is the linguistic knowledge that enables you to distinguish the meanings of this sentence?V. Match each term in Column A with one relevant item in Column B.。
语言学课外单元补充习题及答案4
语⾔学课外单元补充习题及答案4语⾔学课外单元补充习题及答案编写说明本练习是基于《英语语⾔学》课程⽽设置，通过教师讲解、学⽣⾃学与练习，加深学⽣对⼈类语⾔的理性认识，初步具备运⽤理论解释语⾔现象、解决具体语⾔问题的能⼒，从⽽提⾼学⽣的语⾔素养和学习语⾔的能⼒，为以后⼯作和科研奠定基础。
为此，我们特编写本练习的答案，仅供参考。
Language1.State the nature of language briefly with examples.2.Why is it said that the language system is unique to human beings?3.What are the characteristics of human language?4.What are the social functions of language?5.Do animals other than humans have their own languages?6.Exemplify how animals communicate with each other.7.Can language be viewed only as a system of communication? Why not?8.How did language come into being? What is the relationship between the origin of language and theorigin of human beings?9.Rewrite each of the following lists of words into natural order.（1）Five /the /fresh /potatoes（2）Pretty /American /girls /the two（3）Airlines /brand /France-made /new /the two（4）Fashions /Chinese /the /latest /three（5）Beginning /hardworking /two /the /workers10.Fill in the blanks with the proper words.（1）_______ function means language can be used to ―do‖ things.（2）_______ function means the use of language to reveal something about the feelings and attitudes of the speaker.（3）Most imperative sentences are associated with _______ function.（4）The sentence ―What‘s it like?‖ sho ws ______ function.（5）Greetings shows _______ function.（6）“We are most grateful for this.”shows______ function.（7）Propaganda shows ________ function.（8）________ refers to contexts removed from the immediate of the speaker.（9）For________, reference is not the only, not even the primary goal of communication.（10）Halliday‘s metafunctions include ________, ___________, _____________.（11）Linguistics should include at least five parameters:_________ __________ ___________ _____________________________..11.Say the following are true or false. If it is false correct it（1）Language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animals communication system.（2）There is not a certain degree of correspondence between the sequence of clauses and the actual happenings.（3）The theories discussed in the textbook about the origins of language are not at most a speculation.（4）The definition,― Language is a tool for human communication.‖ has no problem.（5）The definition, ―language is a set of rules‖, tells nothing about its functions.（6）Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution.（7）Chomsky‘s definition about language is the same as Sapir‘s.Linguistics1.Explain the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.2.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? Point out three aspects .3.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?4.Which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or writing? Why?5.How is Saussure‘s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky‘s distinction between competence and performance?6.What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?7.What features of human language have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from any animal communication system?8.What is the main task for a linguist? State the importance of linguistics.9.Why is ―duality‖ regarded as an important feature of human language?10.Fill in the right word according to the explanations.（1）_____________ the scientific study of language.（2）_____________ the study of the interlinguistic relationships among different linguistic elements of language.（3）____________the study of universal features of language（4）____________ the study of a particular language at the particular point of time.（5）____________ the study of the structure and both the syntactic and semantic rules of a language （6）the study of the rules or principles prescribed for people to follow when they use a language.（7）___________the study of language is relation to other sciences（8）the study of the nature of human language and the human mind through the study of the U.G. 11.Say the following are true or false. If it is false correct it.（1）Sociolinguistics relates the study of language to Psychology.（2）In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.（3）In the past, traditional grammarians tended to over-emphasize the importance of the written word. （4）Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently.（5）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.（6）Saussure‘s distinction took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.（7）Early grammars were based on ―high‖（religious, literary）written language.（8）The study of language as a whole is often called applied linguistics.（9）Language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets.（10）To explain what language is seems to be a na?ve and simple question.（11）Language bears certain features distinguishing it from means of communication other forms of life may possess, such as bird songs and bee dances.Phonetics1.What are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?2.What are the three branches of phonetics? How do they contribute to the study of speech sounds?3.Draw a picture for the speech organs of human beings.4.Where are the articulatory apparatus of a human being contained?5.What is voicing and how is it caused?6.What criteria are used to classify English vowels?7.What is the function of the nasal cavity ? How does it perform the function?8.Describe the various parts in the oral cavity which are involved in the production of speech sounds?9.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?10.How are the English consonants and vowels classified?11.Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:（1）voiced palatal affricate（2）voiceless labiodental fricative（3）voiced alveolar stop（4）front close short（5）back semi-open long（6）voiceless bilabial stop（7）tense front mid vowel（8）lateral liquid（9）lax high back vowel（10）voiced bilabial oral stop（11）mid central lax vowel（12）low front vowel（13）palatal glide（14）voiced interdental fricative（15）voiced affricate（16）velar nasal consonant（17）low back vowel（18）high back tense vowel（19）mid back lax vowel（20）voiceless interdental fricative12.Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:［d］［l］［t∫］［w］［u］［?］［b］［v］［a:］［m］［r］［i:］13. Draw a tongue chart for the basic English vowels.Phonology1.How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study?2.What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme ? How are allophones related to the phoneme?3.What is a minimal pair and what is a minimal set ? Why is it important to identify the minimal set in alanguage?4.Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.5.State the functions of stress in a language with examples.6.What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function inconveying meaning?7. A phonetic symbol is actually a ―cover term‖ for a composit e of distinct phonetic properties or features.Define each of the symbols below by marking a ―+‖ or a ―---‖ for each given feature: a ―+‖, if the property is present, a ―---‖ , if it is absent:Sound segments: u э a: i ? u: i: ou eiPhonetic features:HighLowBackTenseRoundSound segments: f n g θ z t lPhonetic features:StopNasalV oicedLabialAlveolarVelarLiquidfricative8.Distinguish and transcribe the following sounds in groups.（1）【p】in pit , tip and spit（2）【l】in lesson and people（3）【n】in ten and tenth（4）【k】in key and scheme（5）【t】in team and steam9.Fill in the proper word according to the explanations.（1）the frequency of vibration in the musical sound of the voice.（）.（2）a special emphasis on a sound or a sound group.（）.（3）the length of silence between parts of utterance.（）.（4）the smallest structured sound unit made up of a rule-governed sequence of phonemes.（）. （5）the phonetic process in which two phonemes ,adjacent to each other, become identical.（） .Morphology1.What does morphology study? How do we define morphology?2.Distinguish between phonologically and morphologically conditioned allomorphs, and betweeninflectional and derivational affixes, and between free and bound morphemes. Give examples.3.Dissect the following words into morphemes:Description/ underdevelopment/ photosynthetic /anatomy /radiation/ geography /philharmonic defrosted/ refreshment/demobilized /conducting/ suppression /circumspect/ dialogue deformed /combination4.Try to find out the meaning of the following roots in English and give two or three words that containeach of them:hydro chron demo dur agr kilo nym ped rupt gress poly syn5.State the morphological rules that govern the use of the given derivational affixesExample: --er This suffix is added to a verb to form a noun indicating the agent that carries out the action, e. g. writer---writer --ant --ment --sub --en --en --ee --ful --some --wise --un6.Explain the formation and meaning of the following compounds:Example: nightcap------ noun formed by combining two nouns, meaning a drink one takes before going to bed.cat‘s paw tablecloth green-eyed green born update jet lag bootleg built-in cockpit good-for-nothing7.Write out the proper word or words according to the explanations:（1）the smallest meaningful unit which can be used independently.（）（2）each of the phonetic forms or variants.（）（3）the different morphs of one morpheme.（）（4）the smallest linguistic unit that carries meaning.（）（5）words whose membership can be regularly expanded.（）（6）all the words of a given language.（）（7）the way how morphemes are combined to form new words.（）8.Point out the derivational and inflectional morphemes in the following words and give their meanings:teacher shorter breaks books girl‘s careless usefulness irregular Marxist readers wanted loved houses buses studied business9.divide the following words into separate morphemes by placing a ―+‖ between each two morphemes:reconstruction sociolinguistics tourists readings morphophonemic predetermination endearment girls independentreplacement grandparents generalization derivational television retroactive psycholinguistic befriended unpalatable10.Think of five English suffixes, give their meanings and explain what bases or stems they may besuffixed to.Example: --er meaning ―doer of ‖, making an agentive noun, is added to verbs, as shown in the following: reader, ―one who reads‖, speaker ―one who speaks‖Syntax1.Examine each of the following sentences and indicate if it is a simple, coordinate, complex orcompound complex sentences:（1）Jane did it because she was asked to.（2）The soldiers were warned to remain hidden and not to expose themselves.（3）David was never there, but his brother was. （4）She leads a tranquil life in the country. （5）Unless I hear from her, I won‘t leave this town../doc/23376b19ac02de80d4d8d15abe23482fb4da0297.html e the appropriate phrase structure rules to draw a labeled constituent structure tree diagram for eachof the following sentences:（1）A clever magician fooled the audience.（2）The tower on the hill collapsed in the wind.（3）They knew that the senator would win the election.3.For each of the following two sentences , draw a tree diagram of its underlying structure that willreveal the difference in the relationship between John/Mary and the verb ―see ‖:（1）Mary advised John to see the dentist.（2）Mary promised John to see the doctor.4.The formation of many sentences involves the operation of syntactic movement. The followingsentences are believed to have derived from their D—structure representations. Show the D—structure for each of these sentences.（1）The leader of the majority party was severely criticized by the media.（2）The man threw the rake away in the yard..（3）What can robot do for us?（4）Will the new shop owner hire her?5.Draw on your linguistic knowledge of English and paraphrase each of the following sentences in twodifferent ways to show how syntactic rules account for the ambiguity of sentences:（1）Smoking cigarettes can be nauseating.（2）Tony is a dirty street fighter.（3）After a two-day debate, they finally decided on the helicopter.（4）The man is too heavy to move.（5）The little girl saw the big man with the telescope.6.Because languages have recursive properties, there is no limit to the potential length of sentences, andthe set of sentences of any language is infinite. Give two examples to show the recursive properties of sentences.7.Write down the embedded sentences below:（1）The girls pleaded for Mary to leave them alone.（2）I found my wife writing a letter to her friend.（3）Who told the teacher that I wouldn‘t attend his lecture?（4）I know the man who is standing there.（5）For us to master a foreign language is very useful.（6）Give this book to the students whom we were just talking about.8.Explain the deep structure and surface structure, and account for the relations between the two kinds of structures> Semantics1.What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?2.What is sense and what is reference? How are they related?3.How can words opposite in meaning be classified? To which category does each of the following pairsof antonyms belong?Left/right far/near vacant/occupied father/daughter north /south doctor/patient dark/bright ugly/beautiful4.Identify the relations between the following pairs of sentences:（1）Tom‘s wife is pregnant. / Tom has a wife.（2）He likes swimming. / He likes sports.（3）My sister will soon be divorced. / My sister is a married woman.（4）He speaks English. / He speaks a foreign language.5.Try to analyze the following sentences in terms of predication analysis:（1）The man sells ice-cream.（2）Is the baby sleeping?（3）It is snowing（4）The tree grows well.6.Write out the proper word or words according to the explanations:（1）a sense relation between a pair of words, in which the meaning of a word is included in the meaning of the other.（）（2）the symbol refers to the linguistic elements.（）（3）an approach adopted by structural semantists in describing the meaning of words and phrases（4）the kind of analysis which involves the breaking down of predications into their constituents—arguments and predication.（）8.Pick out from the following pairs the homonyms and the homophones:Style/stile hear/here bank/bank know/no hare/hair ear/ear tale/tail bear/bear soul/sole one/won tear/tare dear/deer9.Indicate which among the following are complementary pairs, which are gradable pairs, and which arerelational pairs:Larger/smaller asleep/awake parents/children legal/illegal false/true start/end fail/pass strong/weak beautiful /uglytrainer/trainee pregnant/sterile rude/polite ask/answer for/against.10.Which of the following sentences belong to illustrative language and which to metalanguage?（1）Yellow is the color of my true lover‘s hair.（2）―Yellow‖ is a color word.（3） A horse is an animal.（4）―Horse‖ contains the semantic property of ―animal‖.（5）Everybody likes flowers.（6）―Flowers‖ is spelled f-l-o-w-e-r-s.。
语言学补充练习
II. 判断正误（T for True and F for False）1. When language is used to get information, it serves an informative function.Answer: F (It serves an interrogative function).2． Most animal communication systems lack the primary level of articulation.Answer: F (The primary units in these systems cannot be further divided into elements. So what they lack is the secondary level of articulation.)3． Descriptive linguistics are concerned with how languages work, not with how they can be improved.Answer: TIII. 填空题1．By saying that "language is arbitrary", we mean that there is no logical connection between meaning and _______. Answer: sounds2． The distinction between langue and parole is made by the Swiss linguist E de Saussure. The distinction between competence and performance is made by the American linguist__________.Answer: Noam Chomsky3． An approach to linguistic study which attempts to lay down rules of correctness as to how language should be used is _______.Answer: prescriptiveIV. 选择题1．Unlike animal communication system, human language is ______.A. stimulus freeB. stimulus boundC. under immediate stimulus controlD. stimulated by some occurrence of communal interest Answer：A2. ____ has been widely accepted as the forefather of modem linguistics.a. Chomskyb. Saussurec. Bloomfieldd. John LyonAnswer: bV. 问答题l. Is language productive or not WhyAnswer: Firstly, Language is productive or creative. This means that language users can understand and produce sentences theyhave never heard before. Secondly, Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems have a limited repertoire, which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible. Thirdly, The productivity or creativity of human language originates from its duality. Because of duality, the speaker can combine the basiclinguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences. The productivity of language also means its potential to create endless sentences. This is made possible by the recursive nature of language.2. Comment on the following statement: “In linguistics, ‘language’ only means what a person says or said in a given situation”.Answer: This statement is incorrect. In linguistics, "language" has several layers of meaning: firstly, the whole of a person’s language, . Shakespeare’s language; secondly, a particular variety or level of speech or writing, . scientific language, literary language, colloquial language; thirdly, an abstract system underlying the totality of the speech/writing behavior of a community, . the English language, the Chinese language; lastly, there is an even more abstract sense of "language", referring to the common features of all humanlanguages that distinguish them from animal communication systems or any artificial language.3. Point out three ways in which linguistics differs from traditional grammar.Answer: Firstly, most linguistic analyses today focus on speech rather than writing. Secondly, modem linguistics is mostly descriptive while traditional grammar is largely prescriptive. Thirdly, a third difference is the priority of synchronic description over the traditional diachronic studies.4. What is the major difference between Saussure' s distinction between langue and parole and Chomsky's distinction between competence and performanceAnswer: Saussure’s langue is social product, a set of conventions for a speech community. Chomsky regards competence as a property of the mind of each individual. Saussure studies language more from a sociological point of view while Chomsky studies it more from a psychological point of view.第二章语音学和音位学I. 名词解释1．narrow transcriptionAnswer: There are two ways to transcribe speech sounds. One is the “broad transcription”----the transcription with letter-symbols only, and the other is “narrow transc ription”---the transcription with letter-symbols accompanied by the diacritics which can help bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do.2. Illustrate the term “allophone” with at least one appropriate example.Answer: Allophones are the different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically different but do not make one word different from another in meaning. For example, in English, the phoneme /l/ is pronounced differently in "let", "play" and "tell". The first /l/ is made by raising the front of the tongue to the hard palate, while the vocal cords are vibrating; the second /l/ is made with the same tongue position as the first, but the vocal cords are not vibrating; and the third /l/ is made by raising not only the front by also the back of the tongue while the vocal cords are vibrating.II 判断正误（T for True and F for False）1. /o/ is a mid-high front rounded vowel.Answer: F. (/o/ is a mid-high BACK rounded vowel.)2. A phoneme in one language or one dialect may be an allophone in another language or dialect.Answer: T.III. 填空题：1. The three cavities in the articulatory apparatus are _____, _______, and _____.Answer: pharynx, the nasal cavity, the oral cavity2. By the position of the ____ part of the tongue, vowels and classified as front vowels, central vowels and back vowels. Answer: highest.3. ____refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound.Answer: Assimilation.4. You are required to fill in the blanks below abiding by the instance given beforehand.Example: /p/: voiced bilabial stop/s/: ________________/g/:_______________/tʃ/:______________/t/: _______________/f /: _______________Answer:/s/: voiceless alveolar fricative/g/: voiced velar stop/tʃ/: voiceless alveo-palatal/post-alveolar affricate/ t /: voiced dental fricative/f /: voiceless labiodental fricative5. Which of the following words would be treated as minimal pairs and minimal setspat, pen more, heat, tape, bun, fat, ban, chain, tale, bell, far, meal, vote, bet, heel, ten, men, pit, main, hit, eat, man Answer:pat, fat; pat, pit; pit, hit;pen, ten; ten, men;heat, eat; heat, heel;tape, tale;bun, ban;chain, main;bell, bet;meal, heel;man, men, main.IV. 选择题1. All syllables contain a(n) _______.a. nucleusb. codac. onsetAnswer: a2. _____is one of the supersegmental features.a. Stopb. Voicingc. Deletiond. ToneAnswer: d3. Which of the following consonants does not exist in Englisha. dental stopb. bilabial stopc. alveolar stopd. velar stopAnswer: a4. _____is not an English consonant.a. Labiodental plosiveb. Alveolar nasalc. Velar stopd. Dental fricativeAnswer: aV. 辨音选择1. What are the distinctive features that group the following sounds in these sets1) /f, v ,s/2) /p, f, b/3) /g, z, b/4) /k, g, w/5) /m, n, ŋ/Answer: 1) fricative 2) obstruent 3) voiced 4) velar5) nasal2. There is one segment that does not belong to the natural class in each of the following groups of speech sounds. You are required to identify that segment and label the natural class, using a descriptive term as specific as possible.a) /m/, /n/, /w/, / ŋ /b) /v/, /w/, /z/, /t/c) /n/, /f/, /l/, /s/, /t/, /d/, /z/Answer:1) /w/ is a semi-vowel, and the others are all nasals.2) /t/ is voiceless, and the others are voiced.3) /f/ is labiodental, and the rest are alveolarVI. 问答题1．Circle the words that contain a sound as required:1) a low vowel: pipe, gather, article, leave, cook2) a bilabial consonant: cool, lad, leap, bomb, push3) an approximant: luck, boots, word, once, table4) a front vowel: god, neat, pit, lush, cook5) a velar: god, fast, chat, lake, quick2．Exemplify the relationship between phone, phoneme and allophone.Answer: Firstly, a “phone” is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones may or may not distinguish meaning. Secondly, a "phoneme" is a phonological unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound. It is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. Thirdly, the phones representing a phoneme are called its "allophones". How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs.But the choice of an allophone is not random but rule-governed in most cases.3．When we are pronouncing the following phrases, how do we actually articulate the "n" sound in the word "ten" Do we still pronounce it as /n/1) ten houses 2) ten teachers 3) ten colleges 4) ten pupils 5) ten buildings 6) ten classesAnswer: 1) /n/2) /n/3) / ŋ /4) /m/5) /m/6) / ŋ /4．How many functions do the vocal cords have in the production of speech soundsAnswer: They have three functions: to make a glottal stop, to produce a voiced sound and to produce a voiceless sound.第三章形态学I. 名词解释1．morphemeAnswer: The morpheme is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering its meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. For instance, the word "barks" in "The dog barks" consists of two morphemes ― "bark" and "-s", neither of which can be further divided into other smaller meaningful units.2．lexemeAnswer: The term "lexeme" is postulated to reduce the ambiguity of the term "word". It is the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language, which appears in different grammatical contexts. For example, "write" is the lexeme of the following set of words: "writes", "wrote", "writing", "written".3．inflectional morphemesAnswer: Inflectional morphemes are also called inflectional affixes. They manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case. In English, all inflectional morphemes are suffixes, . -(e)s, -ing, -(e)d, -est.II. 判断正误1． A root is not always a free form.Answer: T (There are such bound roots as “-ceive”.)III. 填空题1．Polymorphemic words other than compounds have two parts: the roots and the ____.Answer: affixes2．On, before and together are_____words ― they are words which do not take inflectional endings.Answer: grammatical (functional/form)IV．选择题1．"Radar" is a/an____.a. acronymb. blendingc. coinaged. clippingAnswer: a2．Compound words consist of______ morphemes.a. boundb. freec. both bound and freeAnswer: bV. 匹配题Match each expression under A with the one statement under B that characterizes it.A B1. a noisy crow a. compound noun2. eat crow b. root morpheme plus derivational prefix3. scarecrow c. phrase consisting of an adjective plus noun4. the crow d. root morpheme plus inflection affix5. crowlike e. root morpheme plus derivational suffix6. crows f. grammatical morpheme followed by lexical morphemeg. idiomAnswer: 1. c 2. g 3. a 4. f 5. e 6. dVI. 问答题1. Divide the following words into Roots, IA (inflectional affix) and/or DA (derivational affix).1) transformations 2) looseleaves3) destructive 4) geese 5) misled Answer:1) trans- (DA) form (Root) -ation (DA) s (IA)2) loose (Root) leave (Root) s (IA)3) de- (DA) struct (Root) -ive (DA)4) geese (IA)5) mis- (DA) led (IA)2. Label the morphological category of the morphemes underlined in each of the English expressions.a) I' ve been here.b) transformc) oxend) recurAnswer: a) bound morpheme b) derivational prefix c) inflectional suffix d) bound root3. Each of the following Persian words is poly-morphemic. You are required to match each of the notions given below with amorpheme in Persian. (Note that xar means "buy" and -id designates the past tense).xaridiYou (singular) bought.naxaridamI did not buy.namixaridandThey were not buying.xaridHe bought.naxaridimWe did not buy.mixaridHe was buying.mixarididYou (plural) were buying.xaridamI bought.Match each of the notions given below with a morpheme in Persian:a) Ib) you (singular)c) notd) was/were V-ing (continuous)Answer: a) amb) ic) nad) miVid4．It is a fact that morphological processes may be sensitiveto certain phonological context. The English data given belowillustrate this fact. You are required to state thephonological contexts where the addition of -en is possible.a bwhiten *bluenmadden *stupidenredden *greenenFatten *fartheren quicken *slowen deafen *difficultenLiven *abstractenharden *shallowensoften *angryendeepen *vividenAnswer: The suffix -en, which attaches to adjectives to form verbs, can only attach to monosyllabic bases ending in oral stops or fricatives.VerbAdjective-en if Adjective ends in an obstruent (oral stop or fricative). - <Φ> if Adjective ends in a sonorant (nasal, approximant, vowel)Meaning: to make (more) Adjectives5．The word uneasiness may be analyzed in either of the two ways below. You are required to find an argument to support one of the two analyses.a)NPrefixNoununAdjectiveSuffixeasinessb)NAdjectiveSuffixPrefixAdjectivenessuneasiAnswer: b) is the correct analysis, because un- only attaches to adjectives to form other adjectives. Un- cannot be attached to a noun.。
语言学补充习题(题型借鉴)
Language and Linguistics1.The important distinction in linguistics proposed by Chomsky is _____.A.Synchronic and diachronicngue and paroleC.Signifier and signifiedpetence and performance2.According to Saussure, _______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared byall the members of a speech community.A.paroleB.performancenguenguage3.The term _________ linguistics may be defined as a way of referring to theapproach which studies language change over the various periods of time and at various historical stages.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. comparativeD. historical comparativenguage is ____ in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between aword and the object it refers to.A.systematicB.symbolicC.arbitraryD.ambiguous5.What function are most imperative sentences associated with?rmativeB.InterrogativeC.PhaticD.Directive6. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degree centigrade.” is _________A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative6.Everyday we send messages that have never been sent and understand novelmessages; in this sense, our language is ____.A.productiveB.interchangeableC.genetically transmittedD.rule-governednguage can refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of thespeaker. This is what we mean by _____.A.cultural transmissionB.displacementC.dualityD.productivity8.By duality we mean that language has two sets of structures, one of _______ andthe other of ______.A.surface structure, deep structureB.phonemes, morphemesC.sounds, meaningsD.production, reception9.According to Chomsky, ________ is the ideal user’s internalized knowledge ofhis language.petenceB.paroleC.performancengue10.General linguistics is the scientific study of _________.nguage of a certain individualB.the German languageC.human languages in generalD.the system of a particular languagePhonetics and Phonology11.The study of how sounds are put together are used to convey meaning incommunication is _________.A.morphologyB.general linguisticsC.phonologyD.phonetics12.A(n) ______ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collectionof distinctive phonetic features.A.phoneB.soundC.allophoneD.phoneme13./m, n / are ________.A.fricativesB.dentalsC.glidesD.nasals14./w, j / belong to _____.A.fricativesB.dentalsC.glidesD.nasals15.Which of the following vowel is the rounded one?A./i:/B./u:/C./i/D./a:/16.The vowel /u:/ in /fu:d/(food) is a _________vowel.A.backB.frontC.unroundedD.centralMORPHOLOGY17._______ is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship betweenexpression and content.A.WordB.MorphemeC.AllomorphD.Root18._______are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combinedwith other morphemes to form a word.A.Free morphemesB.Bound morphemesC.Bound wordsD.Words19._______modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part ofspeech of the original wordA.PrefixesB.SuffixesC.RootsD.Affixes20.“-s” in the word books is ____.A. a derivative affixB. a stemC.an inflectional affixD. a rootNote: root（词根）/ affix（词缀）, 都属于bound morpheme (粘着词素)1. root(词根): a part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears a clear,definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix toform a word.(一个不能再分，再分就会失去其本义的基本形式)词根词素可以分为自由词根词素（free root morpheme, e.g. rain→ rainy → raincoat粘着词根词素(bound root morpheme)e.g. geo(the earth) + ology (a branch of learning)→ ge ology, psych ology, physi ologytele (distant, far) + vision →tele vision, tele graphtrans mit, per mit, sub mit ‘main tain, con tain, de tain2. Affix 词缀1) inflectional（曲折）: 语法关系的标志grammatical relations(number, tense, degree, case) -s, -er,不改变词性2) derivational(派生):在词干上加上一个词缀得到一个新词，与词性和意义有关3. stem 词干The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added.It refers to the left morpheme or combination of morphemes when one affix is removed for one time.e.g. care less ness21.Which of the following words is a derivational one?A.BlackboardB.TeachesC.ConsiderationD.Books22.Which of the following words is created through the process of acronym?A.adB.editC.AIDSD.Bobo23.The word “lab” is formed through ____.A.back formationB.blendingC.clippingD.derivation24.Which of the following is NOT a compound word ?A. LandladyB. GreenhouseC. UpliftD. Unacceptable20. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as ________.A.lexical wordsB.grammatical wordsC.function wordsD.form words21. Open class of words can consist of the following categories EXCEPT _________A. nounsB. verbsC. adjectivesD. articles22. Which one of the following most possibly belongs to the closed class?A. FlowerB. Treacherous.C. WeD. Whack23. Inflectional morphemes manifest the following meanings EXCEPT_________A. toneB. tenseC. numberD. case24. Which of the following contains at least an inflectional morpheme?A. PossibilityB. DecisionC. HersD. Enable25. ________ are bound morphemes because they cannot be used as separate words.A. RootsB. StemsC. AffixesD. Compounds26. The word “irresistible” is ______________A. a compound oneB. a clipped oneC. a blended oneD. a derived one27. Which of the following affix differs from others?A. –lyB. –nessC. –ingD. –ful28. The word “Kung-fu” is _____.A. a clipped oneB. a blended oneC. a compound on eD. a borrowed oneSemantics25. A word with several meanings is called ______ word.A. a polysemousB. a synonymousC.an abnormalD. a multiple26.The pair of words “lend” and “borrow” are___.A.gradable oppositesB.relational oppositesC.co-hyponymsD.synonyms27.The relationship between ‘fruit’ and ‘apple’ is _______.A.homonymyB.hyponymyC.polysemyD.synonymy28.“Alive” and “dead” are ______ antonyms.A.relationalB.gradableC.symmetricplementary29.“Big” and “small” are a pair of _____ opposites.plementaryB.gradablepleteD.converse6. The word “luggage” and “baggage” are _________A. emotive synonymsB. dialectal synonymsC. collocational synonymsD. stylistic7. The relation between “begin” and “commence” is _________A. dialectal synonymsB. stylistic synonymsC. collocational synonymsD. semantically different synonyms8. “Fall ” and “autumn” are _________ synonymsA. dialectalB. stylisticC. collocationalD. emotive9. _________ is NOT a pair of homophones.A. rain and reignB. flea and fleeC. lead [li:d] and lead [led]D. compliment and complement10. In the semantic triangle, “referent” refers to _______A. conceptB. the real worldC. the thoughtD. meaning11. “Wise” and “cunning” are a pair of _________ synonyms.A. dialectalB. stylisticC. collocationalD. emotive12. “Wide” and “broad” are a pair of __________ synonymsA. dialectalB. stylisticC. collocationalD. emotive13. Which of the followings can be the same form shared by two homonyms?A. BallB. CanC. BarkD. North14. “See” and “sea” are ___________A. homophonesB. homographsC. complete homonymsD. polysenmic words15. What is the sense relation between “learn” and “teach”?A. Relational antonymsB. Complementary antonymsC. Gradable anonymsD. Absolute antonyms16. What is the sense relation between “pass” and “fail”?A. Relational antonymsB. Complementary antonymsC. Gradable anonymsD. Absolute antonyms17. : X: They are going to have another baby.Y: They have a child.The relationship of X and Y is ________A. synonymousB. inconsistentC. X entailing YD : X presupposing Y18. “Tommy’s hen laid an egg yesterday.” presupposes __________A. Tommy had a henB. Tommy had a big henC. An egg was laid by Tommy’s henD. The egg is not a stone.19. “He has been to Tokyo” entails “_________”.A. He has been to JapanB. Tokyo is the capital of Japan.C. He has never been to Japan.D. He is not a Japanese.Pragmatics1.According to Searle, those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit thespeaker to some future course of action are called _____.missivesB.directivesC.expressivesD.declaratives2._______ is defined as the study of language in use and linguistic communication.A.PragmaticsB.SociolinguisticsC.NeurolinguisticsD.Contextual linguistics3.“We can do things with words”--- this is the main idea of ______.A.the Speech Act TheoryB.the Co-operative PrincipleC.the Polite PrinciplesD.pragmatics4._________ refer to the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense andreference.A.Locutionary actB.Illocutionary actC.Perlocutionary actD.Speech act5.The branch of linguistics that studies meaning of language in context is called_______.A.semanticsB.sociolinguisticsC.pragmaticsD.psycholinguistics6.Which of the following is NOT the specific instance of directives?A.InvitingB.AdvisingC.WarningD.Swearing7. _________ acts expresses the intention of the speaker.A. LocutionaryB. IllocutionaryC. PerlocutionaryD. Speech8. “I didn’t steal that ring” is a _________.A. directiveB. expressiveC. commissiveD. representatives9. “I’m so sad about your wrong doings” is a __________A. declarationB. expressivesC. representativesD. commissives10. “Hands up!” is a ________.A. directiveB. representativeC. commissiveD. declaration11. “I’ll be with you!” is a _________.A. directiveB. commissiveC. expressiveD. representativeSociolinguistics1.In areas which are populated by people speaking different languages, onelanguage is often used by common agreement; such a language is called ________.A.pidginB.lingua francaC.CreoleD.slang2. The dialect which is caused by social status is ________.A. regional dialectB. sociolectC. idiolectD. diglossia3. Standard dialect is ______A. designated as the official or national language of a country.B. a dialect a child acquires naturally like his regional dialectC. used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposeD. used by people who belong to the higher social status.4. Sometimes, two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play. This phenomenon is _______.A. bilingualismB. diglossiaC. pidginD. creole5 The form of a given language used in a certain geographical space is called _______A. styleB. dialectC. registerD. pidginLanguage Acquisition1.According to Krashen, ________ refers to the gradual and subconsciousdevelopment of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.A.learningpetenceC.performanceD.acquisition。
语言学教程（第四版）练习题
语⾔学教程（第四版）练习题语⾔学教程（第四版）测试题Quiz 1 LexiconI. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. T2. Words are the smallest meaningful units of language. F3. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology. T4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes. T5. Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes. T6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case. T7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root or a free morpheme. F8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it. F9. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed according to the morphological rules are acceptable words. F10. Loanwords are: both form and meaning are borrowed. TII. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:11. Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.12. The affix “-ish” in the word boyish conveys a grammatical meaning.13. Bound morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.14. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and derivational affixes.15. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create words.16. A suffix is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it may case change its part of speech.17. Compounding is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.18. The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are called morphological rules.19. In terms of morphemic analysis, derivation can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems toform new words.20. A stem can be a bound root or a free morpheme to which an inflectional affix can be added.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 21. The morpheme “vision” in the common word “television” is a(n) _____.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme22. The compound word “bookstore” is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound _____.A. is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phraseD. None of the above23. The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part of speech of _____.A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements24. _____ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words25. _____ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.A. SyntaxB. GrammarC. MorphologyD. Morpheme26. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _____.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic27. Bound morphemes are those that _____.A. have to be used independentlyB. cannot be combined with other morphemesC. can either be free or boundD. have to be combined with other morphemes28. _____ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the originalword.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes29. _____ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. Sentences30. “-s” in the word “books” is _____.A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a rootIV. Define the following terms:31. morphology: Morphology is a branch of linguistics which studies the internal structure of wordsand the rules by which words are formed.32. morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.33. bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently buthave to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.34. root: A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without destroying itsmeaning.35. stem: a stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can beadded, like Friend- in friends, and friendship- in friendships.V. Answer the following question:36. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.In terms of their capacity of occurring alone, morphemes can be categorized into 2 types: free morphemes and bound morphemes.Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book-”in the word “bookish”.Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish” in “bookish”.Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene-” in theword “generate”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “-s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be d ivided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ” in the word “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word suchas “-less” in the word “friendless”.Poly-morphemic words other than compounds may be divided into roots and affixes.A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without destroying its meaning. Inter-nation-al-ismAn affix is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem). Affix is naturally bound. Affixes are generally classified into three subtypes, prefix, suffix, and infix.Prefix: para-, mini- un-Suffix: -ise, -tionInfix: abso-bloomingly-lutelyA stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.Friend- in friends, and friendship- in friendshipsQuiz 2 SyntaxI. Choose the best answer.1. Relation of co-occurrence is _____.A. only syntagmaticB. only paradigmaticC. complexD. both syntagmatic and paradigmatic2. The syntactic rules of any language are _____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite3. The _____ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. syntactic4. A sentence is considered _____ when it does not conform to the grammatical knowledge.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical5. Several constituents together form a _____.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. construction6. Phrasal constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category.Theoretically, there is no limit to the number of embedding of one clause into another clause. This is the _____ properties of sentences.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional7. Syntax allows us to better understand _____.A. how words and phrases form sentencesB. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. all of the above8. The head of the phrase “the handsome boy” is _____.A. handsomeB. boyC. theD. the handsome boy9. The phrase “on the shelf” belongs to _____ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinate10. The sentence “They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves.” is a _____sentence.A. simpleB. coordinateC. compoundD. subordinateII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.11. The phrase of swimming in the lake is headed,the head is swimming. T12. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number ofsentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend. T13. In a compound sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other. T14. Tag question always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any otherelement in the sentence. T15. Predicate is the major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatoryconstituent other than the subject. T16. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed,namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase. F17. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb. T18. The disadvantage of IC Analysis is that it cannot reveal some ambiguities effectively. F19. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional. T20. Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or moreof its constituents, i.e. a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable CENTRE or HEAD.TIII. Fill in the blanks.21. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and standsalone as its own sentence.22. A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form acomplete statement, question or command.23. A subject may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.24. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says somethingabout the subject is grammatically called predicate.25. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.26. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an embeddedclause.27. A class item can perform several functions, and a function can be fulfilled by several classes.28. Phrase is a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking thesubject-predicate structure typical of clauses.29. A constituent with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence, is a clause.30. A sentence is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thoughtIV. Explain the following terms, using examples.31. syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in alanguage, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.32. IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of asentence in terms of its immediate constituents – word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents (theoretically, morpheme; practically, word)are reached.33. cohesion: Cohesion is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax. It refers torelations of meaning that exist within the text, and defines it as a text.34. category: Narrowly, the classes and functions, e.g. n., v.; subject, predicate; NP, VP, etc.More specifically, the defining properties of these general units:n.: gender, number, case and countability, etc.v.: tense, aspect and voice, etc.V. Answer the following questions.35. What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction?An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. A typical example is the three small children with children as its head. The exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.36. Distingu ish the two possible meanings of “more beautiful flowers” by means of IC analysis.(1) more beautiful flowers(2) more beautiful flowersVI. Analyze the following situation.37. Put brackets around the immediate constituents in the following sentence.The lonely boy in the bedroom was crying silently.((The) (((lonely) (boy)) ((in) ((the) (bedroom))))) ((was) ((crying) (silently))).Quiz 3 SemanticsI. Choose the best answer.1. The 7 types of meaning are proposed by _____.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth2. _____ meaning is also called cognitive meaning.A. ConceptualB. ConnotativeC. StylisticD. Reflected3. Which of the following is NOT true?A. Referential Theory is the theory of meaning, which relates the meaning of a word to the thing itrefers to.B. Sense refers to the properties an entity has.C. Reference refers to the concrete entity having the properties.D. Every word has a sense, and every word has a reference4. “Can I borrow your bike?” _____ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes5. _____ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis6. “Alive” and “dead” are _____.A. gradable antonymsB. relational antonymsC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above7. _____ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the world of experience.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense8. Words that are opposite in meaning are _____.A. antonymyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy9. Words that are close in meaning are called _____.A. homonymsB. polysemiesC. hyponymsD. synonyms10. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _____.A. grammatical rulesB. selectional restrictionsC. semantic rulesD. semantic featuresII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.11. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English. T12. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. F13. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations. T14. Semantic triangle was proposed by Geoffrey Leech in The Meaning of Meaning. F15. According to Semantic triangle, the relation between a word and a thing it refers to is not direct. Itis mediated by reference. F16. Sense refers to the abstract properties of an entity, and reference refers to the concrete entity having these properties. T17. No two words share exactly the same meaning. T18. Complementary Antonyms can be modified by “Very”. F19. “Give” is a two-place predicate. F20. Actions or events involved in entailment are synchronic, but that in the presupposition is diachronic. TIII. Fill in the blanks.21. Semantics can be defined as the study of meaning.22. Connotative meaning refers to the emotional association which a word or phrase suggests in people’s mind.23. Social / stylistic meaning is the meaning which a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.24. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.25. Hyponymy is a kind of inclusiveness relation.26. Relational opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.27. Componential analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.28. Gradable antonyms refer to those which are not absolutely opposite, there are often intermediate forms between these two extreme forms.29. A superordinate may be a superordinate to itself. We call this auto-hyponym.30. The meaning of duck can be analyzed with Componential Analysis as adult and female.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples.31. complementary antonymy: Complementary antonymy is the sense relation between two antonymswhich are complementary to each other. That is, they divide up the whole of a semantic field completely. Denial of one implies the assertion of the other and the assertion of one implies the denial of the other. He is single means “He is not married”.32. superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy, i.e. the class name, is called superordinate, and thelower terms, the members, hyponyms. A superordinate usually has several hyponyms. Under flower, for example, there are orchid, lily, peony, sunflower, tulip, and many others apart from rose.33. componential / compositional analysis: An approach by linguists to describe the meaning of wordsand phrases. According to Leech, the analysis of word meaning is often a process of breaking down the sense of word into its minimal components. For example, the meaning of the word boy may be analyzed into three components: HUMAN, YOUNG and MALE. Similarly girl may be analyzed into HUMAN, YOUNG and FEMALE.34. proposition: It is the result of the abstraction of sentences, which are descriptions of states of affairsand which some writers see as a basic element of sentence meaning. For example, the two sentences “Caesar invaded Gaul” and “Gaul was invaded by Caesar” hold t he same proposition.V. Answer the following questions.35. Please give a superordinate in the following list.A. man, stallion, boy, bull, boar Male.B. dogs, cats, parrots Pets.36. Write out the synonyms of the following words.Youth, automobile, remember, buy, vacation, bigyouth (adolescent), automobile (car), remember (recall), buy (purchase), vacation(holiday), big (large)VI. Analyze the following situation.37. For the following two groups of words, state what semantic property or properties are shared by the(a) words and the (b) words, and what semantic property or properties distinguish between theclasses of (a) words and (b) words.(1) a. bachelor, man, son, paperboy, pope, chiefb. bull, rooster, drake, ram(2) a. table, stone, pencil, cup, ship, carb. milk, alcohol, rice, soup(1) The (a) words and (b) words are male.The (a) words are human, while the (b) words are non-human.(2) The (a) words and (b) words are inanimate.The (a) words are instrumental, while the (b) words are edible.。
语言学导论 基础知识
【语言学】语言学是以语言为研究对象的科学。
【“小学”】“小学”是中国传统的语文学，围绕解释和解读先秦典籍来展开研究，从而诞生了分析字形的文字学、研究字音的音韵学、解释字义的训诂学。
因此又被人们称为经学的附庸。
【思维】思维是认识现实世界时的动脑筋的过程，也指动脑筋时进行比较、分析、综合以认识现实的能力。
【符号】符号是由一定的形式构成的表示一定意义的记号或标记，包括形式和意义两个方面，其作用是指称现实现象。
【语言符号】语言符号是由音、义结合构成的，能代表或指称现象。
“音”是语言符号的物质表现形式，“义”是语言符号的内容，只有音和义结合才能指称现实现象，构成语言的符号。
【征候】征候是事物本质的特征，它代表着事物，可以让我们通过它来推知事物。
【组合规则】构成线性序列的语言成分之间的结构关系，就是说，语言符号的单位互相组合为一个更大单位的规则。
【聚合规则】在同一个结构位置上不同结构单位的替换规则。
【音标】记录音素的标写符号。
【国际音标】国际语音协会指定的一套记音符号，是用来记录各民族语言的语音的。
国际音标符合“一个音素一个符号，一个符号一个音素”的原则。
【音位学】音位学是在了解语音的物理、生理特性的基础上从语言的社会功能的角度对语音的研究。
【音素】音素是人类语言从音质角度划分出来的最小的语音单位。
【清音、浊音】清音、浊音是语音中的发音特点。
辅音的发音体是阻碍气流的发音部位，但有时声带也参与发音。
发音时声带颤动的辅音叫浊辅音，不颤动的叫清辅音。
【音质音位】以音素为材料，从音质的角度分析的音位，叫做音质音位。
【非音质音位】有区别词的语音形式作用的音高、音重、音长叫做非音质音位。
【调位】有区别词的语音形式作用的音高变化，叫做调位。
【重位/势位】能区别词的语音形式的重音叫做重位或势位。
【时位】能区别词的语音形式的元音的长短叫时位。
【音位变体】处于互补关系中的各个音素被看成是同一个音位在不同位置上的代表，是同一个音位的不同的变异形式，我们把它们叫做音位变体。
语言学教程[第四章句法：从语词到篇章]山东大学期末考试知识点复习
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第四章句法：从语词到篇章复习笔记I.句法1.定义句法就是研究语言不同成分组成句子的规则或句子结构成分之间的关系。
2．句法关系(1)位置关系位置关系或词序指的是一门语言中词语的排列顺序。
位置关系是任何人类语言中的基本句法关系，也是语言的句法可接受性和语义可理解性的要求。
(2)替代关系替代关系指在相同的句子结构中，语法上可以互相代替的词类或语词的集合，它还可指由多个词组成的词组，语法上代替特定集合中的单个语词。
(3)同现关系共现关系指不同词类的不同词汇集合允许另一个词类或集合的词出现构成一个句子或句子的某一特定成分。
II.传统语法学派传统语法认为句子是词的序列。
因此句子构造的研究涉及了对词的大量研究，例如词类是对词进行的分类，主语、谓语是对词的功能的描写等。
这些词类和功能有时叫做范畴。
1．数、性和格(1)数是用来分析词类的语法范畴，有单数、双数和复数等。
在英语中，数主要是名词的范畴，包括两种形式：单数和复数。
数还体现在代词和动词的屈折变化上。
(2)性指的是依照性别把名词分成不同类别的语法范畴。
性主要也是名词和代词的范畴。
在英语中，性的差别是自然的，由动物本身的生理性别决定。
然而准确地讲，性在这里指的是语法性，语法性主要有阴性、阳性和中性三种。
(3)格主要是名词的屈折范畴，它典型地标识着它们和句子其他部分之间的关系。
在英语中，代词一般有三种格。
即：主格、宾格和属格；名词只有两种格：普通格和属格。
2．时态与体时态与体是动词的两个重要范畴，传统语法没有对它们加以区分。
时态与体之间的区别在于：时态是指示性的，也就是说指明的时间与说话的时间相关；体则不是指示性的，指明的时间与说话的时间没有关系，却与叙述中描写或暗示的另一个事件的时间相关。
3．一致关系与支配关系一致关系是指在一个给定的语言结构中，词和短语之间利用至少它们中的一个所携带的屈折形式互相匹配的句法关系。
支配关系是指句法结构中某些词的形式受另一种其他类型词的控制。
语言学知识要点
语言学知识要点第一章1 Linguistics :Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific or systematic study of language2the four principles that make linguistics a science are:exhaustiveness/consistency/economy/objectivity3purposes: one is that it studies the nature of language and tries to establish a theory of language, and describes languages in the light of the theoryestablished. The other is that it examines all the forms of language ingeneral and seeks a scientific understanding of the ways in which it isorganized to fulfill the needs it serves and the functions it performs inhuman life.4 the three basic ways linguistics differ from traditional grammar: firstly,descriptive not prescriptive ; secondly, linguists regards the spokenlanguage as primary, not the written; thirdly, linguistics describes eachlanguage on its own merits (traditional grammar is based on Latin)5scope of linguistics:·Phonetics(语音学) : The scientific study of speech sounds .It studies how speech sounds are articulated, transmitted, and received. For example, vowels and consonants·Phonology(音位学) : The study of how speech soundsfunction in a language .It studies the ways speech sounds are organized. . For example, phone, phoneme, and allophone.·Morphology（形态学）:The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and“ish”---boyish,teach---teacher.·Syntax（句法）: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. For example, ”John like linguistics.”·Semantics: （语义学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example, the seal could not be found. The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be fo und,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things.·Pragmatics（语用学）: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. For example, “I do” The word do means different contex t. ·Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics. For example, regional dialects ,social variation in language. ·Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.1. What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication2. Design features of language①Arbitrariness(任意性) means that there is no logical connection betweenmeanings and sounds.②Duality(二重性): The property of having two levels of structures, such that unitsof the primary level are composed of elements of thesecondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.③Productivity(创造性): it means Language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness , in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.④Displacement(移位性): Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication.5) interchangeability: refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.6) specialization: refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication7) cultural transmission: language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation,but the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker.3. Functions of language①Informative(信息功能): To give information about facts. ( ideational)eg. road cross②Interrogative(人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in a society.(age, sex, language, background, accent, status)eg.how old are you?③Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certain actions. (name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare)eg. I declare the meeting open.④Expressive (情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.⑤Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions to establish a comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factualcontent. (health, weather)eg. ah here you are!⑥Directive: language is used to get the hearer to do something.(祈使句)⑦Evocative: language is used to create certain feelings in the hearers.（jokes advertising）4. What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.5. Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive & prescriptiveSynchronic & diachronicLangue & paroleCompetence & performance6.Descriptive ( 描写/述性)—describe and analyze linguistic facts or the language people actually use (modern linguistic) Prescriptive ( 规定性)—lay down rules for “correct and standard”linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar: “never use a double negative”)7.Synchr onic study ( 共时)—description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics)Diachronic study (历时)—description of a language as it changes through time (historical development of language over a period of time)第二章(一)1.The study of phonetics can be divided into three mainbranches:(1)articulatory phonetics(2)acoustic phonetics （3）auditory phonetics2.speech organs are the human body involved in the production of speech, including the lungs, the trachea, the throat, the nose and the mouth3sound segments are grouped into consonants and vowels 元音V owel(1)The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels.(2)元音的和划分标准：the part of the tongue that is raised—front center back;the height of the tongue—high middle low;the opening of the mouth—close open semi-open semi-close;the shape of the lips—rounded unrounded;the length of the sound—long short辅音Consonants(1)The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air streamat some point of the vocal tract are called consonants.(2)according to the place of articulation English consonants can be classifiedinto :bilabials(双唇音pbmw),labiodentals(唇齿音fv)，dentils or interdentals(齿音th 的两种发音)，alveolars(齿龈音tdsznlr),palatals(腭音)velars(软腭音)glottal(声门音h)：according to the manner of articulation English consonants can be classified into :stops爆破音nasals 鼻音fricatives擦音approximants通音laterals 边通音affricates破擦音liquids流音glides 滑音（二）Phonology1.音位PhonemeThe basic unit in phonology, it?s a collection of distinctive phonetic features.2.音素phoneA phonetic unit or segment. it doesnot necessarily distinguish meaning, it?s a speech sound we use when speakinga language.3.最小对立对Minimal pairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.4.超切分特征Suprasegmental features(1)The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation 5.自由变体free variationIf two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely,if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in free variation6.syllables and consonant clusters：in every language we find that there are constraints on the sequences of phonemes that are used.A word which begins with three -consonant clusters always observes three strict rules:(1)the first consonant must be [s](2)the second phoneme must be [p][t][k](3)the third consonant must be [i][r][w][j]补充知识点1.宽式音标Broad transcriptionThe transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.2.窄式音标Narrow transcriptionThe transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.3.清音V oicelessWhen the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in sucha condition are called voiceless sounds.4.浊音V oicingSounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.5.Phonetic 组成⑴Art iculatory phonetics 发音语音学longest established, mostly developed⑵Auditory phonetics 听觉语音学⑶Acoustic phonetics 声学语音学6．articulatoryApparatus /Organs of SpeechPharyngeal cavity–咽腔Oral ...–口腔greatest source of modification of air stream found here Nasal …–鼻腔7．The tongue is the most flexible, responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other, the extreme back of the tongue can be raised towards the uvula and a speech sound can be thus produced as is used in Arabic and French. 8．Obstruction between the back of the tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation of[k] and[g],the narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of the tongue leads to the sound[j];the obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sounds[t]and[d].9．nasal consonants: [m] / [n] / [η]例子11.English has four basic types of intonation:Falling tone;Rising tone;Fall-rise tone; Rise-fall tone第三章Morphology1.词素MorphemeThe basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language. We can make a distinction between two types of morphemes: FreeMorpheme and Bound morphemes.2.自由词素Free Morphemes(1)Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.(2)All monomorphemic words (单语素词)are Free Morphemes.(3)Free morphemes can be divided into two categories；[A]the set of the ordinary nouns, verbs, and adjectives which carry the content of the messages we convey .examples are book, look, happy[B] functional morphemes .examples are but, and, if, when3.黏着词素Bound morphemes(1) Bound morphemes are these morphemes that cannot be used by themselves, must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently.(2) Bound morphemes can be divided into two categories[A]derivational morphemes 派生语素The manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes.[B]inflectional morphemes曲折语素. The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case.4.词根RootRoot is the base form of a word which cannot be furtheranalyzed without total loss of identity. All words contain a root morpheme, which may be a free morpheme or a bound morpheme.5.词缀AffixThe collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. It has three subtypes , prefix, suffix, and infix. All the affixes are bound morphemes.. Prefixes前缀modify the meaning of the stem ,but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word, exceptions are the prefixes …be-… and …en(m)-…. Suffixes后缀are added to the end of stems, they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. 3.In using the morphological rules, we must guard against Over-generalization.6.词干StemA stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. It can be equivalent to a root, or a root and a derivational7. 词素变体MorphsMorphs are the smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance on the level of parole.8.语素变体AllomorphSome morphemes have a single form in all contexts, such as dog, cat, some others may have considerable variation. some morphemic shapes represent different morphemes sand thus have different meanings, examples,-s 表示复数，人称，和所有格9构词法Types of word formation(1)Compounding合成法（compound合成词）(2)Derivation派生法(derivative派生词)(3)Conversion转类法(4)Backformation逆构法(5)Clipping拆分法(6)Blending混成法(7)Acronym首字母缩略法第四章1. Parts of speechTraditional grammar defines 9 parts of speech: nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, determiner, Particle2.Word class(1)Nouns are words used to refer to people, objects, creatures, places, events, qualities, phenomena,(2)Adjectives are words that describe the things, quality, state or action which a noun refers to(3)Verbs are words used to refer to various actions.(4)Adverbs are words that describe or add to the meaning ofa verb, anadjective , another adverb, or a sentence.(5)Prepositions are words used with nouns in phrases providing information about time, place, and other connections involving actions and things.(6)Pronouns are words which may replace nouns or nouns phrases(7)Conjunctions are words used to connect, and indicate relationship betweenevents and things.(8)Determiner限定词(9)Particle 颗粒词3. Preposition is not a word you can end with a sentence with.4.（1） One type of descriptive approach is called structuralanalysis.（2） Immediate constituent analysis成分分析法(IC分析法)[A]Immediate constituent analysis is the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents –Word groups, which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached[B]The Immediate constituent analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets or with a tree diagram, the criterion for the immediate constituent analysis is Substituted for a single word and the structure remains the same. IC analysis , the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated,（3）bracketing analysis6三种分析法的优缺点：优点:反映了语言层级性本质（essence）;解析语言生成；反应语言递归性。
英语语言学知识整理
英语语言学知识整理Chapter 1 Introduction语言学的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.问题：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language?→It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.What the linguist has to do “first, then, but”:①to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.②to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.③to check the hypotheses thus formed repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)问题: What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?→phonetics（语音学）→the study of sounds→phonology（音位学）→study how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning→morphology（形态学）→study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.→syntax（句法学）→the study of rules of forming sentences →semantics（语义学）→the study of meaning→pragmatics（语用学）→the context of language useSociolinguistics（社会语言学）：The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics（语言心理学）：Relate the study of language to psychologyApplied linguistics（应用语言学）：In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Some important distinctions in linguistics:①prescriptive（规定性）/descriptive（描写性）②synchronic（共时）/diachronic（历时）③speech（口语）/writing（书面语）④langue（语言）/parole（言语）（the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure——Course in General Linguistics）⑤competence（语言能力）/performance（语言应用）（the American linguist N. Chomsky）⑥traditional grammar （传统语法）/modern linguistics（现代语言学）问题：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?①linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.②modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.③modern linguistics does not force languages into a La tin-based framework.问题：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?In modern linguistics, a synchronic (不考虑历史演进的, 限于一时的) approach seems to enjoy priorityBecause it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.问题：For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised”record of speech. And linguists’data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.语言的定义：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Design features of language（7个识别特征）①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization and abstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Functions of language：三大主要功能：The descriptive functionThe expressive functionThe social functionRoman Jacobson（6种首要因素，结构主义语言学家）①speaker addresser→emotive 感情功能②addressee→conative 意动功能③context→referential所指功能④message→poetic 诗学功能⑤contact→phatic communion交感功能⑥code→metalinguistic 元语言功能Other functions:②informative f. 信息功能③interrogative f. 询问功能④expressive f. 表达功能⑤evocative f. 感染功能⑥directive f. 指令功能⑦performative f. 行使（权力）功能M.A.K. Halliday①ideational②interpersonal（indicate/establish/maintain/social relationships）③textual问题：How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?The distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while parole varies from people to people, and from situation to situation.The distinction between competence and performance proposed by the American linguists Chomsky, competence is a deal user’s kno wledge of the rules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors.Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investigation, and that linguistics should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.问题：What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization and abstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics: （语音学）①the study of the phonic medium of languageⅠstudy the sounds from the speaker’s point of view→articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）Ⅱlook at the sounds from the hearer’s point of view→auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）Ⅲstudy the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves→acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）③study how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived.Organs of speech:⒈three important areas①The pharyngeal cavity→the throat②the oral cavity→the mouth③the nasal cavity→the nose⒉The pharyngeal cavity→windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocal cords⒊the oral cavity→tongue/uvula/soft palate(velum)/hard palate/teeth ridge(alveolus)/teeth/lipsInternational Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）①diacritics 附加符号②broad transcription（宽式标音）→the transcription with letter-symbols only③narrow transcription（严式标音）→the tran scription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics Classification of English speech sounds①two broad categories of speech sounds in English: V owels/consonants②two ways to classify the English consonants: In terms of manner of articulationIn terms of place of articulation③In terms of manner of articulation:Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glides④In terms of place of articulation:Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottal⑤bilabial Labio-dental dental alveolar palatal velar glottalstops VL p t kVD b d gfricatives VL f θs ?hVD v ez ?affricates VL (t?) t?VD (d?) d?nasals VD m n ?liquids VD l/rglides VD w jClassification of English vowels⒈criteria :（monophthongs）单元音The position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/backThe openness of the mouth: close vowels/semi-close vowels/semi-open vowels/open vowelsThe shape of the lips: unrounded/roundedfront central backclose i: u:i uSemi-close e ?::Semi-openopen ? ??a a:⒉diphthongs 双元音/ei //ai //au //?u //?i //i? //ε?// u? /Phonology 音韵学，语音体系Difference of phonology and phonetics:①Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages.②Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds areused to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phone（音素）: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme（音位）: It is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particularsound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.Allophone（音位变体）: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Phonemic contrast（音位对立）Complementary distribution（音位变体的互补分布）Minimal pairs（最小对立体）：含音位的单词的全部音标Minimal set（最小对立集）：is used to find the important sounds in language.Phonological Analysis（音位分析）Principle: certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase, whereas other sounds do not. Phonetically similar sounds:描述音位关系Free variants: 音位的自由变体differences instead of by any distribution rule.Some rules in phonology①sequential rules: 序列规则If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules: The first phoneme must be / s /The second phoneme must be / p / / t / / k /The third phoneme must be / l // r // w /②ass imilation rule:同化规则③deletion rule：省略规则Suprasegmental features 超音段特征≠超音段（比音位更大的语言单位）①stress（单词，句子层面）：the location of stress in Englishdistinguishes meaning.Syllable音节：A syllable nucleus (often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (often consonants)单音节词多音节词英语单词都有重读音位学中，单词由音节构成，音节由音位构成。
英语语言学Chapter 4 Syntax
❖ IC analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets: ((Poor) (John)) ((ran) (away)). It may also be more easily shown with a tree diagram: Poor John ran away.
❖ Concord: also known as agreement, may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.
1. The traditional approach
The classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in terms of subject, predicate, etc. 1) Number, gender and case 2) Tense and aspect 3) Concord and government
Chapter 4
Syntax
Syntax
Syntax: The study of the rules governing the
ways words and phrases are combined to form sentences. 1. The traditional approach 2. The structural approach 3. The generative approach 4. The functional approach
语言学教程（第四版）练习第2章
语言学教程（第四版）练习第2章Chapter Two Speech SoundsI. Mark the choice that best completes the statement.1.In a syllable, a vowel often serves as _______.A. Peak or NucleusB. OnsetC. CodaD. Rhyme2. Conventionally a ______ is put in slashes / /.A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3. An aspirated [p h], an unaspirated [p o] and an unreleased [p﹁] are ____ of the /p/ phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones4. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as ______.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula5. The diphthongs that are made with a movementA. wideB. closingC. narrowD.centering6. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called _____.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones7. Which of the following sounds is a voiceless bilabial stop ?A. [p]B. [m]C. [b]D. [t]8. Which one is different from the others according to places fo articulation ?A.[n]B. [m]C. [b]D. [p]9. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels ?A. [i:]B. [u]C. [e]D. [i]10. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating ?A. V oicelessB. V oicedC. Glottal stopD. ConsonantII. Mark the following statements with “T” if they are trueor “F” if they are false.(10%)1. [f] is a dental consonant.2. Phonology is a branch of linguistics which studies the sentence patterns of a language.3. The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically different but do not make a different word, are phones.4. [p] is a voiced bilabial stop.5. The speech sounds which are in complementary distribution are not always allophones of the same phoneme.6. The last sound of cut can be articulated as an unreleased or released plosive. These different realizations of the same phoneme are NOT in complementary distribution.7. Phonology is language specific but phonetics is not.8. Distinctive features can show phonological contrasts or oppositions of language sounds.9. Received Pronunciation is the pronunciation accepted by most people.10. The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to placea consonant. It is put into coda than the onset.11. When the vocal folds are apart, the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is said to be voiced.12.The sound segments are grouped into consonants and vowels.13. Uvular is made with the back of the tongue and the uvula.14. Phonetic similarity means that the allophones of a phoneme must bear some morphological resemblance.15. A syllable can be divided into two parts, the NUCLEUS and CODA.III. Fill in each of the following blanks with an appropriate word. The first letter of the word is already given(10％)1. V________ is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate. An example in English is [k] as in cat.2. Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are brought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing f_______.3. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the t_________ and the lips.4. One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. A second element is the h_________ to which that part of the tongue is raised.5. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without o______.6. In phonological analysis the words fail/veil are distinguishbable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ —/v/. This is an example for illustrating m_______ pairs.7. In English there are a number of d_______, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening position.8. C__________ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.9. P________ is the smallest linguistic unit.10. Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the a_________ coming from the lungs.IV. Explain the following concepts or theories.1. Assimilation2. Suprasegmental feature3. Complementary distribution4. Distinctive feature.V. Answer the following question.1. What is acoustic phonetics ?2. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?VI .Match each term in Column A with one relevant item in Column B.A B(1) Approximant a. tool and stool(2) Labiodental b. tool and pool(3) Aspirated and unaspirated c. produced by pushing air out(4) English syllable d. (C)V(C)(5) Chinese syllable e. [v](6) minimal pair f. Roman Jacobson(7) pulmonic g. (((C)C)C)V(((C)C)C)C)(8) non-pulmonic h. Otoo Jespersen(9) distinctive features I. [w](10) IPA j. produced by sucking air inVII. Essay question.1.Illustrate phonological processes and phonological rules.2.Illustrate the differences between phonetics and phonology.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with (an) appropriate word(s).1. Of the three branches of phonetics, the _________ phonetics studies sounds fro the speaker’s point of view; the _________ phonetics looks at sounds from the hearer’s point of view; and the __________ phonetics studies the way sounds travel by looking at sound waves.2. The ________, mouth, and ________ form the three cavities ofthe vocal tract.3. In terms of places of articulation, __________ is a retroflex.4. When the vocal folds are apart, the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is said to be _________.5. Consonants are produced by constricting or obstructing the ______, ________ at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.6. Affricates consist of a _________ followed immediately afterwards by a fricative at the same place of articulation.7. [z, ?,?,h] are ______ in terms of manners of articulation.8. Name four oral stops besides [p] and [t]: ___, ____, ___, __, and nasals __, __, __.9 According to the places of articulation, [f] and [v] are ______.10. In terms of places of articulation, [ ?] and [?] can be classified into the category of _____.11. [j] is a __________ in terms of places of articulation.12. In English and Chinese, vowels with an audible change of quality are called ________.13. [P o, P h] are ________ of the same phoneme /p/.14. [?, e] belong to the category of ________ in accordance with their places of articulation.15. Besides [s], [z], other four sibilants are ____, ___,_____,____.16. A syllable that has no _____ is called an open syllable.17. An example of four consonants occurring after the peak is the word ____.18. The IPA provides its users with a set of symbols called ______, which can be added to the letter-symbols to make finer distinctions than the letters alone possible.19. An initial classification will divide the speech sounds into two broad categories: __________ and ___________.20. The three cavities in the articulatory apparatus are pharyngeal cavity, _____, ____ and ______.21. Name five of the English front vowels: _______, ______, _______, ______, _____.22. The [p] sound in peak is called an ______ [p], and the [p] sound in speak is an _______ [p].23. The main suprasegmental feature include _____, _____, and ______.24. The _____________ rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations.25. In English, all the front vowels and central vowels are ______ vowels.26. The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are its ________.27. ___________ refers to the degree of force used in producinga syllable.28. In terms of the height of tongue rising, vowels can be classified as _____, ______ and ______ vowels.III. Mark the choice that best completes the statement.1. Phonetics is of a general nature, and it is interested in ______.A. all the speech sounds used in all human languagesB. has speech sounds are producedC. how speech sounds differ from each otherD. how speech sounds can be classified2. The study to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns should be included in ______.A. phoneticsB. phonologyC. articulatory phoneticsD. acoustic phonetics3. The sound [l] in _____ is a clear one.A. tellB. quiltC. leafD. peel4. The basic unit in phonology is called ___, and it is a unit that of distinctive value.A. phonemeB. phoneC. allophoneD. sound5. ______ does n’t form a minimal pair.A. Gap and capB. Pat and padC. Tip and dipD. Map and tam6. _____ is not in complementary distribution.A. Spot and potB. Stop and topC. School and coolD. Light and glad7. The following pairs form a minimal pair EXCRPT _____.A. look and bookB. pin and binC. kill and dillD. beat and pee8. ______ is not the term used ot classify the English consonants in terms of manners of articulation.A. ApproximantB. LateralC. PlosiveD. Bilabial9. In the following word ____, the articulation of bilabial is not manifested.A. petB. metC. howD. web10. The distinctive feature of the sound [s] is ______.A. voiceless alveolar fricativeB. voiced alveolar fricativeC. voiceless dental affricativeD. voiced dental fricative11. The sounds in _____ are alveolars.A. [f] and [v]B. [t] and [d]C. [?] and [?]D. [k] and [g]12. The sound with the features bilabial nasal is _____.A. [j]B. [t]C. [m]D. [?]13. Diphthongal glides in English can be heard in following words EXCEPT _____.A. wayB. towerC. tideD. how14. Words in the pair ____ form a minimal pair.A. beat and seenB. pig and padC. choke and jokeD. but and heart15. In the word ____, [l] is palatalized.A. leadB.stealC. lilyD. lied16. In terms of narrow transcription, [l] is dark in the word ____.A. ledB. languageC. dealD. clear17. Each pair of words manifests complementary distribution EXCEPT _____.A. spot and payB. stop and topC. replay and payD. school and cool18. For the word direction, Americans usually pronounce it as [dair?k??n] whereas most British people say [dir?k??n]. This phenomenon can be interpreted in terms of ____.A. phonetic similarityB. free variationC. complementary distributionD. allophones19. In all the following words we can find examples of regressive assimilation EXCEPT ______.A. sinkB. ninthC. capD. help20. ______ gives the correct description of the sound [u:].A. Velar nasalB. High back tense rounded vowelC. Low back lax rounded vowelD. High front lax unrounded vowel21. If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the first phoneme must be ______.A. [p]B. [t]C. [l]D. [s]22. The vowel in _____ should be nasalized according to the assimilation rules.A. teaB. peepC. fleeD. bean23. The sound assimilation is not manifested in the spelling of the word _____.A. implausibleB. illegalC. irregularD. input24. When we produce the back vowels, we hold the ____ partof the tongue higher than the rest of it.A. centralB. frontC. backD. the tip25. _____ is not the term used to classify the English consonants in terms of manner of articulation.A. StopsB. LiquidsC. GlidesD. Dental26. The one that does not belong to the alveolar is ______.A. [t]B. [m]C. [n]D.[r]27. Sounds like [?], [?], and [j] are realized by the obstruction between the back of the tongue and the hard palate. They belong to the type of _______.A. palatalB. glottalC. bilabialD. velar28. The distinctive features of the sound [] are ______.A. voiced, nasalB. velarlabial, nasal, voicedC. voiced, alveolar, nasalD. voiced, labial, palatal29. The labiodentals sounds in English are _____.A.[p] and [b]B. [f] and [v]C. [?] and [e]D. [k] and [g]30. According to the rule of _____, the article an, instead of a, is used before the word apple.A. nasalizationB. dentalizationC. epenthesisD. velarization31. The sound _____ does not belong the group of fricative.A. [f]B. [v]C. [k]D. [h]32. If we follow the English vowel system of Radford, we can describe the vowel [i:] in the way of _____.A. high front tense rounded vowelB. high back lax unroundedC. high front tense unrounded vowelD. low back lax rounded vowel33. _____ does not contain a bilabial sound.A. MyB. YouC. BuyD. Pie34. _____ ends with an affricateA. RackB. SuchC. BoozeD. Tip35. The word ____ begins with the sound of a palato-alveolar consonant.A. shipB. lipC. zipD. sip36. The articulation of ______ is made with the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towards each other.A. uvularB. glottalC. velarD. palatal37. Triphthongal glides in English can be heard in ______.A. tideB. toyC. howD. wire38. The word _____ contains a high vowel.A. lotB. matC. mudD. boot39. All the following words contain front vowels EXCEPT _______.A. bookB. sleepC. slipD. shed40. The sound ______ is usually formed in English by curling the tip of the tongue back behind the alveolar ridge.B. [j]C. [h]D. [w]41. In the word ____, there is no syllabic consonant.A. cottonB. bottomC. tableD. national42. Pitch variation is known as _____ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice43. [p] in the word peak can be described as ____.A. voiced bilabial stopB. voiceless bilabial stopC. voiced bilabial plosiveD. voiceless labiodentals stop44. The description voiceless alveolar fricative describes the following consonant ____.A. [p]B. [b]C. [s]D. [z]45. The vowel ____ can be described with features of mid, central, lax, unrounded.A. [?]B. [i:]D. [?]46. The idea of ____ is introduced to indicate the difference between [i] and [l], [?] and [?].A. tensenessB. lip-roundingC. height of tongue risingD. voicing47. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds ?A. Acoustic PhoneticsB. Articulatory PhoneticsC. Auditory PhoneticsD. None of the above.48. In narrow transcription the word help should be presented as _____.A. [h??p]B. [h?lp]C. [help]D. [h??p]49. The word below ____ refers to a unit of explicit sound contrast.A. morphemeB. phonemeC. phoneticsD. phonology50. Among the following words, _____ does no form a minimal pair with the sound of the word highA. buyB. foeD. shy.IV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible, giving examples if necessary.1.In English, the description of vowels needs to fulfill four basic requirements.What are they? Explain them and offer at least one example.2.Explain the assimilation rule in phonology with examples.3.What do you know about RP? Does it change with time ?。
语言学补充练习（1-3）
语言学补充练习（1-3）第一章语言学入门知识:I、名词解释1.cultural transmission (as a defining property of language)Answer: While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned、An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible、This shows that language is culturally transmitted、It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct、In contrast, animal call systems are genetically transmitted、They are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species、2. descriptive linguistics vs、prescriptive linguisticsAnswer: A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior、Linguistic studies before the 204 century are largely prescriptive whereas modem linguistic is mostly descriptive、II、判断正误(T for True and F for False)1、When language is used to get information, it serves an informative function、Answer: F (It serves an interrogative function)、2. Most animal munication systems lack the primary level of articulation、Answer: F (The primary units in these systems cannot be further divided into elements、So what they lack is the secondary level of articulation、)3. Descriptive linguistics are concerned with how languageswork, not with how they can be improved、Answer: TIII、填空题1.By saying that "language is arbitrary", we mean that there is no logical connection between meaning and _______、Answer: sounds2. The distinction between langue and parole is made by the Swiss linguist E de Saussure、The distinction between petence and performance is made by the American linguist__________、Answer: Noam Chomsky3. An approach to linguistic study which attempts to lay down rules of correctness as to how language should be used is _______、Answer: prescriptiveIV、选择题1.Unlike animal munication system, human language is ______、A、stimulus freeB、stimulus boundC、under immediate stimulus controlD、stimulated by some occurrence of munal interestAnswer:A2、____ has been widely accepted as the forefather of modem linguistics、a、Chomskyb、Saussurec、Bloomfieldd、John Lyon Answer: bV、问答题l、Is language productive or not? Why?Answer: Firstly, Language is productive or creative、Thismeans that language users can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before、Secondly, Productivity is unique to human language、Most animal munication systems have a limited repertoire, which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible、Thirdly, The productivity or creativity of human language originates from its duality、Because of duality, the speaker can bine the basiclinguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences、The productivity of language also means its potential to create endless sentences、This is made possible by the recursive nature of language、2、ment on the following statement: “In linguistics, ‘language’ onlymeans what a person says or said in a given situation”、Answer: This statement is incorrect、In linguistics, "language" has several layers of meaning: firstly, the whole of a pe rson’s language, e、g、Shakespeare’s language; secondly, a particular variety or level of speech or writing, e、g、scientific language, literary language, colloquial language; thirdly, an abstract system underlying the totality of the speech/writing behavior of a munity, e、g、the English language, the Chinese language; lastly, there is an even more abstract sense of "language", referring to the mon features of all human languages that distinguish them from animal munication systems or any artificial language、3、Point out three ways in which linguistics differs from traditional grammar、Answer: Firstly, most linguistic analyses today focus on speech rather than writing、Secondly, modem linguistics is mostly descriptive while traditional grammar is largelyprescriptive、Thirdly, a third difference is the priority of synchronic description over the traditional diachronic studies、4、What is the major difference between Saussure' s distinction between langue and parole and Chomsky's distinction between petence and performance?Answer: Saussure’s langue is soc ial product, a set of conventions for aspeech munity、Chomsky regards petence as a property of the mind of each individual、Saussure studies language more from a sociological point of view while Chomsky studies it more from a psychological point of view、第二章语音学与音位学I、名词解释1.narrow transcriptionAnswer: There are two ways to transcribe speech sounds、One is the “broad transcription”the transcription with lettersymbols only, and the other is “narrow transcription”the transcription with lettersymbols acpanied by the diacritics which can help bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do、2、Illustrate the term “allophone” with at least one appropriate example、Answer: Allophones are the different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically different but do not make one word different from another in meaning、For example, in English, the phoneme /l/ is pronounced differently in "let", "play" and "tell"、The first /l/ is made by raising the front of the tongue to the hard palate, while the vocal cords are vibrating; the second /l/ is made with the same tongue position as the first, but the vocal cords are not vibrating; and the third /l/ is made by raising not only the front by also the back ofthe tongue while the vocal cords are vibrating、II 判断正误(T for True and F for False)1、/o/ is a midhigh front rounded vowel、Answer: F、(/o/ is a midhigh BACK rounded vowel、)2、A phoneme in one language or one dialect may be an allophone in another language or dialect、Answer: T、III、填空题:1、The three cavities in the articulatory apparatus are _____, _______, and _____、Answer: pharynx, the nasal cavity, the oral cavity2、By the position of the ____ part of the tongue, vowels and classified as front vowels, central vowels and back vowels、Answer: highest、3、____refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound、Answer: Assimilation、4、You are required to fill in the blanks below abiding by the instance given beforehand、Example: /p/: voiced bilabial stop/s/: ________________/g/:_______________/t?/:______________/t/: _______________/f /: _______________Answer:/s/: voiceless alveolar fricative/g/: voiced velar stop/t?/: voiceless alveopalatal/postalveolar affricate/ t /: voiced dental fricative/f /: voiceless labiodental fricative5、Which of the following words would be treated as minimal pairs and minimal sets?pat, pen more, heat, tape, bun, fat, ban, chain, tale, bell, far, meal, vote, bet, heel, ten, men, pit, main, hit, eat, man Answer:pat, fat; pat, pit; pit, hit;pen, ten; ten, men;heat, eat; heat, heel;tape, tale;bun, ban;chain, main;bell, bet;meal, heel;man, men, main、IV、选择题1、All syllables contain a(n) _______、a、nucleusb、codac、onsetAnswer: a2、_____is one of the supersegmental features、a、Stopb、Voicingc、Deletiond、ToneAnswer: d3、Which of the following consonants does not exist in English?a、dental stopb、bilabial stopc、alveolar stopd、velar stopAnswer: a4、_____is not an English consonant、a、Labiodental plosiveb、Alveolar nasalc、Velar stopd、Dental fricativeAnswer: aV、辨音选择1、What are the distinctive features that group the following sounds in these sets?1) /f, v ,s/2) /p, f, b/3) /g, z, b/4) /k, g, w/5) /m, n, ?/Answer: 1) fricative 2) obstruent 3) voiced 4) velar5) nasal2、There is one segment that does not belong to the natural class in each of the following groups of speech sounds、You are required to identify that segment and label the natural class, using a descriptive term as specific as possible、a) /m/, /n/, /w/, / ? /b) /v/, /w/, /z/, /t/c) /n/, /f/, /l/, /s/, /t/, /d/, /z/Answer:1) /w/ is a semivowel, and the others are all nasals、2) /t/ is voiceless, and the others are voiced、3) /f/ is labiodental, and the rest are alveolarVI、问答题1.Circle the words that contain a sound as required:1) a low vowel: pipe, gather, article, leave, cook2) a bilabial consonant: cool, lad, leap, bomb, push3) an approximant: luck, boots, word, once, table4) a front vowel: god, neat, pit, lush, cook5) a velar: god, fast, chat, lake, quick2.Exemplify the relationship between phone, phoneme and allophone、Answer: Firstly, a “phone” is a phonetic unit or segment、The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic munication are all phones、Phones may or may not distinguish meaning、Secondly, a "phoneme" is a phonological unit that is of distinctive value、As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound、It is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context、Thirdly, the phones representing a phoneme are called its "allophones"、How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determinedby the phonetic context in which it occurs、But the choice of an allophone is not random but rulegoverned in most cases、3.When we are pronouncing the following phrases, how do we actually articulate the "n" sound in the word "ten"? Do we still pronounce it as /n/?1) ten houses 2) ten teachers 3) ten colleges 4) ten pupils 5) ten buildings 6) ten classesAnswer: 1) /n/2) /n/3) / ? /4) /m/5) /m/6) / ? /4.How many functions do the vocal cords have in the production of speech sounds?Answer: They have three functions: to make a glottal stop, to produce a voiced sound and to produce a voiceless sound、第三章形态学I、名词解释1.morphemeAnswer: The morpheme is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering its meaning, whether it is lexical orgrammatical、For instance, the word "barks" in "The dog barks" consists of two morphemes ― "bark" and "s", neither of which can be further divided into other smaller meaningful units、2.lexemeAnswer: The term "lexeme" is postulated to reduce the ambiguity of the term "word"、It is the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language, which appears in different grammatical contexts、For example, "write" is the lexeme of the following set of words: "writes", "wrote", "writing", "written"、3.inflectional morphemesAnswer: Inflectional morphemes are also called inflectional affixes、They manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case、In English, all inflectional morphemes are suffixes, e、g、(e)s, ing, (e)d, est、II、判断正误1. A root is not always a free form、Answer: T (There are such bound roots as “ceive”、)III、填空题1.Polymorphemic words other than pounds have two parts: the roots and the ____、Answer: affixes2.On, before an d together are_____words ― they are words which do not take inflectional endings、Answer: grammatical (functional/form)IV.选择题1."Radar" is a/an____、a、acronymb、blendingc、coinaged、clippingAnswer: a2.pound words consist of______ morphemes、a、boundb、freec、both bound and freeAnswer: bV、匹配题Match each expression under A with the one statement under B thatcharacterizes it、A B1、a noisy crow a、pound noun2、eat crow b、root morpheme plus derivational prefix3、scarecrow c、phrase consisting of an adjective plus noun4、the crow d、root morpheme plus inflection affix5、crowlike e、root morpheme plus derivational suffix6、crows f、grammatical morpheme followed by lexical morphemeg、idiomAnswer: 1、c 2、g 3、a 4、f 5、e 6、dVI、问答题1、Divide the following words into Roots, IA (inflectional affix) and/or DA (derivational affix)、1) transformations 2) looseleaves3) destructive 4) geese 5) misledAnswer:1) trans (DA) form (Root) ation (DA) s (IA)2) loose (Root) leave (Root) s (IA)3) de (DA) struct (Root) ive (DA)4) geese (IA)5) mis (DA) led (IA)2、Label the morphological category of the morphemes underlined in each of the English expressions、a) I' ve been here、b) transformc) oxend) recurAnswer: a) bound morpheme b) derivational prefix c) inflectional suffix d) bound root3、Each of the following Persian words is polymorphemic、You are required to match each of the notions given below with a morpheme in Persian、(Note that xar means "buy" and id designates the past tense)、xaridiYou (singular) bought、naxaridamI did not buy、namixaridandThey were not buying、xaridHe bought、naxaridimWe did not buy、mixaridHe was buying、mixarididYou (plural) were buying、xaridamI bought、Match each of the notions given below with a morpheme in Persian:a) Ib) you (singular)c) notd) was/were Ving (continuous)Answer: a) amb) ic) nad) miVid4.It is a fact that morphological processes may be sensitive to certain phonological context、The English data given below illustrate this fact、You are required to state the phonological contexts where the addition of en is possible、a bwhiten *bluenmadden *stupidenredden *greenenFatten *fartheren quicken *slowendeafen *difficultenLiven *abstractenharden *shallowensoften *angryendeepen *vividenAnswer: The suffix en, which attaches to adjectives to form verbs, can only attach to monosyllabic bases ending in oral stops or fricatives、VerbAdjectiveen if Adjective ends in an obstruent (oral stop or fricative)、<Φ> if Adjective ends in a sonorant (nasal, approximant, vowel) Meaning: to make (more) Adjectives5.The word uneasiness may be analyzed in either of the two ways below、You are required to find an argument to support one of the two analyses、a)NPrefixNoununAdjectiveSuffixeasinessb)NAdjectiveSuffixPrefixAdjectivenessuneasiAnswer: b) is the correct analysis, because un only attaches to adjectives to form other adjectives、Un cannot be attached to a noun、。
语言学词汇字母顺序
Glossaryablative[5AblEtiv]离格,夺格accusative[E5kju:zEtiv]宾格achievement test成绩测试acoustic[E5ku:stIk]声学phoneticsadherence[Ed5hiErEns]依附advocator[5AdvEkeitE]提倡者allomorph [5AlEmC:f]词素变体ambiguity[7Ambi5^ju:iti]含糊, 不明确anatomy[E5nAtEmi]解剖学antagonism[An5tA^EnizEm]对抗anthropological study of linguistics语言学的人类学研究anthropological人类学的anthropologic[7AnWrEpE5lCdVik] anthropology[7AnWrE5pClEdVi]人类学appropriateness得体性appropriation[E7prEupri5eiFEn] aptitude[5Aptitju:d] test素质测试arbitrariness[5B:bitrErinis]任意性articulatory[B:5tikjuleitEri]发音phoneticsaspect [5Aspekt]体，外表,方面auditory[5C:ditEri]听觉phoneticsautonomous[C:5tCnEmEs]独立的, 自主auxiliary[C:^5ziljEri]助动词axiomatic[7AksiE5mAtik]自明的binary[5bainEri]二元的buffer[5bQfE]缓冲cardinal基数case格chaos[5 keiCs]无秩序characterize[5kArIktEraIz]描述chump簇，群？collocative meaning搭配意义collocation[7kClE5keiFEn] commitment[kE5mitmEnt]献身complementary[kRmplE5mentErI]补充的，互补compositional合成connotative[5kCnEuteitiv, kE5nEutEtiv]内涵的consistency一致性consonantal [-5nAntl] sound辅音constituent[kEn5stitjuEnt]要素,成分constitute[5kCnstitju:t]组成constitutive[5kCnstitju:tiv]构成的construct validity编制效度content validity内容效度context of situation情景语境理论.contrastive[kCn5trB:stiv, -5trA-] analysis 对比分析convention习俗, 惯例co-occurance共现correlate[5kCrileit]使相互关联correspondingly[7kCris5pCndiN]对应的counterpoint[5kauntEpCint]对应dative[5deitiv]与格denotative[di5nEutEtiv]外延的denote[di5nEut]指示, 表示derivation[deri5veiFEn]出处，派生derivationaldesign features结构特征determiner[di5tE:minE]限定词diagnostic [7daiE^5nCstik] test诊断测试discontinuous[5diskEn5tinjuEs]不连续的discourse analysis语篇分析displacement移位display表现diversity[dai5vE:siti]多样性domain[dEu5mein]范围, 领域dominant[5dCminEnt]有统治权的, 占优势的, 支配的drastically彻底地dual[5dju(:)El]双重的dualistic[9djU:E`lIstIk]二元的duality两重性eminent[5eminEnt]杰出的, 有名的emotive function表情功能empirical[em5pirikEl] validity经验效度encode[in5kEud]编码endocentric[7endEu5sentric]内向的endow[in5dau]赋与enterprise[5entEpraiz]事业, 计划entity[5entiti]实体equivalence[I`kwIvElEns]等价[性]exact[i^5zAkt]提取exocentric[7eksEu5sentrik]外向的extensive广泛的external[eks5tE:nl]外部extrinsic[eks5trinsik] sources of error外在的错误来源face validity卷面效度facilitation促进feasibility可行性finiteness限定gender性genitive[5dVenitiv]属格hierarchical[7haiE5rB:kikEl]分等级的hypercorrection[-5rekFEn]矫枉过正identical同样的illocutionary[9IlEJ`kjU:FLnErI]语内表现行为的act语中行为immediate constituent analysis直接成分分析法imparted[im5pB:tid]给予的, 授予的in nature实际上, 本质上in principle大体上in succession接连地inborn[5in5bC:n]天生的indigenous[in5didVinEs]本土的indispensable[7indis5pensEbl]不可缺少的.infinite[5infinit]无限的inflectional affix[E5fiks]曲折词缀inflection曲折inflective[in5flektiv]有词尾变化的informative[in5fC:mEtiv] (信息功能)innovation[7inEu5veiFEn]改革, 创新input hypothesis[hai5pCWisis]假设integral[5inti^rEl]完整的interactively modified input交互修正的语言输入interdisciplinary[7intE(:)5disiplinEri]跨学科的interference[7intE5fiErEns]干扰internal[in5tE:nl]内在的interpersonal function（人际功能）intrinsic[in5trinsik]内在sources of errorintuitive[in5tju(:)itiv]直觉的, 本能的invariable[in5vZEriEbl]不变的jargon[dVB:`^U:n]行话larynx[5lAriNks]喉lexical词汇的lexicon[5leksikEn]词汇linear[5liniE]直线的, 线性的literal[5litErEl]文字的, 照字面上的locution[lEu5kju:FEn]说话的风格；措词locutionary [lEJ`kjU:FEnErI] act发话行为，表述性的言语行为macroproposition宏观命题macrostructure 宏观结构manifestation[7mAnifes5teiFEn]表现maxim[5mAksim]准则metalingual元语言的function(元功能)metalinguistic[7metEliN5^wistik]元语言学的, 纯理语言学的monistic[mC`nIstIk,mEJ-]一元论的morpheme[5mC:fi:m]形态素, 词素morphemic词素的morphologic[7mC:fE5lCdVik]词素的morphological[7mC:fE5lCdVikEl]形态学的morphologically conditioned形态限制morphology [mC:5fClEdVi]形态学morphophonology[9mR:fEJfEJ`nClEdVI]形态音位学morphophonemics[7mC:fEufE5ni:miks]词素音位学.mould形成multidisciplinary多门学科的negative[5ne^Etiv] transfer负迁移nominative[5nCminEtiv]主格notion概念obscurity[Eb5skjuEriti]晦涩含糊onomatopoeic拟声的onomatopoeia 7CnEu7mAtEu5piEordinal numbers序数orientation 定位oriented[`R:rIentId,`EJ-]导向overall[5EuvErC:l]全面的,整体的overgeneralization过分概括overwhelm[5EuvE5welm]淹没吞没paradigm[5pArEdaim, -dim]范例,（名词、动词的）词形变化paradigmatic[7pArEdi^5mAtik]聚合关系relationsparameter[pE5rAmitE]参数，要素particle小品词perceive感到, 认识到performative[pE`fR:mEtIv] (行事功能)perlocutionary[9p\:lC`kjU:FEnErI] act话后行为perseverance[7pE:si5viErEns]坚定不移perspective[pE5spektiv]观点, 看法perspicuous[pE(:)5spikjuEs]明白的, 明了的phatic [5fAtik] communion（寒暄交谈）phonematic [9fEJnI`mAtIk]音位unit音声单位.phoneme[5fEuni:m]音素phonetics[fEu5netiks]语音学phonologically conditioned音位限制phonological音位的phonologic音系参数phonology[fEu5nClEdVi]音系学physiology[7fizi5ClEdVi]生理学piecemeal零碎的pose形成, 引起, 造成positive transfer 正迁移positivistic实证论者positivist[5pCzitivist] pragmatic[prA^5mAtik]语用preliminary[pri5liminEri]初步的pre-modified input预修正的语言输入premodifier前置修饰词modifier[5mCdifaiE] presumably[prI5zju:mEbElI]推测起来, 大概principally主要地proficiency[prE5fiFEnsi] test水平测试pro-form代词形式prominent[5prCminEnt]显著的property性质, 特性proposition命题prosodic[prEJ`sCdIk]作诗法的analysis节律分析法psycholinguistics[7saikEuliN5^wistiks]语言心理学psychology[sai5kClEdVi]心理学psychometric[9psaIkEJ`metrIk]心理测量学的pursuit[pE5sju:t]研究recreational[9rekrI`eIFEnEl, -kri:-]娱乐的recursiveness 递推recursive[rI`k\:sIv]reference所指类别[5refrEns]reflected meaning反映意义repertoire[5repEtwB:]全部技能resourceful资源丰富的restricted[ris5triktid]受限制的restrictive[ris5triktiv]限制性的resurrection[7rezE5rekFEn]复苏reveal[ri5vi:l]揭示ritualistic[7ritjuE5listik]仪式的Sapir-Whorf hypotheses假设schema[5ski:mE] -mata图解，图表；纲要schemata and inference drawing 图式与推论schematic[ski5mAtik]图解的，图表的；梗概的segment段, 节，片断self-reflexive自发的semantic[si5mAntik]语义的semantics[si5mAntiks]语义学semiotics[semI5RtIks]记号语言学sheer[FiE]纯粹的signified所指(concept)signifier能指，施指(sound image)sociocultural社会与文化的sociolinguistic study of language语言的社会语言学sociolinguistic study of society 社会的社会语言学sociological社会学的stability[stE5biliti]稳定性stylistics[stai5listiks]文体修辞学subset子集substantial[sEb5stAnFEl](相当)大的substantiate[sQbs5tAnFieit]证实substitutability替换substitute替换[5sQbstitju:t]supposedly想像上, 按照推测syllabic音节的symbolize[5simbElaiz]用符号表现syntactic[sin5tAktik]依据造句法的syntagmatic组合关系the cooperative principle 合作原则thematic[Wi:5mAtik]主题meaningtranscend[trAn5send]超越tune调整, 调节underlying[5QndE5laiiN]潜在的unicorn独角兽utterance[5QtErEns]说话utterly完全地validity[vE5liditi]效度and reliability[ri7laiE5biliti]信度variability[7vZEriE5biliti]可变性variable[5vZEriEbl]可变的variation[7vZEri5eiFEn]变化virtue[5vE:tju:]效力vocative[5vCkEtiv]呼格。
语言学教程第四版答案
语言学教程第四版答案【篇一：《语言学教程》测试题答案】xt>i.1~5 b a c c c6~10 b a c a cii.11~15 f f t f f 16~20 f f f f fiii.21. verbal 22. productivity / creativity 23. metalingual function24. yo-he-ho25. scientific26. descriptive 27. speech 28. diachronic linguistic29. langue 30. competenceiv.31. design feature: it refers to the defining properties of human language that tell the differencebetween human language and any system of animal communication.32. displacement: it means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events andconcepts, which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.33. competence: it is an essential part of performance. it is the speaker’s knowledge of his or herlanguage; that is, of its sound structure, its words, and its grammatical rules. competence is, in a way, an encyclopedia of language. moreover, the knowledge involved in competence is generally unconscious.a transformational-generative grammar is a model of competence.34. synchronic linguistics: it refers to the study of a language at a given point in time. the timestudied may be either the present or a particular point in the past; synchronic analyses can also be made of dead languages, such as latin. synchronic linguistics is contrasted with diachronic linguistics, the study of a language over a period of time.v.35. duality makes our language productive. a large number of different units can be formed out of asmall number of elements – for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds,around 48 in the case of the english language. and out of the huge number of words, there can beastronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to formunlimited number of texts. most animal communication systems do not have this design feature ofhuman language.if language has no such design feature, then it will be like animal communicational system whichwill be highly limited. it cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations, e.g. words,which are distinct in meaning.36. it is difficult to define language, as it is such a general term that covers too many things. thus,definitions for it all have their own special emphasis, and are not totally free from limitations.vi.37. it should be guided by the four principles of science: exhaustiveness, consistency, economy andobjectivity and follow the scientific procedure: form hypothesis – collect data – check against theobservable facts – come to a conclusion.第二章：语音参考答案i1~5 a c d a a6~10 d b a b bii.11~15 t t t f f 16~20 t t t f fiii.21. voiced, voiceless, voiced 22. friction23. tongue 24. height 25. obstruction26. minimal pairs27. diphthongs 28. co-articulation29. phonemes30. air streamiv.31. sound assimilation: speech sounds seldom occur in isolation. in connected speech, under the influenceof their neighbors, are replaced by other sounds. sometimes two neighboring sounds influence eachother and are replaced by a third sound which is different from both original sounds. this process is called sound assimilation.32. suprasegmental feature: the phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are calledsuprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. the main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone.33. complementary distribution: the different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the samephonetic context. when two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.34. distinctive features: it refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. if we cangroup the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without, this feature is called a distinctive feature. v.35. acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air. when a speech soundis produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound waves). various instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.36. when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. soundsproduced in this way are described as voiceless; consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way. but when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. sounds produced in this way are described as voiced. [b, z, d] are voiced consonants.vi. 37.omit.第三章：词汇参考答案i1~5 a a c b b6~10 b c a d bii. 11~15 f t f t t16~20 f t f f fiii.21. initialism, acronym 22. vocabulary 23. solid, hyphenated, open 24. morpheme25. close, open 26. back-formation 27. conversion 28. morpheme29. derivative, compound 30. affix, bound rootiv.31. blending: it is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining themeanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch)32. allomorph: it is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoiningsounds.33. close-class word: it is a word whose membership is fixed or limited. pronouns, prepositions,conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed-class words.34. morphological rule: it is the rule that governs which affix can be added to what type of base to forma new word, e.g. –ly can be added to a noun to form an adjective.vi .37. (1) c (2) a (3) e (4) d (5) b第四章：句法参考答案i1~5 d c d d d 6~10 a d d b aii. 11~15 t t t t f16~20 f t f t tiii.21. simple 22. sentence 23. subject24. predicate25. complex 26. embedded 27. open28. adjacency29. parameters 30. caseiv.31. syntax: syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in alanguage, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.32. ic analysis: immediate constituent analysis, ic analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence interms of its immediate constituents – word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into theimmediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.33. hierarchical structure: it is the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents andshows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as np, vp and pp.34. trace theory: after the movement of an element in a sentence there will be a trace left in the originalposition. this is the notion trace in t-g grammar. it’s suggested that if we have the notion trace, all the necessary information for semantic interpretation may come from the surface structure. e.g. thepassive dams are built by beavers. differs from the active beavers built dams. in implying that all dams are built by beavers. if we add a trace element represented by the letter t after built in the passive as dams are built t by beavers, then the deep structure information that the word dams was originally the object of built is also captured by the surface structure. trace theory proves to be not only theoretically significant but also empirically valid.v.35. an endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approachingequivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. a typicalexample is the three small children with children as its head. the exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.36. (1) more | beautiful flowers(2) more beautiful | flowers第五章：意义参考答案i1~5 a b d d b 6~10 c a c d aii. 11~15 f f t f t 16~20 t f t t tiii.21. semantics 22. direct 23. reference 24. synonyms25.homophones26. relational27. componential 28. selectional 29. argument 30. namingiv.31. entailment: it is basically a semantic relation (or logical implication), and it can be clarified withthe following sentences:a. tom divorced jane.b. jane was tom’s wife.in terms of truth value, the following relationships exist between these two sentences: when a is true,b must be also true; when b is false, a must also be false. when b is true, a may be true or false.therefore we can say a entails b.32. proposition: it is the result of the abstraction of sentences, which are descriptions of states of affairs andwhich some writers see as a basic element of sentence meaning. for example, the two sentences“caesar invaded gaul” and “gaul was invaded by caesar” hol d the same proposition.33. compositional analysis: it defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components, orsemantic features. for example, the meaning of the word boy may be analyzed into three components: human, young and male. similarly girl may be analyzed into human, young andfemale.34. reference: it is what a linguistic form refers to in the real world; it is a matter of the relationshipbetween the form and the reality.v.35. hyponymy, metonymy or part-whole relationship36. (omit.)vi.37. (1)the (a) words and (b) words are male.the (a) words are human, while the (b) words are non-human.(2)the (a) words and (b) words are inanimate.the (a) words are instrumental, while the (b) words are edible.(3)the (a) words and (b) words are worldly or conceptual.the (a) words are material, while the (b) words are spiritual.第七章：语言、文化和社会参考答案i1~5 b c a a c 6~10 d a c a dii. 11~15 f t f f f 16~20 t f t f fiii.21. community22. variety 23. dialectal 24.planning25.sociolects26. stylistic 27. official28. superposed29. vernacular 30. inflectionaliv.31. lingua franca: a lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a common speech for socialcontact among groups of people who speaks different native languages or dialects.32. regional dialect: regional dialect, also social or class dialect, is a speech variety spoken by themembers of a particular group or stratum of a speech community.33. register: register, also situational dialect, refers to the language variety appropriate for use in particularspeech situations on which degrees of formality depends.34. sociolinguistics: defined in its broadest way, sociolinguistics, a subdiscipline of linguistics, is the studyof language in relation to society. it is concerned with language variation, language use, the impact of extra-linguistic factors on language use, etc.v. 35. american english is not superior to african english. as different branches of english, africanenglish and american english are equal. similar as they are, they are influenced by their respective cultural context and thus form respective systems of pronunciation, words and even grammar.36. in china, chinese has a more strict and complex relationship system. so in chinese there are a lot morekinship words than in english.vi. 37. (omit.)第八章：语言的使用参考答案i1~5 d b c b a 6~10 c b c a dii. 11~15 f t t f f 16~20 f f f t tiii.21. context22. utterance 23. abstract 24. constatives 25. performatives26. locutionary 27. illocutionary28. commissive29. expressive30. quantityiv.31. conversational implicature: in our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation aregenerally cooperating with each other. in other words, when people are talking with each other, they must try to conversesmoothly and successfully. in accepting speakers’ presuppositions, listenershave to assume that a speaker is not trying to mislead them. this sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having a conversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, orwithhold relevant information from one another. however, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. the real intention implied in the words is called conversational implicature.32. performative: in speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, such as watch out (= a warning).33. locutionary act: a locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can beunderstood.34. horn’s q-principle: (1) make your contribution sufficient (cf. quantity); (2) say as much as you can(given r).v.35. pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationshipsbetween sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. pragmatics includes the study of(1) how the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2) how speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) how the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speaker and thehearer.pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without referenceto the users and communicative functions of sentences.36. yes, b is cooperative. on the face of it, b’s statement is not an answer to a’s question. b doesn’t say“when.” however, a will immediately interpret the s tatement as meaning “i don’t know” or “i am not sure.” just assume that b is being “relevant” and “informative.” given that b’s answer contains relevant information, a can work out that “an accident further up the road” conventionally involves “trafficja m,” and “traffic jam” preludes “bus coming.” thus, b’s answer is not simply a statement of “when the bus comes”; it contains an implicature concerning “when the bus comes.”vi.37. it occurs before and / or after a word, a phrase or even a longer utterance or a text. the context oftenhelps in understanding the particular meaning of the word, phrase, etc.the context may also be the broader social situation in which a linguistic item is used.(1)a. a mild criticism of someone who should have cleaned the room.b. in a language class where a student made a mistake, for he intended to say “tidy.”c. the room was wanted for a meeting. (2)a. a mild way to express disagreement with someone who has complimented on a lady’sappearance. b. a regret that the customer had not taken the dress. c. that she wore a red shirt was not in agreement with the custom on the occasion.第十二章：现代语言学理论与流派参考答案i1~5 b a c a a 6~10 a b d c cii. 11~15 f f t t f 16~20 f t t t fiii.21. synchronic22. phonetics23. j. r. firth 24. systemic25. sociologically26. distribution27. bloomfieldian 28. descriptivism29. innateness30. hypothesis-maker iv.31. fsp: it stands for functional sentence perspective. it is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to ananalysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain.32. cohesion: the cohesion shows whether a certain tagmeme is dominating other tagmemes or isdominated by others.33. lad: lad, that is language acquisition device, is posited by chomsky in the 1960s as a deviceeffectively present in the minds of children by which a grammar of their native language is constructed.34. case grammar: it is an approach that stresses the relationship of elements in a sentence. it is a type ofgenerative grammar developed by c. j. fillmore in the late1960s.v. vi. omit.【篇二：语言学教程(胡壮麟版)综合测试题含标准答案】 class=txt>英语语言学试卷（一）第一部分选择题i. directions: read each of the following statements carefully. decide which one of the fourchoices best completes the statement and put the letter a, b, cor d in the brackets.(2%x10=20%)1.saussure’s distinction and chomsky’s are very similar, but they differ in that ____________. a.saussure took a sociological view of language while chomsky took a psychological point of viewb. saussure took a psychological view of language while chomsky took a sociological point ofviewc. saussure took a pragmatic view of language while chomsky took a semantic point of viewd. saussure took a structural view of language while chomsky took a pragmatic point of view2. language is a system of ____________ vocal symbols used for human communication. a.unnatural b. artificialc. superficiald. arbitrary3. we are born with the ability to acquire language,_______________.a. and the details of any language system are genetically transmittedb. therefore, we needn’t learn the details of our mother tonguec. but the details of language have to be learnt.d. and the details are acquired by instinct4. a(n)________ is a phonological unit of distinctive value. it isa collection of distinctivephonetic features. a. phone b. allophonec. phonemed. sound5. the morpheme –ed in the word “worked” is a(n) __________ morpheme. a. derivationalb. inflectionalc. freed. word-forming6. wh-movement is __________ in english which changes a sentence from affirmative tointerrogative. a. obligatoryb. optionalc. selectionald. arbitrary7. naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, was proposed by_____________. a. griceb. platoc. saussured. ogden and richards8. “john married a blond heiress.”__________ “john married a blond.” a. is synonymous withb. is inconsistent withc. entailsd. presupposes9. in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called ____________, which is theabstraction of the meaning of a sentence. a. utterance b. referencec. predicationd. morpheme10. in austin’s speech act theory, ___________ is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; itis the act performed in saying something. a. a perlocutionary act b. alocutionary actc. a constative actd. an illocutionary act第二部分非选择题ii. directions: fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter ofwhich is already given as a clue. note that you are to fill in one word only, and you are notallowed to change the letter given. (1%x10=10%)11. p___________ relates the study of language to psychology. it aims to answer such questionsas how the human mind works when people use language.12. a d_________ study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development oflanguage over a period of time.13. language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. at the lower level,there is a structure of meaningless sounds, which can be combined into a large number ofmeaningful units at the higher level. this design feature is called d___________.14. the articulatory apparatus of a human being is containedin three important areas: thepharyngeal cavity, the o_________ cavity and the nasal cavity.15. the localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain iscalled l_____________.16. s_____________ features such as stress, tone and intonation can influence the interpretationof meaning.17. phrase structure rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinitelength, due to their r_________ properties.18. h__________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.19. some important missions of historical linguists are to identify and classify families of related languages in a genealogical family tree, and to reconstruct the p____________, the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist.20. in sociolinguistics, speakers are treated as members of social groups. the social group isolated for any given study is called the speech c___________.iii. directions: judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. put a t for true or f for false in the brackets in front of each statement. (2%x10=20%)( ) 21. linguists believe that whatever occurs in the language people use should be described and analyzed in their investigation.( ) 22. language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between words and what these words actually refer to.( ) 23. the conclusions we reach about the phonology of one language can be generalized into the study of another language.( ) 24. the meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in english because english, unlike chinese, is a typical tone language.( ) 25. the syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.( ) 26. when we think of a concept, we actually try to see the image of something in our mind’s eye every time we come across a linguistic symbol.( ) 27. all utterances can be restored to complete sentences. for example, “good morning!” can be restored to “i wish you a good morning.”( ) 28. two people who are born and brought up in the same town and speak the same regional dialect may speak differently because of a number of social factors.( ) 29. black english is linguistically inferior to standard english because black english is not as systematic as standard english.( ) 30. any child who is capable of acquiring some particular human language is capable of acquiring any human language spontaneously and effortlessly.iv. directions: explain the following terms. (3%x10=30%)31. parole:32. broad transcription:33.allophones:34.phrase structure rules:35.context36.historical linguistics:37.standard language:38.linguistic taboo:39.acculturation:40.care-taker speech:v. answer the following questions. (10%x2=20%)41. enumerate three causes that lead to the systematic occurrence of errors in second language acquisition and give your examples.42. english has undergone tremendous changes since its anglo-saxon days. identify the major periods in its historicaldevelopment and name major historical events that led to the transition from one period to the next.英语语言学试卷答案(一)第一部分选择题i. directions: read each of the following statements carefully. decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter a, b, c or d in the brackets.(2%x10=20%)1. a2. d3. c4. c5.b6. a7. b8. c9. c 10. d第二部分非选择题ii. directions: fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. note that you are to fill in one word only, and you are not【篇三：语言学教程第四版练习第一章】inguisticsi. mark the choice that best completes the statement.1.all languages’ have three major components: a sound system ,a system of___and a system of semantics.a. morphologyb. lexicogrammarc. syntaxd. meaning2.which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?3.the function of the sentence water boils at 100 degrees centigrade is ___.a.interpersonalb.emotivermatived.performative4.in chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say 碎碎（岁岁）平安as a means of controlling the forces which they believe might affect their lives. which function does it perform?a.interpersonalb.emotivermatived.performative5.which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place of speaking (due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation)?a. transferabilityb. dualityc. displacementd. arbitrariness6. what language function does the following conversation play?(the two chatters just met and were starting their conversation by the following dialogue.)a：a nice day, isn’t it?b : right! i really enjoy the sunlight.a. emotiveb. phaticc. performatived. interpersonal7.------- refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.8.when a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists here and now. it couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. this indicates that dog’s language does not have the feature of --------- .a. referenceb. productivityc. displacementd.duality9.--------- answers such questions as we as infants acquire our first language.a. psycholinguisticsb. anthropological linguisticsc. sociolinguisticsd. applied linguistics10.-------- deals with the study of dialects in different social classes in a particular region.a. linguistic theoryb. practical linguisticsc. sociolinguisticsd. comparative linguisticsii. mark the following statements with “t” if they are true or “f” if they are false.(10%)1. the widely accepted meaning of arbitrariness was discussed by chomsky first.2. for learners of a foreign language, it is arbitrariness that is more worth noticing than its conventionality.3. displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handlegeneralizations and abstractions.4. for jakobson and the prague school structuralists, the purpose of communication is to refer.5. interpersonal function is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar.6. emotive function is also discussed under the term expressive function.7. the relationship between competence and performance in chomsky’s theory is that between a language community and an individual language user.8.a study of the features of the english used in shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic study of language.9.articulatory phonetics investigates the properties of the sound waves.10.the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with prescription instead of description.iii．fill in each of the following blanks with an appropriate word. the first letter of the word is already given(10％)1. nowadays, two kinds of research methods co-exist in linguistic studies, namely,qualitative and q__________ research approaches.2. in any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can becombined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. this feature is usually termed as p__________.nguage has many functions. we can use language to talk about language. this function is m__________function.4.the claim that language originated by primitive man involuntary making vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the y＿theory.5.p________ is often said to be concerned with the organization of speech within specific language, or with the systems and patterns of sounds that occur in particular language.6.modern linguistics is d＿ in the sense that linguist tires to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.7.one general principle of linguistics analysis is the primacy of s___________over writing.8.the description of a language as it changes through time is a d___________ linguistic study.9.saussure put forward the concept l__________ to refer to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.linguistic potential is similar to saussure’ s langue and chomsky’ s c__________.iv. explain the following concepts or theories.1.design features2.displacement。
小学的名词解释语言学概论
小学的名词解释语言学概论小学的名词解释：语言学概论语言学是一门研究语言的学科，探究语言的结构、语音、语法、词汇和语义等方面的规律。
它是一门综合性的学科，在各个学科领域都有涉及，包括心理学、哲学、文学等。
在小学阶段，语言学概论主要着重于培养学生对于语言的理解和运用能力，以及引导学生探索语言背后的规律和现象。
I. 语言的定义及特点在语言学概论中，首先需要明确语言的定义及其特点。
语言是人类沟通交流的工具，通过声音、文字、手势等方式表达思想、感情和意图。
语言具有以下特点：1. 语言是符号系统：每个语言都有特定的符号组合，用来表示特定的意义。
这些符号包括音素和文字，通过组合形成单词和句子。
2. 语言是人类特有的：虽然动物也可以发出声音来进行交流，但只有人类具备产生和理解复杂语言的能力。
3. 语言具有多样性：世界上存在着众多的语言，每一种语言都有其独特的词汇和语法结构。
4. 语言是动态的：语言不断发展变化，旧词汇的意义可能会改变，新词汇也会不断产生。
II. 语音与音素语言学概论还涉及到语音学，该领域研究语音的产生、传播和感知。
语音由音素组成，音素是语音的最小单位，可以通过音素的组合来构成单词和句子。
1. 声音的产生：人类通过发声器官，如声带、口腔、鼻腔等，产生声音。
声音的特点包括音调、音量、音质等。
2. 音素的分类：音素可以分为元音和辅音，元音由开放的声道产生，如/a/、/e/、/i/等；辅音需要声道有一定的阻塞，如/p/、/k/、/s/等。
III. 词汇与语法词汇和语法是语言学研究的两个重要方面，它们决定着句子的构成和语言的表达能力。
1. 词汇：词汇是构成句子的基本单位，它由单词组成。
单词是一种符号，用来表示特定概念或意义。
2. 语法：语法指的是组织词汇构成合乎语言规则的句子。
语法规则包括词序、时态、语态等。
了解语法规则有助于学生正确运用语言，并避免产生歧义。
IV. 语义与意义语义是语言学的一个重要分支，研究词汇和句子的意义。
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IV. Define the following terms.
31. sociolinguistics ——Sociolinguistics studies all the aspects of the relationship between language and the society.
32. Sapir-Wholf hypothesis——Sapir-Wholf hypothesis is a hypothesis put forward
by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Wholf. It is a belief that the
way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their language.
33. context of situation——Context of situation is framework put forward by Firth. This theory has the following elements:
A. The relevant features of the participants: persons, personalities:
1) The verbal action of the participants
2) The non-verbal action of the participants
B. The relevant objects
C. The effects of the verbal action
34. communicative competence——Communicative competence is the ability not
only to apply the grammatical rules of a language in order to form grammatically correct sentences but also to know when and where to use these sentences and to whom.
35. sociolinguistic study of society——If we want to know more about a given
society or community by examining the linguistic behavior of its members, we are doing a sociolinguistic study of society.
36. dialect ——Dialect is a variety of a language, spoken in part of a country, or by people belonging to a particular social class, which is different in some words, grammar, and/or pronunciation from other forms of the same language.
37. multilingualism——Multilingualism refers to the use of three or more languages
by an individual or by a group of speakers such as the inhabitants of a particular
region or a nation.
nguage variation——Language variation refers to the differences in pronunciation, grammar, or word choice within a language.
nguage planning——Language planning ,usually by a government or government agency, is concerned with choice of national or official language(s),
ways of spreading the use a language, spelling reforms, the addition of new words
to the language, and other language problems.
40.code selection——Code selection refers to the selection of a particular language or language variety for given situation.。