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普通语言学教程笔记(索绪尔)

《普通语言学教程》索绪尔绪论第一章语言学史一瞥语法（规范）-语文学（过于注重书面语）-比较语文学或比较语法（只比较）-新语法学派（语言集团集体精神的产物）第二章语言学的材料和任务；与毗邻科学的关系语言学的任务是：a 对一切能够得到的语言进行描写并整理他们的历史，尽可能重建每个语系的母语；b 寻求在一切语言中永恒地普遍地起作用的力量，整理出能概况一切历史特殊现象的一般规律；c 确定自己的界限和定义。

它与社会心理学、生理学、语文学相关。

语言学也有实际用途，特别是对于那些利用文献的人，另外对一般修养也很重要。

第三章语言学的对象定义——在任何时候，语言都是现行制度和过去的产物。

我们的研究方法是一开始就站在语言的阵地上，把它当做言语活动的其他一切表现的准则。

语言和言语活动不能混为一谈，它只是言语活动的一个确定的部分，而且当然是一个主要部分，它既是言语机能的社会产物，又是社会集团为了使个人有可能行使这机能所采用的一整套必不可少的规约。

语言本身是一个整体，一个分类的原则。

它是一种约定俗成的东西，人们同意使用什么符号，这符号的性质是无关轻重的。

对人类天赋的不是口头的言语活动，而是构成语言——即一套和不同的观念相当的不同的符号——的机能。

人们说话的机能——不管是天赋的或非天赋的——只有借助于集体所创造和提供的工具才能运用，所以，说语言使言语活动成为统一体，绝不是空想。

语言在言语活动事实中的地位——言语循环重建：心理现象-生理过程-物理过程-生理过程-心理现象（c-i）这一主动过程称为执行部分，（i-c）这一被动过程称为接受部分，此外还有联合和配置的机能。

语言是社会的、主要的，言语是个人的、偶然的、从属的。

语言的特征是：1 他是言语活动事实的混杂的总体中的一个十分确定的对象，是言语的社会部分。

2 语言是人们能够分出来加以研究的对象。

3 言语是异质的，而规定下来的语言是同质的，它是一种符号系统，在系统中，只有意义和音响形象的结合是主要的，符号的两个部分都是心理的。

语言学笔记《普通语言学教程》02

语⾔学笔记《普通语⾔学教程》02第⼀编⼀般原则⼀、语⾔学符号的性质符号：所指，能指（概念/⾳响形象）符号的任意性⼆、符号的不变性/可变性构成任何⼀种语⾔都必须有⼤量的符号盎格鲁.撒克逊语语⾔=⾔语活动-⾔语三、静态语⾔学/演化语⾔学内在⼆重性：共时和历时语⾔是⼀个系统，它的任何部分都可以⽽且应该从它们共时的连带关系⽅⾯去加以考虑。

任何社会规律既是命令性的，⼜是⼀般性的共时：特定时刻该系统内部各因素之间的关系（历史演变=》暂居背景地位）历时性：⼀个系统发展的历史性变化情况（过去=》现在=》将来）语⾔中凡属历时的，都只是由于⾔语（变化）⾔语活动：语⾔（共时态/历时态），⾔语共时语⾔学：同⼀个集体意识感觉到的各项同时存在并构成系统的要素间的逻辑关系和⼼理关系历时语⾔学：研究各项不是同⼀个集体意识所感觉到的相连续要素间的关系，⼀个代替⼀个，彼此之间不构成系统-———————————————————————共时语⾔学⼀、概述。

政治史时代/时期⼆、语⾔的具体实体划分界限，⽅法，实际困难三、同⼀性，现实性，价值四、语⾔的价值五、句段关系和联想关系六、语⾔的结构七、语法及其区分⼋、抽象实体的语法中的作⽤——————————————————————历时语⾔学⼀、概述：语⾳、词义⼆、语⾔变化。

德语，法语，拉丁语有规律，只影响⾳，不影响义绝对变化/条件变化三、语⾳演化在语法上的后果四、类⽐以⼀个或⼏个其他形式为模型，按照⼀定规则构成的形式五、类⽐和演化六、流俗词源七、黏合⼋、历时的单位，同⼀性和现实性。

《普通语言学》教案

《普通语言学》教案第一章：引言1.1 课程介绍普通语言学的定义和研究对象语言学与其他相关学科的关系语言学的重要性和实际应用1.2 语言的本质语言的定义和特征语言的生物学基础语言和社会文化的关系1.3 语言学的基本概念语言系统的组成：语音、词汇、语法语言符号的任意性和符号性语言的层次结构：底层、表层和深层第二章：语音学2.1 语音和语音学语音的定义和分类语音学的目标和研究领域语音的物理和生理基础2.2 语音的分类和特征元音和辅音的分类及特征音高、音强、音质和音调的概念及作用方言和语音变体的差异2.3 语音的产生和感知语音产生的生理机制语音感知的心理过程语音的听觉特性和感知规律第三章：词汇学3.1 词汇和词汇学词汇的定义和功能词汇学的目标和研究领域词汇的来源和变化3.2 词汇的分类和特征词的分类：实词和虚词词的构成：词根、前缀、后缀词汇的语义特征和词义关系3.3 词汇的演变和发展词汇的演变方式：创新、借用、转义等词汇的发展趋势：新词的产生和旧词的消失词汇的社会文化影响第四章：语法学4.1 语法和语法学语法的定义和功能语法学的目标和研究领域语法的分类和体系4.2 语法单位：词法和句法词法：词的构成、词类和词形变化句法：句子的结构、句子成分和句子类型语法单位的层次和关系4.3 语法规则和语法分析语法规则的分类和特点语法分析的方法和技术语法规律的普遍性和特殊性第五章：语义学5.1 语义和语义学语义的定义和功能语义学的目标和研究领域语义的研究方法和理论框架5.2 词义和句义词义的分类和特征：基本义、派生义、比喻义等句义的构成和解释：命题、意义角色、指称等词义和句义的关系和转化5.3 语义的类型和语义现象语义的类型：语义场、语义网络、语义框架等语义现象：词义关系、词义冲突、语义歧义等语义研究的应用领域：计算语言学、自然语言处理等第六章：语用学6.1 语用学和语用学理论语用学的定义和研究对象语用学的基本原则和理论框架语用学的重要性和实际应用6.2 语言使用和语境语言使用中的意义构建和交流语境的概念和类型：交际语境、情境语境等语境对语义和语用的影响6.3 语用现象和语用策略言语行为理论：言内行为、言外行为、言后行为语用失误和误解：会话含义、暗示、夸张等语用策略：礼貌原则、语用修辞等第七章：社会语言学7.1 社会语言学和语言社会学社会语言学的定义和研究对象语言社会学的基本理论和研究方法社会语言学的重要性和实际应用7.2 语言和社会的关系语言的社会功能：交际、身份、权力等社会因素对语言的影响：社会阶层、性别、年龄等语言和社会互动的关系语言变异的类型和原因：地域变异、社会变异等语言变体的特征和分类：方言、俚语、行业术语等语言变异和变体的社会意义第八章：心理语言学8.1 心理语言学和语言心理学心理语言学的定义和研究对象语言心理学的基本理论和研究方法心理语言学的重要性和实际应用8.2 语言处理和语言理解语言处理的认知机制：感知、记忆、注意力等语言理解的过程和模型：听觉加工、语义加工等语言处理的个体差异和影响因素8.3 语言习得和语言学习语言习得的理论：先天论、环境论、交互论等语言学习的策略和方法：沉浸式教学、第二语言学习等语言习得和学习的影响因素：年龄、动机、环境等第九章：应用语言学9.1 应用语言学和语言应用应用语言学的定义和研究对象语言应用的领域和问题应用语言学的重要性和实际应用语言教学的方法和理论：直接法、交际法、任务型教学等语言教育的目标和发展：幼儿教育、成人教育等语言教学的评价和测试：笔试、口试、作业评价等9.3 语言技术和语言工程语言技术的应用：语音识别、机器翻译等语言工程的发展：自然语言处理、语音合成等语言技术和工程的前景和挑战第十章：语言学流派和理论10.1 语言学的流派和学派语言学的传统流派：结构主义、功能主义等语言学的新兴学派：认知语言学、社会语言学等语言学流派的比较和评价10.2 语言学的理论和模型语言学的重要理论：语言类型学、语言演化论等语言学的模型和框架：语言学、语言习得理论等语言学理论的发展和挑战10.3 语言学的研究方法和伦理语言学的研究方法：实验研究、田野调查等语言学的伦理问题：隐私权、文化尊重等语言学研究的方法论和伦理考量重点和难点解析1. 章节一和章节二重点关注语言的本质和语言学的基本概念。

《普通语言学》教案

《普通语言学》教案一、教学目标1. 了解普通语言学的基本概念和研究对象。

2. 掌握语言的符号性、结构性、社会性和动态性等特点。

3. 理解语言与言语、语言与思维、语言与文化等之间的关系。

4. 掌握语言学的基本理论和研究方法。

5. 培养学生的语言意识，提高分析和解决语言问题的能力。

二、教学内容1. 语言与语言学1.1 语言的概念与特点1.2 语言学的学科性质与研究方法1.3 语言学的历史与发展2. 语言的符号性2.1 符号与符号系统2.2 语言符号的特性2.3 语言符号的创制与演变3. 语言的结构性3.1 语言结构的基本单位3.2 语法结构与语义结构3.3 语言结构的层次性4. 语言的社会性4.1 语言与社会的相互关系4.2 语言变异与语言规范4.3 语言政策与语言规划5. 语言的动态性5.1 语言变化的原因与机制5.2 语言创新的途径与类型5.3 语言接触与语言融合三、教学方法1. 讲授法：通过讲解、阐述等方式，传授语言学的基本知识和理论。

2. 案例分析法：通过分析具体语言现象，帮助学生理解语言学的原理。

3. 讨论法：组织学生就language 相关问题进行讨论，培养学生的思考和表达能力。

4. 实践法：让学生参与语言实践活动，提高实际运用语言的能力。

四、教学资源1. 教材：选用权威、实用的普通语言学教材。

2. 辅助读物：推荐学生阅读相关的语言学著作和论文，拓宽视野。

3. 网络资源：利用互联网资源，为学生提供更多的学习资料和实例。

4. 语言实验设备：语音实验室等，为学生提供实践操作的机会。

五、教学评价1. 平时成绩：考察学生的出勤、作业、课堂表现等。

2. 期中考试：测试学生对语言学基本知识的掌握程度。

3. 课程论文：让学生就语言学相关主题进行研究，提高研究能力。

4. 期末考试：全面考察学生对课程内容的掌握情况。

1. 课时：共计32课时，每课时45分钟。

2. 授课方式：课堂讲授与实践相结合。

3. 教学进程：第1-4课时：介绍语言与语言学的基本概念和研究对象。

普通语言学教案复习版本_重点加粗版本课件

第一章语言与语言学第一节语言是人类特有的财富●语言是人区别于其他动物的重要特征之一动物语言表现是现场刺激引起的，所能传递的信息种类有限，可以列举。

每次表现都是用浑然一体的喊叫或动作表示一定的意思，无法拆卸成单位，另行组装。

是一种不用学习的的，与生俱来的本能，是简单的粗疏的工具。

●人类语言的特点：一功能上-----功能开放能够传递的信息无限丰富，包含现实中万事万物，不拘范围，不论题材，新事物新思想过去未来哲理感情除理性的思想外，还要在说话中表示出自己的身份态度情绪目的切合情景有充分的弹性造出无穷的句子。

二结构上------构思巧妙（关键）高度的运转能力语音层符号层语音=> 语素→词→句子音义结合构成符号语言的构造就在这儿从语音层进入符号层语素---音义结合的最小单位一定规则组合构成了词一定规则组合句子---- --------------→--------------------→①任意性----音义结合是任意的→保证任何事物都可以用语言表达②离散性----每个单位有独立的存在，彼此不相混淆→单位可以自由拆装使组成的上级单位内涵分明③层级性----就可以用较少的单位有规则的组成数量上扩大许多倍的上一级单位，逐层递增掌握一种语言意味着掌握他的几十个音素（位），几千个语素以及语音、语素、词的组合规则人类语言的产生主观本身→高度的思维能力灵活的发音能力客观→有经常的交流需要来推动可能{直立行走手脚分工制造工具组成社会劳动中锻炼了大脑改造了发音器官｝需要--劳动中产生了组织协调交流思想的需要需要和可能想结合促成了语言的产生，语言是人类和其他动物分道扬镳懂的最后的最重要的标志三习得上----人类语言要经过传授才能习得，动物语言是与生俱来的本能，不用学习从幼儿学说话来看语言潜能的实现的关键期：1岁半到5岁之间；幼儿的学话能力没有种族、民族的差别●幼儿学语的共同阶段：①咿呀期②独词句阶段③双词句阶段④电报体阶段（虚词语法）⑤接近成人阶段成人学外语条件优越为何反不如儿童地道？①儿童花在学话上的时间相当多，平均为每天12小时。

普通语言学教程笔记(索绪尔)

它与社会心理学、生理学、语文学相关。

语言学也有实际用途，特别是对于那些利用文献的人，另外对一般修养也很重要。

第三章语言学的对象定义——在任何时候，语言都是现行制度和过去的产物。

我们的研究方法是一开始就站在语言的阵地上，把它当做言语活动的其他一切表现的准则。

语言本身是一个整体，一个分类的原则。

它是一种约定俗成的东西，人们同意使用什么符号，这符号的性质是无关轻重的。

对人类天赋的不是口头的言语活动，而是构成语言——即一套和不同的观念相当的不同的符号——的机能。

人们说话的机能——不管是天赋的或非天赋的——只有借助于集体所创造和提供的工具才能运用，所以，说语言使言语活动成为统一体，绝不是空想。

语言是社会的、主要的，言语是个人的、偶然的、从属的。

语言的特征是：1 他是言语活动事实的混杂的总体中的一个十分确定的对象，是言语的社会部分。

2 语言是人们能够分出来加以研究的对象。

3 言语是异质的，而规定下来的语言是同质的，它是一种符号系统，在系统中，只有意义和音响形象的结合是主要的，符号的两个部分都是心理的。

普通语言学教程笔记(索绪尔)

《普通语言学教程》索绪尔绪论第一章语言学史一瞥语法（规范） -语文学（过于注重书面语） -比较语文学或比较语法（只比较） -新语法学派（语言集团集体精神的产物）第二章语言学的材料和任务；与毗邻科学的关系语言学的任务是： a 对一切能够得到的语言进行描写并整理他们的历史，尽可能重建每个语系的母语； b 寻求在一切语言中永恒地普遍地起作用的力量，整理出能概况一切历史特殊现象的一般规律； c 确定自己的界限和定义。

它与社会心理学、生理学、语文学相关。

语言学也有实际用途，特别是对于那些利用文献的人，另外对一般修养也很重要。

第三章语言学的对象定义——在任何时候，语言都是现行制度和过去的产物。

我们的研究方法是一开始就站在语言的阵地上，把它当做言语活动的其他一切表现的准则。

语言本身是一个整体，一个分类的原则。

它是一种约定俗成的东西，人们同意使用什么符号，这符号的性质是无关轻重的。

对人类天赋的不是口头的言语活动，而是构成语言——即一套和不同的观念相当的不同的符号——的机能。

人们说话的机能——不管是天赋的或非天赋的——只有借助于集体所创造和提供的工具才能运用，所以，说语言使言语活动成为统一体，绝不是空想。

语言在言语活动事实中的地位——言语循环重建：心理现象-生理过程 -物理过程 - 生理过程 -心理现象（c-i ）这一主动过程称为执行部分，（ i-c ）这一被动过程称为接受部分，此外还有联合和配置的机能。

语言是社会的、主要的，言语是个人的、偶然的、从属的。

语言的特征是： 1 他是言语活动事实的混杂的总体中的一个十分确定的对象，是言语的社会部分。

2 语言是人们能够分出来加以研究的对象。

3 言语是异质的，而规定下来的语言是同质的，它是一种符号系统，在系统中，只有意义和音响形象的结合是主要的，符号的两个部分都是心理的。

普通语言学教程

普通语言学教程
第三章语言学的对象
语言学的对象
语言；它的定义语言在言语活动事实中的地位语言在人文事实中的地位：符号学
第一节语言；它的定义
一语言对象的复杂性 1 声音形象和发声动作 2 语音和语义 3 个人方面和社会方面 4 言语本身既是一种社会制度，又是一个演变过程
二语言和言语活动的关系
索绪尔的设想
建立一门研究社会生活中符号生命的科学它的存在是预先确定了的大家还不承认符号学是一门独立的科学无法跳出的圈子
语言比任何东西更适宜了解符号学的性质
要提出适当的问题，又必须研究语言本身
大家不承认符号学是一门独立的学科的原因
大众把语言看成分类命名集心理学家的研究方法跨不出个人执行的范围大家忽略的问题和特征
第二节语言在言语活动事实中的地位
一索绪尔分析言语循环中的三个过程及对该循环的另外分类 1 外面部分/里面部分 2 心理部分/非心理部分 3 主动部分/非主动部分 4 执行部分/接受部分此外，还加上一个联合和配置机能
二索绪尔在语言活动循环分析的基础上关于语言特征的概括三索绪尔关于言语特征的概括四索绪尔关于语言和言语关系的概括
谢谢大家！
后人对索绪尔所做区分的看法与发展
叶尔姆斯列夫的观点乔姆斯基的解释和修正方光焘对它的评价
问题
言语活动的异质指的是什么？
语言的同质指的是什么？
第三节
语言在人文事实中的地位符号学
语言
＝＞
人文事实
言语活动
≠＞
人文事实
语言是一种社会制度语言是一种表达观念的符号系统亚里士多德：最早提出：英国的洛克正式提出《易经》详尽论述

普通语言学复习资料

33语言是形式而不是实质。
34句段关系是在现场的，联想关系却不在现场。
35不可论证性达到最高点的语言是比较着重于词汇的，降到最低点的语言是比较着重于语法的。
36每一事实应该都可以归入他的句段方面或联想方面，全部语法材料也应该安排在他的两个自然地轴线上面。
37语言学的唯一的真正的对象时就语言和为语言而研究的语言
4.集体惰性对一切语言创新的抗拒。这点超出了其他的任何考虑。语言无论什么时候都是每个人的事情。在一切社会制度中，语言是最不适宜创制的。他同大众生活结成一体，而后者在本质上是惰性的，看来首先就是一种保守的因素。
5.语言之所以有稳固的性质，不仅是因为它被绑在集体的镇石上，而且因为它是处在时间之中。约定俗成使它在任意搭配时有了一种规约的不变，时间的延续性，使它在一段时间内不会发生变化。
3．言语活动与个人的一面，又有社会的一面。
4．言语活动既包含一个已定的系统，又包含一种演变。是共时的，又是历时的。
10符号学是一门研究社会生活中符号生命的科学。
11语言既是言语的工具又是言语的产物。
12我们在建立言语活动理论时遇到的第一条分岔路就是区分语言和言语。这两门科学就是语言的语言学和言语的语言学。
第一编
13语言符号连结的不是事物和名称而是概念和音响形象。
14语言符号是一种两面的心里实体
15我们建议保留用符号这个词表示整体，用所指和能指分别代替概念和音响形象。
2.构成任何语言都必须有大量的符号。这一事实的涉及面很宽。一个文字体系只有二十至四十个字母，必要时可以用另一个体系来代替。如果语言只有为数有限的要素，情况也是这样，但语言符号却是数不胜数的。
3.系统的性质态复杂。一种语言就构成一个系统。我们可以看到，在这一方面，语言不是完全任意的，而且里面有相对的道理，同时，也正是在这一点上表现出大众不能改变语言。

语言学教程第五版重点笔记

语言学教程第五版重点笔记语言学是研究语言的科学，它涉及到语言的结构、发展、使用和功能等方面。

本篇笔记将重点总结语言学教程第五版的内容，包括语言学的基本概念、语音学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学等。

1.语言学的基本概念-语言：人类沟通的主要方式，具有符号性、规则性和交际性。

-语言的属性：可描述为音、形、意的体系，通过语音、文字等媒介来传递信息。

-语言与方言：方言是指在某个地区或群体中使用的语言变体，而语言是方言的高级别组织。

-语言的历史演变：语言随着时间推移会发生变化，并分化成不同的语言家族和亚族。

2.语音学-语音：语言中最小的语言单位，由音素构成。

-音位和音素：音位是在特定语言中具有区别词义的最小音段，而音素是语音学上对音位的理论概念。

-发音：语音的实际发声过程，包括发音器官的运动和声带的振动。

-音系：特定语言中的音位组合，反映了该语言中的音素系统。

3.形态学-形态：语言中用来构成词的基本单位。

-词的形态结构：词根、词缀和词尾等构成词的部分。

-词的形态类型：自由词和词素词。

-词类：词根或词素所属的语法类别，如名词、动词、形容词等。

4.句法学-句子：语言中最小的完整意义单位。

-短语：句子的组成部分，由词汇构成。

-句法关系：短语之间的语法关系，如主谓关系、动宾关系等。

-句法结构：句子的组织方式，包括短语结构和依存结构。

5.语义学-语义：语言中词、短语和句子所表达的意义。

-词义学：研究词汇的意义，包括词义分类、词义变化等。

-句义学：研究句子的意义，包括句子的真值条件、逻辑关系等。

6.语用学-语用：语言使用的实际情境。

-言外之意：在语言表面之下所包含的意义。

-会话分析：研究对话和交际行为的学科。

以上是《语言学教程》第五版的重点内容。

通过学习这些知识，我们可以更深入地了解语言的结构和使用规律，从而更好地理解和运用语言。

《普通语言学教程》

《普通语言学教程》
普通语言学教程
一、绪论
普通语言学（通称语言学）是一门研究语言及人类语言系统构成方面的学科，语言学主要涉及语言技术、结构原理、社会习惯及文化特点等相关内容。

其研究领域十分广泛，不仅包括单词学、句法学、语义学与社会语言学等专业，还涉及到语音学、古典语言学、交际及认知语言学等多种学科领域。

语言学学科建立与发展，是人们对语言的认知和研究的集中体现。

因为语言学的领域十分广泛，非专业人士欲了解语言学的知识时，大都从普通语言学教程出发。

普通语言学教程旨在介绍和学习语言学的基本原理和领域，让学习者能够了解语言的架构与结构，并掌握文字表达及源流等基本概念。

二、普通语言学知识体系
普通语言学教程主要涵盖语言学的种类及理论。

它可以分为语音学与句法学两大模块。

1、语音学
语音学主要包括言语与发声、音系构成、音位变化、音韵学、人类语音系统等方面的学习和研究，主要介绍不同语言声音的产生、表达、变化。

2、句法学
句法学主要涵盖语句建构、句子结构、句法规则、语法改变、文体等级与文面分析等方面，旨在讲授语法编码、语义分析、句子习得能力、隐性意义、表述特点等有关知识。

三、普通语言学教程之用途
普通语言学教程不仅可以提供有关语言学的基础知识，还可用来帮助国外留学，更好地学习本国外语。

对于在外国语言学习中存在的内容、句型或者语言现象，读者可以从中获取有针对性的知识。

通过普通语言学教程，可以更充分地了解语言的本质，以更深的层次学习外语。

总而言之，普通语言学教程不仅可以让学习者熟悉基础知识，更可以深入探索语言本身，对提高外语水平也有很大帮助。

评索绪尔《普通语言学教程》

评索绪尔《普通语言学教程》索绪尔是现代语言学的重要奠基人之一，他的《普通语言学教程》也是语言学领域的经典著作之一。

在这篇文章中，我们将对索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》进行评析，重点探讨其优点和不足之处。

索绪尔在《普通语言学教程》中明确提出了语言和言语的区别。

他认为，语言是一种符号系统，而言语则是具体的话语。

这种区分至今仍然具有重要的现实意义，为我们理解语言本质提供了重要的思路。

索绪尔强调了语言的共时性和历时性。

在共时性方面，他主张从静态的角度研究语言，语言系统中各个成分之间的关系；在历时性方面，他注重研究语言的历史演变和规律，揭示语言的动态变化。

这种全方位的研究方法为语言学的发展开辟了新的路径。

索绪尔还提出了“能指”和“所指”的概念，进一步丰富了语言符号学的理论。

他认为，语言符号是由能指和所指构成的，能指指的是语言符号的语音形式，而所指则是语言符号所表达的概念。

这一观点对于我们理解语言符号的意义和本质具有重要意义。

然而，索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》也存在一些不足之处。

他过于强调语言的共时性和静态性，而对于语言的历时性和动态性不够。

这使得他的理论在解释语言的历史演变和文化背景方面存在一定的局限性。

索绪尔对于言语的理解过于狭窄，他认为言语仅仅是使用语言的行为，而忽略了言语在表达情感、意图等方面的作用。

这导致他的理论在解释言语的复杂性和多样性方面存在一些不足。

索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》是一部具有重要价值的语言学著作，他提出的许多概念和理论为语言学的发展奠定了坚实的基础。

然而，这部著作也存在一些不足之处，需要我们在今后的研究中加以和改进。

我们应该在继承和发展索绪尔理论的基础上，更加注重语言的历时性和动态性研究，探索言语在表达情感、意图等方面的作用，从而不断完善语言学的理论和实践。

语言与言语的区别对语言学研究的启示生平简介：索绪尔出生于瑞士一个中产阶级家庭，早年接受过系统的古典教育，后就读于巴黎高等研究学院，专攻历史语言学。

普通语言学教程重点

《普通语言学教程》精读2、新一代比较语法学家的出现：a语言学科的人文属性；b心理属性c现代活语言即方言（全面；古代语言形式）3、新语法学派批判：（1）理论建树的科学主义：a语音规律的绝对性是错误的→历史条件、社会条件限制；b走出形式研究困境；c人文主义和科学主义张力（2）材料分析的细节主义：a语音图表主义的细节主义b经验主义的细节主义→洪堡特c原子主义的细节主义d庸俗进化的细节主义（3）语言本体的个人心理主义：索绪尔用社会心理替代了新语法学派的“个人心理”4、索绪尔对历史比较语言学的超越（1）对新语法学派的批判a语言作为一个社会事实b语言作为一个抽象的关系系统（2）索绪尔的跨时代超越：结构主义a普通语言学b历史比较语言学的意义三、语言学的任务1、是什么：a体系性（基石）b历史性c普遍性d独立性2、任务的内与外：内：语言的逻辑方面外：和其他学科的相互交融a和心理学难以区分b和人种学融合c受政治影响d和文学语言（甲：文学语言和方言：迫使方言统一化；文学语言变得混杂//乙：书面语和口语）e和地理的紧密联系3、语言学和其他学科的关系有些是单向有些是双向4、语言事实的同质性消解语言的外部因素5、索绪尔对人文现象的弃置根源于逻辑主义四、语言和言语1、语言现象的二元性：物理——生理；物质—心理；个人—社会；共时—历时2、语言language：一个社会共同体中每个说话任何听话人共同运用和遵守的规则。

抽象的、一般的、相对稳定的。

3、具体的语言&普遍性的语言：（1）具体的语言有社会性；（2）具体的语言有空间上的变异性；（3）具体的语言反映人类语言的差异；（4）具体语言具有先在性；具体语言具有基础性4、言语parol：说话的总和5、言语体系Language：语言+言语。

语言学的任务就是要确立语言在言语体系中的首要位置6、语言和言语的关系是社会和个人的关系7、语言的言语学和言语的言语学：索绪尔选择语言的语言学。

索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》

索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》1.前言《普通语言学教程》是由美国语言学家George L. Trager和Bernard Bloch于1941年合著而成。

这本书是一本介绍语言学基础知识的教材，其主要思想是用普通语言来解释专业术语，使得学生易于理解。

本文将对这本书进行分析和探讨，希望有助于对语言学有兴趣的读者们更好地理解这门学科。

2.普通语言学教程的内容《普通语言学教程》的内容包括：语音学、形态学、语法学、语义学和语用学。

在介绍这些内容时，书中采用了“课堂笔记”、“问答”等多种方式，引导读者掌握这些内容。

比如，在介绍语音学概念时，书中使用了字母拼写、声音示例等方式来帮助读者理解；在介绍形态学时，书中专门强调了单词的组成和单元的划分；在介绍语法学时，书中从句子的结构、成分等方面来进行解释。

3.普通语言学教程的特点首先，该书用通俗易懂的语言讲解了专业知识，使得读者易于理解，从而有助于提高学生的学习兴趣和学习效果。

其次，该书采用多种教学方式，如举例、问答、归纳总结等方式，不仅使得知识更加生动形象，而且能够提高读者的记忆能力。

此外，该书力求在介绍语言学基础知识的同时，扩展读者对语言的认识，例如在介绍语用学时，书中强调了语言使用的文化差异，让读者更好地理解语言的多样性和复杂性。

4.普通语言学教程的局限性虽然《普通语言学教程》在教学内容上尽可能用通俗易懂的语言进行了解释，但是由于语言学本身的深奥性和抽象性，书中仍有一定的专业术语和概念难以被普通读者所理解。

此外，该书在讲解某些语言学现象时，可能存在过于简化的情况，导致读者对于语言学现象的理解出现失误和偏差。

5.结语总之，《普通语言学教程》是一本对语言学入门者来说非常有帮助的教材，其用通俗易懂的语言讲解了语言学的基本概念及其不同分支知识，极大地方便了读者的学习。

尽管该书存在一些局限性，但是这并不妨碍其成为一本经典的语言学教材，并在语言学界和学生群体中被广泛传阅和推荐。

语言学教程重点

1.1. What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic co nnection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human langua ges, developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. T he term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.1.2. What are design features of language?“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability1.3. What is arbitrariness?By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings an d sounds (see I .1).A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word ) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more tra nsparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.1.4.What is duality?Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.) ; at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6) , language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language.A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honour.1.5.What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one‟s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that areappropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky).1.6.What is displacement?“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human languag e, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn‟t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee‟s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.1.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings(N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog‟s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf‟s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.1.8.What is interchangeability?Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to make me happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.Some male birds, however, utter some calls which females do not (or cannot?) , and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighbouring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” and which listening.1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them(see I .2-8). Let‟s borrow C. F. Hocket‟s Chart that compares human language with so me animals‟ systems, from Wang Gang(1998,p.8).Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child b y Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child”in I.7)1.10.What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art . M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal and textual(see !.11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al.,pp10-13,pp394-396). 1. 11What is the phatic function?The “phatic function” refers to l anguage being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts(rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?” “Fine, thanks.”) is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don‟t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.1.12. What is the directive function?The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin and J.Searle‟s “indrect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”1.13.What is the informative function?Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labelled as true(truth) or false(falsehood). According to P.Grice‟s “Cooperative Principle”(see H u Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.1.14.What is the interrogative function?When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g., “I‟d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader‟s/listener‟s answer.1.15.What is the expressive function?The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. S ubconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I‟m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgement on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker‟s own attitudes.1.16.What is the evocative function?The “evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is , for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes(not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That‟s also the case with the other way round.1.17.What is the performative function?This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say “OK”, which means more than speech, and more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judge‟s imprisonment sentence,the president‟s war or independence declaration, etc., are performatives as well(see J.Austin‟s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.,pp271-278).1.18.What is linguistics?“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one lang uage of any one society, but the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp20-22)1.19.What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis whenit is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al.,1988;Wang Gang,1988).But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches : phonetics ,phonology ,morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp25-27).1.22.What is speech and what is writing?No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary, because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds : individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading. Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for“correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?F. de Saussure refers “langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, i. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance?According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual re alization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker‟s competence is stable while his performance is often influ enced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker‟s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.Chomsky‟s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as , though similar to , F. de Saussure‟s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.26.What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behaviour?These two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, were made by M. A. K. Halliday in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).1.27.In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different (see 1.25). Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker‟s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. Competence means “knowing”, and linguistic potential a set of possibilities for “doing” or “performing actions”. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole,performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.1.28.What is phonetics?“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1)Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2)Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer‟s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear , the auditory nerve and the brain. (3)Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulatory phonetics.1.47.What are open classes? What are closed classes?In English, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs make up the largest part of the vocabulary. They are “open -class words”, since we can regularly add new lexical entries to these classes. The other syntactic categories are, for the most part, closed classes, or closed-class words. The number of them is hardly alterable, if they are changeable at all.1.48.What is lexicon? What is word? What is lexeme? What is vocabulary? Lexicon? Word? Lexeme? Vocabulary?“Lexicon”, in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary. In its technical sense, however, lexicon deals with the analysis and creation of words, idioms and collocations. “Word” is a unit of expression which has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. This definition is perhaps a little vague as there are different criteria with regard to its identification and definition. It seems that it is hard , even impossible, to define “word” linguistically. Non etheless it is universally agreed that the following three senses are involved in the definition of “word”, none of which, though, is expected to cope with all the situations: (1)a physically definable unit ,e. g.,[it iz …w](phonological), “It is wonder” (orthographic); (2) the common factor underlying a set of forms (see what is the common factor of “checks”, “checked”, “checking ”, etc.); (3) a grammatical unit(look at (1) again; every word plays a grammatical part in the sentence).According to Leonard Bloomfield, a word is a minimum free form (compare: a sentence is a maximum free form, according to Bloomfield ). There are other factors that may help us identify words: (1) stability (no great change of orthographic features); (2)relative uninterruptibility (we can hardly insert anything between two parts of a word or between the letters). To make the category clearer we can subclassify words into a few types: (1) variable and invariable words(e.g.,-mats, seldom-?); (2) grammatical and lexical words(e. g. to, in ,etc., and table, chair, ect. By “lexical words” we mean the words that carry a semantic content, e.g., nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs; (3) closed-class and open-class words(see I.47).In order to reduce the ambiguity of the term “word” ,the term “lexeme” is postulated as the abtract unit which refers to the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units. A lexeme can occur in many different forms in actualspoken or written texts. For example, “write” is the lexeme of the following words: “write”, “write”, “wrote”, “writing”, and “written.”“V ocabulary” usually refers to all words or lexical items a person has acquired about technical or/and untechnical things. So we encourage ou r students to enlarge their vocabulary. “vocabulary” is also used to mean word list or glossary.1.49.What is collocation?“Collocation” is a term used in lexicology by some linguists to refer to the habitual co-occurrences of individual lexical items. For example, we can “read” a “book”; “correct” can narrowly occur with “book” which is supposed to have faults, but no one can “read” a “mistake” because with regard to co-occurrence these two words are not collocates.1.50.What is syntax?“Syntax” is t he study of the rules governing the ways in which words, word groups and phrases are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between sentential elements.1.51.What is a sentence?L. Bloomfield defines “sentence” as an independent linguistic form not included by some grammatical marks in any other linguistic from, i. e., it is not subordinated to a larger linguistic form, it is a structurally independent linguistic form. It is also called a maximum free form.1.52.What are syntactic relations?“Syntactic relations” refer to the ways in which words, word groups or phrases form sentences; hence three kinds of syntactic relations: positional relations, relations of substitutability and relations of co-occurrence.“Positional relation”, or “word order”, refers to the sequential arrangement to words in a language. It is a manifestation of a certain aspect of what F. de Saussure called “syntagmatic relations”, or of what other linguists call “horizontal relations” or “chain relations”.Relations of substitutability” refer to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in same sentence structures. Saussure called them “associative relations”. Other people call them “paradigmatic/vertical/choice relations”.By “relations of co-occurrence”, one means that words of different sets of clauses may permit or require the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations and partly to paradigmatic relations.1.53.What is IC analysis? What are immediate constituents(and ultimate constituents)?“IC analysis” is a new approach of sentence study that cuts a sentence into two(or more) segm ents. This kind of pure segmentation is simply dividing a sentence into its constituent elements without even knowing what they really are . What remain of the first cut are called “immediate constituents”, and what are left at the final cut are called “ultimate constituents”. For example, “John left yesterday” can be thus segmented: “John| left | | yesterday”. We get two immediate constituents for the first cut (|), and they are “John” and “left yesterday”. Further split(||) thissentence generates three “ultimate constituents”: “John”, “left ” and “yesterday”.1.54.What are endocentric and exocentric constructons?“Endocentric construction” is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i. e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable “centre” or “head”. Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the head. “Exocentric construction”, opposite of endocentric construction, refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as whole ;that is to say ,there is no definable centre or head inside the group. Exocentric construction usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate(verb+object) construction, and connective(be+complement) construction.1.55.What is a subject? A predicate? An object?In some language, an “subject” refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case, such as “pater” in the following example: “pater filium amat” (put literally in English: the father the son loves). In English, a “grammatical subject” refers to a noun which can establish correspondence with the verb and which can be checked by a tag-question t est, e.g., “He is a good cook(, isn‟t he?).”A “predicate” refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject are considered together. e.g., in the sentence “The monkey is j umping ”, “is jumping ” is the predicate.Traditionally “object” refers to the receiver or goal of an action, and it is further classified into two kinds: direct object and indirect object. In some inflecting languages, an object is marked by case labels: the “accusative case” for direct object, and the “dative case ” for direct object, and the “dative case” for indirect to word order(after the verb and preposition) and by inflections(of pronouns). E .g., in the sentence “John kissed me”, “me” is the objec t. Modern linguists suggest that an object refers to such an item that it can become a subject in passive transformation.1.56.What is category?The term “category” in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g., noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. More specifically it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability ;and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, etc.1.57.What is number? What is gender? What is case?“Number” is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc. In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural. Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs.“Gender” displays such contrasts as “masculine”, “feminine”, “neuter”, or “animate” and “inanimate”, etc., for the analysis of word classes. When word items refer to the sex of the real-world entities, we natural gender(the opposite is grammatical gender).“Case” identifies the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence. In Latin grammar, cases are based on variations in the morphological forms of the word, and are given the terms “accusative”, “nominative”, “dative”,etc. In English, the case category is realized in three ways:。

《语言学教程》重点笔记（2020年）

《语言学教程》重点笔记（2020年）语言学教程笔记第一章语言学导论语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。

1.任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核心特征。

例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pen/。

任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。

（2）句法层面上的任意性。

（3）任意性和规约性。

2.二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。

话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。

因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。

二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产性。

3.创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。

利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。

4.移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间或观点。

因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而后者位置距我们非常之远。

语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。

移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。

词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化的语境中。

他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。

5.文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。

6.互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。

元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。

比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。

这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考”。

普通语言学教程笔记(索绪尔)0204192331

它与社会心理学、生理学、语文学相关。

语言学也有实际用途，特别是对于那些利用文献的人，另外对一般修养也很重要。

第三章语言学的对象定义——在任何时候，语言都是现行制度和过去的产物。

我们的研究方法是一开始就站在语言的阵地上，把它当做言语活动的其他一切表现的准则。

语言本身是一个整体，一个分类的原则。

它是一种约定俗成的东西，人们同意使用什么符号，这符号的性质是无关轻重的。

对人类天赋的不是口头的言语活动，而是构成语言——即一套和不同的观念相当的不同的符号——的机能。

人们说话的机能——不管是天赋的或非天赋的——只有借助于集体所创造和提供的工具才能运用，所以，说语言使言语活动成为统一体，绝不是空想。

语言是社会的、主要的，言语是个人的、偶然的、从属的。

语言的特征是：1 他是言语活动事实的混杂的总体中的一个十分确定的对象，是言语的社会部分。

2 语言是人们能够分出来加以研究的对象。

3 言语是异质的，而规定下来的语言是同质的，它是一种符号系统，在系统中，只有意义和音响形象的结合是主要的，符号的两个部分都是心理的。

(完整word版)普通语言学教程笔记(索绪尔)

它与社会心理学、生理学、语文学相关。

语言学也有实际用途，特别是对于那些利用文献的人，另外对一般修养也很重要。

第三章语言学的对象定义——在任何时候，语言都是现行制度和过去的产物。

我们的研究方法是一开始就站在语言的阵地上，把它当做言语活动的其他一切表现的准则。

语言本身是一个整体，一个分类的原则。

它是一种约定俗成的东西，人们同意使用什么符号，这符号的性质是无关轻重的。

对人类天赋的不是口头的言语活动，而是构成语言——即一套和不同的观念相当的不同的符号——的机能。

人们说话的机能——不管是天赋的或非天赋的——只有借助于集体所创造和提供的工具才能运用，所以，说语言使言语活动成为统一体，绝不是空想。

语言是社会的、主要的，言语是个人的、偶然的、从属的。

语言的特征是：1 他是言语活动事实的混杂的总体中的一个十分确定的对象，是言语的社会部分。

2 语言是人们能够分出来加以研究的对象。

3 言语是异质的，而规定下来的语言是同质的，它是一种符号系统，在系统中，只有意义和音响形象的结合是主要的，符号的两个部分都是心理的。

普通语言学教程知识点总结

普通语言学教程知识点总结第一部分：语言学概论1. 语言的定义语言是一种符号系统，通过语音或文字来传递意义，是人类思维和交流的重要工具。

2. 语言学的研究对象语言学研究语言的结构、形式、功能、发展以及语言在社会和文化中的作用。

3. 语言的基本特征语言的基本特征包括：任意性、符号性、交际性、复杂性、可变性、文化载体等。

4. 语言的层次结构语言的层次结构包括语音层、词汇层、词组层、句子层和语篇层。

第二部分：语言习得1. 语言的习得过程语言习得是指个体在学习自己的母语时所经历的过程，包括语音、词汇、语法和语用等方面的发展。

2. 语言习得的阶段语言习得包括婴儿期、幼儿期、儿童期、青少年期和成人期等不同阶段，每个阶段都有其特定的语言发展特点。

3. 习得语言与学习语言的区别习得语言是指自然而然地掌握母语的过程，而学习语言则是指通过学习来掌握一门语言。

第三部分：语音学1. 语音学的对象和内容语音学研究语音的发音、形成规律和分类，以及语音在语言中的功能。

2. 语音的分类语音可以分为辅音和元音，辅音可以再分为浊音和清音，元音可以分为前元音、中元音和后元音。

3. 语音的发音器官人类语音的发音器官包括声门、喉头、口腔、舌头、鼻腔等部位。

4. 语音的基本特征语音的基本特征包括调音的高低、音量的大小、音调的升降和语调的变化等。

第四部分：语音学1. 语法学的研究对象和内容语法学研究语言的结构和形式，包括词类、句子成分、句法关系等内容。

2. 词法和句法词法研究词汇的组成和形态变化规律，句法研究句子的结构和成分之间的关系。

3. 语法现象的分类语法现象可以分为形态学现象、句法现象和语义现象等。

4. 语法规则和规则性语法规则是语言使用中的规范，语法规则性是指语法现象的稳定性和规律性。

第五部分：语义学1. 语义学的研究对象和内容语义学研究语言中的词汇和句子的意义和语用规则。

2. 语义的分类语义可以分为词义和句义两个方面，词义是指词汇的意义，句义是指句子的意义。