基本翻译概念
英语与汉语的翻译差别
英语与汉语的翻译差别一．基本翻译概念之共核、异核。
1.汉语与英语之间的共同点――共核世界上的语言虽然多种多样，但是各种语言之间往往存在着一些共同点。
比如，希特勒说过，谎言重复千遍就会变成真理。
正应了中国那句老话，众口铄金，积毁销骨。
这两个说法之间就存在着一些共同的思维方法。
汉语与英语之间也存在着一些共重合点。
甚至，汉、英、法三种语言之间都存在着共通之处。
For example, in a content-focused text a metaphor may be considered as translated quite adequately if it is represented in the target language by an expression of the same semantic value although not by metaphor or a comparable image. A form-focused text, however, would demand that whether the metaphor be traditional or a new creation by the author, it should be represented in the target language by an equally idiomatic metaphor of similar value or significance, 85 whether a traditional one is available or a new one must be created. This demand is not as difficult as it would seem to be at first sight.（Reiss 2004:59）Reiss 认为不同语言之间存在着一些比喻意义相同的说法，并在注释中举出了一个例子“Quel bon vent vous amène! (What good wind brings you here!)”。
翻译基本概念
《翻译》课程理论汇编（基本概念）1.1 翻译的概念一般地，我们将翻译定义为：将一种语言（口语或笔语形式）（译出语）转换或创造为另一种语言（译入语）。
翻译是一种非常复杂的人类高级语言活动，这种活动的整个过程是很难以图示、语言等其他方式阐释清楚的。
不同领域、不同派别的学者对翻译有着不同的定义。
1.1.1 语言学家对翻译的定义语言学家将翻译视为一种语言活动，同时认为，翻译理论属于语言学的一个部分，即研究译出语和译入语的转换关系。
解释如下：（1）Catford（1965：20）认为，翻译是译出语和译入语间的文本等效转换。
（2）Nida 和Taber（1969：12）认为，翻译是译出语和译入语间意义和形式上的最紧密联系转换。
（3）Newmark（1982/1988：5）认为，翻译理论源自于比较语言学，属于语义学的一部分，而所有语义学的研究课题都与翻译理论息息相关。
1.1.2 文化角度对翻译的定义从文化角度来看，翻译不仅仅是语言符号的转换，同时是文化的交流，尤其是“文化间交流”。
通常我们把这一术语又改称为“文化间合作”或“跨文化交际”等。
Shuttleworth 和Cowie（1997：35）认为，与其说翻译是两种语言之间的符号转换，不如说是两种语言所代表的两种文化间的转换。
译者在处理涉及语言文化方面的译务工作时，认为任何一种语言中都饱含着其文化中的相关元素（比如：语言中的问候语、固定搭配等），任何文本都存在于特定的文化环境中，同时，由于各语言所代表的多元文化差异很大，语言间的转化和创造性生成模式千变万化。
Nida 认为，对于一个成功的翻译工作者而言，掌握两种文化比掌握两种语言更为重要，因为语言中的词汇只有在特定的语言文化环境中才能具有正确的、合乎文化背景的义项。
王佐良先生指出（1989），翻译不仅涉及语言问题，也涉及文化问题。
译者不仅要了解外国的文化，还要深入了解自己民族的文化。
不仅如此，还要不断的将两种文化加以比较，因为真正的对等应该是在各自文化中的含义、作用、范围、感情色彩、影响等等都是相当的。
翻译的概念
翻译的概念第一章第一节翻译的概念,分类,过程及方法一.翻译的概念1.关于翻译的几种定义①翻译是一门艺术.(Translation is a fine art.)----林语堂《翻译论》②翻译是一门科学.----董秋斯③Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.----尤金.奈达2. 广义的翻译是指语言与语言,语言变体与语言变体,语言与非语言等的代码转换和基本信息的传达.3.狭义的翻译是一种语言活动,是把一种语言表达的内容忠实地用另一种语言表达出来.二. 翻译的分类1.按所涉及的两种代码的性质分为:语内翻译(intralingual translation):同一种语言间不同语言变体的翻译.语际翻译(interlingual translation):不同语言间的翻译,是狭义翻译的研究对象. 语符翻译( interseniotic translation):用非文字符号解释文字符号.2.按翻译主体的性质分为人工翻译和机器翻译两类.nextexercise3.按照翻译的工具和成品形式可分为口译和笔译.4.按翻译的客体即所译资料的性质可分为文学翻译(literary translation):包括诗歌,小说,戏剧等文学作品的翻译,着重情感内容和修辞特征的表达.实用翻译(pragmatic translation):包括科技,商务,公文等资料的翻译,着重实际内容的表达.三. 翻译的过程翻译的过程是理解和表达的有机结合.翻译的关键在于对原文的理解,要真正理解原文,译者必须有扎实的语言功底和相关专业背景知识,并熟知英汉两种文化知识,否则译者就不能真正理解,从而产生误差.例:Cannot Beat the Real Thing.(美国可口可乐广告)不能打败真正的商品.挡不住的诱惑!next后者简单明了的把原文的真正含义表达了出来,能达到打动消费者的目的.表达阶段就是译者把自己从原文所理解的内容用目的语重新表达出来.表达的好坏主要取决与对原文的理解深度和对译文语言的饿修养程度.理解原文不是易事,表达亦然.例:As we obtained a clean B/L, you will see that the goods were slopped in good order. We suggest, therefore, that you lodge your claim with it. 由于我们获得了清洁提单,所以你们将明白货物在装运时情况良好,且被安放的井井有条.由此看来我们建议你们可以向该轮船公司提出索赔.我方已获得清洁提单一张,贵方谅必清楚货物装船时状况良好,因此建议贵方可依此向该轮船公司提出索赔.四. 翻译的方法1.直译和意译是翻译的两大基本方法.2.所谓直译是指翻译时要求译文与原文在词语,语法结构及表达方式上保持一致的方法.例:Many investors no longer treat a stock as an instrument of ownership in a corporation but only as a derivative of economic factors, risks and potentials.许多投资者不再把他们拥有的股票看作是拥有某一公司一部分权益的工具,而只是将它视为经济因素,风险,潜力的衍生物.See morenext3.意译是指摆脱原文形式的束缚而传达原文的内容.During Federal Reserve Chairman Greenspan's nearly 20 years as the world' most powerful central banker, the U.S has suffered only one recession, a brief one in 1990-1991.格林斯潘作为全球最有实力的中央银行的掌舵人,在其近20年的任期中,美国仅在1990-1991年间遭受过一次短暂的经济萧条.本句意译主要体现在句子结构层面上,将only one recession和a brief one in 1990-1991进一步融合,更加符合汉语的表达习惯.讨论翻译的概念, 分类,过程及方法并提出自己的看法和观点.将下列汉语译成英语:1.语内翻译_______2.语际翻译_______3.语符翻译_______4.文学翻译_______5.实用翻译_______6.功能对等_______7.机器翻译_______8.目的语_______9. 源语_______三.结合直译和意译两种翻译方法,将下列英语译成汉语:1.Translation may be defined as follows: the replacement of material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language.2.A translation should give a complete transcript of the same character as that of the original. A translation should have all the ease of the original composition.3. Automatic package has been adopted into production of almost every industry.4.A compensation package often includes a base salary, an annual bonus and some other extra rewards and benefits.5. A packaged service called Trade Web costs companies less than 1,000$a year to join. It is so cheap that 3,000 small suppliers have signed up with the operator.6.The through quality management is apparent not just in the products, but also in the system through a self-check system and tracebility at each stage of production from the greenhouse to the table.第二节商务英语和商务文本翻译标准exercise一. 商务英语的界定商务英语是英语的一种功能变体,是专门用途英语(English for Specific Purposes)中的一个分支,适于商务场合中应用,或者说是一种包含了各种商务活动内容,适合商业需要的标准英文.而这些商务活动包括技术引进,对外贸易,招商引资,对外劳务承包与合同,国际金融,涉外保险,国际旅游,海外投资,国际运输等等, 在这些活动中使用的英语统称为商务英语(Business English )二.商务文本的翻译标准商务文本的复杂性决定了商务文本的翻译标准必须是多元化的,不同的商务文体该有不同的翻译标准.1.商务广告的翻译:"劝购功能相似"广告的主要功能是劝购功能,即说服读者去买广告中所宣传的产品或服务.广告翻译是否成功取决它是否能在译文读者中取得同样的作用.广告翻译应以"劝购功能相似"为其基本原则, 译文应与原文有大致相同的宣传效果,信息传递功能和移情感召功能.需要强调的是,由于语言之间存在的差异以及译文读者和原文读者的社会和文化背景不同,广告翻译的"功能相似"原则并不是要求字字对等的"忠实"翻译而是一种极为灵活的对等:即广告翻译的受众是否象原广告的受众一样乐于掏钱买商家所宣传的广告产品.例:We take no pride in prejudice.( The Times 的一则广告)译文1:对于你的偏见,我们没有傲慢.译文2: 对于有失偏颇的报道,我们并不引以为豪.参考译文:正义的力量,舆论的向导.>>>examplePride in prejudice引用英国作家简.奥斯汀的名作《傲慢与偏见》,体现了《泰晤士报》秉承公平,公正的办报原则,收到了很好的广告效果.但由于中西方的文化差异,使这种效果很难在译文中表现出来.译文1将《傲慢与偏见》的两个关键词强加到译文中,但却使人看了之后不知所云.译文二虽然表达了公平公正的意思,但给人的感觉是《泰晤士报》不总是报道真实的新闻.在这种既难保留原文,又难达到广告宣传目的的两难情况下,则可放弃原文,采取另译的方法例句分析Quality Services for Quality Life.凝聚新动力,文康展新姿._香港康乐及文化事物署的双语广告Connecting People.科技以人为本._诺基亚公司的广告词★商务广告的翻译next2.商务应用文的翻译:约定俗成,入乡随俗.商务应用文在此具体是指商务活动中的项目招商通告,营业执照,招投标文件,请柬等具有固定行文格式的商务文件.>>example★商务应用文的翻译The Deputy Prime Minister of Australiaand minister for Overseas TradeDr.J.F. CairnsRequests the Pleasure of Your Companyat a BanquetOn Tuesday, 11 October, 2005from 12:30 to 13:30 p.m.in Hall Three of the Beijing Exhibition CenterTo Mark the Opening of the Australian ExhibitionR.S.V.PTel:_______Chinese★商务应用文的翻译谨订于2005年10月11日(星期二)12时半至下午1时半假座北京展览馆3号大厅举行宴会,庆祝澳大利亚展览会开幕.敬请光临澳大利亚副总理兼海外贸易部长杰.弗.凯恩斯博士(请赐复)电话________next3. 商务信函的翻译: 事实准确,礼貌得体根据商务信函的语言特点和实际用途,商务信函的翻译应遵循以下原则:⑴准确传达原文的事实信息主要包括三个方面:术语翻译规范,具体事实细节准确传译, 一般性叙述用词恰当.⑵贴切再现原文的礼貌语气商务信函属于公函语体,措辞严谨,语气委婉,注重礼节,翻译是要特别注意再现原文的礼貌语气.⑶符合公函文体的语言特征>>example★商务信函的翻译There are qualities of this item here, in different weights and size, with varied colors and shapes. The price is very reasonable and the quotations will be given upon request.Our prices already make full allowance for large orders and , as you know, we operate in a highly competitive market in which we have been forced to cut our prices to minimum.我方现有各种不同重量,不同体积,颜色丰富,形状各异的大理石,数量甚巨,价格合理,受函抱价.我方抱价已考虑到大批量定货的因素.相信贵公司了解我们是在一个竞争十分激烈的市场上经营销售业务,因而已经不得不把利润降到最低限度.next4. 商务合同的翻译⑴商务合同的概念:是一种契约文体,其文体具有用语正式,句式严谨以及篇章结构固定等特点.⑵具体标准:＊用词准确,译文完整＊行文通顺,条理清楚＊符合契约的文体特点>>example★商务合同的翻译The date of receipt issued by the transportation department concerned shall be regarded as the date of the delivery of goods.Payment: By irrevocable L/C at the sight to reach the sellers 30 days before the time of shipment.The buyer shall make a claim against the Seller (including replacement of the goods) by the further inspection certificate and all the expenses incurred therefore shall by the Seller.The arbitral award is final and binding upon both parties.Chinese★商务合同的翻译由有关的运输机构所开据收据的日期视为为交货期.买方应在装船前30天将不可撤消的即期信用证开到卖方.买方需凭复检证明书向卖方提出索赔(包括换货),由此引起的全部费用应由卖方负责.仲裁机构的裁决具有最终效力,双方必须遵照执行.一.讨论翻译及商务英语翻译的标准.二.将下列英语短语译成汉语:1.form a receipt __________________2.ticket order form ___________________3.application form ___________________4.an active list ___________________5.an export list ____________________>>>more三.将下列英语段落翻译成汉语.Speaking of translation, we tend to think of Yan Fu who advocated for the first time the three words as translation criteria, namely, "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". Yan Fu's "faithfulness" means the fulland complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. His "expressiveness" demands that the version must be clear and flowing without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. But his "elegance" is unadoptable because it refers to the use of classical Chinese before the Han Dynasty, Yan Fu held that only the language before the Han Dynasty could be considered elegant and old vocabulary, the old structure of Chinese must be used in order to represent the original fully and adequately."Faithfulness" first refers to the content of the original work. The translator must bring out the original meaning both comprehensively and accurately without any distortion or casual addition or deletion of the original thoughts.Faithfulness also includes the keeping of the original style, as Mr. Lu Xun put it , "keep the full flavor of the original work."第三章涉外商务信函的翻译第一节商务信函简介一商务信函的12种要素信头(letterhead)案号(reference)日期(date)封内地址(inside address注意项(attention line)称呼(salutation)事由栏(subject)信的正文(body of letter)信尾敬语(complimentary close)签名(signature)缩写名,附件及分送标志部分(IEC: initials, enclosures and carbon copies block)附言(postscript)Next商务信函实例1Kee & Co., Ltd34 Regent StreetLondon, UK Inside Address 收信人地址Dear Sirs,Salutation称呼We have obtained your name and address from Dee&Co. Ltd, and we are writing toenquire whether you would be willing to establish business relations with us.We have been importers of shoes for many years. At present, we are interested in extending our range and would appreciate your catalogues and quotations.If your prices are competitive we would expect to place volume orders on you.We look forward to your early reply._Yours faithfully, Complimentary Close客套结束语Tony Smith Signature Block签名栏Enc: invoice for consulting services Enclosure Notation_商务信函实例21117 The High RoadAustin TX 787036 June 2006MR. David Patricks3005 West 29th, Suite 130Waco. TX 77663Dear Mr. Ptricks,I received your June 5th letter requesting consultation and am providing myrecommendation in the following.First, let me review my understanding of your inquiry. The question you raise revolvesaround whether the heating registers should be located in a low sidewall, or in the ceiling,and if ceiling registers are used, which type –step –down or stamped-faced—will deliverthe best results. Additionally, the problem concerns whether there is any benefit to haveheating registers near the floor, whether moving heated air "down" in ducts negativelyaffects blower performance.My recommendations are as follow:I can find nothing in either Carrier, Trane, or ASHRAE design manuals that indicatesdrop as being a factor in duct design any different from normal static losses. If you havedifferent information on this, I would like to have references to it.I cannot see any advantage to low sidewall application. The problem is injection and pattern. I do see an advantage to low sidewall return; Carrier Design Manual—Air Distribution is a good reference on both items.I recommend step-down diffusers with OBD because they have pattern and volume control that is superior to stamped-faced diffusers.I am opposed to low sidewall diffusers or floor diffusers in the application you describe. The increased static losses that result from trying to get the ducts to down through the walls will only increase installation cost and reduceefficiency.If there is anyone in your organization who is uncomfortable with these recommendations, let me know. I'd be very interested in reviewing any actualdocumented test results. Let me know if you have any further questions or if Ican be of any further assistance.Sincerely,Jane A McMurreyJane A McMurrey, P.E.HVAC Consultant, Inc.JAM/dmcEncl.: invoice for consulting services2 涉外商务信函语篇风格的特点,也称7C原则2.1 完整(completeness)2.2 简洁(conciseness)2.3 具体(concreteness)2.4 正确(correctness)2.5 清晰(clarity)2.6 体谅(consideration)2.7 礼貌(courtesy)2.1 完整(completeness)实例解说:"Cellulose Tape 1/2"x 3yds, with plastic dispenser 700 doz./ditto-but 1/2" x 5 yds, 1,000doz."这是出口商接到的一份定单中有关商品品名,规格和数量的内容.中文意思是:"纤素带(幅)宽半英寸,长3码,带塑料包装容器,700打;同上,但(幅)宽宽半英寸,长5码,1000打."问题是后半句不清楚. "ditto"在这里表示前面提到的商名称纤维素带, 但不能包括"带塑料包装容器",因此,幅英寸长5码的纤维素带是否要塑料包装容器没有说清楚,不完整.所以最好改成:"Cellulose Tape 1/2"x 3yds, with plastic dispenser 700 doz. CelluloseTape 1/2" x 5yds,with plastic dispenser 1000 doz." 这样既完正,又清楚明确,不引起误解.2.2 简洁(conciseness)"简洁"是有客观标准的.虽然西方国家的作者之间在怎样用词才算"简洁"方面还是有争论的,不过他们的一些看法还是有一定参考价值的.怎样才能使商业书信"简洁" 西方国家作者有很多建议,先介绍如下:eg 2;(一) 避免使用陈旧的商业术语陈旧的与传统的商业术语(Commercial jargon)对信的内容没有什么作用,应该避免使用.Eg 1:Wordy: We wish to acknowledge receipt of your letter of November 14 with the check for Stg.10 enclosed and wish to thank you for same Concise: We appreciate your letter of November 14 and the check for Stg.10 you sent with it.例二:Wordy:We take liberty to approach you with the request that you would be kind enough to introduce to us some exporters of cotton textiles in your cities. Would you please introduce to us some exporters of cotton textiles in your cityConcise:Please introduce to us some exporters of cotton textiles in your city. (二) 要长话短说,避免罗嗦通常商业人士每天需要阅读大量的书信,对开门见山,长话短说,直接切题的信特别欢迎.因此, 写信要力求长话短说,例如:不要写Please see that an enquiry is conducted to determine the reason.应写作Please find out the reason.不要写We express our regret at being unable to fulfill your order on this occasion.应写作We are sorry we cannot meet your present order.要使用简洁的语言,有可能的话, 尽量使用单词来代替某些娇柔做作的短语.删去不必要的形容词,如下列句子中的形容词或副词删去后并不影响句子的原意: The proposal is under (active) consideration.The answer is (definitely) correct.I would (rather) think the fare is too high.The (true) facts are as stated .(三) 要注意每句句子的长短例如:"We would like to know whether you would allow us to extend the time of shipment for twenty days, and if you would be so kind as to allow us to do so, kindly give us your reply by cable without delay."这句话过分"客气",使句子过长而不清楚.内容要求对方同意延期交货20天,一般情况下,应尽可能提出延期到那一天的具体日期.这句话可压缩为:"Please reply by telegram immediately if you will allow us to delay theshipment until April 21."2.3 具体(concreteness)2.4 正确(correctness)商业书信必须写得正确,因为它涉及到买卖双方的权利,义务,厉害关系,是各种商业单据(如合同)的根据. 广义的说,商业书信的正确性表现在:(一) 运用正确的语言水平(二) 叙述得正确(三) 数字要正确(四) 正确理解和运用商业术语(五) 合适的写作技巧或方法,以及正确运用其他的六个"C".(一) 运用正确的语言水(二)叙述得正确叙述得正确: 商业书信的内容要叙述得正确,既不要说得不够(Understatement),更不要说得过头(Overstatement).[例一]This stove is absolutely the best (or: the very best) on the market.(这种炉子是市场上绝对最好的炉子.)这句话是用来介绍商品的, 但没有具体介绍商品的性能, 而是抽象地断定这种炉子是"市场上最好的".这样介绍商品,不但不能达到推销的目的,反而使人对写信人有"卖狗皮膏药"的感觉.[改写]Our model A195 is designed on modern lines, without any increase infuel consumption, 25% more heat than the older models. So you will agree that it is the outstanding stove for economy of fuel.(我们的A195型炉子是按近代样式设计的,在不增加燃料消耗的情况下,比其他各种旧式炉子温度高25%.所以,你会同意,这是优良的节约燃料的炉子.)(三) 字要正确字要正确:做对外贸易离不开数字. 对商业书信中的数字的正确性要特别加以注意,有时"失之毫厘,差之千里".甚至引起不同的理解.(a)"以上","以下","以前","以后","从….到... "等的表达法(b)二美元和二美元以上$2 or (and)$2 above (over)不少于50罗的定单50gross or (and) up (upward, upwards)(四) 正确理解和运用商业术语理解和运用商业术语:一般常用的商业用语用字简洁,意义明确,使用得好,工作进行得顺利,使用得不好,就会引起混乱,误解,甚至产生不必要的纠纷.如:You ask very short delivery for your order.写信的人原意是说"你们要求赶快交你们的定货."可是short delivery不是快点交货的意思,而是"短交"的意思,这就用错了商业术语.因此,应该说:Your require quick (prompt) delivery of your order.(五)正确运用其他的六个"C".2.5 清晰(clarity)(一).避免使用可能产生不同理解或意义不明确的词〈例一〉As to the steamers sailing from Hongkong to San Francisco, we have bimonthly direct services.(从香港到旧金山有直达船,) 但是bimonthly 究竟是一个月两次即半月一次呢,还是两个月一次不明确.因此,最好清楚明白说明"一个月两次"还是"两个月一次"(a) We have two direct sailings every month from Hongkong to San Francisco.(每月两次直达船)(b) We have semimonthly direct sailing from Hongkong to San Francisco. (每半月一次直达船)(c) We have a direct sailing from Hongkong to San Francisco every two month.(每两个月一次直达船)(二)注意修饰词的位置,有时修饰词的位置不同,会导致不同的含意如:a) Please let us know what you wish us to do about this matter as soon as possible;b) Please let us know as soon as possible what you wish us to do about this matter.以上两句中的""修饰的内容不同:a) 你们要求我们尽快做些什么.b) 请尽快告诉我们.a) 可译成"请告诉我们你们要我们为此尽快做些什么";b) 可译为"请尽快告知,你们要我们为此事做些什么".(三) 注意代名词,关系代词和先行词的关系按照英语习惯, 句子中的代名词和关系代词一般是指离得最近的名词,因此要特别注意,以免引起误解或不清楚.例句:不好:They informed Messrs. John & Smith that they would receive an answer in a few days.较好: They informed Messrs. John & Smith that latter would receive an answer in a few days.(四)注意前后一致和紧凑,连贯不一致:Being a certified public accountant, I am sure you can help us.一致:Being a certified public accountant, you can surely help us. or; As you are a certified public accountant, I am sure you can help us.(五)仔细和恰当地分段落商业书信要写得使人一读就明白,因此必须按照内容仔细和恰当的分段落,一般的分段落原则是一个段落一个意思(A paragraph for each point is a good general rule.). 现举例说明:Dear Sirs,It is reported in a domestic newspaper that the Iranian Central Bank hasinstructed the commercial banks to suspend their business of opening a new letter of credit as from the 3rd May for financial reason of foreign currency. Although it is said that this arrangement would be a temporary one and with establishment of new import policy this emergency arrangement would be lifted, we are much concerned about the outcome of this movement toward restriction of import to Iran and shall be obliged if you will kindly keep us well advised of development of this new arrangement especially in connection with import from France.Yours faithfully,以上这封信只有一段,供两句.第一句39字,第二句66句. 读后虽然能基本了解其内容, 但读起来很舒服.信的内容大体有三点:1. 伊朗中央银行因外汇原因,通知个商业银行从五月三日起停止开立信用证;2. 这临时措施,新的进口政策一订,这个措施可能取消;3. 希望对方随时告之有关情况.按照这三点,适当地分段,把信重新改写,读起来比原来的清楚易懂:Dear Sirs,It is reported in a vernacular newspaper that the Iranian Central Bank has instructed the commercial banks to suspend their issuing new Letters of Creditas from the 3rd May because of its decreasing foreign currency funds. Furthermore it is said that the suspension seems a temporary one and willbe released with establishment if a new import policy.We are much concerned, however, about the outcome of this movement toward restriction of import to Iran.We, therefore, shall be obliged if you will keep us well informed of development of this new state of affairs, especially in connection with importsfrom France.Yours faithfully,2.6 体谅(consideration)2.7 礼貌(courtesy)COURTESY译成"礼貌".但是根据西方国家函电书籍作者普遍的看法,所谓COURTESY是"客气而又体谅人"的意思.这样的形式很多,现在提供一些常见的供参考:(一) 把命令变成请求的常用形式: Please, Will you…….., Will you please……..,如:a) Will you give us more detailed information on your requirementb) Will you please (kindly) let us hear from you on these two points(二) 虚拟式(Past Subjunctive From)如:a) Would you compare our sample with the goods of other firmsb) We would ask you to ship the goods by the first available vessel.c) We wish you would let us have your reply soon.d) This would seem to confirm our opinion.e) We should be grateful if you would help us with your suggestion.f) We might be of some service to you in a similar case.以上的b, 也可用will, shall, may, 但是用Past Subjunctive Form则表示更客气和婉转些.2.7 礼貌(courtesy)(三) 缓和用法(Mitigation)为了缓和过分强调或刺激对方,常用: We are afraid, we would say, we may(or, might) say, we(would) think, it seems(or would seem) to us, we(would) suggest, as you are (or: may be) aware, as we need hardly point out等等表达法来缓和语气,如:_a) It was unwise of you to have done that.We would say that it was unwise of you to have done that._b) You ought to have done it.It seems to us that you ought to have done it.c) We cannot comply with your request.We are afraid we cannot comply with your request.d) Our products are the very best on the market.We might say that our products are the very best on the market.符合7C原则的信函实例Dear Sirs,Our client in Mumbai requests us to obtain from you a pro forma invoice for color TV setsWith the following specifications: "Haier" brand color TV sets 25-inch and 34-inch(each 500sets).Would you please airmail us the soonest possible your pro forma invoice for 1,000 color TVsets with prices CIF Mumbai, so that we obtain our client's confirmation. There is no questionabout our getting the necessary import license from our authorities.As soon as the said license is approved, we shall establish an L/C in yourfavour.Thank you for your close cooperation in this respect. Yours Sincerely, John Smith敬启者:我们的一个孟买客户要求我们从贵方取得下列规格的彩色电视机形式发票:"海尔"彩色电视机25英寸和34英寸各500台.请尽快航邮注有孟买到岸价格的1,000台彩色电视机的形式发票,以便我们取得客户认.从当局取得必要的进口许可证当无问题.一俟获得许可证即开以贵方为受益人的信用证.感谢贵方的密切合作.你真诚的, 约翰.史密斯第二节商务信函的文体特点及其翻译1 商务信函的文体特点1.1 词汇使用特点1.1.1 用词规范正式1.1.2 表意准确,专业性强1.1.3 用语朴素,淡于修饰1.2 语法使用特点1.2.1 句子类型1.2.2 句式结构(1)复合句与简单句结合,以复合句为主(2)常用并列结构(3)状语位置独特1.2.3 虚拟语气的运用2 商务信函的翻译要点2.1 商务英语信函翻译的原则2.2 商务英语信函翻译的注意事项1 商务信函的文体特点1.1 词汇使用特点1.1.1 用词规范正式(1)商务英语信函经常以意义相同或相近的书面词语代替基本词汇和口语词汇,如以inform或advise代替tell,以duplicate代替copy,以dispatch代替send,以otherwise代替or;以介词短语代替简单的介词,如以as for,in respect to,in connection with和with regarding to等代替about等.例如:We are pleased to advise you that your order NO.105 has been dispatched in accordance with your instruction.我们很高兴地通知你们:第105号订单货物已遵照你方指示运出.1.1.1 用词规范正式We will meet you half way by offering a discount of 5% in view of our long pleasant relations.鉴于我们之间长期愉快的业务关系,本公司将酌情考虑给予5%的折扣.(2)商务信函中还经常使用here/there +介词构成的复合词,如hereafter,hereby,hereunder,hereto,hereinafter,herewith,thereafter,therein,therefrom等.例如:All offers and sales are subject to the terms and conditions printed on the reverse side hereof.所有报盘和销售均应遵守本报价单背面所印的条款.In such a case, Seller is bound to reimburse Buyer for any loss or damage sustained therefrom.在次情况下,卖方负责偿还买方由此所遭受的损失.1.1.2 表意准确,专业性强商务信函用词表意准确,专业性强,主要表现在使用大量的专业术语,行话,外来词,缩略语以及一般词语在商务英语语境中的特殊用法.(1)专业术语类:Trimming charges 平仓费insurance policy 保险单coverage 保险项目establishment 开证counter-suggestion 反还盘surcharges附加费pro forma invoice形式发票premium保险费clearance sale清仓削价销售underwriter 保险人L/C 信用证CIF 到岸价格FOB离岸价格bid 递盘C.B.D. 付现提货counter-offer还盘irrevocable letter of credit 不可撤消信用证1.1.2 表意准确,专业性强例如:We shall cover TPND on your order.我们将为你方的货物投保盗窃和提货不着险.It would be appreciated if you would let us know by returning your lowest possible price for the following goods on FOB London.请报下列商品伦敦船上交货之最低价.(2)外来词类:拉丁语的status quo(现状),意大利语的del credere(保付货价的),汉语中的litchi(荔枝),tungoil(桐油),mango(芒果)等.(3)行话:长期的函电交往使人们在使用术语上形成共识,本来意义差异很大的词汇在特定的语境中所表达的内涵和外延却非常相似.Offer, quotation表示"报价,发盘"Pamphlet, brochure, booklet, sales literature 表示商家用于宣传介绍自己公司或产品的"说明材料"Shipment和consignment 表示"所发出的货物"Financial standing/reputation/condition/position用于表示公司的"资信财务情况"Fulfill/complete/execute an order用于表示"执行订单"A draft contract或a specimen contract 表示"合同样本"1.1.2 表意准确,专业性强(4)商务信函准确性主要体现在数量词的大量运用.商务信函中的时间,价格,数量,金额,规格等问题贯穿商贸活动始终,数字的表达应言之确凿,避免摸棱两可.例如:。
英汉翻译基础知识
3. The Pananmanian leader publicly insinuated that he possessed compromising information about Mr.Bush that was liable to harm his bid for the White House.
8. 生产多了，价格就稳定，甚至下降一点。 （这两组例句可供学生尝试翻译并与原文进行对比， 从而加深对英汉两种语言各自特征的认识。）
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总结说明
对这两组例句进行对比，可以得出如下结论：
1 ．英语句子大多开门见山，搭起主谓空间结构（SV） ，形成句子主干（如句中划线部分所示），可参照下 页英语句子的树式结构；汉语则不一定是主谓结构， 如例（6）就属于“话题---说明”框架
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汉英语言文化对比
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1. 谱系(family)：汉语属于汉藏语系，英语属于印欧语 系
2. 类型(type)：汉语是分析型（analytic）语言，其典型 特征是没有屈折变化(inflection)，即汉语的词没有词 性和词形的变化；英语是分析型和综合型(synthetic) 语言，有丰富的屈折变化形式。
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再看一组汉语句子：
5．老关忙即跳下车去，摸摸腰间的勃郎宁，又向四下里 瞥了一眼，就过去开了车门，站在门旁边。
翻译基本概念2
第三讲 翻译的基本概念（下）
•翻译过程 •翻译方法 •译者要求
• 小明上英文课时跟老师说：May I go to the toilet? • 老师说：Go ahead. • 小明就坐了下来。过了一会儿，小明又跟老师 说：May I go to the toilet? • 老师说：Go ahead. • 小明又坐了下来。他旁边的同学于是忍不住问： 你不是跟老师说要上厕所吗?怎么不去? • 小明说：你没听老师说「去你个头」啊!
• 作为幽默家的约翰,他的幽默感一定会给我们带来享 受。 • 关系代词which只指代先行词身上所具备的特点。
• （6）搭配引起的理解障碍 • We were tired of waiting and doubted whether the bus would come before long.
• TT1:我们等得不耐烦了,怀疑汽车早就来过了。 • Before long(不久以后,马上,即将)与它的字面意思正 好相反,很容易被错译为“很久以前”。 • TT2: 我们等得不耐烦了,怀疑汽车会不会马上到来。
第一讲 翻译的基本概念和问题
通顺： 译文语言通顺易懂，自然流畅，符合译文语言表达习惯， 没有文理不通、晦涩难懂等现象。
例1：Darkness released him from his last restraints. 原译：黑暗把他从最后的顾忌中解放出来。 改译：在黑暗中，他就再也没有什么顾忌了。 例2：语言这个东西，不是随便可以学好的，非下苦功不 可。 原译：Language is something difficult to learn well and to learn it well one has to study very hard. 改译：The mastery of language is not easy and requires painstaking effort.
例2：What is done by night appears by day. 原译：夜晚做的事白天就看见了。 改译：要想人不知，除非己莫为。
例3：从小儿三灾八难，花的银子也照样打出你这么 个银人儿来了。（《红楼梦》） 原译：You‟ve had three mishaps and eight disasters since you were a boy, the money we‟ve spent on you would make a person made of silver. 改译：You‟ve had one trouble after another since you were a boy, the money we‟ve spent on you would make a silver statue bigger than you.
E. A. Nida（尤金· 奈达）提出的翻译标准（1964） 1. true to the original 2. vivid 3. smooth and natural 4. equivalent of response （忠实于原文、传神、语言顺畅自然、同等效应） “Readers of TL must have the same response to the text with that of readers of SL despite of different means of expressions.” （尽管语言表达形式不同，译文读者读译文取得的 心理反应要和原文读者读原文的心理反应基本相 同。） Dynamic Equivalence 动态对等 →Functional Equivalence 功能对等（p.8-9）
翻译的概念五种
翻译的概念五种翻译作为一种语言活动，可以被分为不同的概念。
以下是五种常见的翻译概念，并对每种概念进行详细解释。
1. 语言翻译：语言翻译是最常见的翻译概念。
它指的是将一种语言中的文字、词语或语句转换成另一种语言中的对应文字、词语或语句的过程。
语言翻译需要翻译者具备两种或多种语言的能力，并且理解源语言中的意思，然后将其转化为目标语言中能够传达相同意思的方式。
语言翻译既可以是口译，也可以是笔译。
2. 文化翻译：文化翻译指的是在翻译过程中涉及到的文化元素的传递。
每种语言都有其独特的文化背景和观念，因此在翻译时需要考虑到这些差异。
文化翻译涉及到概念、价值观、习俗、传统以及其他文化现象的转换。
翻译者需要具备对不同文化的理解和敏感度，以确保译文能够在目标文化中传达与原文相同的意思和效果。
3. 专业翻译：专业翻译是指在特定领域或专业领域内进行的翻译活动。
这种翻译需要对特定领域的术语、知识和背景有深入了解。
专业翻译可以包括法律翻译、医学翻译、科技翻译等等。
专业翻译者应当具备对目标领域的专业知识，并且能够准确地理解和传达专业术语和概念。
4. 机器翻译：机器翻译是指使用计算机和自动化技术进行翻译的过程。
机器翻译使用机器学习、自然语言处理和统计模型等技术，通过在大量语料库中学习和分析语言规律，实现文字、词语或语句的自动翻译。
机器翻译的发展正在不断提升质量和效率，但由于语言的复杂性和文化差异，目前机器翻译仍然无法完全替代人工翻译。
5. 口译翻译：口译翻译是一种将口头语言转换为另一种口头语言的翻译形式。
口译翻译通常在现场进行，例如会议、谈判、演讲等场合。
口译翻译需要翻译者有较强的听觉和口头表达能力，能够在短时间内迅速理解和转达讲话内容。
口译翻译的能力对于语言表达流利度、准确度和语言风格匹配度有很高的要求。
总结起来，翻译概念包括语言翻译、文化翻译、专业翻译、机器翻译和口译翻译。
每种翻译概念都有其独特的特点和要求，翻译者需要具备相应的语言能力、文化理解、专业知识和技能才能进行有效的翻译工作。
翻译学基本概念
传译/转移transferral/transfer误解misunderstanding误译mis-translation异化foreignization/alienation/exoticization/ exogenization/source-oriented translation 归化domestication/naturalization/adaptation/endogenization/target-accommodating translation词汇空缺lexical gap文化沟(空缺/非对应)cultural gap直译literal translation/direct translation意译free translation/liberal translation/semantic translation直译派a literalist/a sourcerer意译派a free-hander/a targeteer重复法repetition增译法/增词法/增译amplification/addition减译法/减词法/省略法/省译omission词类转移法/词性转换conversion反译法/正反译法/反正译法negation移植法transplant(ing)/transplantation音译法transliteration具体化specification概括化generalization抽象化abstracting明析化explicitation译借(语义转借)calque(loan translation)加注法annotation夹注intratextual note脚注footnote尾注/文后注endnote注释性翻译annotated/commented translation释义法/解释法explanation/paraphrase引申法extension替代法substitution/replacement借用borrowing推演法deduction缀合法combination分译法division逆序法/倒置法reversing合译法combination综合法mixture of methods包孕embedding切断/分切cutting拆离splitting-off插入inserting重组recasting回译back translation复原法finding out the original原汁原味essence of the original, original flavor词序调整inversion选词diction补偿compensation视点转换shift of perspective套译/仿译/仿拟imitation信/忠实faithfulness/fidelity达/易懂intelligibility/expressiveness通顺smoothness流畅fluency自然naturalness /idiomaticity雅/优美elegance/gracefulness简洁brevity明析clarity简明conciseness内涵connotation含义implication言外之意allocution本文意义(文本固有之意)inherent meaning (of the text)译者隐形translator’s invisibility透明(度)transparency宁信而不顺(鲁迅语) rahter to be faithful than smooth (“I’d rather be faithful than smooth〞)神似(傅雷语) spiritual resemblance化境(sublimation信、达、切(刘重德语)faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness (to the original style)三美: 音美,形美,意美(许渊冲语)the three beauties: beauty in sound, beauty in form and beauty in meaning东方语言Oriental languages西方语言Occidental languages佛经Buddhist Scriptures/sutra梵语Sanskrit鸠摩罗什Kumarajiva泰特勒(Alexander Fraser )Tytler奈达(Eugene A.) Nida机器翻译machine translation(MT)人工智能artificial intelligence(AI)翻译translate, render, rephrase, reword, transmit, re-express, transmute, transmogrify, interpret, convert, transform, transpose, express, transfer, turn翻译学translatology/Translation Studies翻译体/翻译腔translationese死译/硬译mechanical translation逐字译word-for-word translation/word-to-word substitution/verbatim translation 乱译/胡译excessively free translation歪译(意义扭曲)distortion惯用法usage搭配collocation约定俗成convention形合hypotaxis意合parataxis。
(完整版)翻译理论
《翻译》课程理论汇编（基本概念）1.1 翻译的概念一般地，我们将翻译定义为：将一种语言（口语或笔语形式）（译出语）转换或创造为另一种语言（译入语）。
翻译是一种非常复杂的人类高级语言活动，这种活动的整个过程是很难以图示、语言等其他方式阐释清楚的。
不同领域、不同派别的学者对翻译有着不同的定义。
1.1.1 语言学家对翻译的定义语言学家将翻译视为一种语言活动，同时认为，翻译理论属于语言学的一个部分，即研究译出语和译入语的转换关系。
解释如下：（1）Catford（1965：20）认为，翻译是译出语和译入语间的文本等效转换。
（2）Nida 和Taber（1969：12）认为，翻译是译出语和译入语间意义和形式上的最紧密联系转换。
（3）Newmark（1982/1988：5）认为，翻译理论源自于比较语言学，属于语义学的一部分，而所有语义学的研究课题都与翻译理论息息相关。
1.1.2 文化角度对翻译的定义从文化角度来看，翻译不仅仅是语言符号的转换，同时是文化的交流，尤其是“文化间交流”。
通常我们把这一术语又改称为“文化间合作”或“跨文化交际”等。
Shuttleworth 和Cowie（1997：35）认为，与其说翻译是两种语言之间的符号转换，不如说是两种语言所代表的两种文化间的转换。
译者在处理涉及语言文化方面的译务工作时，认为任何一种语言中都饱含着其文化中的相关元素（比如：语言中的问候语、固定搭配等），任何文本都存在于特定的文化环境中，同时，由于各语言所代表的多元文化差异很大，语言间的转化和创造性生成模式千变万化。
Nida 认为，对于一个成功的翻译工作者而言，掌握两种文化比掌握两种语言更为重要，因为语言中的词汇只有在特定的语言文化环境中才能具有正确的、合乎文化背景的义项。
王佐良先生指出（1989），翻译不仅涉及语言问题，也涉及文化问题。
译者不仅要了解外国的文化，还要深入了解自己民族的文化。
不仅如此，还要不断的将两种文化加以比较，因为真正的对等应该是在各自文化中的含义、作用、范围、感情色彩、影响等等都是相当的。
翻译如何入门知识点总结
翻译如何入门知识点总结翻译是一门充满挑战的艺术和技能，它不仅要求译者有深厚的语言功底，还要求译者对不同领域有一定的了解和掌握，更重要的是要有耐心和细心。
对于初学者来说，学习翻译需要从基础知识开始，逐步加深理解并不断练习。
下面将从翻译的基本概念、步骤和技巧等方面总结入门知识点，帮助初学者快速入门。
一、基本概念1. 翻译的定义翻译是将一种语言的文字或口语表达转换为另一种语言的过程。
它不仅仅是简单的语言转换，更多的是要求译者要准确地理解原文的意思，并用目标语言恰当地表达出来。
2. 翻译的分类翻译可以分为口译和笔译两种形式。
口译是指将口语进行翻译，而笔译则是将书面文字进行翻译。
根据翻译的领域不同，又可以分为文学翻译、商务翻译、科技翻译等多种类型。
3. 翻译的特点翻译具有跨文化交流的特点，它需要译者具备良好的语言能力和跨文化交流能力。
此外，翻译还要求译者具备良好的解释能力和逻辑思维能力，以便准确表达原文意思。
二、翻译的步骤1. 理解原文翻译的第一步是要仔细阅读和理解原文的内容。
译者应该尽量准确地理解原文的语言和文化背景，把握原文的主旨和要表达的意思。
2. 查找词典和资料在翻译过程中，译者可能会遇到一些不熟悉或难以理解的词语和表达方式，这时就需要查找相关的词典和资料，帮助理解和翻译。
3. 选择合适的译文在理解原文的基础上，译者需要选择合适的译文表达出来。
译文要求准确、通顺、地道，符合目标语言的表达习惯。
4. 逐句翻译译者可以根据原文的结构和逻辑，逐句进行翻译。
在这个过程中，译者需要不断调整和修改译文，保证其准确和通顺。
5. 校对和修改翻译完成后，译者需要进行校对和修改。
通过反复比对原文和译文，检查是否有疏漏和错误，保证译文的准确性和通顺性。
三、翻译的技巧1. 保持灵活翻译过程中，译者需要保持灵活的思维和表达方式。
有时候原文的表达方式可能与目标语言有所差异，译者需要灵活运用语言，使译文更为贴切和地道。
2. 注意语言的风格不同的文体和不同的领域有不同的语言风格，在翻译过程中，译者需要注意语言的风格和用词习惯，力求表达出与原文相同的语言特点。
第一章 翻译的基本概念与知识
第一章翻译的基本概念与知识Part l．翻译溯源1．1唐时期的佛经翻译早在西汉哀帝时期，有个叫伊存的人到中国来口传一些简短的佛教经句但不是真正意义的佛经翻译。
西汉武帝时期张骞出使西域，接触了佛经，从此，拉开了佛经翻译的序幕。
佛经的翻译正式始于东汉桓帝建和二年。
波斯人安世高翻译了《安般守意经》等三十多部经书；竺法护翻译了175部经书，对佛教的流传作出了巨大的贡献。
此外，安清、支亮、支谦等在当时也很有必要名气。
东晋到隋时期的翻译事业有了进一步的发展。
道安主持译场，严格主张直译，还请来印度人鸠摩罗什Kumarajiva。
鸠摩罗什一改古直风格，主张意译，译著有《金刚经》、《法华经》等三百余卷，为我国的翻译文学奠定了基础。
南北朝时期的印度学者真谛Paramartha翻译了《摄大乘论》等49部经论，对中国的佛教思想有较大的影响。
唐朝，是我国佛经翻译的鼎盛时期，翻译大家玄奘在唐太宗贞观二年去印度取经，历时间17年，带回佛经657部，《西游记》A Pilgrimage to the West便是以他的取经经历为蓝本的。
在19年里，共翻译山75部佛经，多达1335卷，1300多万字。
他不仅把佛经翻译成汉语，而且是将老子著作翻译成梵文，他是将汉语著作介绍给外国人的中国第一人。
1．2明清时期翻译明未有许多有志之士认识到西方科学的先进，立志引进西学，其中，徐光启贡献最大。
他与意大利传教士利马竇，M. Ricci合译了欧几里得《几何学》。
清朝在各地专设翻译出版机构，西方流行的政治学说与文化艺术大规模地传进中国。
贡献较人的有晚清的严复，他在13年期间翻译了一些西方政治经济学说，如赫胥黎(T.H．Huxley)著的《天演论》Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays、亚当·斯密(A. Smith)著的《原富》An Inquiry Into the Nature and Cause of the Wealth of Nations、约翰·穆勒(J．s．Mill)著的《群己权界论》On Liberty 及甄克思E. Jenks著的A History of Politics《社会通诠》等。
翻译的基本概念
整个天空点缀着繁星，快活地扎眼。天 河那么清楚地显现出来，就好像有人在 过节以前用雪把它擦洗过似的。 天上闪耀着光明的亮星，牛奶路很白， 好像是礼拜日用雪擦洗过的一样。 ----赵景深译
3.3 异化（dissimilation) 和归化 （domestication) 异化：转达原文意思的时候，是译文的表达形 式和句法结构尽量同原文一致起来，能完全对 等的就完全对等，不能完全对等的也要大致对 等。 优点：保留的原文的文化意象，目的是使译文 保持原文的语言风格，向译文读者介绍源语文 化，并丰富译入语及文化。 ----Venuti, Lawrence. 1995. The translator’s Invisibility. London: Routledge.
化境论(fairy)：把作品从一国文字转变成 另一国文字，既能不因语文习惯的差异 而露出生硬牵强的痕迹，又能完全保存 原作的风味，那就算得入于化境。 钱钟书 《林纾的翻译》
The whole sky spangled gay twinkling stars, and the Milky Way is as distinct as though it had been washed and rubbed with snow for holiday. ----英著名俄罗斯古典文学家翻译 家加内特夫人（Garnet Constance) 译契 科夫《樊凯》
In this example “a cultural unit” means “一个文化单元” in Chinese, and is not what the Chinese people called “文化单 位 ,” which should correctly be translated into “a historical site.”
翻译的基本概念(revised)
Some Basic Concepts of TranslationI．Some controversial issues：1.literal translation vs. free translation 直译还是意译2.functional equivalence vs. formal correspondence 功能对等还是形式对应3.content vs. form 重内容还是重形式4.source-oriented vs. target-oriented 靠近原语还是靠近译入语5.author-centered vs. reader-centered 以原作者为中心还是以译入语读者为中心6.the purpose of the author vs. the purpose of the translator 原作者写作的目的还是译者翻译的目的II．THE METHODS(Peter Newmark)1. Word-for-word translation （逐字翻译）This is often demonstrated as interlinear translation, with the TL immediately below the SL words. The SL word-order is preserved and the words translated singly by their most common meanings, out of context. Cultural words are translated literally. The main use of word-for-word translation is either to understand the mechanics of the source language or to construe a difficult text as a pre-translation process.2. Literal translation （直译）The SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents but the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context. As a pre-translation process, this indicates the problems to be solved.3. Faithful translation （忠实翻译）A faithful translation attempts to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures. It …transfers‟cultural words and preserves the degree of grammatical and lexical …abnormality‟ (deviation from SL norms) in the translation. It attempts to be completely faithful to the intentions and the text-realisation of the SL writer.4. Semantic translation （语义翻译）Semantic translation differs from …faithful translation‟only in as far as it must take more account of the aesthetic value (that is, the beautiful and natural sound) of the SL text, compromising on …meaning‟where appropriate so that no assonance, word-play or repetition jars in the finished version. Further, it may translate less important cultural words by culturally neutral third or functional terms but not by cultural equivalents-une nonne repassant un corporal may become …a nun ironing a corporal cloth‟–and it may make other small concessions to the readership. The distinction between …faithful‟and …semantic‟translation is that the first is uncompromising and dogmatic, while the second is more flexible, admits the creative exception to 100% fidelity and allows for the translator‟s intuitive empathy with the original.5. Adaptation （改写）This is the …freest‟ form of translation. It is used mainly for plays (comedies) and poetry; the themes, characters, plots are usually preserved, the SL culture converted to the TL culture and the text rewritten. The deplorable practice of having a play or poem literally translated and then rewritten by an established dramatist or poet has produced many poor adaptations, but other adaptations have …rescued‟ period plays.6. Free translation （自由翻译）Free translation reproduces the mater without the manner, or the content without the form of the original. Usually it is a paraphrase much longer than the original, a so-called …intralingual translation‟, often prolix and pretentious, and not translation at all.7. Idiomatic translation （习语翻译）Idiomatic translation reproduces the …message‟of the original but tends to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in the original. (Authorities as diverse as Seleskovitch and Stuart Gilbert tend to this form of lively, …natural‟translation.8. Communicative translation （交流翻译）Communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership.III．The nature of translating(Nida)“Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.”1.Reproducing the messageTranslating must aim primarily at “reproducing the message”. To do anything else is essentially false to one‟s task as a translator. But to reproduce the message one must make a good many grammatical and lexical adjustments.2.Equivalence rather than identityThe translator must strive for equivalence rather than identity. In a sense, this is just another way of emphasizing the reproduction of the message rather than the conservation of the form of the utterance.3. A natural equivalentThe best translation does not sound like a translation. That is to say, it should studiously avoid “translationese”—formal fidelity, with resulting unfaithfulness to the contentand the impact of the message.4.The closest equivalentA conscientious translator will want the closest natural equivalent. It has been argued ,for example, that in present-day English a natural equivalent of “demon-possessed”would be “ mentally distressed.” This might be regarded by some as a natural equivalent, but it is certainly not the “closest equivalent”.5.The priority of meaningAs it has already been indicated in the definition of translating, meaning must be given priority, for it is the content of the message which is of prime importance for translating.This means that certain rather radical departures from the formal structure are not only legitimate but may even be highly desirable.6.The significance of styleThough style is secondary to content, it is nevertheless important. One should not translate poetry as though it were prose, nor expository material as though it were straight narrative. …It is usually quite impossible to represent some of the stylistic subtleties of the original.IV. Language Functions, Text-categories and Text-types(Peter Newmark)Three main functions:1.The expressive function （表达功能）The core of the expressive function is the mind of the speaker, the writer, the originator of the utterance. He uses the utterance to express his feelings irrespective of any response.The characteristic …expressive‟ text-types are:1)Serious imaginative literature: lyrical poetry, short stories, novels, plays.2)Authoritative statements: political speeches, documents etc; statutes and legaldocuments; scientific, philosophical and …academic‟ works written by acknowledgedauthorities.3)Autobiography, essays, personal correspondence.2.The informative function （信息功能）The core of informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories.Typical …informative‟ texts are concerned with any topic of knowledge, but texts about literary subjects, as they often express value-judgments, are apt to lean towards …expressiveness‟. The format of an informative text is often standard: a textbook, atechnical report, an article in a newspaper or a periodical, a scientific paper, a thesis, minutes or agenda of a meeting.3.The vocative function （呼唤功能）The core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee. The term …vocative‟ is used in the sense of …calling upon‟ the readership to act, think or feel, in fact to …react‟ in the way intended by the text.We take notices, instructions, publicity, propaganda, persuasive writing and possibly popular fiction, whose purpose is to sell the book/entertain the reader, as the typical …vocative‟ text.However, few texts are purely expressive, informative or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three.V. Koller (1979) proposes a checklist for translationally relevant text analysis under the headings of:1. language fuction;2. content characteristics;3. language-stylistic characteristics;4. formal-aesthetic characteristics;6. pragmatic characteristisVI. Tytler’s three general ‘laws’ or ‘rules’ for translation(1797)1. The translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work.2. The style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of theoriginal.3. The translation should have all the ease of the original composition.VII. Nida’s ‘four basic requirements of a translation’:1.making sense;2.conveying the spirit and manner of the original;3.having a natural and easy form of expression;4.producing a similar response.Naturalness is a key requirement for Nida.For Nida，the success of a translation depends above all on achieving equivalentresponse.Nida underlines that …correspondence in meaning must have priority overcorrespondence in style‟, if equivalent effect is to be achieved.IIX. Vinary and Darbelnet’s model(2000)The two strategies they identified (literal/free) comprise seven procedures, of which direct translation covers three:1.Borrowing: The SL word is transferred directly to the TL.2.Calque: This is a special kind of borrowing where the SL expression or structure istransferred in a literal translation. Eg. summit meeting <> 峰会3.Literal translation: This is a …word-for-word‟translation, which Vinary and Darbelnetdescribes as being most common between languages of the same family.4.Transposition: This is a change of one part of speech for another without changing thesense. Vinary and Darbelnet see transposition as the most “probably the most common structural change undertaken by translators”. They list at least ten categories, such as: verb to noun; adverb to verb ….5.Modulation: This changes the semantics and point of view of the SL. It can be:1)obligatory: e.g. “the time when”translates as “the moment where”in French (lemoment ou). “You‟ve had a narrow escape.”你真是死里逃生！2)optional: e.g. the reversal of point of view in “it is not difficult to show” translates as“显而易见”6.Equivalence: Vinary and Darbelnet use this term to refer to cases where languages describethe same situation by different stylistic or structural means. Equivalence is particularly useful in translating idioms and proverbs, e.g. as strong as a horse —> 壮如牛.7.Adaptation: This involves changing the cultural reference when a situation in the sourceculture does not exist in the target culture.IX. Polysystem TheoryA theory proposed by Even-Zohar to account for the behavior and evolution of literary SYSTEMS. The term denotes a stratified conglomerate (多层次的聚合) of interconnected elements, which changes and mutates (develop a new form) as these elements interact with each other.X. Other termsPragmatic translationA term used to refer to translation which pays attention not only to denotative meaning but also to “the way utterances are used in communicative situations and the way we interpret them in context.Receptor languageReceptor language is a term defined by Nida & Taber as “the language into which a message is translated from the source language.” It is basically synonymous with the term “target language.”Target languageTarget language is the standard term used to denote the language which is being translated into.Source languageSource language is the standard term describing the language in which the text being translated is written.InterpretingInterpreting is a term used to refer to the oral translation of a spoken message or text. Interpreting differs from translation in a number of important respects.1.The communication skills needed are clearly different. Interpreters need to be expert oralcommunicators.2.Interpreters are required to create a finished product in “real time” without the possibility ofgoing back and making revisions.3.Interpreters must ensure that any background knowledge which they are likely to need hasbeen acquired in advance.4.Interpreters are “performers” who are constantly making split-second decisions and takingcommunicative risks; consequently they typically experience higher stress levels while “on the job” than most translators.Relay interpretingRelay interpreting is a term used to refer to the practice of interpreting between two (usually less widely spoken) languages via a third.ShiftsThe term is originally defined by Catford as “departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL” (1965:73). The shifts described by Catford are therefore purely linguistic, being grammatical or lexical in nature.Toury (1980, 1995) further developed the notion of shifts, distinguishing two varieties, the obligatory (e.g. linguistically motivated) and the non-obligatory (e.g. motivated by literary or cultural considerations); the extent to which a TT contains non-obligatory shifts will determine whether its INITIAL NORM is one of ACCEPYABILITY or ADEQUACY.CompensationCompensation is a term in general use for a number of decades, and defined by Hervey & Higgins as “the technique of making up for the translation loss of important ST features by approximating their effects in the TT through means other than those used in the ST” (1992:248).Corpora (singular Corpus)Corpora is a term traditionally used in translation studies to refer to relatively small–scale collections of texts, (parts of ) which are searched manually for examples of features which are of interest.CorrespondenceCorrespondence is a term used to refer to the relationship which exists between elements of SL and TL that are in some way considered to be counterparts of each other. Correspondence is usually presented as a somewhat weaker notion than the perhaps more frequently encountered concept of EQUIV ALENCE (Hermans 1991:157).。
翻译概念
第一节翻译及其概念1.翻译翻译是语言活动的重要组成部分。
指把一种语言或语言变体的内容变为另一种语言或语言变体的过程或结果；或者可以说，把用一种语言材料构成的文本用另一种语言准确而完整地再现出来。
方梦之——《译学词典》（2004）中“翻译”一词有五个义项：（1）翻译过程；（2）翻译行为；（3）翻译者；（4）译文或译语；（5）翻译工作（专业）。
综合以上观点认为，“翻译”既可以作为过程，也可以作为结果和职业，同时它还兼指口译和笔译。
然而，通常翻译领域的学者给翻译下定义时，指的是整个抽象的概念，即包括过程和结果，而不包括职业。
定义：约翰·卡特福德（Catford 1965）翻译是用一种等值的语言（译语）的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料（等值替换）约翰逊博士（Dr. Samuel Johnson）翻译就是将一种语言换成另一种语言，保持原文意思不变（保持）尤金·奈达（Eugene A. Nida）翻译就是用接受语言复制出与原语信息最接近的自然等值体----首先是就意义而言，其次是就风格而言。
该定义体现了奈达的对等观。
奈达的归化理论主张关注目标语读者的阅读和审美习惯。
然而由于民族文化差异，语义和语体的对等很难实现。
（复制自然等值体）杜波斯（Dubois）翻译是把第一种语言（源语）语篇所表达的东西用第二种语言（目的语）重新表达出来，尽量保持语义与语体方面的等值。
（重新表达保持等值）罗曼·雅各布森（Roman Jakobson）翻译是用另一种语言解释原文的语言符号该定义从符号学的角度界定翻译，然而对翻译的目标、标准等未做深入阐释。
（解释）图瑞（Toury）翻译是在目标语文化的框架内把原文用目标语呈现出来该定义提出了目标语文化，使翻译研究的范畴从语言层面向文化层面拓展。
（目标语文化）哈提姆和梅森（Basil Hatim & Ian Mason）翻译是一种在某社会语境中发生的交际过程。
翻译基本概念
翻译基本概念Basic conceptsFill in the blanks with appropriate words. (10%)1. ADAPTATIONA TT where many textual modifications have been made, including modifications for a different audience. Adaptation involves modifying a cultural reference for the TT readership.2. BACK-TRANSLATIONA WORD-FOR-WORD translation of a TT back into the SL, often retaining the structure of the TT. This can be used to explain the translation PROCESS for an audience that does not understand the TL.3. CATEGORY SHIFTA translation at a different RANK in the TT (e.g. ST word by TT group).4. COMPENSATIONAn ADJUSTMENT technique resorted to with the COMPENSATION aim of making up for the LOSS of important ST features in translation with a gain at the same or other points in the TT.5. DYNAMIC EQUIVALENCEA translation which preserves the effect the ST had on its readers and which tries to elicit a similar response from the target reader.6. FAITHFUL(NESS), FIDELITYA general term, now less used in translation theory, which describes the close mirroring of ST sense by the TT.7. IDEOLOGYA body of ideas that reflects the beliefs and interests of anindividual, a group of individuals, a societal institution, etc., and that ultimately finds expression in language. See DISCOURSE.8. INTERTEXTUALITYA precondition for the intelligibility of texts, involving the dependence of one text upon another. Horizontal intertexuality involves direct reference to another text. Vertical intertexuality is more an allusion and can refer to a mode of writing, a STYLE, etc.9. INTERSEMIOTIC TRANSLATIONTranslation between the written word and another medium(e.g. music, art, photography).10. INTRALINGUAL TRANSLATIONTranslation within the same language (e.g. paraphrase or rewording).11. INVISIBILITYA term used by Venuti (1995) to describe translations which tend to be heavily domesticated (i.e. which conform to the expected linguistic and cultural patterns of the target culture).12. LITERAL TRANSLATIONA rendering which preserves surface aspects of the message both semantically and syntactically, adhering closely to ST mode of expression.13. LOCALIZATIONA term in commercial translation referring to making a product linguistically and culturally appropriate to the target country and language.14. RE-WRITINGMetalinguistic processes, including translation, which can be said to reinterpret, alter or generally manipulate text to serve a variety of ideological motives.15. SEMANTIC TRANSLATIONOne of two types of translation described by Newmark, the other being communicative translation. Semantic translation attempts to reproduce ST FORM and sense as precisely as possible while complying with the formal requirements of the TL.16. SHIFTA shift is said to occur if a ST element is rendered by a TL element that is different from the expected TL CORRESPONDENT. Shifts can occur at all levels, including TEXT, GENRE and DISCOURSE.17. TERTIUM COMPARATIONISA non-linguistic, intermediate form of the meaning of a ST and TT used for evaluation of sense TRANSFER.18. TRANSLATION MEMORY TOOLComputerized software which stores previous translations and assists in recycling them to achieve consistency and speed.19. TRANSLITERATIONThe letter-by-letter rendering of a SL name or word in the TL when the two languages have distinct scripts (e.g. Russian and English).20. The term “cultural turn” was first adopted by Andre Lefevere and refers to a shift that occurred in the field of translation studies around the 1980s. In this perspective, translation was no longer thought of as a linguistic activity that was done in isolation, but as the product of a broader cultural context that encompassed plural belief systems. Translation needs to be studied in connection with power and patronage, ideology and poetics, with emphasis on the various attempts to shore up or undermine an existing ideology or an existing poetics.21. The three criteria proposed by Yan Fu for translation are “faithfulness, expressiveness/fl uency, elegance/taste（信、达、雅)”.22. To overcome the sterile triadic translation model of literalism, paraphrase and free imitation（直译、释译、仿译）, Steiner defines translation as a hermeneutic activity that consists of four parts: trust, aggression, embodiment and restitution(信任、侵入、吸收、补偿).23. Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. It is a strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for target language readers.24. Foreignization means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, and making him or her see the differences. The foreignizing method is a non-fluent or estranging translation style designed to make visible the presence of the translator by highlighting the foreign identity of the ST and protecting it from the ideological dominance of the target culture.25. Interpretation of a verbal sign according to Roman Jakobson can happen in three ways: intralingual, interlingual and intersemiotic.You may have use for the following words or idioms:ChargeThe deceasedCompanygreenambitiousturn up one’s nose atfish in troubled watersa good sword never gets dullto cut the feet to fit the shoesblow at the hair to look for a moteput fine timber to petty usemake a mountain out of a molehillgo through fire and waterSwallow the insultcastle in the airone’s hair stand on endnot harm a hair on one’s headneither fish nor fowlfish in the airlive under one’s roofmake someone turn in his graveput someone in sb’s shoesadd insult to injurySENTENCE EXERCISES 1-5Translate the following sentences into Chinese. (20%) Translate the following sentences into English. (20%) Translate the following passage into Chinese (30%) Passage APassage BTranslate the following passage into English (20%)。
翻译基础词法翻译
目录
• 翻译基础概述 • 词法翻译基本概念 • 名词词法翻译 • 动词词法翻译 • 形容词与副词词法翻译 • 介词、连词与冠词词法翻译 • 总结回顾与拓展延伸
01
翻译基础概述
翻译定义与分类
翻译定义
翻译是将一种语言中的文本转换成另一种语言中的等效 文本的过程，涉及语言、文化和交际等多个方面。
04
动词词法翻译
动词时态与语态形式翻译
一般现在时
表示经常性或习惯性的动作，或客观事实 和普遍真理。在翻译时，通常翻译为“经 常”、“通常”、“总是”等。
被动语态
表示主语是动作的承受者。在翻译时，需 根据汉语表达习惯，灵活处理为“被”、 “由……所”、“受到”等。
一般过去时
表示过去某个时间里发生的动作或状态。 在翻译时，需根据上下文灵活处理，可翻 译为“曾经”、“以前”、“过去”等。
交流。
文化传承
翻译在文化传承中发挥着重要作用， 可以将不同文化的精髓和特色传递给
更广泛的人群。
知识传播
通过翻译，人们可以获取来自不同国 家和文化的知识和信息，促进知识的 传播和共享。
经济发展
随着全球化的深入发展，翻译在国际 贸易、商务洽谈等领域中的需求越来 越大，对经济发展的推动作用也日益 显著。
02
常见误区及避免方法
直译与意译的误区
避免过度直译或意译，根据语境 和表达习惯进行适当的调整，使 译文既忠实于原文又符合目标语
言的表达习惯。
文化差异的误区
注意源语言和目标语言之间的文 化差异，避免将源语言的文化特 色直接照搬到目标语言中，造成
文化冲突或误解。
专业术语的误区
对于专业领域的术语，要确保准 确理解和翻译，避免出现歧义或
翻译的基本概念
在翻译过程中，适当省略一些不必要 的词汇或短语，以使译文更加简洁、 明了。
词类转换与语序调整
词类转换
在翻译过程中，根据目标语言的表达习惯和语法规则，对原文中的词类进行适当的转换。
语序调整
在翻译过程中，根据目标语言的表达习惯和语法规则，对原文的语序进行适当的调整。
04
翻译中的难点与应对策略
文化差异的处理
VS
商务报告也是商务翻译中的重要一环。 商务报告是公司或机构为了向内部或 外部报告某项业务或项目的情况而撰 写的文件。在商务报告翻译中，译者 需要充分理解报告的内容和语言特点， 同时注重语言的简洁性和条理性，以 使读者能够快速了解报告的核心内容。
技术翻译案例
在技术翻译中，产品说明书是一个常见的领域。产品说明书是介绍产品功能、使用方法、注意事项等 信息的文件。在产品说明书翻译中，译者需要充分了解产品的特点和功能，同时注重语言的通俗性和 实用性，以确保用户能够正确使用产品。
专业翻译软件
专业术语
专业翻译软件通常针对特定领域或行业，提供更加准确和专业的 翻译服务。
高质量输出
专业翻译软件注重翻译的准确性和流畅性，确保输出的译文质量 较高。
定制化服务
专业翻译软件可以根据用户需求提供定制化的翻译服务，如个性 化术语库、专业排版等。
06
翻译实践与案例分析
文学翻译案例
《红楼梦》是清代作家曹雪芹所著的一部长篇小说，被誉为中国四大名著之一。该小说被翻译成多种语言，其中最著名的是 杨宪益和戴乃迭的英译本。在文学翻译中，译者需要充分理解原作的文化背景和深层含义，同时注重语言的流畅性和美感， 以传达原著的艺术价值。
修辞转换
在翻译过程中，对于一些修辞手法，如比喻、拟人等，需要进行适 当的转换，以使译文更加符合目标语言的表达习惯。
英语翻译的定义,范例讲解
第一章翻译的定义、分类、原则概述翻译是科学也是艺术。
然而并不是掌握了两种语言就能做好翻译。
要做好翻译，必须对翻译的基本概念和其设计的基本问题有所了解。
第一章旨在简要介绍翻译的基础知识，包括翻译的定义、分类、原则。
第一节翻译的定义和分类1.1 翻译的定义什么叫翻译？美国著名语言学家、翻译家和翻译理论家尤金·奈达（Eugene Nida）将翻译定义为：翻译是指用接受语（receptor language）复制源语（source language）信息的最近似的自然等值，首先在意义方面，其次在文体方面。
用比较通俗易懂的话讲，翻译就是指用一种语言把另一种语言所表达的思想内容准确而完整地表达出来的活动。
由翻译的定义可知，翻译是两种语言之间的转换活动，是信息、思想和文化的交流，是语言表达的艺术再创造，而不仅仅是文字上的对译。
（1914-2011）----翻译的预期目的主要是原文与译文在信息内容、说话方式、文体、风格、语言、文化、社会因素诸方面达到对等。
美国翻译理论家尤金·奈达指出：“翻译是两种文化之间的交流。
”我们著名翻译家王佐良先生曾说：“翻译最大的困难是什么呢？就是两种文化的不同。
在一种文化里头有一些不言而喻的东西，在另外一种文化里却要费很大力气加以解释。
”谭载喜教授也认为：“翻译的难与易，好与劣，与其说与语言有关，毋宁说主要与文化有关。
”翻译是源语文化与译语文化的共同行为，译著是源语文化与译语文化相互作用的结果。
翻译改造了文化异质，同时又保持了文化异质。
翻译所展示的文化既不是彻底的源语文化，又不是彻底的译语文化，而是一种具有本土化的异质文化，一种让读者既熟悉又陌生的文化。
所谓文化“传真”就是要求译语从文化意义的角度准确地再现源语文化所要传达的意义、形式与风格，它是文化翻译的基本准则。
示例拿红楼梦来说，就有许多不同的版本。
著名红学专家周汝昌说：“《红楼梦》是我们中华民族的一部古往今来、绝无仅有的‘文化小说’。
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翻译的性质、分类及对译者的要求
翻译是技能，译者需采用增词，减词，切分,转换等方法。
ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้
Besides, it’s also a craft, because in translation, certain skills and techniques are needed in order to attain clearness of style, and fluency in language. 从古今中外翻译家给翻译所下的定义中不难看出，翻译是一 种语言活动过程，又是该活动的结果。 翻译过程不仅涉及两种语言，而且还涉及两种社会文化。语 言是文化的载体。翻译是通过语言机制的转换连接或沟通自身文化 和异国文化的桥梁；翻译是具有不同语言文化背景的人互相交际、 交流思想、达到互相了解的媒介。
翻译的性质、分类及对译者的要求
(3) --- How much did you suffer? --- Plenty, the old man said. --- 你吃了多少苦？ --- 一言难尽,老头儿说. (4) However, such measures touch only the tip, but not address the basis of the problem. 然而，这样的措施只不过是碰了碰问题的尖端，并没有触及 问题的根源。 （原文中的 touch only the tip 译作“只不过是碰了碰问题 的尖端”，读起来文理不通、让人颇为费解，如译作“只不过 是蜻蜓点水”则言简意明、生动形象。
翻译的性质、分类及对译者的要求
丰富的文化知识。 丰富的文化知识。译者应该熟悉以英语为母语的国家的各种社会 文化，如历史、宗教、政治、地理、军事、外交、经济、文艺、 文化，如历史、宗教、政治、地理、军事、外交、经济、文艺、 科学、风土人情、民俗习惯等。 科学、风土人情、民俗习惯等。
(1)Then he was off to Columbia Business School , where he found his Rosetta Stone of investing. (Roger Lowenstein: An Unassuming Billionaire )
翻译的性质、分类及对译者的要求
What is the difference between a translator and a writer, or “reproducing” and “writing”?
In his talk on literary translation published in 1954 Guo Moruo pointed out, “ Translation is creative work. Good translation is as good as writing and may be even better than it. Sometimes translation is more difficult than writing. A writer must have experience in life, but a translator has to experience what the writer has experienced. At the same time, a translator must not only be proficient in his mother tongue but also have a very good foundation in a foreign language. Therefore, translation is not easier than writing at all.”
• 翻译的性质
翻译是科学，因为它涉及思维和语言,反映了存在与认识,主体与客体的 关系,这种关系可用受一定规律支配的语言加以描述,翻译有科学规律可 循,所以是科学。
Translation is a kind of science because it has a whole set of rules governing it and certain objective laws to go by in the process of translating just as other sciences do.
基本译学概念
黄山学院 程汕姗
翻译的性质、分类及对译者的要求
• 翻译的概念
1) The definition in the old days
唐朝贾公彦(618-907)在《义疏》中对翻译就作了明确的界定:“译即易, 谓换易言语使相解也。” 宋代法云(1088-1158)在其所编《翻译名义集》自序中进一步指出:“夫 翻译者，谓翻梵天之语转成汉地之言，音虽似别,义则大同。”这就是说， 将一种语言――源语（the source language）转换成另一种语言――目的语 （the target language）或曰接受语(the receptor language),而意义保持不 变化大抵保持不变。 著名英国学者约翰逊博士对翻译也做过类似的届说: To translate is “ to change into another language, retaining the sense”。
翻译的性质、分类及对译者的要求
译者的素养
扎实的语言基本功。译者应具有较强的驾驭译出语和译入语的能力， 扎实的语言基本功。译者应具有较强的驾驭译出语和译入语的能力， 能正确理解原文，熟练运用本族语。 能正确理解原文，熟练运用本族语。
(1)Millet made a portrait of Lady Chesterfield, which flattered her. 米勒为了逢迎柴斯特菲尔德夫人而替她画了一幅像。 （原文中的 flatter 意为 “ 超过 ”[to make better looking than the reality] ，将其译为 “ 逢迎 ” 是理解上 的错误。） 米勒给柴斯特菲尔德夫人画了一幅像，该像之美简直超过了她本 人。 (2) Have you found the mouse-ear? 你找到沼泽勿忘草了吗？
翻译的性质、分类及对译者的要求
翻译的种类
翻译是一种特殊的社会活动。它虽属个体或小团体行为， 但却永远服从社会的需求、听命于民族的召唤、受制于译者的 主观意志以及读者的殷切期盼。翻译活动的范围广泛、内容丰 富，如从不同的角度去观察，就会划分出以下不同的翻译种类：
从译出语 (source language) 和译入语（ target/ receptor language ）角度来看，翻译可分为本族语译为外语，外语译为本 族语两大类。 从翻译的题材来看，翻译可分为专业性翻译 (specialized subject translation) （如翻译法律、科技文献、专业学术论著、 因特网语言等）、文学翻译 (literary translation) （如翻译 小说、诗歌、散文、戏剧等文学作品）和一般性翻译 (general translation) （如翻译各种应用文和新闻报道等）。
翻译的性质、分类及对译者的要求
2) The current definition Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. ( From The Theory and Practice of Translation, Nida & Taber ，1969 ， P.12)
黄龙也有几点说明：（1）文本材料（textual material）用以强调，在 通常情况下，替代的不是原语文本的全部成分，如句法和词法的改变； （2）翻译实践的中心问题是在目的语中找源出语的对等物 （equivalents）。翻译理论研究的中心任务是确定对等的性质和条件。
翻译的性质、分类及对译者的要求
奈达(Eugene.A.Nida)的论述是:“翻译是指从语义到文体在译语中用最切近而 又最自然的对等语再现原文的信息。”
（1）再现原文的信息（message）而不是保留原文的结构形式（formal structure）； （2）意义是优先考虑的因素； （3）对等（equivalence）不是同一（indentity）； （4）对等是最贴近、自然的对等； （5）文体成分虽居其次，但也是十分重要。
翻译的性质、分类及对译者的要求
Writers can decide: 1) what to write (content) 2) whom to write to 3) how to write But a translator can’t decide these, so a translator must: avoid the things of your own, such as your feeling or culture. break the barriers between two languages and cultures, and bridge the gap between the two. 翻译是一项艰苦的创造性实践活动。它形成于社会、文化 和语言现实之中，同时又为促进社会、文化和语言发展服务。 “翻译并不比随便的创作容易，然而于新文学的发展却更有功， 于大家更有益。”“真正精妙的翻译，其可宝贵，实不在创作 之下；而真正精妙的翻译，其艰难实倍于创作。”
翻译是艺术，因为翻译是译者对原文再创造的过程。译者不可避免地带 有自己的主观色彩，有他自己的独创性。
Translation is also an art, a bilingual art. Like painting, translation enables us to reproduce the fine thought of somebody, not in colors, but in words, in words of a different language.