会计专业财务会计中英文对照外文翻译文献
财务管理财务分析中英文对照外文翻译文献
覆盖大量的可供选择的债券工具。由于债券市场的改革，出现了由企业发行的可供选择形式的债券工具。在第15章中，向你介绍了三种工具。我们然后致力于第一章提出的由企业负债发行的最具流动性的可供选择企业债券，企业首次发行的资产有价证券。
(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
附录A
财务管理和财务分析作为财务学科中应用工具。本书的写作目的在于交流基本的财务管理和财务分析。本书用于那些有能力的财务初学者了解财务决策和企业如何做出财务决策。
通过对本书的学习，你将了解我们是如何理解财务的。我们所说的财务决策作为公司所做决策的一部分，不是一个被分离出来的功能。财务决策的做出协调了企业会计部、市场部和生产部。
1财务管理与分析的介绍
财务是经济学原理的应用的概念，用于商业决策和问题的解决。财务被认为有三部分组成：财务管理，投资，和金融机构：
■财务管理有时被称为公司理财或者企业理财。财务的范围就企业单位的财务决策的重要性划分的。财务管理决策包括保持现金流平衡，延长信用，获得其他公司借款，银行的借款和发行股票和基金。
覆盖项目租赁和项目资金融资。我们提供深度的项目租赁的内容在本书的第27章，阐明项目租赁的利弊，你在本书中会频繁的看到和专业的项目资金融资。项目融资的增长十分重要不仅对企业而言，对为了追求发展基础设施的国家也十分的重要。在第28章，本书提供了便于理解项目融资的基本原理。
早期介绍衍生工具。衍生工具（期货、交换物、期权）在理财中发挥着重要作用。在第4章向你介绍这些工具。而衍生工具被看作是复杂的工具，通过介绍将让你明确它们的基础投资工具特征。在早期介绍的衍生工具时，你可以接受那些评估隐含期权带来的困难（第9章）那些在资本预算中隐含的期权（第14章），以及如何运用隐含期权来减少成本及负债（第15章）。
会计准则外文文献翻译-财务会计专业
会计准那么外文文献及翻译-财务会计专业(含：英文原文及中文译文)文献出处：Buschhüter M, Striegel A. IAS 37 – Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets[M]// Kommentar Internationale Rechnungslegung IFRS. Gabler, 2021:955-974.英文原文Accounting Standard (AS) 37Contingent Liabilities and Contingent AssetsBuschhüter M, Striegel AThis International Accounting Standard was approved by the IASC Board in July 1998 and became effective for financial statements covering periods beginning on or after 1 July 1999.Introduction1. IAS 37 prescribes the accounting and disclosure for all provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets, except:(a) those resulting from financial instruments that are carried at fair value;(b) those resulting from executory contracts, except where the contract is onerous. Executory contracts are contracts under which neither party has performed any of its obligations or both parties have partially performed their obligations to an equal extent;(c) those arising in insurance enterprises from contracts with policyholders;(d) those covered by another International Accounting Standard. Provisions2. The Standard defines provisions as liabilities of uncertain timing or amount. A provision should be recognised when, and only when:(a) an enterprise has a present obligation (legal or constructive) as a result of a past event; (b) it is probable (i.e. more likely than not) that an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits will be required to settle the obligation;(c) a reliable estimate can be made of the amount of the obligation. The Standard notes that it is only in extremely rare cases that a reliable estimate will not be possible.3. The Standard defines a constructive obligation as an obligation that derives from an enterprise's actions where:(a) by an established pattern of past practice, published policies or a sufficiently specific current statement, the enterprise has indicated to other parties that it will accept certain responsibilities; (b) as a result, the enterprise has created a valid expectation on the part of those other parties that it will discharge those responsibilities.4. In rare cases, for example in a law suit, it may not be clear whether an enterprise has a present obligation. In these cases, a past event is deemed to give rise to a present obligation if, taking account of all available evidence, it is more likely than not that a present obligation exists at thebalance sheet date. An enterprise recognises a provision for that present obligation if the other recognition criteria described above are met. If it is more likely than not that no present obligation exists, the enterprise discloses a contingent liability, unless the possibility of an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits is remote.5. The amount recognized as a provision should be the best estimate of the expenditu required to settle the present obligation at the balance sheet date, in other words, the amount that an enterprise would rationally pay to settle the obligation at the balance sheet date or to transfer it to a third party at that time.6. The Standard requires that an enterprise should, in measuring a provision: (a) take risks and uncertainties into account. However, uncertainty does not justify the creation of excessive provisions or a deliberate overstatement of liabilities;(b) discount the provisions, where the effect of the time value of money is material, using a pre-tax discount rate (or rates) that reflect(s) current market assessments of the time value of money and those risks specific to the liability that have not been reflected in the best estimate of the expenditure. Where discounting is used, the increase in the provision due to the passage of time is recognised as an interest expense;(c) take future events, such as changes in the law and technological changes, into account where there is sufficient objective evidence thatthey will occur; and(d) not take gains from the expected disposal of assets into account, even if the expected disposal is closely linked to the event giving rise to the provision.7. An enterprise may expect reimbursement of some or all of the expenditure required to settle a provision (for example, through insurance contracts, indemnity clauses or suppliers' warranties). An enterprise should:(a) recognise a reimbursement when, and only when, it is virtually certain that reimbursement will be received if the enterprise settles the obligation. The amount recognised for the reimbursement should not exceed the amount of the provision; and(b) recognise the reimbursement as a separate asset. In the income statement, the expense relating to a provision may be presented net of the amount recognised for a reimbursement. 8. Provisions should be reviewed at each balance sheet date and adjusted reflect thecurrent best estimate. If it is no longer probable that an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits will be required to settle the obligation, the provisioshould be reversed.9. A provision should be used only for expenditures for which the provision was originally recognised.Provisions - Specific Applications10. The Standard explains how the general recognition and measurement requirements for provisions should be applied in three specific cases: future operating losses; onerous contracts; and restructurings. Contingent Liabilities11. An enterprise should not recognise a contingent liability. , unless the12. A contingent liability is disclosed, as required by paragraph 86possibility of an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits is remote.13. Where an enterprise is jointly and severally liable for an obligation, the part of tobligation that is expected to be met by other parties is treated as a contingentThe enterprise recognises a provision for the part of the obligation for which an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits is probable, except in the extremely rare circumstances where no reliable estimate can be made.14. Contingent liabilities may develop in a way not initially expected. Therefore, theare assessed continually to determine whether an outflow of resources embodying probable. If it becomes probable that an outflow of economic benefits has become future economic benefits will be required for an item previously dealt with as a contingent liability, a provision is recognised in the financial statements of the period in which the change in probability occurs (except in the extremely rare circumstances where no reliable estimate can be made).Contingent Assets15. An enterprise should not recognise a contingent asset.16. Contingent assets usually arise from unplanned or other unexpected events that give rise to the possibility of an inflow of economic benefits to the enterprise. An example is a claim that an enterprise is pursuing through legal processes, where the outcome is uncertain. 17. Contingent assets are not recognised in financial statements since this may result in the recognition of income that may never be realised. However, when the realisation of income is virtually certain, then the related asset is not a contingent asset and its recognition is appropriate. 18. A contingent asset is disclosed, as required by paragraph 89 economic benefits is probable.19. Contingent assets are assessed continually to ensure that developments are appropriately reflected in the financial statements. If it has become virtually certain that an inflow of economic benefits will arise, the asset and the related income are recognised in the financial statements of the period in which the change occurs. If an inflow of economic benefits has become probable, an enterprise discloses the contingent asset.Measurement20. The amount recognised as a provision should be the best estimate of the expenditure required to settle the present obligation at the balance sheet date.21. The best estimate of the expenditure required to settle the present obligation is the amount that an enterprise would rationally pay to settle the obligation at the balance sheet date or to transfer it to a third party at that time. It will often be impossible or prohibitively expensive to settle or transfer an obligation at the balance sheet date. However, the estimate of the amount that an enterprise would rationally pay to settle or transfer the obligation gives the best estimate of the expenditure required to settle the present obligation at the balance sheet date. 22. The estimates of outcome and financial effect are determined by the judgement of the management of the enterprise, supplemented by experience of similar transactions and, in some cases, reports from independent experts. The evidence considered23. Uncertainties surrounding the amount to be recognised as a provision are dealt with by various means according to the circumstances. Where the provision being measured involves a large population of items, the obligation is estimated by weighting all possible outcomes by their associated probabilities. The name for thistatistical method of estimation is 'expected value'. The provision will therefore be different depending on whether the probability of a loss of a given amount is, for example, 60 per cent or 90 per cent. Where there is a continuous range of possible outcomes, and each point in that range is as likely as any other, the mid-point of thrange is used. 24. Where a single obligation is beingmeasured, the individual most likely outcome may be the best estimate of the liability. However, even in such a case, the enterprise considers other possible outcomes. Where other possible outcomes are either mostly higher or mostly lower than the most likely outcome, the best estimate will be a higher or lower amount. For example, if an enterprise has to rectify a serious fault in a major plant that it has constructed for a customer, the individual most likely outcome may be for the repair to succeed at the first attempt at a cost of1,000, but a provision for a larger amount is made if there is a significant chance that further attempts will be necessary.25. The provision is measured before tax, as the tax consequences of the provision, , Income Taxes. and changes in it, are dealt with under IAS 12,Income Taxes.Risks and Uncertainties26. The risks and uncertainties that inevitably surround many events and the best estimate of a circumstances should be taken into account in reachin the best estmeate of a provision.27. Risk describes variability of outcome. A risk adjustment may increase the amount at which a liability is measured. Caution is needed in making judgements under conditions of uncertainty, so that income or assets are not overstated and expenses or liabilities are not understated. However, uncertainty does not justify the creation of excessive provisions or adeliberate overstatement of liabilities. For example, if the projected costs of a particularly adverse outcome are estimated on a prudent basis, that outcome is not then deliberately treated as more probable than is realistically the case. Care is needed to avoid duplicating adjustments for risk and uncertainty with consequent overstatement of a provision. Present Value28. Where the effect of the time value of money is material, the amount ofa provision should be the present value of the expenditures expected to be required to settle the obligation.29. The discount rate (or rates) should be a pre-tax rate (or rates) that reflect(s) current market assessments of the time value of money and the risks specific to the liability. The discount rate(s) should not reflect risks for which future cash flow estimates have been adjusted. Future Events 30. Future events that may affect the amount required to settle an obligation should be reflected in the amount of a provision where there is sufficient objective evidence that they will occur.31. Expected future events may be particularly important in measuring provisions. For example, an enterprise may believe that the cost of cleaning up a site at the end of its life will be reduced by future changes in technology. The amount recognised reflects a reasonable expectation of technically qualified, objective observers, taking account of all available evidence as to the technology that will be available at the time of theclean-up. Thus it is appropriate to include, for example, expected cost reductions associated with increased experience in applying existing technology or the expected cost of applying existing technology to a larger or more complex clean-up operation than has previously been carried out. However, an enterprise does not anticipate the new technology for cleaning up unless it is supported by development of a completel sufficient objective evidence.32. The effect of possible new legislation is taken into consideration in measuring an existing obligation when sufficient objective evidence exists that the legislation is virtually certain to beenacted. The variety of circumstances that arise in practice makes it impossible to specify a single event that will provide sufficient, objective evidence in every case. Evidence is required both of what legislation will demand and of whether it is virtually certain to be enacted and implemented in due course. In many cases sufficient objective evidence will not exist until the new legislation is enacted.Expected Disposal of Assets33. Gains from the expected disposal of assets should not be taken into account in measuring a provision.34. Gains on the expected disposal of assets are not taken into account in measuring a provision, even if the expected disposal is closely linked to the event giving rise to the provision. Instead, an enterprise recognisesgains on expected disposals of assets at the time specified by the International Accounting Standard dealing with the assets concerned. Reimbursements35. Where some or all of the expenditure required to settle a provision is expected to be reimbursed by another party, the reimbursement should be recognised when, and only when, it is virtually certain that reimbursement will be received if the enterprise settles the obligation. The reimbursement should be treated as a separate asset. The amount recognised for the reimbursement should not exceed the amount of the provision.36. In the income statement, the expense relating to a provision may be presented net of the amount recognised for a reimbursement.37. Sometimes, an enterprise is able to look to another party to pay part or all of the expenditure required to settle a provision (for example, through insurance contracts, indemnity clauses or suppliers' warranties). The other party may either reimburse amounts paid by the enterprise or pay the amounts directly.38. In most cases the enterprise will remain liable for the whole of the amount in question so that the enterprise would have to settle the full amount if the third party failed to pay for any reason. In this situation, a provision is recognised for the full amount of the liability, and a separate asset for the expected reimbursement is recognised when it is virtuallycertain that reimbursement will be received if the enterprise settles the liability.39. In some cases, the enterprise will not be liable for the costs in question if the third party fails to pay. In such a case the enterprise has no liability for those costs and they are not included in the provision.40. As noted in paragraph 29,severally liable is a contingent liability to the extent that it is expected that the obligation will be settled by the other parties.Changes in Provisions41. Provisions should be reviewed at each balance sheet date and adjusted to reflect the current best estimate. If it is no longer probable that an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits will be required to settle the obligation, the provision should be reversed.42. Where discounting is used, the carrying amount of a provision increases in each period to reflect the passage of time. This increase is recognised as borrowing cost.Use of Provisions43. A provision should be used only for expenditures for which the provision was originally recognised.44. Only expenditures that relate to the original provision are set against it. Setting expenditures against a provision that was originally recognised for another purpose would conceal the impact of two different events.Future Operating Losses45. Provisions should not be recognised for future operating losses.46. Future operating losses do not meet the definition of a liability in paragraph 10.the general recognition criteria set out for provisions in paragraph 1447. An expectation of future operating losses is an indication that certain assets of the operation may be impaired. An enterprise tests these assets for impairment under IAS 36, Impairment of Assets.Onerous Contracts48. If an enterprise has a contract that is onerous, the present obligation under the contract should be recognised and measured as a provision. 49. Many contracts (for example, some routine purchase orders) can be cancelled without paying compensation to the other party, and therefore there is no obligation. Other contracts establish both rights and obligations for each of the contracting parties. Where events make such a contract onerous, the contract falls within the scope of this Standard and a liability exists which is recognised. Executory contracts that are not onerous fall outside the scope of this Standard. 50. This Standard defines an onerous contract as a contract in which the unavoidable costs of meeting the obligations under the contract exceed the economic benefits expected to be received under it. The unavoidable costs under a contract reflect the least net cost of exiting from the contract, which is the lower ofthe cost of fulfilling it and any compensation or penalties arising from failure to fulfil it.51. Before a separate provision for an onerous contract is established, an enterprise recognises any impairment loss that has occurred on assets dedicated to that contract(see IAS 36, Impairment of Assets). Restructuring52. The following are examples of events that may fall under the definition of restructuring: (a) sale or termination of a line of business; (b) the closure of business locations in a country or region or the relocation of business activities from one country or region to another; (c) changes in management structure, for example, eliminating a layer of management; (d) fundamental reorganisations that have a material effect on the nature and focus of the enterprise's operations.53. A provision for restructuring costs is recognised only when the general recognition are met. Paragraphs 72-83 set out how criteria for provisions set out in paragraph 14the general recognition criteria apply to restructurings.54. A constructive obligation to restructure arises only when an enterprise:(a) has a detailed formal plan for the restructuring identifying at least: (i) the business or part of a business concerned;(ii) the principal locations affected;(iii) the location, function, and approximate number of employees whowill be compensated for terminating their services;(iv) the expenditures that will be undertaken;(v) when the plan will be implemented;(b) has raised a valid expectation in those affected that it will carry out the restructuring by starting to implement that plan or announcing its main features to those affected by it. . Evidence that an enterprise has started to implement a restructuring plan would be provided, 55for example, by dismantling plant or selling assets or by the public announcement of the main features of the plan. A public announcement of a detailed plan to restructure constitutes a constructive obligation to restructure only if it is made in such a way and in sufficient detail (i.e. setting out the main features of the plan) that it gives rise to valid expectations in other parties such as customers, suppliers and employees (or their representatives) that the enterprise will carry out the restructuring.56. For a plan to be sufficient to give rise to a constructive obligation when communicated to those affected by it, its implementation needs to be planned to begin as soon as possible and to be completed in a timeframe that makes significant changes to the plan unlikely. If it is expected that there will be a long delay before the restructuring begins or that the restructuring will take an unreasonably long time, it is unlikely that the plan will raise a valid expectation on the part of others that theenterprise is at present committed to restructuring, because the timeframe allows opportunities for the enterprise to change its plans.57. A management or board decision to restructure taken before the balance sheet date does not give rise to a constructive obligation at the balance sheet date unless the enterprise has, before the balance sheet date:(a) started to implement the restructuring plan;(b) announced the main features of the restructuring plan to those affected by it in a sufficiently specific manner to raise a valid expectation in them that the enterprise will carry out the restructuring. In some cases, an enterprise starts to implement a restructuring plan, or announces its main features to those affected, only after the balance sheet date. Disclosure may be , Events After the Balance Sheet Date, if the restructuring is of required under IAS 10 such importance that its non-disclosure would affect the ability of the users of the financial statements to make proper evaluations and decisions.58. Although a constructive obligation is not created solely by a management decision, an obligation may result from other earlier events together with such a decision. For example, negotiations with employee representatives for termination payments, or with purchasers for the sale of an operation, may have been concluded subject only to board approval. Once that approval has been obtained and communicated to the other parties, the enterprise has a constructive obligation to restructure, if theconditions of paragraph 72 are met.. 59. In some countries, the ultimate authority is vested in a board whose membership gement (e.g. employees) includes representatives of interests other than those of managment.or notification to such representatives may be necessary before the board decision is taken. Because a decision by such a board involves communication to these representatives, it may result in a constructive obligation to restructure.60. No obligation arises for the sale of an operation until the enterprise is committed to the sale, i.e. there is a binding sale agreement.61. Even when an enterprise has taken a decision to sell an operation and announced that decision publicly, it cannot be committed to the sale until a purchaser has been identified and there is a binding sale agreement. Until there is a binding sale agreement, the enterprise will be able to change its mind and indeed will have to take another course of action if a purchaser cannot be found on acceptable terms. When the sale of an operation is envisaged as part of a restructuring, the assets of the operation , Impairment of Assets. When a sale is only are reviewed for impairme-ent under IAS 36part of a restructuring, a constructive obligation can arise for the other parts of the restructuring before a binding sale agreement exists.62. A restructuring provision should include only the direct expenditures arising form the restrict-uring,which are those that are both:(a) necessarily entailed by the restructuring; and(b) not associated with the ongoing activities of the enterprise.63. A restructuring provision does not include such costs as:(a) retraining or relocating continuing staff;(b) marketing; or(c) investment in new systems and distribution networks.These expenditures relate to the future conduct of the business and are not liabilities for restructuring at the balance sheet date. Such expenditures are recognised on the same basis as if they arose independently of a restructuring.64. Identifiable future operating losses up to the date of a restructuring are not included in a provision, unless they relate to an onerous contract as defined in paragraph 10. , gains on the expected disposal of assets are not taken65. As required by paragraph 51into account in measuring a restructuring provision, even if the sale of assets is envisaged as part of the restructuring.Disclosure66. For each class of provision, an enterprise should disclose:(a) the carrying amount at the beginning and end of the period;(b) additional provisions made in the period, including increases toexisting provisions; (c) amounts used (i.e. incurred and charged against the provision) during the period; (d) unused amounts reversed during the period; and(e) the increase during the period in the discounted amount arising from the passage of time and the effect of any change in the discount rate. Comparative information is not required67. An enterprise should disclose the following for each class of provision:(a) a brief description of the nature of the obligation and the expected timing of any resulting outflows of economic benefits;(b) an indication of the uncertainties about the amount or timing of those outflows. Where necessary to provide adequate information, an enterprise should disclose the major assumptions made concerning future events, as addressed in paragraph 48(c) the amount of any expected reimbursement, stating the amount of any asset that has been recognised for that expected reimbursement.68. Unless the possibility of any outflow in settlement is remote, an enterprise should disclose for each class of contingent liability at the balance sheet date a brief description of the nature of the contingent liability and, where practicable:;(a) an estimate of its financial effect, measured under paragraphs 36(b) an indication of the uncertainties relating to the amount or timing of any outflow; (c) the possibility of any reimbursement.69. In determining which provisions or contingent liabilities may be aggregated to form a class, it is necessary to consider whether the nature of the items is sufficiently similar for a single statement about them to fulfil the requirements of paragraphs 85(a)and (b) and 86(a) and (b). Thus, it may be appropriate to treat as a single class of provision amounts relating to warranties of different products, but it would not be appropriate to treat as a single class amounts relating to normal warranties and amounts that are subject to legal proceedings.70. Where a provision and a contingent liability arise from the same set of -86 in a circumstances, an enterprise makes the disclosures required by paragraphs 84 that shows the link between the provision and the contingent liability.71. Where an inflow of economic benefits is probable, an enterprise should disclose a brief description of the nature of the contingent assets at the balance sheet date, and, where practicable, an estimate of their financial effect, measured using the principles set out for provisions in paragraphs 3672. It is important that disclosures for contingent assets avoid giving misleading ndications of the likelihood of income arising.73 In extremely rare cases, disclosure of some or all of the information required by paragraphs 84-89 can be expected to prejudice seriously the position of the enterprise a dispute with other parties on the subject matterof the provision, contingent or contingent asset. In such cases, an enterprise need not disclose the information, but should disclose the general nature of the dispute, together with the fact that, and reason why, the information has not been disclosed. Transitional Provisions74. The effect of adopting this Standard on its effective date (or earlier) should be reported as an adjustment to the opening balance of retained earnings for the period in which the Standard is first adopted. Enterprises are encouraged, but not required, to adjust the opening balance of retained earnings for the earliest period presented and to restate comparative information. If comparative information is not restated, this fact should be disclosed. , Net Profit or Loss for the75. The Standard requires a different treatment from IAS 8requires Period, Fundamental Errors and Changes in Accounting Policies. IAS 8comparative information to be restated (benchmark treatment) or additional pro forma comparative information on a restated basis to be disclosed (allowed alternative reatment) unless it is impracticable to do so.。
会计英文文献及翻译
IMPLEMENTING ENVIRONMENTAL COSTACCOUNTING IN SMALL AND MEDIUM-SIZEDCOMPANIES1．ENVIRONMENTAL COST ACCOUNTING IN SMESSince its inception some 30 years ago, Environmental Cost Accounting (ECA) has reached a stage of development where individual ECA systems are separated from the core accounting system based an assessment of environmental costs with (see Fichter et al., 1997, Letmathe and Wagner , 2002).As environmental costs are commonly assessed as overhead costs, neither the older concepts of full costs accounting nor the relatively recent one of direct costing appear to represent an appropriate basis for the implementation of ECA. Similar to developments in conventional accounting, the theoretical and conceptual sphere of ECA has focused on process-based accounting since the 1990s (see Hallay and Pfriem, 1992, Fischer and Blasius, 1995, BMU/UBA, 1996, Heller et al., 1995, Letmathe, 1998, Spengler and H.hre, 1998).Taking available concepts of ECA into consideration, process-based concepts seem the best option regarding the establishment of ECA (see Heupel and Wendisch , 2002). These concepts, however, have to be continuously revised to ensure that they work well when applied in small and medium-sized companies.Based on the framework for Environmental Management Accounting presented in Burritt et al. (2002), our concept of ECA focuses on two main groups of environmentally related impacts. These are environmentally induced financial effects and company-related effects on environmental systems (see Burritt and Schaltegger, 2000, p.58). Each of these impacts relate to specific categories of financial and environmental information. The environmentally induced financial effects are represented by monetary environmental information and the effects on environmental systems are represented by physical environmental information. Conventional accounting deals with both – monetary as well as physical units – but does not focus on environmental impact as such. To arrive at a practical solution to the implementation of E CA in a company’s existing accounting system, and to comply with the problem of distinguishing between monetary and physical aspects, an integrated concept is required. As physical information is often the basis for the monetary information (e.g. kilograms of a raw material are the basis for the monetary valuation of raw material consumption), the integration of this information into the accounting system database is essential. From there, the generation of physical environmental and monetary (environmental) information would in many cases be feasible. For many companies, the priority would be monetary (environmental) information for use in for instance decisions regarding resource consumptions and investments. The use of ECA in small andmedium-sized enterprises (SME) is still relatively rare, so practical examples available in the literature are few and far between. One problem is that the definitions of SMEs vary between countries (see Kosmider, 1993 and Reinemann, 1999). In our work the criteria shown in Table 1 are used to describe small and medium-sized enterprises.Table 1. Criteria of small and medium-sized enterprisesNumber of employees TurnoverUp to 500employees Turnover up to EUR 50mManagement Organization- Owner-cum-entrepreneur -Divisional organization is rare- Varies from a patriarchal management -Short flow of information style in traditional companies and teamwork -Strong personal commitmentin start-up companies -Instruction and controlling with- Top-down planning in old companies direct personal contact- Delegation is rare- Low level of formality- High flexibilityFinance Personnel- family company -easy to survey number of employees- limited possibilities of financing -wide expertise-high satisfaction of employeesSupply chain Innovation-closely involved in local -high potential of innovationeconomic cycles in special fields- intense relationship with customersand suppliersKeeping these characteristics in mind, the chosen ECA approach should be easy to apply, should facilitate the handling of complex structures and at the same time be suited to the special needs of SMEs.Despite their size SMEs are increasingly implementing Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems like SAP R/3, Oracle and Peoplesoft. ERP systems support business processes across organizational, temporal and geographical boundaries using one integrated database. The primary use of ERP systems is for planning and controlling production and administration processes of an enterprise. In SMEs however, they are often individually designed and thus not standardized making the integration of for instance software that supports ECA implementation problematic. Examples could be tools like the “eco-efficiency” approach of IMU (2003) or Umberto (2003) because these solutions work with the database of more comprehensive software solutions like SAP, Oracle, Navision or others. Umberto software for example (see Umberto, 2003) would require large investments and great background knowledge of ECA – which is not available in most SMEs.The ECA approach suggested in this chapter is based on an integrative solution –meaning that an individually developed database is used, and the ECA solution adopted draws on the existing cost accounting procedures in the company. In contrast to other ECA approaches, the aim was to create an accounting system that enables the companies to individually obtain the relevant cost information. The aim of the research was thus to find out what cost information is relevant for the company’s decision on environmental issues and how to obtain it.2．METHOD FOR IMPLEMENTING ECASetting up an ECA system requires a systematic procedure. The project thus developed a method for implementing ECA in the companies that participated in the project; this is shown in Figure 1. During the implementation of the project it proved convenient to form a core team assigned with corresponding tasks drawing on employees in various departments. Such a team should consist of one or two persons from the production department as well as two from accounting and corporate environmental issues, if available. Depending on the stage of the project and kind of inquiry being considered, additional corporate members may be added to the project team to respond to issues such as IT, logistics, warehousing etc.Phase 1: Production Process VisualizationAt the beginning, the project team must be briefed thoroughly on the current corporate situation and on the accounting situation. To this end, the existing corporate accounting structure and the related corporate information transfer should be analyzed thoroughly. Following the concept of an input/output analysis, how materials find their ways into and out of the company is assessed. The next step is to present the flow of material and goods discovered and assessed in a flow model. To ensure the completeness and integrity of such a systematic analysis, any input and output is to be taken into consideration. Only a detailed analysis of material and energy flows from the point they enter the company until they leave it as products, waste, waste water or emissions enables the company to detect cost-saving potentials that at later stages of the project may involve more efficient material use, advanced process reliability and overview, improved capacity loads, reduced waste disposal costs, better transparency of costs and more reliable assessment of legal issues. As a first approach, simplified corporate flow models, standardizedstand-alone models for supplier(s), warehouse and isolated production segments were established and only combined after completion. With such standard elements and prototypes defined, a company can readily develop an integrated flow model with production process(es), production lines or a production process as a whole. From the view of later adoption of the existing corporate accounting to ECA, such visualization helps detect, determine, assess and then separate primary from secondary processes. Phase 2: Modification of AccountingIn addition to the visualization of material and energy flows, modeling principal and peripheral corporate processes helps prevent problems involving too high shares of overhead costs on the net product result. The flow model allows processes to be determined directly or at least partially identified as cost drivers. This allows identifying and separating repetitive processing activity with comparably few options from those with more likely ones for potential improvement.By focusing on principal issues of corporate cost priorities and on those costs that have been assessed and assigned to their causes least appropriately so far, corporate procedures such as preparing bids, setting up production machinery, ordering (raw) material and related process parameters such as order positions, setting up cycles of machinery, and order items can be defined accurately. Putting several partial processes with their isolated costs into context allows principal processes to emerge; these form the basis of process-oriented accounting. Ultimately, the cost drivers of the processes assessed are the actual reference points for assigning and accounting overhead costs. The percentage surcharges on costs such as labor costs are replaced by process parameters measuring efficiency (see Foster and Gupta, 1990).Some corporate processes such as management, controlling and personnel remain inadequately assessed with cost drivers assigned to product-related cost accounting. Therefore, costs of the processes mentioned, irrelevant to the measure of production activity, have to be assessed and surcharged with a conventional percentage.At manufacturing companies participating in the project,computer-integrated manufacturing systems allow a more flexible and scope-oriented production (eco-monies of scope), whereas before only homogenous quantities (of products) could be produced under reasonable economic conditions (economies of scale). ECA inevitably prevents effects of allocation, complexity and digression and becomes a valuable controlling instrument where classical/conventional accounting arrangements systematically fail to facilitate proper decisions. Thus, individually adopted process-based accounting produces potentially valuable information for any kind of decision about internal processing or external sourcing (e.g. make-or-buy decisions).Phase 3: Harmonization of Corporate Data – Compiling and Acquisition On the way to a transparent and systematic information system, it is convenient to check core corporate information systems of procurement and logistics, production planning, and waste disposal with reference to their capability to provide the necessary precise figures for the determined material/energy flow model and for previously identified principal and peripheral processes. During the course of the project, a few modifications within existing information systems were, in most cases, sufficient to comply with these requirements; otherwise, a completely new softwaremodule would have had to be installed without prior analysis to satisfy the data requirements.Phase 4: Database conceptsWithin the concept of a transparent accounting system, process-based accounting can provide comprehensive and systematic information both on corporate material/ energy flows and so-called overhead costs. To deliver reliable figures over time, it is essential to integrate a permanent integration of the algorithms discussed above into the corporate information system(s). Such permanent integration and its practical use may be achieved by applying one of three software solutions (see Figure 2).For small companies with specific production processes, an integrated concept is best suited, i.e. conventional andenvironmental/process-oriented accounting merge together in one common system solution.For medium-sized companies, with already existing integrated production/ accounting platforms, an interface solution to such a system might be suitable. ECA, then, is set up as an independent software module outside the existing corporate ERP system and needs to be fed data continuously. By using identical conventions for inventory-data definitions within the ECA software, misinterpretation of data can be avoided.Phase 5: Training and CoachingFor the permanent use of ECA, continuous training of employees on all matters discussed remains essential. To achieve a long-term potential of improved efficiency, the users of ECA applications and systems must be able to continuously detect and integrate corporate process modifications and changes in order to integrate them into ECA and, later, to process them properly.。
财务会计中英文
财务会计中英文报告日（与质量控制相关）Date of report (in relation to quality control)财务报表批准日Date of the approval of the financial statements审计报告日Date of the auditor’s report财务报表日Date of the financial statements设计、执行和维护适当的控制Design, implement and maintain adequate controls (over)检查风险Detection risk可能导致对被审计单位持续经营能力产生重大疑虑的事项或情况Events or conditions that may cast significant doubt on the entity’s ability to continue as a going concern不符事项Exception存在Existence有经验的注册会计师Experienced auditor专长Expertise信赖程度Extent of reliance函证External confirmation事实错报、判断错报和推断错报Factual misstatements, judgemental misstatements and projected misstatements 财务报表Financial statements舞弊Fraud舞弊风险因素Fraud risk factors虚假财务报告Fraudulent financial reporting对财务报表使用者理解财务报表至关重要F undamental to users’ understanding of the financial statements治理Governance集团Group集团项目合伙人Group engagement partner集团层面控制Group-wide controls历史财务信息Historical financial information识别、评估和应对重大错报风险Identify, assess and respond to risk of material misstatement无法获取充分、适当的审计证据Inability to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence后任注册会计师Incoming auditor不一致Inconsistency独立性Independence与财务报告相关的信息系统Information system relevant to financial reporting 审计的固有限制Inherent limitation of audit 固有风险Inherent risk首次审计业务Initial audit engagement生成、记录、处理和报告交易Initiate, record, process and report transactions 询问Inquiry检查Inspection中期财务信息或报表Interim financial information or statements内部审计师Internal auditors内部控制Internal control内部控制缺陷Internal control deficiency国际财务报告准则International Financial Reporting Standards 调查Investigate财务报表报出日Issuance date of the financial statements信息技术应用控制IT application controls信息技术环境IT environment会计分录和其他调整Journal entries and other adjustments会计分录Journal entry/entries严重程度Level of significance上市公司实体Listed entity管理层Management管理层偏向Management bias管理层凌驾于控制之上Management override of controls管理当局声明书Management representation letter管理层对其自身责任的认可与理解Management’s acknowledgement and understanding of its responsibilities 管理层的专家Management’s expert重大类别的交易、账户余额和披露Material classes of transactions, account balances and disclosure重大不确定性Material uncertainty财务报表整体的重要性Materiality for the financial statements as a whole侵占资产Misappropriation of assets错报Misstatement对事实的错报Misstatement of fact非标准审计报告Modified audit report非无保留意见Modified opinion监控Monitoring对控制的监督Monitoring of controls审计程序的性质、时间安排和范围Nature, timing and extent of audit procedures 消极式函证Negative confirmation网络事务所Network firm违反法律法规Non-compliance未回函Non-response非抽样风险Non-sampling risk观察Observation发生Occurrence期初余额Opening balances内部控制的运行有效性Operating effectiveness of internalcontrol其他信息Other information其他事项段Other matter paragraph会计估计的结果Outcome of an accounting estimate超出正常经营过程Outside the normal course of business总体审计方案Overall audit approach总体审计策略Overall audit strategy总体结论Overall conclusion总体应对措施Overall responses合伙人Partner实际执行的重要性Performance materiality人员Personnel广泛性Pervasive计划活动Planning activities总体Population/Overall积极式函证Positive confirmation执业人员Practitioner前任注册会计师Predecessor auditor初步业务活动Preliminary engagement activities与管理层和治理层（如适用）责任相关的执行审计工作的前提Premise, relating to the responsibilities of management and, where appropriate, those charged with governance, on which an audit is conducted编制和列报财务报表Prepare and present the financial statements列报与披露Presentation and disclosure收入确认存在舞弊风险的假定Presumed fraud risks in revenue recognition防止或发现并纠正重大错报Prevent or detect and correct material misstatement专业胜任能力Professional competence职业判断Professional judgment职业怀疑态度Professional skepticism业务执行Provision of service/Delivery of service通常对决定财务报表中的重大金额和披露有直接影响的法律法规的规定Provisions of laws and regulations generally recognized to have a direct effect on the determination of material amounts and disclosures in the financial statements具有适当资格的外部人员Qualified external person保留意见Qualified opinion量化财务影响Quantification of the financial impacts合理保证（针对审计业务和质量控制）Reasonable assurance (in the context of audit engagements, and in quality control) 合理性测试Reasonableness test重新计算Re-calculation连续审计业务Recurring audit engagements将认定层次的审计风险降至可接受的低水平Reduce audit risk at the assertion level to an acceptably low level关联方Related parties具有支配性影响的关联方Related parties with dominant influence管理层以前未识别或未向注册会计师披露的关联方关系或关联方交易Related party relationships or transactions that management has not identified or disclosed to the auditor 按照等同于公平交易中通行的条款执行的关联方交易Related party transactions conducted on terms equivalent to those prevailing in an arm’s length transaction （审计证据的）相关性和可靠性Relevance and reliability (of audit evidence)相关职业道德要求Relevant ethical requirements剩余期间Remaining period重新执行Re-performance管理层施加的限制Restrictions imposed by management复核(与质量控制相关) Review (in relation to quality control)权利与义务Rights and obligations风险评估程序Risk assessment procedures重大错报风险Risk of material misstatement财务报表层次和认定层次的重大错报风险Risk of material misstatement at financial statement level and at assertion level 样本量Sample size抽样Sampling抽样风险Sampling risk抽样单元Sampling unit选择和运用会计政策Selection and application of accounting policies选取测试项目Selection of items for testing重要组成部分Significant component值得关注的内部控制缺陷Significant deficiencies in internal control重大事项Significant matters特别风险Significant risk重大非常规交易Significant unusual transactions特定的审计程序Specified audit procedures员工Staff统计抽样Statistical sampling存货盘点Stocktake分层Stratification期后事项Subsequent events实质性分析程序Substantive analytical procedures实质性程序Substantive procedure（审计证据的）充分性Sufficiency (of audit evidence)补充信息Supplementary information测试Test控制测试Test of controls细节测试Test of details特定类别的交易、账户余额或披露的一个或多个重要性水平The materiality level or levels for particular classes of transactions, account balances or disclosures 治理层Those charged with governance错报的临界值Threshold for misstatements可容忍错报T olerable misstatement可容忍偏差率Tolerable rate of deviation趋势分析法、比率分析法、合理性测试法和回归分析法Trend analysis, ratio analysis, reasonableness test, and regression analysis不确定性Uncertainty未更正错报Uncorrected misstatements标准审计报告Unmodified audit report无保留意见Unqualified opinion计价与分摊Valuation and allocation/amortization穿行测试Walk-through test解除业务约定Withdraw from the engagement书面声明Written representation职业道德可接受的水平Acceptable level广告Advertising过度推介Advocacy承担管理层职责Assume management responsibilities鉴证客户Assurance client鉴证业务Assurance engagement鉴证业务项目组Assurance team审计客户Audit client审计业务Audit engagement审计项目组Audit team近亲属Close family密切私人关系Close personal relationship保密Confidentiality利益冲突Conflicts of interest或有收费Contingent fee冷却期Cooling off period现任会计师Current accountant/auditor直接经济利益Direct financial interest董事或高级管理人员Director or senior officer/senior management应有的关注Due care消除或降低不利影响Eliminate or reduce threats项目合伙人Engagement partner项目质量控制复核Engagement quality control review项目组Engagement team外部专家External expert密切关系Familiarity经济利益Financial interests历史财务信息Historical financial information直系亲属/ 主要近亲属Immediate family独立性Independence从实质上和形式上保持独立性Independence of mind, Independence in appearance 间接经济利益Indirect financial interest诚信Integrity外在压力Intimidation/Pressure关键审计合伙人Key audit partner上市实体Listed entity长期存在业务关系Long association (with an audit client)严重虚假或误导性的陈述Materially false or misleading statement非鉴证服务Non-assurance services客观和公正性Objectivity专业服务Professional services拟接受的客户Prospective client公众利益实体Public interest entity关联实体Related entity审阅客户Review client审阅业务Review engagement审阅项目组Review team轮换Rotation防范措施Safeguards自身利益Self-interest自我评价Self-review重要且密切的商业关系Significant and close business relationship 特殊目的财务报表Special purpose financial statements鉴证业务的对象Subject matter of assurance engagement不利影响、威胁Threats税法兼营Also engaged in应计税款Accrued tax从价税Ad valorem tax加计扣除Additional deduction附加税Additional tax/Surcharge所得额调整Adjustment of income税后所得After-tax income准予扣除数Allowable deductions税收可抵免额Allowable tax credit从量定额Amount based on quantity增值额Amount of appreciation/Value added销售额Amount of sales抵免税额Amount of tax credit应纳税所得额Amount of taxable income扣除项目金额Amount of the deductions适用税额Applicable tax amount适用税率Applicable tax rates计税成本Assessable cost核定所得额Assessable income平均成本利润率Average cost-plus margin rate平均销售价格Average sales price营业税Business tax偶然所得Casual income所得项目Category of income组成计税价格Composite taxable price本纳税年度Current tax year所得税申报Declaration of income tax扣除项目Deductible items免税项目扣除Deduction of the tax exemption item 契税Deed tax视同销售Deemed sales/sales equivalent免除纳税义务Discharge of tax obligation应税商品Dutiable goods纳税义务Duty of tax payment权益性投资收益Earning from equity investments 雇员福利，职工福利Employee benefit企业所得税Enterprise income tax国外所得收入Foreign earned income一般纳税人General taxpayer特许权使用费所得Income from franchise royalty利息、股息、红利所得Income from interests, dividends and bonuses 劳务所得Income from labor service财产租赁所得Income from leasing of property生产经营所得Income from production and business operation转让财产所得Income from property transfer工资薪金所得Income from wages, salaries财产转让收入Income from property transfer所得税抵免Income tax credit申报缴纳所得税Income tax declaration应纳所得税Income tax payable接受捐赠所得Income from donation个人所得税Individual income tax增值税进项税额Input value added tax非正常损失Irregular loss滞纳金Late fee清算所得税Liquidation income tax最低应纳税所得额Minimum taxable income增值税起征点Minimum threshold of value-added Tax混合销售行为Mixed sales activities所得税前净所得Net income before income tax税后净利润Net profit after tax非货币资产Non-monetary asset不征税收入Non-taxable income不计入征税范围Not included in the scope of taxable activities 财产原值Original value of the property/ Cost of property 当期销项税额Output tax for the period增值税销项税额Output value added tax滞纳税款/欠税Overdue tax应补缴税款Payment of tax in arrears累进税率Progressive tax rate比例税率Proportional tax rate公益性捐赠Public welfare donations房产税Real estate tax居民纳税人Resident taxpayer资源税Resource tax含税销售额Sales amount including tax所得税征收范围Scope of income tax/Subject to income tax 小规模纳税人Small-scale taxpayer源泉扣缴Source withholding纳税特别扣除项目Special deductible items特殊性税务处理Special tax treatment印花税Stamp tax应征税额Tax accrued税额Tax amounts税基/计税依据Tax base税种Tax category消费税税率Tax computation税收抵免Tax credit抵免限额Tax credit quota纳税期限Tax deadline税前可扣除项目Tax deductible items税收减免Tax deduction or exemption计税差异Tax differences到期应纳税款Tax due漏税/逃税Tax evasion免税Tax exemption纳税申报Tax filing本期税额Tax for the period/year已纳税额Tax paid应纳税额Tax payable纳税期限Tax payment deadline税率Tax rate减税Tax reduction退税Tax refund税收附加Tax surcharge起征点Tax threshold计税价格Tax value/Taxable price减免税额Tax amount deducted应税所得Taxable income应税项目Taxable item纳税期间Taxable period对股息征税Taxation of dividends免税收入Tax-exempt income免税税目Tax-exempt item免税利润Tax-exempt profit含税价格Tax-included price纳税人Taxpayer土地使用税Urban land-use tax增值税Value added tax(VAT)土地增值税Value-added tax on land/Land appreciation tax 增值税减免VAT exemption or reduction车船税Vehicle and vessel tax车辆购置税Vehicle purchase tax扣缴义务人Withholding agent代扣代缴税款Withholding and remitting tax预提所得税Withholding income tax零税率Zero tax rate财务成本管理应收账款周转次数Accounts receivable turnover应收账款周转天数Accounts receivable turnover days取得成本Acquisition cost实际增长率Actual growth rate实际利率Actual interest rate配股后每股价格After-allotment price per share配股权价值Allotment option value配股价格Allotment price预付年金（即付年金、期初年金）Annuity due会计报酬率法Accounting rate of return(ARR)平均交货时间Average delivery time贝塔（β）系数Beta coefficient债券评级Bond rating债券估价Bond valuation每股净资产Book value per share(BPS)盈亏临界点Break-even point保险储备（安全存量）Buffer inventory资本支出Capital expenditure持有成本Carrying cost现金预算Cash budget现金股利Cash dividend现金流量利息保障倍数Cash flow interest coverage ratio 经营活动现金流量Cash flows from operational activities 混合租赁Combination lease佣金Commission普通股Common stock补偿性余额Compensating balance复利Compound interest全面预算Comprehensive budget企业价值评估Corporate valuation成本性态Cost behavior成本中心Cost centre成本的归集和分配Cost collection and allocation资本成本Cost of capital税后债务成本Cost of debt after tax成本差异Cost variance平息债券Coupon bond债券票面利率Coupon interest rate流动资产周转次数Current assets turnover流动资产周转天数Current assets turnover days流动比率Current ratio本期收入乘数Current sales multiplier债务市场Debt market/Bond market资产负债率Debt-to-asset ratio产权比率Debt-to-equity ratio股利宣告日Declaration date财务杠杆系数Degree of financial leverage(DFL)直接租赁Direct leasing折现率Discount rate纯贴现债券（零息债券）Discounted bond (Zero coupon bond) 股利支付率Dividend payout ratio经营杠杆系数Degree of operating leverage(DOL)股价下行乘数Downstream price multiplier总杠杆系数Degree of total leverage (DTL)息前税前利润Earnings before interests and taxes(EBIT)经济订货量Economic order quantity(EOQ)每股盈余稀释EPS dilution每股盈余无差别点法EPS indifferent point method(EBIT-EPS break even analysis)每股盈余最大化EPS maximization每股盈余Earnings per share(EPS)权益乘数Equity multiplier股权价值Equity value经济增加值Economic value added(EVA)除息日Ex-dividend date执行价格Exercise price/Strike price外部融资销售增长比External financing needed to sales growth ratio 融资租赁Financial lease/Capital lease财务估价Financial valuation完工产品Finished goods固定预算Fixed budget弹性预算Flexible budget浮动利率Floating interest rate浮动优惠利率Floating prime interest rate债务现金流量Free cash flows of creditors股权现金流量Free cash flows of equity实体现金流量Free cash flows of firm复利终值系数FV interest factor预付年金终值系数FV interest factor of annuity due终值Future value(FV)管理费用General and administrative expense持续经营价值Going concern value毛租赁Gross lease营业现金毛流量Gross operating cash flows套期保值原理Hedging principle间接成本Indirect cost通货膨胀率Inflation rate利息保障倍数Interest coverage ratio税后利息率Interest rate after tax内含增长率Internal growth rate内部转移价格Internal transfer price内在市销率Intrinsic sales multiplier内在价值Intrinsic value存货周转次数Inventory turnover存货周转天数Inventory turnover days投资中心Investment center内含报酬率法Internal rate of return(IRR) 非相关成本Irrelevant cost发行价格Issuance price租赁期Lease term租赁资产Leasehold property承租人Lessee出租人Lessor杠杆贡献率Leverage contributing ratio杠杆租赁Leverage lease清算价值Liquidation value短期偿债能力比率Liquidity ratios长期债券Long-term bond制造费用预算Manufacturing overhead budget边际贡献率Marginal contribution ratio市场组合Market portfolio市场价格Market price市价稀释Market price dilution市场风险溢价Market risk premium债券到期日Maturity date市场增加值Market value added(MAV)最大最小法Maximin method企业价值最大化Maximization of firm’s value股东财富最大化Maximization of shareholders’ wealth混合成本Mixed cost互斥项目Mutually exclusive projects/events流通债券Negotiable bond净财务杠杆Net financial leverage净租赁Net lease营业现金净流量Net operating cash flows销售净利率Net profit margin净现值法NPV method净现值Net present value(NPV)经营租赁Operating lease经营杠杆Operating leverage机会成本Opportunity cost期权价值Option value订货提前期Order lead time订货成本Ordering cost普通年金（后付年金）Ordinary annuity债券面值Par value/Face value回收期法Payback period method股利支付日Payment date经营资产销售百分比Percentage of operating assets to sales 经营负债销售百分比Percentage of operating liabilities to sales 销售百分比法Percentage-of-sales method期间成本Period cost定期预算Periodic budget永久债券Perpetual bond永续年金Perpetuity优先股Preferred stock现值指数Present value index产品成本预算Product cost budget生产预算Production budget生产成本Production cost制造费用Production overhead利润中心Profit center利润最大化Profit maximization项目特有风险Project-specific risk公开增发Public offering复利现值系数PV interest factor预付年金现值系数PV interest factor of annuity due现值Present value(PV)速动比率Quick ratio股权登记日Record date共同年限法Replacement chain (common life) approach 必要报酬率Required rate of return剩余股利政策Residual dividend policy剩余权益收益Residual equity income剩余净金融支出Residual net financial expenditure剩余经营收益Residual operating income责任中心Responsibility center利润留存率Retention ratio权益净利率Return on equity。
财务报表分析外文文献及翻译
Review of accounting studies,2003,16(8):531-560Financial Statement Analysis of Leverage and How It Informs About Protability andPrice-to-Book RatiosDoron Nissim, Stephen. PenmanAbstractThis paper presents a ?nancial statement analysis that distinguishes leverage that arises in ?nancing activities from leverage that arises in operations. The analysis yields two leveraging equations, one for borrowing to ?nance operations and one for borrowing in the course of operations. These leveraging equations describe how the two types of leverage affect book rates of return on equity. An empirical analysis shows that the ?nancial statement analysis explains cross-sectional differences in current and future rates of return as well as price-to-book ratios, which are based on expected rates of return on equity. The paper therefore concludes that balance sheet line items for operating liabilities are priced differently than those dealing with ?nancing liabilities. Accordingly, ?nancial statement analysis that distinguishes the two types of liabilities informs on future pro?tability and aids in the evaluation of appropriate price-to-book ratios. Keywords: financing leverage; operating liability leverage; rate of return on equity; price-to-book ratioLeverage is traditionally viewed as arising from ?nancing activities: Firms borrow to raise cash for operations. This paper shows that, for the purposes of analyzing pro?tability and valuing ?rms, two types of leverage are relevant, one indeed arising from ?nancing activities but another from operating activities. The paper supplies a ?nancial statement analysis of the two types of leverage that explains differences in shareholder pro?tability and price-to-book ratios.The standard measure of leverage is total liabilities to equity. However, while some liabilities—like bank loans and bonds issued—are due to ?nancing, other liabilities—like trade payables, deferred revenues, and pension liabilities—result from transactions with suppliers, customers and employees in conducting operations. Financing liabilities are typically traded in well-functioning capital markets where issuers are price takers. In contrast, ?rms are able to add value in operations because operations involve trading in input and output markets that are less perfect than capital markets. So, with equity valuation in mind, there are a priori reasons for viewing operating liabilities differently from liabilities that arise in ?nancing.Our research asks whether a dollar of operating liabilities on the balancesheet is priced differently from a dollar of ?nancing liabilities. As operating and ?nancing liabilities are components of the book value of equity, the question is equivalent to asking whether price-to-book ratios depend on the composition of book values. The price-to-book ratio is determined by the expected rate of return on the book value so, if components of book value command different price premiums, they must imply different expected rates of return on book value. Accordingly, the paper also investigates whether the two types of liabilities are associated with differences in future book rates of return.Standard ?nancial statement analysis distinguishes shareholder pro?tability that arises from operations from that which arises from borrowing to ?nance operations. So, return on assets is distinguished from return on equity, with the difference attributed to leverage. However, in the standard analysis, operating liabilities are not distinguished from ?nancing liabilities. Therefore, to develop the speci?cations for the empirical analysis, the paper presents a ?nancial statement analysis that identi?es the effects of operating and ?nancing liabilities on rates of return on book value—and so on price-to-book ratios—with explicit leveraging equations that explain when leverage from each type of liability is favorable or unfavorable.The empirical results in the paper show that ?nancial statement analysis that distinguishes leverage in operations from leverage in ?nancing also distinguishes differences in contemporaneous and future pro?tability among ?rms. Leverage from operating liabilities typically levers pro?tability more than ?nancing leverage and has a higher frequency of favorable , for a given total leverage from both sources, ?rms with higher leverage from operations have higher price-to-book ratios, on average. Additionally, distinction between contractual and estimated operating liabilities explains further differences in ?rms’ pro?tability and their price-to-book ratios.Our results are of consequence to an analyst who wishes to forecast earnings and book rates of return to value ?rms. Those forecasts—and valuations derived from them—depend, we show, on the composition of liabilities. The ?nancial statement analysis of the paper, supported by the empirical results, shows how to exploit information in the balance sheet for forecasting and valuation.The paper proceeds as follows. Section 1 outlines the ?nancial statements analysis that identi?es the two types of leverage and lays out expressions that tie leverage measures to pro?tability. Section 2 links leverage to equity value and price-to-book ratios. The empirical analysis is in Section 3, with conclusions summarized in Section 4.1. Financial Statement Analysis of LeverageThe following ?nancial statement analysis separates the effects of ?nancing liabilities and operating liabilities on the pro?tability of shareholders’ equity. The analysis yields explicit leveraging equations from which the speci?cations for the empirical analysis are developed. Shareholder pro?tability, return on common equity, is measured asReturn on common equity (ROCE) = comprehensive net income ÷common equity(1)Leverage affects both the numerator and denominator of this pro?tability measure. Appropriate ?nancial statement analysis disentangles the effects of leverage. Theanalysis below, which elaborates on parts of Nissim and Penman (2001), begins by identifying components of the balance sheet and income statement that involveoperating and ?nancing activities. The pro?tability due to each activity is then calculated and two types of leverage are introduced to explain both operatingand ?nancing pro?tability and overall shareholder pro?tability.Distinguishing the Protability of Operations from the Protability of Financing ActivitiesWith a focus on common equity (so that preferred equity is viewed as a ?nancial liability), the balance sheet equation can be restated as follows:Common equity =operating assets＋financial assets－operating liabilities－Financial liabilities (2) The distinction here between operating assets (like trade receivables, inventoryand property,plant and equipment) and ?nancial assets (the deposits and marketable securities that absorb excess cash) is made in other contexts. However, on theliability side, ?nancing liabilities are also distinguished here from operating liabilities. Rather than treating all liabilities as ?nancing debt, onlyliabilities that raise cash for operations—like bank loans, short-term commercialpaper and bonds—are classi?ed as such. Other liabilities—such as accounts payable, accrued expenses, deferred revenue, restructuring liabilities andpension liabilities—arise from operations. The distinction is not as simple ascurrent versus long-term liabilities; pension liabilities, for example, areusually long-term, and short-term borrowing is a current liability.Rearranging terms in equation (2),Common equity = (operating assets－operating liabilities)－(financialliabilities－financial assets)Or,Common equity = net operating assets－net financing debt (3)This equation regroups assets and liabilities into operating and ?nancing activities. Net operating assets are operating assets less operating liabilities.So a ?rm might invest in inventories, but to the extent to which the suppliersof those inventories grant credit, the net investment in inventories is reduced.Firms pay wages, but to the extent to which the payment of wages is deferred inpension liabilities, the net investment required to run the business is reduced.Net ?nancing debt is ?nancing debt (including preferred stock) minus ?nancialassets. So, a ?rm may issue bonds to raise cash for operations but may also buybonds with excess cash from operations. Its net indebtedness is its net positionin bonds. Indeed a ?rm may be a net creditor (with more ?nancial assets than ?nancial liabilities) rather than a net debtor.The income statement can be reformulated to distinguish income that comes fromoperating and ?nancing activities:Comprehensive net income = operating income－ net financing expense (4)Operating income is produced in operations and net ?nancial expense is incurredin the ?nancing of operations. Interest income on ?nancial assets is netted againstinterest expense on ?nancial liabilities (including preferred dividends) innet ?nancial expense. If interest income is greater than interest expense, ?nancingactivities produce net ?nancial income rather than net ?nancial expense. Bothoperating income and net ?nancial expense (or income) are after Equations (3)and (4) produce clean measures of after-tax operating pro?tability and theborrowing rate:Return on net operating assets (RNOA) = operating income ÷net operating assets(5)andNet borrowing rate (NBR) = net financing expense ÷net financing debt (6)RNOA recognizes that pro?tability must be based on the net assets investedin operations. So ?rms can increase their operating pro?tability by convincing suppliers, in the course of business, to grant or extend credit terms; creditreduces the investment that shareholders would otherwise have to put in thebusiness. Correspondingly, the net borrowing rate, by excluding non-interestbearing liabilities from the denominator, gives the appropriate borrowing ratefor the ?nancing activities.Note that RNOA differs from the more common return on assets (ROA), usuallyde?ned as income before after-tax interest expense to total assets. ROA does not distinguish operating and ?nancing activities appropriately. Unlike ROA, RNOAexcludes ?nancial assets in the denominator and subtracts operating liabilities.Nissim and Penman (2001) report a median ROA for NYSE and AMEX ?rms from 1963–1999of only %, but a median RNOA of %—much closer to what one would expect as a returnto business operations.Financial Leverage and its Effect on Shareholder ProtabilityFrom expressions (3) through (6), it is straightforward to demonstrate thatROCE is a weighted average of RNOA and the net borrowing rate, with weights derivedfrom equation (3):ROCE= [net operating assets ÷common equity× RNOA]－[net financing debt÷common equity ×net borrowing rate(7)Additional algebra leads to the following leveraging equation:ROCE = RNOA＋[FLEV×( RNOA－net borrowing rate )] (8) where FLEV, the measure of leverage from ?nancing activities, isFinancing leverage (FLEV) =net financing debt ÷common equity (9)The FLEV measure excludes operating liabilities but includes (as a netagainst ?nancing debt) ?nancial assets. If ?nancial assets are greaterthan ?nancial liabilities, FLEV is negative. The leveraging equation (8) works for negative FLEV (in which case the net borrowing rate is the return on net ?nancial assets).This analysis breaks shareholder pro?tability, ROCE, down into that which is due to operations and that which is due to ?nancing. Financial leverage levers the ROCE over RNOA, with the leverage effect determined by the amount of ?nancial leverage (FLEV) and the spread between RNOA and the borrowing rate. The spread can be positive (favorable) or negative (unfavorable).Operating Liability Leverage and its Effect on Operating Protability While ?nancing debt levers ROCE, operating liabilities lever the pro?tability of operations, RNOA. RNOA is operating income relative to net operating assets, and net operating assets are operating assets minus operating liabilities. So, the more operating liabilities a ?rm has relative to operating assets, the higher its RNOA, assuming no effect on operating income in the numerator. The intensity of the use of operating liabilities in the investment base is operating liability leverage:Operating liability leverage (OLLEV) =operating liabilities ÷net operating assets (10)Using operating liabilities to lever the rate of return from operations may not come for free, however; there may be a numerator effect on operating income. Suppliers provide what nominally may be interest-free credit, but presumably charge for that credit with higher prices for the goods and services supplied. This is the reason why operating liabilities are inextricably a part of operations rather than the ?nancing of operations. The amount that suppliers actually charge for this credit is dif?cult to identify. But the market borrowing rate is observable. The amount that suppliers would implicitly charge in prices for the credit at this borrowing rate can be estimated as a benchmark:Market interest on operating liabilities= operating liabilities×market borrowing ratewhere the market borrowing rate, given that most credit is short term, can be approximated by the after-tax short-term borrowing rate. This implicit cost is benchmark, for it is the cost that makes suppliers indifferent in supplying cred suppliers are fully compensated if they charge implicit interest at the cost borrowing to supply the credit. Or, alternatively, the ?rm buying the goods or services is indifferent between trade credit and ?nancing purchases at the borrowin rate.To analyze the effect of operating liability leverage on operatingpro?tability, we de?ne:Return on operating assets (ROOA) =(operating income＋market interest on operating liabilities)÷operating assets(11)The numerator of ROOA adjusts operating income for the full implicit cost of trad credit. If suppliers fully charge the implicit cost of credit, ROOA is thereturn of operating assets that would be earned had the ?rm no operating liability leverage. suppliers do not fully charge for the credit, ROOA measures the returnfro operations that includes the favorable implicit credit terms from suppliers.Similar to the leveraging equation (8) for ROCE, RNOA can be expressed as:RNOA = ROOA＋[ OLLEV ×(ROOA－market borrowing rate )] (12)where the borrowing rate is the after-tax short-term interest ROOA, theeffect of leverage on pro?tability is determined by the level of operatingliability leverage and the spread between ROOA and the short-term after-taxinterest rate. Like ?nancing leverage, the effect can be favorable or unfavorable:Firms can reduce their operating pro?tability through operating liability leverageif their ROOA is less than the market borrowing rate. However, ROOA will also beaffected if the implicit borrowing cost on operating liabilities is different fromthe market borrowing rate.Total Leverage and its Effect on Shareholder ProtabilityOperating liabilities and net ?nancing debt combine into a total leverage measure:Total leverage (TLEV) = ( net financing debt＋operating liabilities)÷commonequityThe borrowing rate for total liabilities is:Total borrowing rate = (net financing expense＋market interest on operating liabilities) ÷net financing debt＋operating liabilitiesROCE equals the weighted average of ROOA and the total borrowing rate, wherethe weights are proportional to the amount of total operating assets and the sumof net ?nancing debt and operating liabilities (with a negative sign), respectively.So, similar to the leveraging equations (8) and (12):ROCE = ROOA ＋[TLEV×(ROOA － total borrowing rate)](13)In summary, ?nancial statement analysis of operating and ?nancing activitiesyields three leveraging equations, (8), (12), and (13). These equations are basedon ?xed accounting relations and are therefore deterministic: They must hold fora given ?rm at a given point in time. The only requirement in identifying the sourcesof pro?tability appropriately is a clean separation between operating and ?nancing components in the ?nancial statements.2. Leverage, Equity Value and Price-to-Book RatiosThe leverage effects above are described as effects on shareholderpro?tability. Our interest is not only in the effects on shareholder pro?tability,ROCE, but also in the effects on shareholder value, which is tied to ROCE in a straightforward way by the residual income valuation model. As a restatement ofthe dividend discount model, the residual income model expresses the value ofequity at date 0 (P0) as:B is the book value of common shareholders’ equity, X is comprehensive incometo common shareholders, and r is the required return for equity investment. Theprice premium over book value is determined by forecasting residual income, Xt –rBt-1. Residual income is determined in part by income relative to book value, that is, by the forecasted ROCE. Accordingly, leverage effects on forecasted ROCE (net of effects on the required equity return) affect equity value relative to book value: The price paid for the book value depends on the expected pro?tability of the book value, and leverage affects pro?tability.So our empirical analysis investigates the effect of leverage on both pro?tability and price-to-book ratios. Or, stated differently, ?nancing and operating liabilities are distinguishable components of book value, so the question is whether the pricing of book values depends on the composition of book values. If this is the case, the different components of book value must imply different pro?tability. Indeed, the two analyses (of pro?tability andprice-to-book ratios) are complementary.Financing liabilities are contractual obligations for repayment of funds loaned. Operating liabilities include contractual obligations (such as accounts payable), but also include accrual liabilities (such as deferred revenues and accrued expenses). Accrual liabilities may be based on contractual terms, but typically involve estimates. We consider the real effects of contracting and the effects of accounting estimates in turn. Appendix A provides some examples of contractual and estimated liabilities and their effect on pro?tability and value. Effects of Contractual liabilitiesThe ex post effects of ?nancing and operating liabilities on pro?tability are clear from leveraging equations (8), (12) and (13). These expressions always hold ex post, so there is no issue regarding ex post effects. But valuation concerns ex ante effects. The extensive research on the effects of ?nancial leverage takes, as its point of departure, the Modigliani and Miller (M&M) (1958) ?nancing irrelevance proposition: With perfect capital markets and no taxes or information asymmetry, debt ?nancing has no effect on value. In terms of the residual income valuation model, an increase in ?nancial leverage due to a substitution of debt for equity may increase expected ROCE according to expression (8), but that increase is offset in the valuation (14) by the reduction in the book value of equity that earns the excess pro?tability and the increase in the required equity return, leaving total value ., the value of equity and debt) unaffected. The required equity return increases because of increased ?nancing risk: Leverage may be expected to be favorable but, the higher the leverage, the greater the loss to shareholders should the leverage turn unfavorable ex post, with RNOA less than the borrowing rate.In the face of the M&M proposition, research on the value effects of ?nancial leverage has proceeded to relax the conditions for the proposition to hold. Modigliani and Miller (1963) hypothesized that the tax bene?ts of debt increase after-tax returns to equity and so increase equity value. Recent empirical evidence provides support for the hypothesis ., Kemsley and Nissim, 2002), although the issue remains controversial. In any case, since the implicit cost of operating liabilities, like interest on ?nancing debt, is tax deductible, the compositionof leverage should have no tax implications.Debt has been depicted in many studies as affecting value by reducing transaction and contracting costs. While debt increases expected bankruptcy costs and introduces agency costs between shareholders and debtholders, it reduces the costs that shareholders must bear in monitoring management, and may have lower issuing costs relative to equity. One might expect these considerations to apply to operating debt as well as ?nancing debt, with the effects differing only by degree. Indeed papers have explained the use of trade debt rather than ?nancing debt by transaction costs (Ferris, 1981), differential access of suppliers and buyers to ?nancing (Schwartz,1974), and informational advantages and comparative costs of monitoring (Smith, 1987; Mian and Smith, 1992; Biais and Gollier, 1997). Petersen and Rajan (1997) provide some tests of these explanations.In addition to tax, transaction costs and agency costs explanations for leverage, research has also conjectured an informational role. Ross (1977) and Leland and Pyle (1977) characterized ?nancing choice as a signal of pro?tability and value, and subsequent papers (for example, Myers and Majluf, 1984) have carried the idea further. Other studies have ascribed an informational role also for operating liabilities. Biais and Gollier (1997) and Petersen and Rajan (1997), for example, see suppliers as having more information about ?rms than banks and the bond market, so more operating debt might indicate higher value. Alternatively, high trade payables might indicate dif?culties in paying suppliers and declining fortunes.Additional insights come from further relaxing the perfect frictionless capital markets assumptions underlying the original M&M ?nancing irrelevance proposition. When it comes to operations, the product and input markets in which ?rms trade are typically less competitive than capital markets. Indeed, ?rms are viewed as adding value primarily in operations rather than in ?nancing activities because of less than purely competitive product and input markets. So, whereas it is difficult to ‘‘make money off the debtholders,’’ ?rms can be seen as ‘‘making money off the trade creditors.’’ In operations, ?rms can exert monopsony power, extracting value from suppliers and employees. Suppliers may provide cheap implicit ?nancing in exchange for information about products and markets in which the ?rm operates. They may also bene?t from ef?ciencies in the ?rm’s supply and distribution chain, and may grant credit to capture future business.Effects of Accrual Accounting EstimatesAccrual liabilities may be based on contractual terms, but typically involve estimates. Pension liabilities, for example, are based on employment contracts but involve actuarial estimates. Deferred revenues may involve obligations to service customers, but also involve estimates that allocate revenues to periods. While contractual liabilities are typically carried on the balance sheet as an unbiased indication of the cash to be paid, accrual accounting estimates are not necessarily unbiased. Conservative accounting, for example, might overstate pension liabilities or defer more revenue than required by contracts withcustomers.Such biases presumably do not affect value, but they affect accounting rates of return and the pricing of the liabilities relative to their carrying value (the price-to-book ratio). The effect of accounting estimates on operating liability leverage is clear: Higher carrying values for operating liabilities result in higher leverage for a given level of operating assets. But the effect on pro?tability is also clear from leveraging equation (12): While conservative accounting for operating assets increases the ROOA, as modeled in Feltham and Ohlson (1995) and Zhang (2000), higher book values of operating liabilities lever up RNOA over ROOA. Indeed, conservative accounting for operating liabilities amounts to leverage of book rates of return. By leveraging equation (13), that leverage effect ?ows through to shareholder pro?tability, ROCE.And higher anticipated ROCE implies a higher price-to-book ratio.The potential bias in estimated operating liabilities has opposite effects on current and future pro?tability. For example, if a ?rm books higher deferred revenues, accrued expenses or other operating liabilities, and so increases its operating liability leverage, it reduces its current pro?tability: Current revenues must be lower or expenses higher. And, if a ?rm reports lower operating assets (by a write down of receivables, inventories or other assets, for example), and so increases operating liability leverage, it also reduces current pro?tability: Current expenses must be higher. But this application of accrual accounting affects future operating income: All else constant, lower current income implies higher future income. Moreover, higher operating liabilities and lower operating assets amount to lower book value of equity. The lower book value is the base for the rate of return for the higher future income. So the analysis of operating liabilities potentially identi?es part of the accrual reversal phenomenon documented by Sloan (1996) and interprets it as affecting leverage, forecasts of pro?tability, and price-to-book ratios.3. Empirical AnalysisThe analysis covers all ?rm-year observations on the combined COMPUSTAT (Industry and Research) ?les for any of the 39 years from 1963 to 2001 that satisfy the following requirements: (1) the company was listed on the NYSE or AMEX; (2) the company was not a ?nancial institution (SIC codes 6000–6999), thereby omitting ?rms where most ?nancial assets and liabilities are used in operations;(3) the book value of common equity is at least $10 million in 2001 dollars; and(4) the averages of the beginning and ending balance of operating assets, net operating assets and common equity are positive (as balance sheet variables are measured in the analysis using annual averages). These criteria resulted in a sample of 63,527 ?rm-year observations.Appendix B describes how variables used in the analysis are measured. One measurement issue that deserves discussion is the estimation of the borrowing cost for operating liabilities. As most operating liabilities are short term, we approximate the borrowing rate by the after-tax risk-free one-year interest rate.This measure may understate the borrowing cost if the risk associated with operating liabilities is not trivial. The effect of such measurement error is to induce a negative correlation between ROOA and OLLEV. As we show below, however, even with this potential negative bias we document a strong positive relation between OLLEV and ROOA.4. ConclusionTo ?nance operations, ?rms borrow in the ?nancial markets, creating ?nancing leverage. In running their operations, ?rms also borrow, but from customers, employees and suppliers, creating operating liability leverage. Because they involve trading in different types of markets, the two types of leverage may have different value implications. In particular, operating liabilities may re?ect contractual terms that add value in different ways than ?nancing liabilities, and so they may be priced differently. Operating liabilities also involve accrual accounting estimates that may further affect their pricing. This study has investigated the implications of the two types of leverage for pro?tability and equity value.The paper has laid out explicit leveraging equations that show how shareholder pro?tability is related to ?nancing leverage and operating liability leverage. For operating liability leverage, the leveraging equation incorporates both real contractual effects and accounting effects. As price-to-book ratios are based on expected pro?tability, this analysis also explains how price-to-book ratios are affected by the two types of leverage. The empirical analysis in the paper demonstrates that operating and ?nancing liabilities imply different pro?tability and are priced differently in the stock market.Further analysis shows that operating liability leverage not only explains differences in pro?tability in the cross-section but also informs on changes in future pro?tability from current pro?tability. Operating liability leverage and changes in operating liability leverage are indicators of the quality of current reported pro?tability as a predictor of future pro?tability.Our analysis distinguishes contractual operating liabilities from estimated liabilities, but further research might examine operating liabilities in more detail, focusing on line items such as accrued expenses and deferred revenues. Further research might also investigate the pricing of operating liabilities under differ ing circumstances; for example, where ?rms have ‘‘market power’’ over their suppliers.会计研究综述，2003,16(8):531-560财务报表分析的杠杆左右以及如何体现盈利性和值比率摘要。
会计专业财务会计中英文对照外文翻译文献
(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)中英文对照外文翻译附件：外文翻译译文战略财务会计在中小企业摘要：随着社会经济的发展和科学技术的进步,中国的企业在一个充满机会和危险的阶段。
介绍了安全会计的含义和意义战略财务会计中存在的问题,阐述了财务策略进行小中型企业一起,最后提出了一些对策和原因。
关键词：中小企业的战略财务会计、问题、对策一个企业的不确定性的金融环境其财务活动充满风险。
除了机会,有许多的危险从时间,以时间,其财务会计。
因此,它已经成为了成功的关键一个企业的财务会计是否能跟踪的趋势变化什么是有用的吸收。
应当拒绝接受什么是有害的。
战略会计思想是非常重要的在企业的财务会计,因为我们必须努力去分析和把握一般环境和发展一个企业的发展趋势,从而提高适应能力、可变性和适用性的金融中心会计不确定环境。
目前,中小企业在100年通过了工商登记、以企业总数的90%。
因此,其战略财务会计是特别重要的,这也是本论文的主题。
1 简介战略性的财务会计是财务会计理论,根据该融资应该的在最适当的方式进行,采集到的资本必须利用和会计的最有效的方式虽然企业和决策和利润分配应该最合理。
根据其内涵,总结三个主要内容的战略财务会计,包括融资策略,投资战略和利润分配决策策略。
详情如下:融资策略高度发达的现代企业具有的销售急剧增长。
当面对这样一种局势,企业倾向于有很大的要求从股票和应收账款是资本的提升。
更大的为销售增长的张力,但更大的资本要求。
因此,在融资策略都具有十分重要的意义战略会计财务。
融资策略的功能在于明确的指导方针融资、铺设融资目标下,建立整体规模、融资渠道和方法,安排战略资本结构优化方案,从各方面对此作了相应的对策,以达到融资目标,最后预测和收集的大量资金的企业的需要。
投资策略为核心的战略财务会计,这种策略决定一个企业只能分配它的首都资源合理而有效的方法。
投资策略包括确认投资固定资产的方向、公司规模和资本规模、投资选择相关的外部扩张或内部扩张,改革旧的产品或开发新的、独立或联合操作,自有资金投资决定或贷款之间的百分比固定资产、流动资产、投资策略和风险和那些在通货膨胀。
会计学毕业论文外文文献及翻译
LNTU---Acc附录A国际会计准则第 37 号或有负债和或有资产目的本准则的目的是确保将适当的确认标准和计量基础运用于准备、或有负债和或有资产，并确保在财务报表的附注中披露充分的信息，以使使用者能够理解它们的性质、时间和金额。
范围1．本准则适用于所有企业对以下各项之外的准备、或有负债和或有资产的会计核算：（1）以公允价值计量的金融工具形成的准备、或有负债和或有资产：（2）执行中的合同（除了亏损的执行中的合同）形成的准备、或有负债和或有资产；（3）保险公司与保单持有人之间签订的合同形成的准备、或有负债和或有资产；（4）由其他国际会计准则规范的准备、或有负债和或有资产。
2．本准则适用于不是以公允价值计量的金融工具（包括担保）。
3．执行中的合同是指双方均未履行任何义务或双方均同等程度地履行了部分义务的合同。
本准则不适用于执行中的合同，除非它是亏损的。
4．本准则适用于保险公司的准备、或有负债和或有资产，但不适用于其与保单持有人之间签订的合同形成的准备、或有负债和或有资产。
5．如果其他国际会计准则规范了特定的准备、或有负债和或有资产，企业应运用该准则而不是本准则，例如，关于以下项目的准则也规范了特定的准备：（1）建造合同（参见《国际会计准则第11号建造合同》）；（2）所得税（参见《国队会计准则第12号所得税》）；（3）租赁（参见《国际会计准则第17 号租赁》），但是，《国际会计准则第17 号》未对已变为亏损的经营租质的核算提出具体要求，因而本准则应适用于这些情况；（4）雇员福利（参见《国际会计准则第19号一雇员福利》）。
6．一些作为准备处理的金额可能与收入的确认有关，例如企业提供担保以收取费用，本准则不涉及收入确认，《国际会计准则第18 号收入》明确了收入确认标准，并就确认标准的应用提供了实务指南，本准则不改变《国际会计准则第18 号》的规定。
7．本准则将准备定义为时间或金额不确定的负债，在某些国家，“准备”也与一些项目相联系使用，例如折旧，资产减值和坏账：这些是对资产账面金额的调整，本准则不涉及。
会计学财务报表中英文对照外文翻译文献
会计学财务报表中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)译文：中美财务报表的区别(1)财务报告内容构成上的区别1)美国的财务报告包括三个基本的财务报表，除此之外，典型的美国大公司财务报告还包括以下成分：股东权益、收益与综合收益、管理报告、独立审计报告、选取的5-10年数据的管理讨论与分析以及选取的季度数据。
2)我国财务报告不注重其解释，而美国在财务报告的内容、方法、多样性上都比较充分。
中国的评价部分包括会计报表和财务报表，财务报表是最主要的报表，它包括前述各项与账面不符的描述、财会政策与变化、财会评估的变化、会计差错等问题，资产负债表日期，关联方关系和交易活动等等，揭示方法是注意底部和旁注。
美国的财务范围在内容上比财务报表更加丰富，包括会计政策、技巧、添加特定项目的报告, 报告格式很难反映内容和商业环境等等，对违反一致性、可比性原则问题，评论也需要披露的，但也揭示了许多方面，比如旁注、底注、括号内、补充声明、时间表和信息分析报告。
(2)财务报表格式上的比较1)从资产负债表的格式来看，美国的资产负债表有账户类型和报告样式两项描述，而我国是使用固定的账户类型。
另外，我们的资产负债表在项目的使用上过于标准化，不能够很好的反映出特殊的商业项目或者不适用于特殊类型的企业。
而美国的资产负债表项目是多样化的，除此之外，财务会计准则也是建立在资产负债表中资产所有者投资和支出两项要素基础上的，这一点也是中国的财会准则中没有的。
2)从损益表格式的角度来看，美国采用的是多步式，损益表项目分为两部分，营业利润和非营业利润，但是意义不同。
我国的营业利润在范围上比美国的小，例如投资收益在美国是归类为营业利润的而在我国则不属于营业利润。
另外，我国的损益表项目较美国的更加规范和严格，美国校准损益表仅仅依赖于类别和项目。
报告收可以与销售收入及其他收入相联系，也可以和利息收益、租赁收入和单项投资收益相联系；在成本方面，并不是严格的划分为管理成本、财务成本、和市场成本，并且经常性销售费用、综合管理费用以及利息费用、净利息收益都要分别折旧。
会计文献中英文对照
The Optimization Method of Financial Statements Based on Accounting Management Theory基于会计管理理论的财务报表的优化方法Abstract—This paper develops an approach to enhance the reliability and usefulness of financial statements. International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) was fundamentally flawed by fair value accounting and asset-impairment accounting. According to legal theory and accounting theory, accounting data must have legal evidence as its source document. The conventional “mixed attribute” accounting system should be replaced by a “segregated” system with historical cost and fair value being kept strictly apart in financial statements. The proposed optimizing method will significantly enhance the reliability and usefulness of financial statements.摘要——本文提供了一个方法，以提高财务报表的可靠性和实用性。
国际财务报告准则（IFRS）的根本缺陷是由公平价值核算和资产减值核算。
财务会计文献-英译汉
英文翻译题目Determinants and consequences of internal controlin firms: a contingency theory based analysis 学院名称经济管理学院指导教师王龙辉职称讲师班级财务管理 081班学号 20084960137 学生姓名高旭2012年05月25日企业内部控制的影响因素和后果：基于权变理论的分析摘要:为了保证企业需求内部控制活动的有效性和信息的可靠性以及遵守法律的适用性。
因此，COCO,COSO等几个框架显示公司的特这个不同对内部的控制也不同。
每个组织要选择最适合的控制系统时，必须考虑到意外事故的风险是否切合权变理论。
本文研究的是检视这些风险特点的选择是否适应他们公司内部控制结构和它是否会导致一些更加优惠的有效性的评估控制管理。
虽然内部控制的组成部分已进行单独控制，本文尝试阐明内部控制的关键点并将其放到更加广阔的背景中。
结果证明，基于对741芬兰公司WEB调查，表明公司用内部控制结构来应对环境的不确定性，并观测控制的有效性的战略对其内部控制结构有着显著的效果。
关键词：内部控制成效权变理论结构方块建模1 文章概述人们普遍认为，一个内部控制系统可以帮助企业降低风险的财务报表的可靠性保证体系和法律的遵循情况（Spira and page 2003）因此，越来越多的企业倒闭和一些广泛宣传企业舞弊行为导致企业在他们具体的操作环境下更多的关注自己的内部控制。
在巨大的管理压力下，如何提高内部控制的有效性以及有效的与董事会和股东沟通。
由于内部控制可能会影响长期的报告，导致审计人员、供应商、客户都对内部控制感兴趣。
Kinney在2000年指出，尽管内部控制对公司影响很大，但在组织环境中内部控制结构却无法实现。
关于内部控制的抓也文献在国际研究上已取得进展，但迄今为止，内部控制的研究数量有限。
在2004年Selto andWidener出版的专业文章中提出，在管理控制中研究较少的内部控制有着很强的实用性。
财务会计中英文对照(doc 8页)(完美版)
1AAA 美国会计学会2Abacus《算盘》杂志3abacus 算盘考试大论坛4Abandonment废弃,报废;委付5abandonment value 废弃价值6abatement①减免②冲销7ability to service debt 偿债能力8abnormal cost 异常成本9abnormal spoilage 异常损耗10above par 超过票面价值11above the line线上项目12absolute amount 绝对数,绝对金额13absolute endorsement 绝对背书14absolute insolvency 绝对无力偿付15absolute priority 绝对优先求偿权16absolute value 绝对值17absorb 摊配,转并18absorption account 摊配账户,转并账户19absorption costing 摊配成本计算法20abstract 摘要表考试大论坛21abuse 滥用职权22abuse of tax shelter 滥用避税项目23ACCA特许公认会计师公会24accelerated cost recovery system 加速成本收回制度25accelerated depreciation method 加速折旧法,快速折旧法26acceleration clause 加速偿付条款,提前偿付条款27acceptance①承兑②已承兑票据③验收28acceptance bill 承兑票据29acceptance register 承兑票据登记簿30acceptance sampling验收抽样31access time 存取时间32accommodation 融通33accommodation bill 融通票据34accommodation endorsement 融通背书35account①账户,会计科目②账簿,报表③账目,账项④记账36accountability 经营责任,会计责任37accountability unit 责任单位38Accountancy 《会计》杂志39accountancy 会计40accountant 会计员,会计师41accountant general 会计主任,总会计42accounting in charge 主管会计师43accountant,s legal liability 会计师的法律责任44accountant,s report 会计师报告45accountant,s responsibility 会计师职责46account form 账户式,账式47accounting①会计②会计学48accounting assumption 会计假定,会计假设49accounting basis 会计基准,会计基本方法50accounting changes 会计变更51accounting concept 会计概念52accounting control 会计控制53accounting convention 会计常规,会计惯例54accounting corporation 会计公司55accounting cycle 会计循环56accounting data 会计数据57accounting doctrine 会计信条58accounting document 会计凭证59accounting elements 会计要素60accounting entity 会计主体,会计个体61accounting entry 会计分录62accounting equation 会计等式63accounting event 会计事项64accounting exposure 会计暴露,会计暴露风险65accounting firm 会计事务所考试大论坛66Accounting Hall of Fame 会计名人堂67accounting harmonization 会计协调化68accounting identity 会计恒等式69accounting income 会计收益70accounting information 会计信息71accounting information system 会计信息系统72accounting internationalization 会计国际化73accounting journals 会计杂志74accounting legislation 会计法规75accounting manual 会计手册76accounting objective 会计目标77accounting period 会计期78accounting policies 会计政策79accounting postulate 会计假设80accounting practice 会计实务81accounting principle 会计原则82Accounting Principle Board 会计原则委员会83accounting procedures 会计程序84accounting profession 会计职业,会计专业85accounting rate of return 会计收益率86accounting records 会计记录,会计簿籍87Accounting Review 《会计评论》88accounting rules 会计规则89Accounting Series Release 《会计公告文件》90accounting service 会计服务91accounting software 会计软件92accounting standard 会计标准,会计准则93accounting standardization 会计标准化94Accounting Standards Board 会计准则委员会(英)95Accounting Standards Committee 会计准则委员会(英)96accounting system①会计制度②会计系统97accounting technique 会计技术98accounting theory 会计理论99accounting transaction 会计业务,会计账务100Accounting Trend and Techniques 《会计趋势和会计技术》101accounting unit 会计单位102accounting valuation 会计计价103accounting year 会计年度104accounts 会计账簿,会计报表105account sales 承销清单,承销报告单106accounts payable 应付账款107accounts receivable 应收账款108accounts receivable aging schedule 应收账款账龄分析表109accounts receivable assigned 已转让应收账款110accounts receivable collection period应收账款收款期111accounts receivable discounted 已贴现应收账款112accounts receivable financing 应收账款筹资,应收账款融资113accounts receivable management 应收账款管理114accounts receivable turnover 应收账款周转率,应收账款周转次数115accretion 增殖116accrual basis accounting 应计制会计,权责发生制会计117accrued asset 应计资产118accrued expense 应计费用119accrued liability 应计负债120accrued revenue 应计收入121accumulated depreciation 累计折旧122accumulated dividend 累计股利123accumulated earnings tax 累积盈余税,累积收益税124accumulation 累积,累计125acid test ratio 酸性试验比率126acquired company 被盘购公司,被兼并公司127acquisition 购置,盘购128acquisition accounting 盘购会计129acquisition cost 购置成本130acquisition decision 购置决策131acquisition excess 盘购超支132acquisition surplus 盘购盈余133across-the-board 全面调整134ACT 预交公司税135act 法案,法规136action 起诉,诉讼137active account 活动账户138active assets 活动资产139activity 业务活动,作业140activity account 作业账户141activity accounting 作业会计142activity ratio 业务活动比率143activity variance 业务活动量差异144act of bankruptcy 破产法145act of company 公司法146act of God 天灾,不可抗力147actual capital 实际资本148actual value 实际价值149actual wage 实际工资150added value 增值151added value statement 增值表152added value tax 增值税153addition 增置,扩建154additional depreciation 附加折旧,补提折旧155additional paid-in capital 附加实缴资本156additional tax 附加税157adequate disclosure 充分披露158adjunct account 附加账户159adjustable-rate bond 可调整利率债券160adjusted gross income 调整后收益总额,调整后所得总额161adjusted trial balance 调整后试算表162adjusting entry 调整分录163adjustment 调整164adjustment account 调整账户165adjustment bond 调整债券166administrative accounting 行政管理会计167administrative budget 行政管理预算168administrative expense行政管理费用169ADR 资产折旧年限幅度170ad valorem tax 从价税171advance 预付款,垫付款172advance corporation tax 预交公司税173advances from customers 预收客户款174advance to suppliers 预付货款175adventure 投机经营,短期经营176adverse opinion 反面意见,否定意见177adverse variance 不利差异,逆差178advisory services咨询服务179affiliated company 联营公司180affiliation 联营181after closing trial balance 结账后试算表182after cost 售后成本183after date 出票后兑付184after sight 见票后兑付185after-tax 税后186AGA 政府会计师联合会187age 寿命,账龄,资产使用年限188age allowance年龄减免189age analysis 账龄分析190agency 代理,代理关系191agency commission 代理佣金192agency fund 代管基金193agenda 议事日程,备忘录194agent 代理商,代理人195aggregate balance sheet 合并资产负债表196aggregate income statement 合并损益表197AGI 调整后收益总额,调整后所得总额198aging of accounts receivable应收账款账龄分析199aging schedule 账龄表200agio 贴水,折价201agiotage 汇兑业务,兑换业务202AGM 年度股东大会203agreement 协议204agreement of partnership 合伙协议205AICPA 美国注册公共会计师协会206AIS 会计信息系统207all capital earnings rate 资本总额收益率208all-inclusive income concept 总括收益概念209allocation 分摊,分配210allocation criteria分配标准211allotment①分配,拨付②分配数,拨付数212allowance①备抵②折让③津贴213allowance for bad debts 呆账备抵214allowance for depreciation 折旧备抵账户215allowance method 备抵法216all-purpose financial statement 通用财务报表,通用会计报表217alpha risk 阿尔法风险,第一种审计风险218altered check 涂改支票219alternative accounting methods 可选择性会计方法220alternative proposals 替代方案,备选方案221amalgamation 企业合并222American Accounting Association 美国会计学会223American depository receipts 美国银行证券存单,美国银行证券托存收据224American Institute of Certified Public Accountants 美国注册会计师协会,美国注册公共会计师协会225American option 美式期权226American Stock Exchange 美国股票交易所227amortization①摊销②摊还228amortized cost 摊余成本229amount 金额,合计230amount differ 金额不符231amount due 到期金额232amount of 1 dollar 1元的本利和233analysis 分析234analyst分析师235analytical review 分析性检查236annual audit 年度审计237annual closing 年度结账238annual general meeting 年度股东大会239annualize 按年折算240annualized net present value 折算年度净现值241annual report 年度报告242annuity 年金243annuity due期初年金244annuity in advance预付年金245annuity in arrears迟付年金246annuity method of depreciation 年金折旧法247antedate 填早日期248anticipation 预计,预列249anti-dilution clause 防止稀释条款250anti-pollution investment 消除污染投资251anti-profiteering tax 反暴利税252anti-tax avoidance 反避税253anti-trust legislation 反拖拉斯立法254A/P 应付账款255APB 会计原则委员会256APB Opinion 《会计原则委员会意见书》257Application申请,申请书258applied overhead 已分配间接费用259appraisal 估价260appraisal capital 评估资本261appraisal surplus 估价盈余262appraiser 估价员,估价师263appreciation 增值264appropriated retained earnings 已拨定留存收益,已指定用途留存收益265appropriation 拨款,指拨经费266appropriation account ①拨款账户②留存收益分配账户267appropriation budget拨款预算268approval 核定,审批269approved account 核定账户270approved bond 核定债券271A/R 应收账款272arbitrage 套利,套汇273arbitrage transaction 套利业务,套汇业务274arbitration 仲裁,公断275arithmetical error 算术误差276arm,s-length price 正常价格,公正价格277arm,s-length transaction 一臂之隔交易,正常交易278ARR 会计收益率279arrears①拖欠,欠款②迟付280arrestment 财产扣押281Authur Anderson & Co. 约瑟?安德森会计师事务所,安达信会计师事务所282article 文件条文,合同条款283articles of incorporation公司章程284articles of partnership 合伙契约285articulate 环接286articulated concept 环接观念287artificial intelligence 人工智能288ASB 审计准则委员会289ASE美国股票交易所290Asian Development Bank 亚洲开发银行291Asian dollar 亚洲美元292asking price 索价,卖方报价293assessed value 估定价值294assessment①估定,查定②特别税捐,特别摊派税捐295asset 资产296asset cover 资产担保,资产保证297asset depreciation range 资产折旧年限幅度298asset-liability view 资产—负债观念299asset quality 资产质量300asset retirement 资产退役,资产报废。
财务、会计专业外文翻译
Financial AccountingFinancial AccountingVol. 4, May 2006Review of Accounting EthicsJameson keenLondon UniversityLiabilities, and earnings management in the research contract, the Madrid side and Jibe Fu (1994) between 1985-1988, the annual report on contingent liabilities disclosed in breach of contract case for the sample of 94 companies of the findings show that: one year prior to default, the company Management made the adjustment by surplus earnings management; in breach of that year, 43 companies were issued reservations, general manager of audit reports and personnel changes occurred (expected earnings of these companies will make a reduction of earnings management), other 51 companies made the adjustment by surplus earnings management behavior. CEO Turnover and Earnings Management in the research, Dean chloroform (1988) on the company's proxy fight is the case, the existence of company management behavior of earnings management found: those who declared at the dealership competition shareholders meeting to release earnings information between the company and its accounting earnings and accrued profits significantly increase, but the operating cash flows have not increased significantly; those outside the agency during the competition, the company announced accounting earnings information is no such phenomenon. In addition, the Madrid side and Parker (1997) for the management staff in order to preserve their jobs, leaving the threat of dismissal from the surplus of stable earnings management studies have shown that: if the other conditions remain unchanged, those of poor future performance and current performance expectations better able to adjust the company will make additional surplus earnings management to reduce the current threat of dismissal; if other conditions remain unchanged, while those current good performance of companies with poor expected future performance can be adjusted to make Less surplus earnings management to reduce the future threat of dismissal. Facing financial difficulties in theFinancial AccountingFinancial AccountingVol. 4, May 2006company or decline in performance and earnings management research, Taylor and Di Chef Tobago (1997), the company reported earnings in order to avoid degradation or loss of earnings management behavior was studied and found that indeed the company there decrease or avoid reporting earnings losses for earnings management behavior, and management of these companies mainly through management of operating cash flows and changes in working capital to increase the amount to achieve the purpose of accounting earnings. Xia Ma and Stevenson (1997) study found that bankrupt companies will be making more than other companies, a favorable change in accounting policy maneuverability and are more likely than others to make a favorable accounting maneuverability policy change; going to bankrupt companies are more likely than other companies for their earnings and total assets have a significant beneficial effect and maneuverability to take advantage of changes in accounting policies.Chinese scholars in the false accounting information with regard to the research results focused on the following aspects. Jiang Yahooing (1998) that the profits of listed companies are controlled by the profit motive: the issue of price-earnings ratio is restricted to increase the issue price and the financial package; placement eligibility to obtain financial packaging; 3 consecutive years in order to avoid loss of stock to be delisted and a financial package. Lin Hong Ago (1999) the causes of false accounting information has been specifically analyzed, and the clarity of property rights, optimal management of state assets to build a standardized corporate governance structure and changing the mode of supervision of countermeasures. Hon-Man Chan, Lin Ziti, Yan Hue (1999) on the deep-seated reasons for accounting fraud, analyzed, pointing out that state-owned enterprises in China's current corporate governance structure, corporate governance structure is not the external sound, the lack of capital markets and managers from the market competition; internal governance structure, shareholders, board of directors is difficult to play its due role; In addition, corporate governance structure as anFinancial AccountingFinancial AccountingVol. 4, May 2006important system of independent audit can not be true, making the accounting fraud is inevitable. Liu Fang (2001), Sichuan Hengyang Industrial Company by analysis of the case, from the perspective of China's existing institutional arrangements of the phenomenon of false accounting information has been studied. Studies suggest that China's existing institutional arrangements themselves rejection of high-quality accounting information, accounting information and Illegal induced distortion. Professional ethics in the accounting fraud for the impact of accounting information, many scholars have done a more comprehensive discussion, and draw many valuable conclusions. To increase Biao (1996) that adhere to the mainstream thinking of the root causes of false accounting data is made up who seek illegitimate interests, and the blame on old and new economic system, the units turn of factors internal and external environment, lack of coordination and institutional vulnerability management solution designed according to the view is not comprehensive, it ignores a very important factor - accounting professional ethics. False accounting staff on accounting data is inescapable moral responsibility. Reforming Accounting Ethics will be the treatment and prevention of false accounting data in one of the strategic measures, but also to the healthy development of the accounting profession of the overall situation. Tang Gulling (1996) noted that accounting standards and accounting ethics such as the wings of a bird, the car of the two complement each other, are indispensable. Accounting system in China and other reforms, build a modern accounting ethics research system is also currently the inherent requirements of accounting reform in China, namely, to strengthen accounting oversight and improve the overall quality of accounting personnel to effectively prevent the distortion of accounting information to improve the quality of accounting work. Han Chuan die, Hoaxing Zhao (2002) also pointed out that China's economic system from a planned economy to a market economy, the process of change, for the production of social and moral anomie provides a nutrient, in recent years, the accounting profession talk more distortion of accounting information,Financial AccountingFinancial AccountingVol. 4, May 2006accounting Professional Moral Standard is the most important reasons. Ray and students, Gang Guano Ming et al (2004) by a moral point of view of accounting moral failure caused by information distortion, proposed the establishment and restoration of faith-based accounting professional ethics measures: clearly the new market ethics reduce moral free space, to overcome the short-term behavior of the leadership to establish ethical supervision and evaluation mechanisms.The above study from a different perspective on the false accounting information is analyzed and discussed, has brought us many useful lessons for future research to develop a good idea. In addition, in recent years with PricewaterhouseCoopers released a report on the "opaque Index" report, the accounting transparency of accounting information quality as a comprehensive concept, a comprehensive set of accounting information quality standards and an overall quality of accounting information management "toolbox" (Wei Ming Hay, Liu Fang, 2001), but also more for the Study of accounting theory, all of which improve the quality of accounting information for China is undoubtedly useful. However, as noted earlier, throughout the country in recent years, research involving the transparency of accounting and moral impact of the accounting literature, there are few, and the author's view is that the Chinese accounting (information) low transparency and moral anomie at this stage in China Accounting have a great relationship. Based on this, this paper from the accounting point of view of morality is low transparency in the fact that Chinese accounting research, the use of standardized research methods, identifies the causes and makes recommendations to the accounting for Chinese enterprises (information) to improve transparency to provide a good moral foundation.。
财会专业英语_中英文对照
AAbsorption costing 完全成本法Accelerated Depreciation Method 加速折旧法Account 科目，账户Account form 账户式Account payable 应付账款Account receivable 应收账款Accounting 会计Accounting cycle 会计循环Accounting equation 会计等式资产Assets= 负债Liabilities + 所有者权益Owner’s EquityAccounting period concept 会计期间Accounting system 会计制度Account payable subsidiary ledger 应付款明细分类账Accounts receivable analysis 应收账款分析Accounts receivable subsidiary ledger 应收账款明细分类账Accounts receivable turnover 应收账款周转率Accrual basis accounting 应记制，债权发生制Accrued expenses 应记费用Accrued revenues 应记收入Accumulated depreciation 累计折旧Accumulated other comprehensive income 累计其他综合收入Activity base drive 作业基础/动因Activity-based costing ABC 作业成本计算法Adjusted trial balance调整后试算平衡表Adjusting entries调整分录Adjusting process调整过程Administrative expenses general expenses管理费用一般费用Aging the receivables应收账款账龄分析Allowance for doubtful accounts 坏账准备Allowance method备抵法Amortization摊销Annuity年金Assets资产Available-for-sale securities可供出售证券Average inventory cost flow method 平均库存成本流法Average cost method平均成本法Average rate of return平均回报率BBad debt expense 坏账费用Balance of the account账户余额Balance sheet资产负债表Balanced scorecard平衡记分卡Bank reconciliation银行存款余额调节表Bank statement 银行报表Bond债券Bond indenture债券契约Book value账面价值Book value of the asset资产的账面价值Boot补价Break-even point盈亏临界点Budget预算Budget performance report预算业绩报告Budgetary slack预算松弛Budgeted variable factory overhead 预算变量工厂开销Business企业Business combination 企业合并Business entity concept企业主体概念Business stakeholder企业利益相关者Business strategy企业战略Business transaction经济业务C Capital account 资本性账户Capital expenditures资本性支出Capital expenditures budget资本支出预算Capital investment analysis资本投资分析Capital leases资本性租赁Capital rationing资本分配Carrying amount账面金额Cash现金Cash basis of accounting现金制；收付实现制Cash budget现金预算Cash dividend现金股利Cash equivalents现金等价物Cash flow per share 每股现金流量Cash flows from financing activities筹资活动现金流量Cash flows from investing activities投资活动现金流量Cash flows from operating activities经营活动现金流量Cash payback period现金回收期Cash payments journal现金付款日记账Cash receipts journal现金收款日记账Cash short and over account现金余缺账户Certified public accountant CPA注册会计师Chart of accounts会计科目表Clearing account 清理账户Closing entries结账分录Closing process结账程序Closing the books 结账Common stock普通股Common-size statement通用报表Compensating balance 补偿性余额Comprehensive income全面收益Consigned inventory 寄售库存Consignee 收货人承销人Consignor 发货人寄件人Consolidated financial statements合并财务报表Contingent liabilities 不确定债务Continuous budgeting滚动预算Continuous process improvement 持续过程改进Contra accountor contra asset account抵减账户Contract rate约定利率Contribution margin 贡献毛益Contribution margin ratio贡献毛益率Contribution margin ratio 边际贡献率Controllable expenses可控费用Controllable revenues 可控收入Controllable variance可控差异Controller主计长Controlling 管理控制Controlling account控制账户Conversion costs加工成本Copyright版权Corporation公司Correcting journal entry 调整分录Cost成本Cost accounting system成本会计系统Cost allocation成本分配Cost behavior成本性态Cost center成本中心Cost concept 成本概念Cost method 成本法Cost object 成本对象Cost of finished goods available 已完工产品的成本Cost of goods manufactured 产品成本Cost of goods sold产品销售成本Cost of goods sold budget产品销售成本预算Cost of merchandise sold商品销售成本：商业企业所销售商品的成本。
关于会计的英文文献原文(带中文翻译)
The Optimization Method of Financial Statements Based on Accounting Management TheoryABSTRACTThis paper develops an approach to enhance the reliability and usefulness of financial statements. International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) was fundamentally flawed by fair value accounting and asset-impairment accounting. According to legal theory and accounting theory, accounting data must have legal evidence as its source document. The conventional “mixed attribute” accounting system should be re placed by a “segregated” system with historical cost and fair value being kept strictly apart in financial statements. The proposed optimizing method will significantly enhance the reliability and usefulness of financial statements.I.. INTRODUCTIONBased on international-accounting-convergence approach, the Ministry of Finance issued the Enterprise Accounting Standards in 2006 taking the International Financial Reporting Standards (hereinafter referred to as “the International Standards”) for reference. The Enterprise Accounting Standards carries out fair value accounting successfully, and spreads the sense that accounting should reflect market value objectively. The objective of accounting reformation following-up is to establish the accounting theory and methodology which not only use international advanced theory for reference, but also accord with the needs of China's socialist market economy construction. On the basis of a thorough evaluation of the achievements and limitations of International Standards, this paper puts forward a stand that to deepen accounting reformation and enhance the stability of accounting regulations.II. OPTIMIZA TION OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS SYSTEM: PARALLELING LISTING OF LEGAL FACTS AND FINANCIAL EXPECTA TIONAs an important management activity, accounting should make use of information systems based on classified statistics, and serve for both micro-economic management and macro-economic regulation at the same time. Optimization of financial statements system should try to take all aspects of the demands of the financial statements in both macro and micro level into account.Why do companies need to prepare financial statements? Whose demands should be considered while preparing financial statements? Those questions are basic issues we should consider on the optimization of financial statements. From the perspective of "public interests", reliability and legal evidence are required as qualitative characters, which is the origin of the traditional "historical cost accounting". From the perspective of "private interest", security investors and financial regulatory authoritieshope that financial statements reflect changes of market prices timely recording "objective" market conditions. This is the origin of "fair value accounting". Whether one set of financial statements can be compatible with these two different views and balance the public interest and private interest? To solve this problem, we design a new balance sheet and an income statement.From 1992 to 2006, a lot of new ideas and new perspectives are introduced into China's accounting practices from international accounting standards in a gradual manner during the accounting reform in China. These ideas and perspectives enriched the understanding of the financial statements in China. These achievements deserve our full assessment and should be fully affirmed. However, academia and standard-setters are also aware that International Standards are still in the process of developing .The purpose of proposing new formats of financial statements in this paper is to push forward the accounting reform into a deeper level on the basis of international convergence.III. THE PRACTICABILITY OF IMPROVING THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS SYSTEMWhether the financial statements are able to maintain their stability? It is necessary to mobilize the initiatives of both supply-side and demand-side at the same time. We should consider whether financial statements could meet the demands of the macro-economic regulation and business administration, and whether they are popular with millions of accountants.Accountants are responsible for preparing financial statements and auditors are responsible for auditing. They will benefit from the implementation of the new financial statements.Firstly, for the accountants, under the isolated design of historical cost accounting and fair value accounting, their daily accounting practice is greatly simplified. Accounting process will not need assets impairment and fair value any longer. Accounting books will not record impairment and appreciation of assets any longer, for the historical cost accounting is comprehensively implemented. Fair value information will be recorded in accordance with assessment only at the balance sheet date and only in the annual financial statements. Historical cost accounting is more likely to be recognized by the tax authorities, which saves heavy workload of the tax adjustment. Accountants will not need to calculate the deferred income tax expense any longer, and the profit-after-tax in the solid line table is acknowledged by the Company Law, which solves the problem of determining the profit available for distribution.Accountants do not need to record the fair value information needed by security investors in the accounting books; instead, they only need to list the fair value information at the balance sheet date. In addition, because the data in the solid line table has legal credibility, so the legal risks of accountants can be well controlled. Secondly, the arbitrariness of the accounting process will be reduced, and the auditors’ review process will be greatly simplified. The independent auditors will not have to bear the considerable legal risk for the dotted-line table they audit, because the risk of fair value information has been prompted as "not supported by legalevidences". Accountants and auditors can quickly adapt to this financial statements system, without the need of training. In this way, they can save a lot of time to help companies to improve management efficiency. Surveys show that the above design of financial statements is popular with accountants and auditors. Since the workloads of accounting and auditing have been substantially reduced, therefore, the total expenses for auditing and evaluation will not exceed current level as well.In short, from the perspectives of both supply-side and demand-side, the improved financial statements are expected to enhance the usefulness of financial statements, without increase the burden of the supply-side.IV. CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONSThe current rule of mixed presentation of fair value data and historical cost data could be improved. The core concept of fair value is to make financial statements reflect the fair value of assets and liabilities, so that we can subtract the fair value of liabilities from assets to obtain the net fair value.However, the current International Standards do not implement this concept, but try to partly transform the historical cost accounting, which leads to mixed using of impairment accounting and fair value accounting. China's accounting academic research has followed up step by step since 1980s, and now has already introduced a mixed-attributes model into corporate financial statements.By distinguishing legal facts from financial expectations, we can balance public interests and private interests and can redesign the financial statements system with enhancing management efficiency and implementing higher-level laws as main objective. By presenting fair value and historical cost in one set of financial statements at the same time, the statements will not only meet the needs of keeping books according to domestic laws, but also meet the demand from financial regulatory authorities and security investorsWe hope that practitioners and theorists offer advices and suggestions on the problem of improving the financial statements to build a financial statements system which not only meets the domestic needs, but also converges with the International Standards.基于会计管理理论的财务报表的优化方法摘要本文提供了一个方法，以提高财务报表的可靠性和实用性。
会计专业毕业论文外文文献翻译.
密级：绝密外文翻译THESIS OF BACHELOR题目：浅析商业银行会计风险控制存在的问题及对策英文题目: Analysis of Commercial Bank Accounting Risk Control Problems and Countermeasures 学院: 系别:专业:班级:学生姓名:学号：指导老师:起讫日期:我国商业银行会计风险成因及防范对策历史资料表明:导致许多国家20世纪以来先后爆发银行危机的主要原因是未能妥善解决银行风险问题。
长期以来,这一问题也困扰着我国，成为威胁我国国民经济持续、健康发展的重大隐患。
几年来国家采取了一系列必要措施：从1994至1995年给银行业立法，1996年后加强金融审慎性监管，1998年为四大银行补充2700亿元资本金,1999年成立资产管理公司并剥离五大行的1。
4万亿元不良资产，2000年以后国务院严令各行降低不良资产率，等等。
但这些措施均没有触及体制不合理这个根本问题，因而无法从根本上控制银行风险增量,提高银行经营绩效。
目前，我国银行潜伏的高风险日益暴露出来.面临2006年银行业全面开放后外资金融机构进入所带来的竞争和挑战,本届政府下决心彻底改革国有银行的体制,去年末央行动用外汇储备向中国银行、中国建设银行注资450亿美元，充实其资本金，使之达到《巴塞尔协议》规定的8%的资本充足率,推动国有银行股份制改革和最终上市，从根本上解决国有银行风险的增量问题。
因此，研究中国银行风险的特点、特殊的制度成因，股份制改革和公司治理结构建立这些被称为治本措施的一系列政策问题，具有重要的理论和现实意义。
本文第一章首先阐述了我国银行风险的表现形式.其中银行信用风险特别是国有商业银行资产信贷质量问题，成为当前最为突出的金融风险；国有商业银行的流动性风险虽未显现（暂时被居民的高储蓄率所掩盖），但潜在的支付困难因素日益增多；财务风险主要表现在国有商业银行资本金严重不足和经营利润虚盈实亏两方面；此外我国银行还存在着较为严重的利率汇率风险、市场风险、犯罪风险。
会计专业外文文献翻译原文及译文
企业的社会责任：一种趋势和运动，但社会责任是什么，是为了什么？1企业社会责任（CSR ）已成为一个全球趋势，涉及企业，国家，国际组织和民间社会组织。
但这远远不能清楚CSR的主张，有什么真正的趋势，是从哪里开始，在哪里发展，谁是项目的主要行动者。
如果把它作为一种社会运动，我们必须要问：什么运动和谁执行？讨论有助于我们反思形成的趋势和如何管理某些特点来迅速和广泛地在全球各地进行扩展，并增加了以下体制变革,特别是对变化中国家之间、企业法人和民间社会组织关系之间的界限的作用。
企业社会责任的趋势在三个方面：作为一个管理框架，新的要求，地方企业;作为动员企业行为，以协助国家的发展援助;和作为管理趋势。
每一个这些画像表明，中心的某些行为，关系，驾驭团队和利益。
我的例子表明，没有人对这些意见似乎比别人更准确，而是，活动包括规范的不同利益、作用因素、起源和轨迹。
这些多重身份的趋势可以部分描述其成功以及它的争论，脆弱性和流动性。
许多公司现在有具体的计划和小节在其网站上处理企业社会责任。
在过去，软条例和指导网络，国际公认的规则一直是一种重要机制，作用在公司、国家和国家间组织的需求，例如，发布指导方针和条例的公司。
在这背景下，国际组织仍然是重要的行动者，他们正在寻求与跨国公司进行对话，而不是试图通过国家控制企业社会责任。
各国际组织不是对企业的社会责任监管机构;而他们却是监管和自我约束的倡议之间的经纪人的最合适人选。
对社会负责行为和监测这些行为的需求越来越多地以国家以外的这些组织为渠道，并强调赞成高比例的自律。
因此，我们看到了软法律(Morth, 2004)的出现，或者是Knill 和Lehmkuhl (2002) 所说的“被规管的自律”，和Moran (2002)所归纳的“精细”或“非正式”规章。
我更喜欢“软法律”和“软规章”的说法，因为他们并不总是非正式的。
软规章常常包括正式报告和统筹程序。
还有，从统筹和行政的观点来看，那些规章和精细还是相去甚远的。
会计学毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献
会计学中英文资料外文翻译文献外文资料原文Title:Future of SME finance（Background–the environment for SME finance has changedFuture economic recovery will depend on the possibility of Crafts,T rades and SMEs to exploit their potential for growth and employment creation.SMEs mak e a major contribution t o growth and employment in th e EU and are at the heart of the Lisbon Strategy,whose main objective is to turn Europe into the mos t competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world.However,the ability of SMEs to grow depends highly on their potential t o invest in restructuring, innovation and qualification.All of these investments need capital and therefore access to finance.Against this back gr ound the consistently r epea t ed complaint of SMEs a bo u t their problems regarding access to finance is a highly relevant constraint that endangers the economic recovery of Europe.Changes in the finance sector influence the behavior of credit institutes towards Crafts,T rades and SMEs.R ecent and ongoing developments in the banking sector add t o the concerns of SMEs and will further en dan ge r their access to finance.The main changes in the banking sector which influence SME finance are:•Globalization and internationalization have increased the competition and the profit orientation in the sector;•worsening of the economic situations in some institutes(burst of the ITC bubble,insolvencies)str engthen the focus on profitability further;•Mergers and restructuring created larger structures and many local branches, which had direct and personalized contacts with small enterprises,were closed;•up-coming implementation of new capital adequacy rules(Basel II)will also change SME business of the credit sector and will increase its administrative costs;•Stricter interpretation of State-Aide Rules by the European Commission eliminates the support of banks by public guarantees;many of the effected banks arevery active in SME finance.All these changes result in a higher sensitivity for risks and profits in the finance sector.The changes in the finance sector affect the accessibility o f SMEst o finance.Higher risk awareness in the credit sector,a stronger focus on profitability and the ongoing restructuring in the finance sector change the framework for SME finance and influence the accessibility of SMEs t o finance.The mo s t important changes are:•In order t o mak e the higher risk awareness operational,the credit sector introduces new rating systems and instruments for credit scoring;•Risk assessment of SMEs by banks will force the enterprises t o pr esent mo r e and better quality information on their businesses;•Banks will try to pass thr ough their additional costs for implementing and running the new capital regulations(Basel II)t o their business clients;•due to the increase of competition on interest rates,the bank sector demands mo r e and higher fees for its services(administration of accounts,payments systems, etc.),which are no t only additional costs for SMEs bu t also limit their liquidity;•Small enterprises will lose their personal relationship with decision-makers in local branches–the credit application process will become mo r e formal and anonymous and will probably lose longer;•the credit sector will lose more and more its“public function”to provi de access to finance for a wide range of economic actors,which it has in a n u mbe r of countries,in order to support and facilitate economic growth;the profitability of lending be co mes the main focus of private credit institutions.All of these developments will mak e access to finance for SMEs even mo r e difficult and/or will increase the cost of external finance.Business start-ups and SMEs,which want t o enter new markets,may especially suffer from shortages regarding finance.A European Code of Conduct betw een Banks and SMEs would have allowed at least mo r e transparency in the relations betw een Banks and SMEs and UEAPME regrets that the bank sector was not able t o agr ee on such a commitment.T owards an encompassing policy appr o ach t o improve the access of Crafts, T rades and SMEs to financeAll analyses show that credits and loans will stay the main source of finance forthe SME sector in Europe.Access to finance was always a main concern for SMEs, bu t the recent developments in the finance sector worsen the situation even more. Shortage of finance is already a relevant factor,which hinders economic recovery in Europe.Many SMEs are no t able t o finance their ne eds for investment.Therefore,UEAPME expects t he new European Commission and the new European Parliament t o strengthen their efforts to improve the framework conditions for SME finance.Europe’s Crafts,Trades and SMEs ask for an encompassing policy approach,which includes not only the conditions for SMEs’access to lending,but will also str engthen their capacity for internal finance and their access to external risk capital.From UEAPME’s point of view such an encompassing approach should be based on three guiding principles:•Risk-sharing betw een private investors,financial institutes,SMEs and public sector;•Increase of transparency of SMEs towards their external investors and lenders;•improving the regulatory environment for SME finance.Based on these principles and against the back gr ound of the changing environment for SME finance,UEAPME pr oposes policy measur es in the following areas:1.New Capital Requirement Directive:SME friendly implementation o f Basel IIDue t o intensive lobbying activities,UEAPME,together with other Business Associations in Europe,has achieved some improvements in favour of SMEs regarding the new Basel Agreement on regulatory capital(Basel II).The final a gr ee ment from the Basel Committee contains a much mo r e realistic appr o ach toward the real risk situation of SME lending for the finance market and will allow the necessary room for adaptations,which respect the different regional traditions and institutional structures.However,the new regulatory system will influence the relations betw een Banks and SMEs and it will depend very much on the way it will be implemented into European law,whether Basel II be co mes bu r dens ome for SMEs and if it will reduce access to finance for them.The new Capital Accord form the Basel Committee gives the financial marketauthorities and herewith the European Institutions,a lot of flexibility.In a bo u t70 areas they have room to ad a pt the Accord to their specific n e eds when implementing it into EU law.Some of them will have important effects on the costs and the accessibility of finance for SMEs.UEAPME expects therefore from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament:•The implementation of the new Capital R equirement Directive will be costly for the Finance Sector(up t o30Billion Euro till2006)and its clients will have t o pay for it.Therefore,the implementation–especially for smaller banks,which are o ften very active in SME finance–has to be carried o ut with as little administrative bu r de ns o me as possible(reporting obligations,statistics,etc.).•The European Regulators must recognize traditional instruments for collaterals(guarantees,etc.)as far as possible.•The European Commission and later the Member S tates should take over the r ecommendations from the European Parliament with regar d t o granularity,access t o retail portfolio,maturity,partial use,adaptation of thresholds,etc.,which will ease the bur den on SME finance.2.SMEs need transparent rating proceduresDue to higher risk awareness of the finance sector and the need s of Basel II, many SMEs will be confronted for the first time with internal rating procedures or credit scoring systems by their banks.The bank will require mo r e and better quality information from their clients and will assess them in a new way.Both up-coming developments are already causing increasing uncertainty a mo n gs t SMEs.In order to reduce this uncertainty and to allow SMEs to understand the principles of the new risk assessment,UEAPME demands transparent rating procedures–rating procedures may not become a“Black Box”for SMEs:•The bank should communicate the relevant criteria affecting the rating of SMEs.•The bank should inform SMEs abo u t its assessment in order t o allow SMEs t o improve.The negotiations on a European Code of Conduct betw een Banks and SMEs, which would have included a self-commitment for transparent rating procedures by Banks,failed.Therefore,UEAPME expects from the new European Commission andthe new European Parliament support for:•binding rules in the framework of the new Capital Adequacy Directive, which ensure the transparency of rating procedures and credit scoring systems for SMEs;•Elaboration of national Codes of Conduct in order t o improve the relations betw een Banks and SMEs and to support the adaptation of SMEs to the new financial environment.3.SMEs need an extension o f credit guarantee systems with a special focus on Micro-LendingBusiness start-ups,the transfer of businesses and innovative fast growth SMEs also depended in the past very often on public support t o get access t o finance. Increasing risk awareness by banks and the stricter interpretation of S tate Aid Rules will further increase the need for public support.Already now,there are credit guarant ee schemes in many countries on the limit of their capacity and too many investment projects cannot be realized by SMEs.Experiences show that Public money,spent for supporting credit guarantees systems,is a very efficient instrument and has a much higher multiplying effect than other instruments.One Euro form the European Investment Funds can stimulate30 Euro investments in SMEs(for venture capital funds the relation is only1:2).Therefore,UEAPME expects t he new European Commission and the new European Parliament t o support:•The extension of funds for national credit guarantees schemes in the framework of the new Multi-Annual Pr ogra mme d for Enterprises;•The development of new instruments for securitizations of SME portfolios;•The recognition of existing and well functioning credit guarantees schemes as collateral;•More flexibility within the European Instruments,because of national differences in th e situation of SME finance;•The development of credit guarantees schemes in the new Member States;•The development of an SBIC-like scheme in the Member States t o close the equity gap(0.2–2.5Mio Euro,according t o the expert meeting on PACE on April27 in Luxemburg).•the development of a financial support scheme to encourage the internalizations of SMEs(currently there is no scheme available at EU level:termination of JOP,fading ou t of JEV).4.SMEs need company and income taxation systems,which strengthen their capacity for self-financingMany EU Member States have comp any and income taxation systems with negative incentives to build-up capital within the company by re-investing their profits.This is especially true for companies,which have t o pay income taxes. Already in the p ast tax-regimes was one of the reasons for the higher dependence of Europe’s SMEs on bank lending.In future,the result of rating will also depend on the amount of capital in the company;the high dependence on lending will influence the access to lending.This is a vicious cycle,which has to be broken.Even though company and income taxation falls under the competence of Member States,UEAPME asks the new European Commission and the new European Parliament t o publicly support tax-reforms,which will str engthen the capacity of Crafts,T rades and SME for self-financing.Thereby,a special focus on non-corporate companies is needed.5.Risk Capital–equity financingExternal equity financing do es not have a real tradition in the SME sector.On the one hand,small enterprises and family business in general have traditionally no t been very open towards external equity financing and are no t used to informing transparently abo u t their business.On the other hand,many investors of venture capital and similar forms of equity finance are very reluctant regarding investing their funds in smaller companies,which is mo r e costly than investing bigger a moun ts in larger companies.Furthermore it is much mo r e difficult t o set ou t of such investments in smaller companies.Even though equity financing will never become the main source of financing for SMEs,it is an important instrument for highly innovative start-ups and fast growing companies and it has therefore t o be further developed.UEAPME sees three pillars for such an appr o ach where policy support is needed:Availability of venture capital•The Me mber S tates should review their taxation systems in order to create incentives to invest private money in all forms of venture capital.•Guarantee instruments for equity financing should be further developed.Improve the conditions for investing venture capital into SMEs•The development of secondary markets for venture capital investments inSMEs should be supported.•Accounting S tandards for SMEs should be revised in order to ease transparent exchange of information betw een investor and owner-manager.Owner-managers must become mo r e aware a bo u t the need for transparency towards investors•SME owners will have t o realise that in future access to external finance (venture capital or lending)will depend much mo r e on a transparent and open exchange of information a bo u t the situation and the perspectives of their companies.•In order t o fulfil the new n ee ds for transparency,SMEs will have t o use new information instruments(business plans,financial reporting,etc.)and new management instruments(risk-management,financial management,etc.).外文资料翻译题目：未来的中小企业融资背景：中小企业融资已经改变未来的经济复苏将取决于能否工艺品，贸易和中小企业利用其潜在的增长和创造就业。
会计 外文翻译 外文文献 英文文献 新会计准则
附录外文资料：On February 15, 2006, the Ministry of Finance issued 1 item of basic accounting standards and 38 specific guidelines, the new set of accounting standards system. Standards issued, the community gave wide attention, the securities industry, business circles, academic circles gave height the opinion, think this is the second in 1993 accounting reform after another is of great significance to the accounting reform, marking China's convergence with international financial reporting standards of enterprise accounting standards system formally established, to improve the China's socialist market economic system, improve the level of opening up and accelerate China's integration into the global economy has important significance.Also expressed their concerns and worries, mainly reflected in the following aspects: a fair value is difficult to "fair", and is very likely to become the profit manipulation tools; two is the enterprise may to adjust earnings manipulation debt restructuring, debt restructuring will once again become the darling of the securities market; three is the new standard published may induce "fair" phenomenon, which may lead to the end of 2006 enterprises will impairment assault back, at the same time accounts receivable impairment will still give listing Corporation profit adjustment leaves lots of space. These concerns whether it can become a reality? The new standards will become the corporate profits manipulation of the tool? Here we have to this a few worry about one to launch the analysis:A moderate, fair value applicationThe history of our country is a listing Corporation with the fair value of profit manipulation. Fair value appeared in 1998 in "debt recombines", "non monetary transactions" specific accounting standards, after the actual operation in many companies the abuse of fair value and profit manipulation in 2001 revised guidelines by the restriction of the use of. The new criterion system in financial tool, real estate investment, not the combination under common control, debt restructuring andnon-monetary transactions etc. are carefully adopted the fair value accounting standards, thus becoming the one large window. Past episodes of "story" will repeat itself? To this one problem we analyzed from the following aspects:First of all, the fair value of the assets can be achieved by using fair value valuation is the international accounting standards, the United States and most market economic countries accounting standards in general practice. International already crossed the "want" present value and fair value debate stage, and mainly in "how to use" stage; International did not because of "Enron event" appear and delay the study and adopt present value and the fair value of the process. From the beginning of 1975, 30 years, FASB on the fair value measurement system research has not stopped, the fair value in the accounting standards in the United States are used more and more widely. As of 2004, at the end of 12, FASB has released a total of 153 financial accounting standards, fair value accounting standards and related 60 (forever, 2005).Fair value has a profound theoretical basis for the ten, it accords with the economic income concept, the comprehensive income concept, cash flow and market price of accounting assumption, accounting goal, modern relevance and reliability of quality characteristics of accounting elements, essential characteristics, future basic accounting, value and value concept, measurement values and net surplus theory and financial statements of the primitive logic (Xie Sifone, 2005).The use of fair value can effectively enhance the relevance of accounting information for investors, creditors, and other stakeholders to provide more help to the information for decision making. Take the investment real estate, book 20000000 yuan, if the city price rises to $200000000 accounting should reflect 200000000 yuan, such information is really true and useful. If still persist in the statements that the 20000000 yuan, accounting treatment is simple, but this information does not help the decision-making of investors, even misleading. Any reform will not give up eating for fear of choking, accounting reform is no exception. In line with international standards is the direction, is to represent the general trend, this point is in the affirmative.Secondly, suitable for the application of the fair value of the "soil" preliminary already form. Fair value is the product of the market economy. In 2003 the Central Committee made on perfecting the socialist market economic system a number of issues, symbolizes that our country market economy already from start-up to improve, the market economy status of China has been established. The securities market of our country after ten years of development and perfection, to strengthen corporategovernance, improve operational transparency, clear violations, establishing listing Corporation integrated supervision system has made great progress. China Securities Regulatory Commission promoting the share-trading reform pilot, listing and financing program, has issued a number of regulations, strengthen the listing Corporation information disclosure and fraud and strength; the Ministry of finance to increase the quality of accounting information and the CPA audit quality inspection; listing Corporation governance level rises further, CPA, assets assessment division, independent directors such as rational economic choice for listing Corporation irregularities built several "firewall"; the majority of investors in the analysis of accounting information to judge, effective screening capacity is enhanced, the effectiveness of the securities market gradually improve. In addition, after joining the WTO, large amount of foreign capital into China, financial derivatives trading activity, produce a number, different features of derivative financial instruments, such as futures (Futures), option (Options), forward contract (Forwards Contract), swap (Swaps) etc.. As the derivative financial instruments no initial net investment is required, or very few requirements of net investment, the historical cost of its incapable of action, only the fair value to carry on the accurate recognition and measurement..FASl33 stated: fair value measurement of financial instruments is the best measurement attribute, the derivative financial instruments, fair value measurement attribute is the only. Potential of time shift, which contributes to the application of the fair value of the environment is preliminary already implementation. We must adopt the development strategy view ", not" once bitten, twice shy of ten years".In third, the fair value of the criteria in the new application is more cautious, does not lead to abuse. Compared with international financial reporting standards: China accounting standards system in determining the scope of the application of fair value, the more fully consider China's national conditions, the improvement was prudent. The use of fair value must satisfy certain conditions, in the basic guidelines in section forty-third clearly pointed out that the replacement cost, net realizable value of, present value, fair value, should be to ensure that the identified elements of accounting amounts can be obtained and the reliable measurement. In relation to specific standards, the use of fair value measurement, has clearly defined constraints. For example, in real estate investment criteria specified by the fair value measurement model, the following conditions shall be met simultaneously: one is the investmentproperty real estate located in active trading market of real estate; two is the enterprise can from the real estate trading market on the same or similar real estate market prices and other information, thus the investment real estate to make a reasonable estimate of fair value.Visible in the investing real estate standards, ban contains more hypothetical valuation techniques used, only in a certain reliability on the basis that the use of fair value, and not all of the investment real estate can be applied the fair value. So as long as the strictly in accordance with the standards, fair value will really be fair.For instance in non monetary transactions for the use of fair value, the new standards in exchange of non-monetary assets, fair value and change the carrying value of the assets included in the current profits and losses of the difference between the two conditions, namely the exchange must be commercial in nature, and a change of assets or the fair value of the assets surrendered can be measured reliably. Commercial essence refers to, must be changed in the future cash flow of the assets at risk, time and amount of assets surrendered and were significantly different, or substitution of assets and the assets surrendered the present value of estimated future cash flows are different, and the difference between the assets and the change of the fair value of the assets is more significant than the. The new guidelines are also provided to determine whether is commercial in nature, an enterprise shall pay attention to whether or not the transacting parties are related party relationship. Related party relationship may lead to the occurrence of non monetary assets exchange is not commercial in nature. These preconditions, will effectively restricted to non monetary assets exchange way of earnings manipulation behavior. From these rules, we can see that, the application of fair value is strictly restricted conditions, the fair value is not allowed to abuse.The new standards require that the fair value to "reliable" and not "just, fair value estimate" is no longer the eraser ruler. The author thinks, fair value to be profit manipulation tools need to also have three elements: the listing Corporation management deliberate fraud, accounting audit staff lose occupation moral and securities market regulatory failure. In fact with the three elements, any system can effectively play a protective role, therefore, establishing and perfecting accounting standards supporting management system is urgent.Two, the debt restructuring reform from the bottomThe new debt restructuring guidelines stipulated in debt restructuring gains can be included in the current profits and losses. As a debtor's listing Corporation, the new debt restructuring guidelines means that, once the creditor concessions, listing Corporation acquired interests will be directly included in the current income, into a profit report. Debt restructuring is likely to increase profits, improve earnings per share. But this approach achieved with the international convergence of financial reporting standards, reflects the essence of transaction debt restructuring, debt restructuring gains is after all the creditors rather than owners concessions, the past will not pass the profit and loss statement directly included in the capital reserve, it is under the special background of a matter of expediency, now be included in the profit and loss, is not "white" the "black", but the reform from the bottom. The new guidelines on the definition of debt restructuring, made clear only in "the debtor's financial difficulties." the premise condition, can get debt concession confirmed as debt restructuring gains. This condition will be restricted to a certain extent, the new guidelines on abuse, prevent inappropriate acknowledgement of debt reorganization gains.Some people think that some affiliates can also through a remit a debt, a high performance to price manipulation, insider trading, is still small shareholders suffered losses. In fact, this fear is a bit much. This is because, first, for *ST and ST company, fantasy on debt restructuring benefit, reaching for the stars is futile. Because the 2004 amendment of the Shanghai and Shenzhen Stock Exchange rules, one is freed, after deducting non-recurring profits and losses, net profit is positive. Debt restructuring to listing Corporation profits, in actual accountant operation, will be included in operating income, which belongs to the non-recurring profit and loss, thus can in St, the stars are deducted from; second, has experienced more than 10 years of stock market investors' groundless talk, analysis and judgment ability and self protection consciousness had very big rise, debt restructuring guidelines requiring companies to disclose the fair value of the methods and basis for the ascertainment, investors can easily recognize the debt restructuring packaging profits, in order to make a rational choice .Investors blindly follow Zhuang, slaughter age has gone for ever.In three, the impairment of Chinese characteristicsNew guidelines for asset impairment provisions, asset impairment loss is confirmed, in the later period may not be back. It is based on the real situation of our country, last ditch of major change, it is with international accounting standards, with substantial differences in the. New guidelines for asset impairment will effectively curb the use impairment as a "secret reserve" adjusting profit situation. Guidelines for the implementation, use impairment adjusting profit space will become more and more small, the provision of manual adjustment of profits will be more and more difficult. Some people write civil point out new guidelines for asset impairment induced by releasing will "go" phenomenon, cause some "hidden profits" of the industry and Related Companies, possible impairment in 2006 will be ready to strike back, "crow change Phoenix" may reproduce. We analyze, first of all, if the listing Corporation snatches in the new guidelines before the implementation of the 2006 year rushs impairment, we must first examine whether such actions are the reasonable basis, namely the original has provision for the impairment of an asset value now is really picks up, and if so, to adjust the asset value will make the accounting information more real, related; secondly, in 2006 large red back impairment must make appropriate evidence of the original provision for the impairment of appropriateness, otherwise the previous provision is the abuse of accounting estimation results, should be in accordance with the accounting error handling, a reversal of impairment cannot be used as the 2006 annual profit. Moreover, the financial sector has been aware of this problem, and takes positive and effective measures, prevent the assault to adjust profit listing Corporation. In addition, some time ago the market that new guidelines will make A shares listing Corporation in 2006 to increase net profit 20000000000 Yuan hearsay, the survey is author's subjective, concerned media specially clarification.Others receivables and other four impairment expressed worry, think accounts receivable (especially the "shareholders of account") will become the "eight project" of the main means of profit manipulation. In fact, in the new guidelines, receivables is as financial assets, and the depreciation detailed provisions, requires that there must be "objective evidence" of impairment to provision for impairment, such evidence includes the debtor serious financial difficulties, is likely to fail or other financial restructuring. Can be said that the criterion is more and more perfect, then the "this year that cannot take back full provision, next year 'efforts' and back", this "to practice deception" approach, which itself has violated rules, to pass the CPA audit and hidfrom investors eye, I'm afraid some difficulty.Through the above analysis, we can see some people on the new criterion a few concerns, many in reality does not exist, or is in the process of the reform of the price to be paid for, and far from their imagination so serious. But these concerns also remind standards departments in the formulation of standards to the full attention of guidelines for the technical and economic consequences, in the setting of the new guidelines in the process, give full consideration to guideline implementation may arise in the course of the various problems, and further make a specific interpretation and explanation, improving guidelines operation, improve accounting information quality.Also need to point out in particular, accounting standards is a production of accounting information of the specification, it is to solve the problem of "how to do". On the accounting standards of the malicious misuse of guidelines for the implementation of the "people", from the perspective of the listing Corporation is the ecological problems, to strengthen supervision, occupation moral construction, improve the ability of investors screening accounting information system engineering to solve, cannot be attributed to the guidelines themselves. And the new accounting and auditing standards system come on stage; it is to promote the improvement of listing Corporation governance ecology effective measure. Say from this meaning, we are not going to worry about me, but "criteria for the beat and breathe out".Note: ① according to the "Shanghai Stock Exchange Listing Rules (2004 Revision)" provisions, *ST indicated the presence of terminating the listing of special processing and ST risk for other special treatment.Main referencesMinistry of finance. In 2006 accounting standards for business enterprises. Economic Science PressYu Monishing. The 2005 fair value in the United States of America's application research. Financial theory, 9Xie Stiffen, wearing Zili.2005 present value and fair value accounting: financial reform is the important premise of twenty-first Century. Theory and practice of Finance and economics, 9中文资料：2006年2月15日，财政部发布了包括1项基本准则和38项具体准则在内的新的一整套企业会计准则体系。
财务会计及最新科目管理知识分析中英文对照(DOC 37页)
中国会计科目中英文对照代码名称代码名称代码名称代码名称英译1 资产assets11~ 12 流动资产current assets111 现金及约当现金cash and cash equiva lents1111 库存现金cash on hand1112 零用金/周转金petty cash/revolving f unds1113 银行存款cash in banks1116 在途现金cash in transit1117 约当现金cash equivalents1118 其它现金及约当现金other cash and cash equivalents112 短期投资short-term investment1121 短期投资-股票short-term investmen ts - stock1122 短期投资-短期票券short-term inves tments - short-term notes and bills1123 短期投资-政府债券short-term inve stments - government bonds1124 短期投资-受益凭证short-term inve stments - beneficiary certificates1125 短期投资-公司债short-term invest ments - corporate bonds1128 短期投资-其它short-term investmen ts - other1129 备抵短期投资跌价损失allowance fo r reduction of short-term investment to mar ket113 应收票据notes receivable1131 应收票据notes receivable1132 应收票据贴现discounted notes recei vable1137 应收票据-关系人notes receivable -related parties1138 其它应收票据other notes receivabl e1139 备抵呆帐－应收票据allowance for uncollec- tible accounts- notes receivable 114 应收帐款accounts receivable1141 应收帐款accounts receivable1142 应收分期帐款installment accounts r eceivable1147 应收帐款-关系人accounts receivabl e - related parties1149 备抵呆帐－应收帐款allowance for uncollec- tible accounts - accounts receiva ble118 其它应收款other receivables1181 应收出售远汇款forward exchange contract receivable1182 应收远汇款-外币forward exchange contract receivable - foreign currencies 1183 买卖远汇折价discount on forward e x-change contract1184 应收收益earned revenue receivabl e1185 应收退税款income tax refund recei vable1187 其它应收款- 关系人other receivabl es - related parties1188 其它应收款- 其它other receivables- other1189 备抵呆帐- 其它应收款allowance f or uncollec- tible accounts - other receivab les121~122 存货inventories1211 商品存货merchandise inventory 1212 寄销商品consigned goods1213 在途商品goods in transit1219 备抵存货跌价损失allowance for re duction of inventory to market1221 制成品finished goods1222 寄销制成品consigned finished good s1223 副产品by-products1224 在制品work in process1225 委外加工work in process - outsourc ed1226 原料raw materials1227 物料supplies1228 在途原物料materials and supplies i n transit1229 备抵存货跌价损失allowance for reduction of inventory to market125 预付费用prepaid expenses1251 预付薪资prepaid payroll1252 预付租金prepaid rents1253 预付保险费prepaid insurance 1254 用品盘存office supplies1255 预付所得税prepaid income tax 1258 其它预付费用other prepaid expense s126 预付款项prepayments1261 预付货款prepayment for purchases 1268 其它预付款项other prepayments 128~129 其它流动资产other current assets1281 进项税额VAT paid ( or input ta x)1282 留抵税额excess VAT paid (or over paid VAT)1283 暂付款temporary payments1284 代付款payment on behalf of other s1285 员工借支advances to employees1286 存出保证金refundable deposits 1287 受限制存款certificate of deposit-restr icted1291 递延所得税资产deferred income tax assets1292 递延兑换损失deferred foreign excha nge losses1293 业主(股东)往来owners'(stockholders') current account1294 同业往来current account with other s1298 其它流动资产-其它other current ass ets - other13 基金及长期投资funds and long-term i nvestments131 基金funds1311 偿债基金redemption fund (or sinkin g fund)1312 改良及扩充基金fund for improveme nt and expansion1313 意外损失准备基金contingency fun d1314 退休基金pension fund1318 其它基金other funds132 长期投资long-term investments1321 长期股权投资long-term equity invest ments1322 长期债券投资long-term bond invest ments1323 长期不动产投资long-term real estat e in-vestments1324 人寿保险现金解约价值cash surrend er value of life insurance1328 其它长期投资other long-term invest ments1329 备抵长期投资跌价损失allowance fo r excess of cost over market value of long -term investments14~ 15 固定资产property , plant, and equ ipment141 土地land1411 土地land1418 土地-重估增值land - revaluation inc rements142 土地改良物land improvements1421 土地改良物land improvements 1428 土地改良物-重估增值land improv ements - revaluation increments1429 累积折旧-土地改良物accumulated depreciation - land improvements143 房屋及建物buildings1431 房屋及建物buildings1438 房屋及建物-重估增值buildings -re valuation increments1439 累积折旧-房屋及建物accumulated depreciation - buildings144~146 机(器)具及设备machinery and eq uipment1441 机(器)具machinery1448 机(器)具-重估增值machinery - rev aluation increments1449 累积折旧-机(器)具accumulated dep reciation - machinery151 租赁资产leased assets1511 租赁资产leased assets1519 累积折旧-租赁资产accumulated depreciation - leased assets152 租赁权益改良leasehold improvements1521 租赁权益改良leasehold improvement s1529 累积折旧- 租赁权益改良accumulate d depreciation - leasehold improvements 156 未完工程及预付购置设备款constructi on in progress and prepayments for equip ment1561 未完工程construction in progress 1562 预付购置设备款prepayment for equi pment158 杂项固定资产miscellaneous property, plant, and equipment1581 杂项固定资产miscellaneous property, plant, and equipment1588 杂项固定资产-重估增值miscellaneo us property, plant, and equipment - revalua tion increments1589 累积折旧- 杂项固定资产accumulate d depreciation - miscellaneous property, plant, and equipment16 递耗资产depletable assets161 递耗资产depletable assets1611 天然资源natural resources1618 天然资源-重估增值natural resource s -revaluation increments1619 累积折耗-天然资源accumulated de pletion - natural resources17 无形资产intangible assets171 商标权trademarks1711 商标权trademarks172 专利权patents1721 专利权patents173 特许权franchise1731 特许权franchise174 著作权copyright1741 著作权copyright175 计算机软件computer software 1751 计算机软件computer software co st176 商誉goodwill1761 商誉goodwill177 开办费organization costs1771 开办费organization costs178 其它无形资产other intangibles 1781 递延退休金成本deferred pension costs1782 租赁权益改良leasehold improvement s1788 其它无形资产-其它other intangible assets - other18 其它资产other assets181 递延资产deferred assets1811 债券发行成本deferred bond issua nce costs1812 长期预付租金long-term prepaid ren t1813 长期预付保险费long-term prepaid in surance1814 递延所得税资产deferred income tax assets1815 预付退休金prepaid pension cost 1818 其它递延资产other deferred assets 182 闲置资产idle assets1821 闲置资产idle assets184 长期应收票据及款项与催收帐款long-term notes , accounts and overdue receivab les1841 长期应收票据long-term notes rec eivable1842 长期应收帐款long-term accounts rec eivable1843 催收帐款overdue receivables1847 长期应收票据及款项与催收帐款-关系人long-term notes, accounts and overdu e receivables- related parties1848 其它长期应收款项other long-term re ceivables1849 备抵呆帐-长期应收票据及款项与催收帐款allowance for uncollectible account s - long-term notes, accounts and overdue receivables185 出租资产assets leased to others 1851 出租资产assets leased to others 1858 出租资产-重估增值assets leased to others - incremental value from revaluation1859 累积折旧-出租资产accumulated de preciation - assets leased to others186 存出保证金refundable deposit 1861 存出保证金refundable deposits 188 杂项资产miscellaneous assets 1881 受限制存款certificate of deposit - restricted1888 杂项资产-其它miscellaneous assets - other2 负债liabilities21~ 22 流动负债current liabilities211 短期借款short-term borrowings(deb t)2111 银行透支bank overdraft2112 银行借款bank loan2114 短期借款-业主short-term borrowin gs - owners2115 短期借款-员工short-term borrowin gs - employees2117 短期借款-关系人short-term borro wings- related parties2118 短期借款-其它short-term borrowin gs - other212 应付短期票券short-term notes and bil ls payable2121 应付商业本票commercial paper p ayable2122 银行承兑汇票bank acceptance 2128 其它应付短期票券other short-term notes and bills payable2129 应付短期票券折价discount on shor t-term notes and bills payable213 应付票据notes payable2131 应付票据notes payable2137 应付票据-关系人notes payable - re lated parties2138 其它应付票据other notes payable 214 应付帐款accounts pay able2141 应付帐款accounts payable 2147 应付帐款-关系人accounts payable -related parties216 应付所得税income taxes payable 2161 应付所得税income tax payable217 应付费用accrued expenses2171 应付薪工accrued payroll2172 应付租金accrued rent payable 2173 应付利息accrued interest payable 2174 应付营业税accrued VAT payable 2175 应付税捐-其它accrued taxes payabl e- other2178 其它应付费用other accrued expense s payable218~219 其它应付款other payables 2181 应付购入远汇款forward exchange contract payable2182 应付远汇款-外币forward exchange contract payable - foreign currencies 2183 买卖远汇溢价premium on forward exchange contract2184 应付土地房屋款payables on land a nd building purchased2185 应付设备款Payables on equipmen t2187 其它应付款-关系人other payables -related parties2191 应付股利dividend payable2192 应付红利bonus payable2193 应付董监事酬劳compensation payabl e to directors and supervisors2198 其它应付款-其它other payables - other226 预收款项advance receipts2261 预收货款sales revenue received i n advance2262 预收收入revenue received in advan ce2268 其它预收款other advance receipts 227 一年或一营业周期内到期长期负债lon g-term liabilities -current portion2271 一年或一营业周期内到期公司债corporate bonds payable - current portion 2272 一年或一营业周期内到期长期借款l ong-term loans payable - current portion 2273 一年或一营业周期内到期长期应付票据及款项long-term notes and accounts pa yable due within one year or one operatin g cycle2277 一年或一营业周期内到期长期应付票据及款项-关系人long-term notes and acc ounts payables to related parties - current portion2278 其它一年或一营业周期内到期长期负债other long-term lia- bilities - current p ortion228~229 其它流动负债other current liabili ties2281 销项税额VAT received(or output tax)2283 暂收款temporary receipts2284 代收款receipts under custody 2285 估计售后服务/保固负债estimated w arranty liabilities2291 递延所得税负债deferred income tax liabilities2292 递延兑换利益deferred foreign excha nge gain2293 业主(股东)往来owners' current acco unt2294 同业往来current account with others2298 其它流动负债-其它other current liab ilities - others23 长期负债long-term liabilities231 应付公司债corporate bonds payabl e2311 应付公司债corporate bonds paya ble2319 应付公司债溢(折)价premium(discou nt) on corporate bonds payable232 长期借款long-term loans payable 2321 长期银行借款long-term loans pa yable - bank2324 长期借款-业主long-term loans paya ble - owners2325 长期借款-员工long-term loans paya ble - employees2327 长期借款-关系人long-term loans pa yable - related parties2328 长期借款-其它long-term loans paya ble - other233 长期应付票据及款项long-term notesand accounts payable2331 长期应付票据long-term notes pa yable2332 长期应付帐款long-term accounts pa y-able2333 长期应付租赁负债long-term capital lease liabilities2337 长期应付票据及款项-关系人Long-t erm notes and accounts payable - related p arties2338 其它长期应付款项other long-term p ayables234 估计应付土地增值税accrued liabilities for land value increment tax2341 估计应付土地增值税estimated ac crued land value incremental tax pay-able 235 应计退休金负债accrued pension liabil ities2351 应计退休金负债accrued pension liabilities238 其它长期负债other long-term liabilitie s2388 其它长期负债-其它other long-ter m liabilities - other28 其它负债other liabilities281 递延负债deferred liabilities2811 递延收入deferred revenue2814 递延所得税负债deferred income ta x liabilities2818 其它递延负债other deferred liabilitie s286 存入保证金deposits received2861 存入保证金guarantee deposit rec eived288 杂项负债miscellaneous liabilities 2888 杂项负债-其它miscellaneous lia bilities - other3 业主权益owners' equity31 资本capital311 资本（或股本）capital3111 普通股股本capital - common stoc k3112 特别股股本capital - preferred stock3113 预收股本capital collected in advanc e3114 待分配股票股利stock dividends to be distributed3115 资本capital32 资本公积additional paid-in capital321 股票溢价paid-in capital in excess of par3211 普通股股票溢价paid-in capital in excess of par- common stock3212 特别股股票溢价paid-in capital in e xcess of par- preferred stock323 资产重估增值准备capital surplus fro m assets revaluation3231 资产重估增值准备capital surplus from assets revaluation324 处分资产溢价公积capital surplus fro m gain on disposal of assets3241 处分资产溢价公积capital surplus from gain on disposal of assets325 合并公积capital surplus from busines s combination3251 合并公积capital surplus from bus iness combination326 受赠公积donated surplus3261 受赠公积donated surplus328 其它资本公积other additional paid-in capital3281 权益法长期股权投资资本公积ad ditional paid-in capital from investee under equity method3282 资本公积- 库藏股票交易additional paid-in capital - treasury stock trans-action s33 保留盈余(或累积亏损) retained earnings (accumulated deficit)331 法定盈余公积legal reserve3311 法定盈余公积legal reserve332 特别盈余公积special reserve 3321 意外损失准备contingency reserv e3322 改良扩充准备improvement and expa nsion reserve3323 偿债准备special reserve for redemption of liabilities3328 其它特别盈余公积other special rese rve335 未分配盈余(或累积亏损) retained earn ings-unappropriated (or accumulated defici t)3351 累积盈亏accumulated profit or lo ss3352 前期损益调整prior period adjustmen ts3353 本期损益net income or loss for cur rent period34 权益调整equity adjustments341 长期股权投资未实现跌价损失unre alized loss on market value decline of lon g-term equity investments3411 长期股权投资未实现跌价损失un realized loss on market value decline of lo ng-term equity investments342 累积换算调整数cumulative translatio n adjustment3421 累积换算调整数cumulative translation adjustments343 未认列为退休金成本之净损失net lo ss not recognized as pension cost3431 未认列为退休金成本之净损失net loss not recognized as pension costs35 库藏股treasury stock351 库藏股treasury stock3511 库藏股treasury stock36 少数股权minority interest361 少数股权minority interest3611 少数股权minority interest4 营业收入operating revenue41 销货收入sales revenue411 销货收入sales revenue4111 销货收入sales revenue4112 分期付款销货收入installment sales r evenue417 销货退回sales return4171 销货退回sales return419 销货折让sales allowances4191 销货折让sales discounts and allowances46 劳务收入service revenue461 劳务收入service revenue4611 劳务收入service revenue47 业务收入agency revenue471 业务收入agency revenue4711 业务收入agency revenue48 其它营业收入other operating revenue488 其它营业收入-其它other operating revenue4888 其它营业收入-其它other operating revenue - other5 营业成本operating costs51 销货成本cost of goods sold511 销货成本cost of goods sold5111 销货成本cost of goods sold 5112 分期付款销货成本installment cost o f goods sold512 进货purchases5121 进货purchases5122 进货费用purchase expenses5123 进货退出purchase returns5124 进货折让charges on purchased merc handise513 进料materials purchased5131 进料material purchased5132 进料费用charges on purchased mate rial5133 进料退出material purchase returns 5134 进料折让material purchase allowanc es514 直接人工direct labor5141 直接人工direct labor515~518 制造费用manufacturing overhea d5151 间接人工indirect labor5152 租金支出rent expense, rent5153 文具用品office supplies (expense) 5154 旅费travelling expense, travel 5155 运费shipping expenses, freight 5156 邮电费postage (expenses)5157 修缮费repair(s) and maintenance (e xpense )5158 包装费packing expenses5161 水电瓦斯费utilities (expense) 5162 保险费insurance (expense)5163 加工费manufacturing overhead - out sourced5166 税捐taxes5168 折旧depreciation expense5169 各项耗竭及摊提various amortizatio n5172 伙食费meal (expenses)5173 职工福利employee benefits/welfar e5176 训练费training (expense)5177 间接材料indirect materials5188 其它制造费用other manufacturing e xpenses56 劳务成本制ervice costs561 劳务成本service costs5611 劳务成本service costs57 业务成本gency costs571 业务成本agency costs5711 业务成本agency costs58 其它营业成本other operating costs588 其它营业成本-其它other operating costs-other5888 其它营业成本-其它other operating costs - 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(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)中英文对照外文翻译附件：外文翻译译文战略财务会计在中小企业摘要：随着社会经济的发展和科学技术的进步,中国的企业在一个充满机会和危险的阶段。
介绍了安全会计的含义和意义战略财务会计中存在的问题,阐述了财务策略进行小中型企业一起,最后提出了一些对策和原因。
关键词：中小企业的战略财务会计、问题、对策一个企业的不确定性的金融环境其财务活动充满风险。
除了机会,有许多的危险从时间,以时间,其财务会计。
因此,它已经成为了成功的关键一个企业的财务会计是否能跟踪的趋势变化什么是有用的吸收。
应当拒绝接受什么是有害的。
战略会计思想是非常重要的在企业的财务会计,因为我们必须努力去分析和把握一般环境和发展一个企业的发展趋势,从而提高适应能力、可变性和适用性的金融中心会计不确定环境。
目前,中小企业在100年通过了工商登记、以企业总数的90%。
因此,其战略财务会计是特别重要的,这也是本论文的主题。
1 简介战略性的财务会计是财务会计理论,根据该融资应该的在最适当的方式进行,采集到的资本必须利用和会计的最有效的方式虽然企业和决策和利润分配应该最合理。
根据其内涵,总结三个主要内容的战略财务会计,包括融资策略,投资战略和利润分配决策策略。
详情如下:融资策略高度发达的现代企业具有的销售急剧增长。
当面对这样一种局势,企业倾向于有很大的要求从股票和应收账款是资本的提升。
更大的为销售增长的张力,但更大的资本要求。
因此,在融资策略都具有十分重要的意义战略会计财务。
融资策略的功能在于明确的指导方针融资、铺设融资目标下,建立整体规模、融资渠道和方法,安排战略资本结构优化方案,从各方面对此作了相应的对策,以达到融资目标,最后预测和收集的大量资金的企业的需要。
投资策略为核心的战略财务会计,这种策略决定一个企业只能分配它的首都资源合理而有效的方法。
投资策略包括确认投资固定资产的方向、公司规模和资本规模、投资选择相关的外部扩张或内部扩张,改革旧的产品或开发新的、独立或联合操作,自有资金投资决定或贷款之间的百分比固定资产、流动资产、投资策略和风险和那些在通货膨胀。
利润分配决策策略这个策略,包括会计资本收益和设立股份奖金分配制度,主要的交易一个企业比例,搁在长期底图在扩大规模、提高员工福利和自身的生活水平。
利润分配决策战略旨在满足需求,对于资产资本的发展和改进企业的核心竞争力根据相关的投资策略和融资策略。
与此同时,在实行这个策略,企业建立以人为本预计分配政策的有效方法,积极探索运用那些重要的要素,如知识、技术、专利、会计利润分配决策课程。
2 我国中小企业战略财务会计的问题目前,一些常见的问题包括：2.1 缺乏科学规范的财务策略不少企业在追求只有一个大的规模,或购买大量的土地而忽略资产结构配置,或没有合理安排其资本。
他们没有财务策略,不要去提到实施。
至于其他的影响,分析了其战略财务会计是很大的影响由于他们的科学和不规则的策略,并具有以下特点:第一,他们的战略企业财务目标的总体离开他们的财务策略;第二,被认为相当于金融计划,因此忽视的综合性金融策略;第三,金融方案不是根据他们的企业的长期目标,因此有很大的随机性。
2.2 忽视战略环境分析,并有不合理的战略性的财务目标战略环境分析既是财务策略的基础和保障实施。
它包括内部和外部环境分析与前者的存在内部基础和实施依据建立的财务策略。
目前,很多中小企业没有实现战略环境的重要性,建立和推行的金融战略和因此未能有适当的分析,特别是其战略金融环境的内部环境。
作为一个结果,它们不现实的和不合理的策略有限制的有效实施他们的财政策略。
2.3 出资的角色战略性的财务预算执行预算中所起的作用主要对战略性的财务执行两个方面。
首先,它进一步阐明指定的战略财务观念,被理解,而所有的人员进行。
预算可以帮助分战略目标企业的每一个部分,甚至每一位员工。
另外,当执行某项任务联合所有部分一个所有的雇员将有更好的合作与交流,与对方。
第二,预算还提供了一个标准,一个企业的日常操作和性能。
与定量金融在预算目标确定、实际实现与预算,以揭示它们之间的目标和现实,采取有效的对策。
现在,大多数中小企业在中国没有系统、完整的预算制度由销售预算、生产成本预算,一般间接成本预算,损失和费用预算及现金预算等等。
即使一些有这样的系统,其缺乏小心预算行,严格执行预算的作用以及财务策略的实施。
2.4 企业的财务会计中存在的问题现在,一些问题,中小企业的财务会计也制约了建立和他们的财务策略的实施。
存在的主要问题的建议如下。
过时的想法,不清楚职责分工和混乱的会计。
企业不知道”的企业会计应以财务会计为基础,并应在财务会计中心资本会计;企业家和财务人员的缺乏科学的、先进的财务观念包括时间值、风险价值,边际成本、机会成本和认识不足有关经济会计的理论和方法导致职责分工不明,混乱的会计,无能的监控、虚假会计信息等。
大量财务计算,包括简化会计程序,保持重开帐户除了授权,采用不规则检查性质和现金,没有定期检查他们的银行存款、债权债务导致他们的账实不符和物品或资金,有前途的奖金和盲目逃税发放奖金在纳税。
融资困难,主要体现在渠道和规模不足融资渠道无序融资的命令。
目前,大多数中小企业面临极大的困难,获得短期贷款,更不用说长远的问题。
81%的企业没有足够的流动资金等)。
时间的贷款的时间越长,他们真的可以利用较少的钱从他们的贷款。
一项调查显示,60.5%的企业没有得到长期的贷款,在那些能真正得到这样的贷款,16%的企业的要求充分履行了,52.7%是部分完成时,31.2%的人不满意。
(黄,2008)糟糕的财务控制。
首先,松散的现金会计往往会造成无效或不足的资金。
为一些企业,更多的现金,越好。
因此,一大笔钞票不是分配到操作,未能发挥作用它的作用;对于一些人,他们的现金是对不动产超支,因此未能处理一些紧急用途。
第二,应收账款周转缓慢造成极大的困难,恢复资本甚至坏帐。
第三,控制在股票很差。
许多企业都有一个股票的周转资金的两倍多,导致失败,在资金周转。
第四,太多的注意力被放在钱而不是性质,造成严重浪费的资产。
事实上,不少小中小企业缺乏有效的会计是他们的原料、半成品、固定资产等等, 资产浪费结果是相当严重的。
3 中小型的中国企业产生这些问题的原因在战略财务会计3.1 僵硬的会计模式、会计理念落后、会计者的质量较差目前,大多数中小企业特别是那些私立学校的高度统一使用所有权的文件会计权利,投资者是经理,他的权力不能只局限于任何情况。
没有职责分工明确和严格的规定,这些会计者不体现成一个有效的财务会计公司会计体系,更不用说财务策略对于企业的一个重要组成部分总体策略,从而减轻其意义和功能。
这些会计者不相信战略但是很好运气,而血脉不系统,解决关键的手续,但是,会计,技术和市场。
特别是那些企业开创市场商机,不宜环境是主要侵犯者。
此外,会计者的质量差也是一个重要的失败原因的财务策略。
众所周知,大多数经营者在中小型中国企业综合素质差、不足的会计经验和效率较低,因为他们没有经历过的任何系统学习会计理论与特殊的专业培训。
因此,他们不能够有合理的预测、决策、预算、控制,分析和评价相结合自身特点和市场,金融环境的分析放下适用、可行的融资策略、投资以及利润分配或完全实现财政预算的重要性,所以实施有效控制以服务他们的总体目标企业的发展战略以一种更好的方式。
3.2 缺乏自主融资多元化渠道系统多变的市场、经营风险较大,所以财务指标造成大量的债务和高融资成本,因此导致企业的较低的信用。
此外,他们的信用也受到他们的选操作过程、非财务报告,以及信息不对称,从而使实现融资困难的目标。
体系的角度,这些企业投融资体制缺乏应有的独立和多样化严重地制约其融资渠道策略。
首先,没有全国性的机构或优惠的政策协助中小型企业的会计,导致它们的融资形势不利。
第二,由于这些企业的私人性质,一些银行贷款的刚性要求设置由于一些传统观念行政交叉干扰。
第三,没有足够的金融机构贷款担保机构和特别为中小企业服务。
第四,大多数中小企业没有直接融资的权利而不能发行股票或债券。
主板市场是不可进入的,二板市场一个是危险的。
3.3 投入不足、缺乏可行性研究能力中小企业注册资本遭受不足,有限的经营资本,于是穷人投资的能力。
关注短期目标收回投资,他们不得不依靠简单再生产来代替扩张的一个。
此外,无任何特殊机构市场分析、投资活动的人根据他们的观念,因此失明。
这些决策者通常不能有一个总体的把握市场经济的特点、原则或继续合理的经济利益与他们的正常工作资本市场。
他们可怜的能力也反映在短缺的一些可行性研究他们的收缩和扩展战略,如何选择融资渠道及结构,如何建立一个新的投资方向等等。
所有这些极大地影响的制定和实施企业战略的财务目标。
3.4 不完整的内部控制制度导致无效的控制内部控制系统中普遍存在的中小企业,深刻地体现没有或者是不完整的内部控制体系,因此未能有效地抑制自己的经济行为制度化。
很多企业没有部门内部审计保证的严格执行金融系统。
即使一些建立这样的一个部门,其缺乏独立可能会导致无效的内部控制。
作为一个结果,财务会计以及财务战略将很大的影响。
4 我国中小企业对策见上述问题,在当前中小型中国企业的主要原因是他们的内部原因和外部环境的影响。
因此,应采取一些有效的措施从以下几个方面。
4.1 正确的理财目标,并建立了牢固的战略意义一个企业的财务目标不仅是它的努力的方向,但有效的标准衡量其财务决策是对还是错。
适当的目标是非常有益的一个企业的总体战略目标的实现。
生存、盈利和发展的基本目标是任何企业,企业价值最大化应被看作是财务目标。
引导实现这个目标,将建立企业财务会计的中心地位,在整个企业会计首先,强调会计的融资、投资和利润赚,把他们的偿债能力、经营、利润收益和发展和指导等方面的生产和资本运营控制他们的资本、成本、利润等。
要求企业必须遵循战略会计的目标和中心竞争优势战略会计的关系处理企业的利益和社会利益的关系、企业与企业之间的总体效益和部门的人以及长远利益和短期之间的重要性,完全实现了战略会计在企业的发展和重要作用进行财务策略。
因此,它是前提的实施财务策略,建立了牢固的战略意义。
此外,一些现代会计理念,必须制定相关等风险,时间价值、现金流量、知识效益与人才的价值。
4.2 采用预算控制,保证财务策略的有效实施预算会计是保障和关键财务目标转换成特定的行动计划和实施。
首先,各式各样的财政预算,包括销售、生产成本、一般间接费用、资本费用、损失及现金,要编制一个科学、合理的基于财务策略和财务预测。
编制预算时,应根据销售预测过程可能在未来销售销售期,然后编预算和一般间接费用的生产成本,创造损失后,根据有关销售预算预算和成本预算以及现金预算按照预算资本费用和损失。