语言学Chapter 5 Meaning 练习
Chapter 5 Meanings- 5.1&5.2 英语语言学
concept
word
------------------------
thing
SENSE
REFERENCE
SENSE &
REFERENCE
sense
EXERCISE
Conceptual meaning is ( (电子科技大，2003)
A. Denotative B. Connotative C. Associative D. Affective
TYPES OF
MEANING
Conceptual meaning 概念意义 Connontative meaning 内涵意义 Social meaning 社会意义 Affective meaning 感情意义 Reflected meaning 反射意义 Collocative meaning 搭配意义 Thematic meaning 主位意义
?
politician
statesman
?
politician
statesman
derogatory
?
commendatory
politician
statesman
What
is “human” ?
John
biped
human
emotive
Mary
featherless
rational
sense
According
to D. Leech, ( ) meaning refers to logic, cognitive, or denotative content. (北二外，2003)
conceptual
Inspired
《语言学教程》 chapter 5 Meaning
The meaning of utterances:
– The cheque fluttered to the floor like a bird with a broken
wing…
Definition
Semantics is the study of meaning. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.
(5) Reflected meaning
Arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.
When you hear „click the mouse twice‟, you think of Jerry being hit twice by Tom so you feel excited.
Key points
Learn:
– The seven different meanings of meaning – Difference between reference and concept
语言学整理的资料Chapter 5 semantics
Chapter 51.Semantics:自测： __________ can be defined as the study of meaning.术语：Semantics 语义学解释：语义学可以简单的定义为对意义的研究。
术语：semantics is the study of meaning of linguistics units, words and sentences in particular.语义学是对语言单位尤其是词和句子的意义的研究。
解释：Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. However, it is not the only linguistic discipline that studies meaning. Semantics answers the question “what does this sentence mean”. In other words, it is the analysis of conventional meanings in words and sentences out of context. 语义学被定义为对意义的研究，然而，却不仅仅是对语言的意义研究。
语义学回答了“这句话有什么意义”这样的问题。
换句话说，它研究语境外词语和句子的传统意义。
2.Sense:自测：Which of the following is NOT true?A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. Sense is abstract and decontextualized.D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.术语：Sense 涵义解释：涵义指一个实体的抽象属性。
《英语语言学概论》配套习题(五)(问答题)
《英语语言学概论》配套习题（五）（问答题）Chapter 1 Introduction to Linguistics1.What are design features of language?2.What are the characteristics of human language?3.Explain the characteristic of arbitrariness. What are the relationship betweenarbitrariness and convention?4.What does productivity mean for language?5.What functions does language have?6.Explain the metalingual function of language.7.What is the difference between synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics?8.What distinguishes prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studies oflanguage?Chapter 2 Phonology1.What does phonetics concern?2.How do the three branches of phonetics contribute to the study of speech sounds?3.How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?4.In which two ways may consonants be classified?5.How do phoneticians classify vowels?6.To what extent does phonology differ from phonetics?7.What do minimal pair refer? Give an example to illustrate.8.What kind of phenomenon is complementary distribution?Chapter 3 Morphology1.What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?2.What is the difference between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes?3.What is compounding?4.What are the criteria of a compound word?5.What is acronymy?6.What is blending?7.Decide which way of word formation is used to form the following words.comsatmotellasememonightmareASEANROMbitbabysitcock-a-doodle-dogrunt8.What are closed-class words and open-class words?Chapter4 Syntax1.What is syntax?2.What is a simple, compound, or complex sentence?3.What is the hierarchical structure?4.How to distinguish immediate constituents from ultimate constituents?5.What are subordinate and coordinate constructions?6.What are deep and surface structures?7.Can you describe the syntactic structure of the sentence “The old tree swayed inthe wind” by using a tree diagram?8.How to reveal the differences in sentential meaning in the sentence “The motherof the boy and the girl will arrive soon” by drawing tree diagrams?Chapter 5 Semantics1.What is a semantic field? Can you illustrate it?2.What are the major types of synonyms in English?3.In what way do the following pairs offer contrast?4.Categorize the following pairs: child-kid, alive-dead, big-small, husband-wife.5.What is hyponymy composed of? Illustrate whether there is always asuperordinate to hyponyms, or hyponyms to a superordinate.6.How is meronymy different from hyponymy?7.Why may a sentence be ambiguous?8.What predication analysis? What is a no-place, one-place, two-place, orthree-place predicate? Give examples.Chapter 6 Pragmatics1.What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?2.How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?3.What is contextual meaning?4.Explain the meanings of locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary actthrough examples.5.What is cooperative principle(CP)?6.What is conversational implicature?7.How does the violation of the maxims of CP give rise to conversationalimplicature?8.What is adjacency pair?Chapter 8 Language and Society1.What is sociolinguistics?2.What is speech community?3.What is dialect?4.What is Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?5.What is speech variety?6.What is standard language?7.What is pidgin?8.What is bilingualism?9.What is multilingualism?Chapter 10-11 Language Acquisition1.What is psycholinguistics?2.What is bottom-up processing and what is top-down processing?3.What are the six major types of speech error? Give examples of each.4.What is the critical period for language acquisition?5.What is language acquisition and what is L2 language acquisition? What is learnerlanguage and what is target language?6.What is interlanguage(IL)?7.What are the different views on language transfer?8.What is the difference between input and intake?。
语言学05--ChapterFiveMeaning
语言学05--ChapterFiveMeaningChapter Five Meaning11. The Study of MeaningSemantics:The meaning of words: Lexical semantics The meaning of sentences: Propositional meaning, compositional meaning Linguistic semantics vs. Logical semantics/philosophical semanticsPragmatics:The meaning of utterances22. Semantic MeaningSemantics is the study of meaning in language. Meaning has been studied for thousands of years by philosophers, logicians and linguists. E.g. Plato Aristotle.Logicians and philosophers have tended to concentrate on a restricted range of sentences (typically, statements, or propositions ) within a single language. The linguistic approach is broader in scope, aiming to study the properties of meaning in a systematic and objective way, with reference to as wide a range of utterances and languages as possible.3. The meaning of meaningC. K. Ogden I. A. Richards (1923). The Meaning of Meaning. John means to write. A green light means to go.Health means everything.His look was full of meaning.What is the meaning of life?What does capitalist mean to you?What does cornea mean? The transparent, convex, anterior portion of the outer fibrous coat of the eyeball that covers the iris and the pupil and is continuous with the sclera.Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning:Conceptual meaning Connotative meaning Social meaning Affective meaning Reflected and meaning Collocative meaning Thematic meaningAssociative Meaning(1) Conceptual meaningAlso called denotative or cognitive meaning.Refers to logical, cognitive or denotative content. Concerned with the relationship betweena word and the thing it denotes, or refers to.(2) Connotative meaningThe communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.A multitude of additional, non-criterial properties, including not only physical characteristics but also psychological and social properties, as well as typical features.Involving the real world experience one associates with an expression when one uses or hears it.Unstable: they vary considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual.Any characteristic of the referent, identified subjectively or objectively, may contribute to the connotative meaning of the expression which denotes it.13Step mother(3) Social meaningWhat a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.Dialect: the language of a geographical region or of a social class. Time: the language of the 18th c., etc. Province: language of law, of science, of advertising, etc. Status: polite, colloquial, slang, etc. Modality: language of memoranda, lectures, jokes, etc. Singularity: the style of Dickens, etc. 18domicile: very formal, official residence: formal abode: poetic home: generalsteed: poetic horse: general nag: slang gee-gee: baby language19。
语言学导论第05章练习及答案
Semantics?I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False.synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself， for example， within British English or American English.is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience， while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.semantics， meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience.is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components.languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality.9.“it is hot.” is a no-place predication because it contains no argument.grammatical analysis， the sentence is taken to be the basic unit， but in semantic analysis of a sentence， the basic unit is predication， which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given.can be defined as the study of meaning.conceptualist view holds that there is no d______ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.means what a linguistic form refers to in the real， physical world； it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.that are close in meaning are called s________.two words are identical in sound， but different in spelling and meaning， they are called h__________.opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called s________ restrictions，which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.a________ is a logical participant in a predication， largely identical with the nominal element（s） in a sentence.The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components because it cannot be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words. For example：（A） The dog bit the man.（B） The man bit the dog.If the meaning of a sentence were the sum total of the meanings of all its components， then the above two sentences would have the same meaning. In fact they are different in meanings.As we know， there are two aspects to sentence meaning： grammatical meaning and semantic meaning. The grammatical meanings of “the dog” and “the man” in （A） are different from the grammatical meanings of “the dog” and “the man” in （B）. The meaning of a sentence is the product of both lexical and grammatical meaning. It is the product of the meaning of the constituent words and of the grammatical constructions that relate one word syntagmatically to another.49. What is componential analysis Illustrate it with examples.Componential analysis， proposed by structural semanticists， is a way to analyze word meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components， which are called semantic features. Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word， and these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. For example，the word “man” is ana lyzed as consisting of the semantic features of [+ HUMAN， + ADULT， + ANIMATE， +MALE]50. How do you distinguish between entailment and presupposition in terms of truth valuesEntailment is a relation of inclusion. Suppose there are two sentences X and Y：X： He has been to France.Y： He has been to Europe.In terms of truth values， if X is true， Y is necessarily true， . if he has been to France，he must have been to Europe.If X is false， Y may be true or false， e. g. if he has not been to France， he may still have been to Europe or he has not been to Europe. If Y is true， X may be true or false， . if he has been to Europe， he may or may not have been to France.If Y is false， X is false， . If he has not been to Europe， he cannot have been to France.Therefore we conclude that X entails Y or Y is an entailment of X.The truth conditions that we use to judge presupposition is as follows：Suppose there are two sentences X and Y：X： John's bike needs repairing.Y： John has a bike.If X is true， Y must be true， . if John's bike needs repairing， John must have a bike.If X is false， Y is still true， e. g. If John's bike does not need repairing， John still has a bike. If Y is true， X is either true or false， . if John has a bike， it may or may not need repairing. If Y is false， no truth value can be said about X， . if John does not have a bike， nothing can be said about whether his bike needs repairing or not. Therefore，X presupposes Y， or Y is a presupposition of X.51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as synonymous relation，inconsistent relation in terms of truth valuesIn terms of truth condition， of the two sentences X and Y， if X is true， Y is true； if X is false， Y is false， therefore X is synonymous with Y.. X： He was a bachelor all his life.Y： He never married all his life.Of the two sentences X and Y， if X is true， Y is false； if X is false， Y is true， then we can say A is inconsistent with Y.. X： John is married.Y： John is a bachelor.52. According to the ways synonyms differ， how many groups can we classify synonyms into Illustrate them with examples.According to the ways synonyms differ， synonyms can be divided into the following groups.i. Dialectal synonymsThey are synonyms which are used in different regional dialects. British English and American English are the two major geographical varieties of the English language. For examples：British English American Englishautumn falllift elevatorThen dialectal synonyms can also be found within British， or American English itself. For example， "girl" is called "lass" or "lassie" in Scottish dialect， and "liquor" is called "whisky" in Irish dialect.ii. Stylistic synonymsThey are synonyms which differ in style or degree of formality. Some of the stylistic synonyms tend to be more formal， others tend to be casual， and still others are neutral in style. For example：old man， daddy， dad， father， male parentchap， pal， friend， companioniii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningThey are the words that have the same meaning but express different emotions of the user. The emotions of the user indicate the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about. For example，“collaborator” and “accomplice” are synonymous， sharing the meaning of "a person who helps another"， but they are different in their evaluative meaning. The former means that a person who helps another in doing something good， while the latter refers to a person who helps another in a criminal act.iv. Collocational synonymsThey are synonyms which differ in their collocation. For example， we can use accuse， charge，rebuke to say that someone has done something wrong or even criminal， but they are used with different prepositions accuse. . . of， charge. . . with， rebuke. . .for.v. Semantically different synonymsSemantically different synonyms refer to the synonyms that differ slightly in what they mean. For example， "amaze" and "astound" are very close in meaning to the word "surprise，" but they have very subtle differences in meaning. While amaze suggests confusion and bewilderment，"astound" implies difficulty in believing.are the major views concerning the study of meaning How do they differOne of the oldest was the naming theory， proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato， who believed that the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. The form and the meaning are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized： the situational context and the linguistic context.For example， the meaning of the word "seal" in the sentence "The seal could not be found" can only be determined according to the context in which the sentence occurs：The seal could not be found. The zoo keeper became worried.（‘seal’ meaning an aquatic mammal）The seal could not be found. The king became worried.（‘seal’ meaning the ki ng's stamp）Behaviorism drew on behaviorist psychology when he tried to define the meaning of linguistic forms. Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as "the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer".。
《英语语言学概论》配套习题(五)(问答题)答案.docx
《英语语言学概论》配套习题（五）（问答题）答案Chapter 1 Introduction to Linguistics1.What are design features of language?Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of anima communication.2.What are the characteristics of human language?The characteristics of human language include arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, discreteness, transferability and linearity.3・Explain the characteristic of arbitrariness・What are the relationship between arbitrariness and convention?Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes a language be passed from generation to generation.4.What does productivity mean for language?It means language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. It refers to the property that language enables language users to produce or understand an indefinite number of sentences including novel sentences by use of finite set of rules.5・ What functions does language have?Language has at least seven funcitons: informative, interpersonal, performative, emotive, phatic, recreational and metalingual.6・ Explain the metalingual function of language・The metalingual function of language refers to the fact that language can be used to talk about itself.7・ What is the difference between synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics?Synchronic linguistics takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. In contrast, diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history; therefore, it is also called historical linguistics.8・ What distinguishes prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studies of language?The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, norms, of correctness, which are in the scope of prescriptive linguistics.Chapter 2 Phonology1・ What does phonetics concern?Phonetis is the scientific study of speech sounds of human beings. Phonetics can be suv-classified into articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and auditory phonetics. 2・ How do the three branches of phonetics contribute to the study of speech sounds?Articualtory phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds. Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speeech. Auditory phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.3・ How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?Consonants are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. By contrast, a vowel is produced without such obstruction so no turbulance or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.4.In which two ways may consonants be classified?The categories of consonants are established on two important factors, which are termed as manners of articulation and places of articulation.5.How do phoneticians classify vowels?The di scription of vowels includes four aspects: the height of tongue raising(high, mid, low); the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back); the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short) and lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).6.T0 what extent does phonology differ from phonetics?Phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way wounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. 7.What do minimal pair refer? Give an example to illustrate・Certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word, whereas other sounds do not. For instance, the word big can be described in a phonetic transcription [big]. If [g] is replaced by [t], there is another word: bit.[g] and [t] are called minimal pairs. Therefore, when sound substitutions cause differences of meaning, these sounds are minimal pairs.8.What kind of phenomenon is complementary distribution?When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in complementary distribution. For example, the aspirated English stops never occur after [s], and the unaspirated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of [1], for instance, are also in complementary distribution. The clear[l] occur only before a vowel, the dark [1] occur after a consonant or at the end of a word.Chapter 3 Morphology1・ What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?Morpheme may be classified into free and bound. A free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning, it can exist on its own without a bound morpheme.A free morpheme is a word, in the traditional sense. Man, book, take and red are free morphemes.A bound morpheme cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance. It must appear with at least one other morphem, free or bound, like un- in unhappy, past tensemorpheme in worked.2・ What is the difference between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes?An inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree. It does not form a new word with new lexical meaning when it is added to another word. Nor does it change the word-class of the word to which it is added. The inflecitonal affixes today are the plural marker, the genetive case, the verbal endings, the comparative degrees and superlative degrees. Inflectional affixes have only their particualr grammatical meanings, so they are also called grammatical meanings, so they are also called grammatical affixes.A derivational affix serves to derive a new word when it is added to another morpheme. Derivational affix has lexical meaning, but less important than the meaning of the root in the same word, like -able in the word workable. Derivaitonal affixes are commonly subdivided into prefixes and suffixes.3・ What is compounding?Compounding or composition is a word-formation process by joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word. Compounds can be divided into three categories according to parts of the speech: (1) noun compounds (like hearbeat);(2)adjective compounds (like dutyfree); (3) verb compounds (like housekeep).4.What are the criteria of a compound word?(1)Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: solid (like airmail).hyphenated (like air-conditioning) and open (like air raid).(2)Phonologically, many compounds have a so-called compound accent, that is, asingle stress on the first element, as in "space rocket; or a main stress on the first element and a secondary stress on the second element.(3)Semantically, compounds can be said to have a meaning which may be relatedto, but cannot always be inferred from the meaning of its component parts.5.What is acronymy?Acronymy is a type of shortening by using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase・ If the shortened word is pronounced letter by letter, it is an initialism like BBC; if the shortened word is pronounced as word rather than as a sequence of letters, it is an acronym like SAM(for surface-to-air missile).6.What is blending?Blending is a preocess of word・forniation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news+ broadcast), brunch (breakfast +lunch).7.Decide which way of word formation is used to form the following words.Comsat (from communications + satellite, by blending)Motel (from motor + hotel, by blending)Lase (from laser, by back-formation)Memo (from memorandom, by back clipping)Nightmare (from daymare, by analogy)ASEAN(from the Association for South-East Asian Nations, by acronymy)ROM(from read-only memory, by initialism)Bit(from binary + digit, by blending))Babysit(from babysitter, by back・fonnatioii)cock-a・doodle・do(from the sound produced by cock, by onomatopoeia))grunt (from the sound produced by pig, by onomatopoeia)8・ What are closed-class words and open-class words?A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc., are all closed items.The open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited.With the emergence of new ideas, inventions, etc., new expressions are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.Chapter4 Syntax1.What is syntax?Syntax is a sub-field of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language. Specifically, It is the study of the rules governing the ways in which words, word groups and phrases are joined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between sentential elements.2.What is a simple, compound, or complex sentence?A simple sentence is made up of one independent clause with dependent clause attached. It consists of at least one subject and one predicate. Either the subject or the complement may be compound (consisting of more than one element joined with a coordinating conjunction), and modifiers and phrases may be added as well.A compound sentence is composed of at least two independent clauses, but no dependent clauses. The clauses are joined by a comma and a coordinating conjunction, a comma and a correlative conjunction, or a semicolon with no conjunction.A complex sentence uses one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.For example, the following five sentences are simple, compound, complex, compound, and complex sentence respectively.(1)He and I understood.(2)Lucy watches football on television, but she never goes to a game.(3)You can borrow my pen if you need one.(4)Paul likes football and David likes chess.(5)We had to go inside when it started raining.3.What is the hierarchical structure?The hierarchical structure is the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.4.Howto distinguish immediate constituents from ultimate constituents?An immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constituent a construction. Immediate constituents are often further reducible.An ultimate constituent is one of the grammatically irreducible units that constitutea construction.For example, the immediate constituents of the sentence You eat bananas are you and eat bananas; the ultimate constituents of the sentence are you. eat. banana, and —s.5.What are subordinate and coordinate constructions?Subordinate and coordinate constructions are two subtypes of endocentric constructions. Those in which there is only one head, with the head being dominant and the other constituent dependent, are subordinate constructions. For example, the short expression Lovely Lucy is a subordinate construction with Lucy as its head. While coordinate constructions have more than one head. For example, boys and girls, coffee or tea, the city Rome, are coordinate constructions, in which, both the two content constituents, boys and girls, coffee and tea, the city and Rome, are capable of serving as the head. They are of equal syntactic status, and no one is dependent on the other.6・ What are deep and surface structures?Deep structure is a central theoretical term in generative grammar, opposed to surface structure. It is the abstract syntactic representation of a sentence一an underlying level of structural organization which specifies all the factors governing the way the sentence should be interpreted.Surface structure is a central theoretical term in generative grammar, opposed to deep structure. It is the final stage in the syntactic representation of a sentence, which provides the input to the phonological component of the grammar, and which thus most closely corresponds to the structure we articulate and hear.7. Can you describe the syntactic structure of the sentence “The old tree swayed in the wind” by using a tree diagram?8・ How to reveal the differences in sentential meaning in the sentence “The mother of the boy and the girl will arrive soon” by drawing tree diagrams?The sentence is an ambiguous sentence, which can be interpreted in two different ways, so it could assigned two tree diagram, as would be shown below: Tree Diagram (1):the wind The old tree swayed in NPDetTree Diagram (2):Chapter 5 Semantics1. What is a semantic field? Can you illustrate it?It is an organizational principle that the lexicon and groups of words in the lexicon can be semantically related, rather than a listing of words as in a published dictionary. On a very general and intuitive level, we can say that the words in a semantic field, though not synonymous, are all used to talk about the same general phenomenon, and there is a meaning inclusion relation between the items in the field and the field category itself. Classical examples of semantic fields include color terms (red, green, blue, yellow), kinship terms (mother, father, sister, brother), and cooking terms (boil, fry, broil, steam) as semantic fields.2・ What are the major types of synonyms in English?They are dialectal synonyms, stylistic synonyms, emotive synonyms, collocational synonyms, and semantic synonyms. Examples are as follows:fond of, keen on (collocational)autumn, fall (dialectal)dad, father (stylistic)thrifty, miserly, economical (emotive) escape, flee (semantic)3・ In what way do the following pairs offer contrast?earth l.our planet. 2. the soil on the surface of our planet.bank l.a financial institution. 2. side of a river, bear 1. a wild animal, bare:naked.bow a. an inclination of the head or body, as in greeting, consent, courtesy, acknowledgement, submission, or veneration.(e) lead a. go in front of a group of people. 2. a soft heavy easily melted grayish-blue metal(f) found: 1. of find. 2. establish or set upThe five entities show different semantic relations of words.(a) is an example of polysemy, and it is different from the next which fall into the category of homography. (b) is an example of perfect homonymy, while “beaf and “bare" in (c) are homophones, those in (d) are homographs, and the words in (e) are homophones. \JZ \)z \)z abed z(\ /(\ /k z(\Swill arrive soonAux VPPolysemy and homonymy both deal with multiple senses of the same phonological word, but polysemy is invoked if the senses are judged to be related. Homonymous senses, however, are unrelated. Homonymy can be classified into partial homonymy and perfect homonymy. Words falling under the category of partial homonymy can be homophones or homographs. Perfect homonymy is exemplified by the words which are identical in sound and spelling or both in sound-form and part of speech.4. Categorize the following pairs: child・kid，alive-dead, big-small, husband-wife・Child-kid can be categorized under synonymy, alive-dead complementary antonymy, old-young gradable antonymy, and husband-wife converse antonymy.5・What is hyponymy composed of? Illustrate whether there is always a superordinate to hyponyms, or hyponyms to a superordinate・Hyponymy is composed of a superordinate and hyponyms; the hyponyms under the same superordinate are co-hyponyms. there is not always a superordinate to hyponyms, or hyponyms to a superordinate. Sometimes a superordinate may be a superordiante to itself. For example, the word "animal" may only include beasts like “tigef, “lion", "elephant”，"cow”，“horse" and is a co-hyponym of “hum arT. But it is also the superordinate to both “human" and "animal" in contrast to “bircT,"行sh", and “insect”，when it is used in the sense of "mammal". It can further be the superordinate to “bird'',"行sh", "insect”，and "mammal" in contrast to “pbnt". From the hyponym's point of view, “animal" is a hyponym of itself, and may be called autohyponym.6・ How is meronymy different from hyponymy?Meronymy is a term used to describe a part-whole relationship between lexical items. We can identify this relationship by using sentence frames like "X is part of or 66Y has as in "A page is part of a book", or book has pages". While hyponymy has to do with inclusiveness, we cannot do the same with hyponymy. For example, bird is the superordinate to crow, hawk, duck, and se cannot say that bird has crows, or hawks'：and so on.Meronymy also differs from hyponymy in transitivity. Hyponymy is always transitive, for example bird is the superordinate to hawk, hawk is the superordinate to sparrowhawk, and thus bird is the superordinate to sparrowhawk. But meronymy may or may not be so. A transitive example is: nail is a meronym of finger, md finger of hand. We can see that nail is a meronym of finger, and finger of hand. We can see that nail is a meronym of hand. A non-transitive example is: pane is a meronym of window, and window of room; but pane is not a meronym of room.7. Why may a sentence be ambiguous?The ambiguity of a sentence may arise from lexical ambiguity or structural ambiguity. Lexical ambiguity arises from polysemy or homonymy which can not be determined by the context. For example,(a)The table is fascinating.(b)She couldn't bear children.Table in (a) is an example of polysemy. It can be a piece of furniture, or the stated kind or quality of food served at a meal here. The ambiguity of (b) lies in the two meanings of the homonym bear一endure or produce children.The following sentence is an example of structural ambiguity.(c)The mother of the boy and the girl will arrive soon.8・ What predication analysis? What is a no-place, one-place，two-place, or three-place predicate? Give examples・Predication analysis is a new approach for sentential meaning analysis which is to break down the sentence into their smaller constituents: argument and predicate. The predicate is the major or pivotal element governing the argument. The argument is the logical participant.A no-place predicate is a predicate which governs no argument; a one-place predicate, one argument; a two-place predicate, two arguments; and a three-place predicate, three arguments. Respective examples are:(a)It is snowing. (SNOW)(b)Baby is sleeping. SLEEP(JOHN, MARY)(c)John loves Mary. LOVE(JOHN, MARY)(d)John gave Mary a book. GIVE(JOHN, MARY, BOOK)Chapter 6 Pragmatics1・ What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication. It is a comparatively new branch of study in the area of linguistics; its development and establishment in the 1960s an dl970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study of linguistics, especially that of semantics. Generally it deals with how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. The scope of pragmatic study includes “speech act theory'', “context", '"conversational implicature,\ presupposition, etc.The basic difference between pragmatics and traditional semantics is that pragmatics considers meaning in context and traditionally semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use. It may be said that pragmatics studies the meaning that is not accounted by semantics. It can also be expressed in the formula: pragmatics=meaning-semantics. G. Leech, in his principles of pragmatics holds that: Semantics answers the question: What does X mean? Pragmatics answer the question: What did you mean by X?2・ How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?Utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; the former is concrete and context-dependent and the latter is abstract and decontextualized.3・ What is contextual meaning?It is the meaning a linguistic item has in context, for example the meaning a word has within a particular sentence, or a sentence has in a particular paragraph. The question Do you know the meaning of wo厂？For example, may have two different contextual meanings:i.it may mean Do you know the meaning of the word war? , when said by alanguage teacher to a class of students.ii.It may mean war produces death, injury, and suffering, when said by an injured soldier to a politician who favors war.4.Explain the meanings of locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionaryact through examples.A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of Speech Acts between three different types of act involved in or caused by the utterance of a sentence.A locutional act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood. For example, saying the sentence Shoot the snake is a locutionary act is hearers understand the words shoot, the. snake and can identify the particular snake referred to.5.What is cooperative principle(CP)?The "'cooperative principle", proposed and formulated by P Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible to carry on the talk. The principle has the four following maxims:Quantityi.Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the currentpurposes of the exchange).ii.Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. QualityTry to make your contribution one that is true.(1)Do not say what you believe to false.(2)Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.RelationBe relevant.MannerBe perspicuous.(1)Avoid obscurity of expression.(2)Avoid ambiguity.(3)Be brief.(4)Be orderly.6・ What is conversational implicature?It is an additional unstated meaning that has to be assumed in order to maintain the cooperative principle, e.g. if someone says "The President is a mouse", something that is literally false, the hearer must assume the speaker means to convey more than is being said.7. How does the violation of the maxims of CP give rise to conversationalimplicature?There are circumstances where speakers may not follow the maxims of the cooperative principle. For example, in conversation, a speaker may violate the maxim expectations by using an expression like "No comment^^ in response to a question. Although it is typically not "as informative as is required?, in the context, it is naturally interpreted as communicating more than is said (i.e. the speaker knows the answer). This typical reaction (i.e. there must be something “special" here) of listeners to any apparent violation of the maxims is actually the key to the notion of conversational implicature.When we violate any of these maxims, our language becomes indirect. In this way, we can convey more than is literally said.8.What is adjacency pair?It refers to a sequence of two utterances by different speakers in conversation. The second is a response to the first, e.g. question-answer.Chapter 8 Language and Society1. What is sociolinguistics?Sociolinguistics is the field that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.2・ What is speech community?It is a group of people who form a community, e.g. a village, a region, a nation, and who have at least one speech variety in common as well as similar linguistic norms.In bilingual and multilingual communities, people would usually have more than one speech variety in commons.3.What is dialect?It is a variety of a language, spoken in one part of a country, or by people belonging to a particular social class, which is different in some words, grammar, an/or pronunciation from other forms of the same language.4.What is Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?It is a belief that our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express our unique ways of understanding the world. On the one hand, language may determine our thinking patterns; on the one hand, language may determine out thinking patterns; one the other hand, similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be. As this hypothesis was strongly put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf, it has often been called the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.5.What is speech variety?It is a term sometimes used instead of language, dialect, sociolect, pidgin, creole, etc. because it is considered more neutral than such terms. It may also be used for different varieties of one language, e.g. American English, Australian English, Indian English.6.What is standard language?It is also called standard variety. It is the variety of a language which has the highest status in a community or nation and which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.7.What is pidgin?It is a language which develops as a contact language when groups of people who speak different languages try to communicate with one another on a regular basis. For example, this might occur where foreign traders have to communicate with the local population or groups of workers from different language backgrounds on plantations or in factories. A pidgin usually has a limited vocabulary and a reduced grammaticalstructure which may expand when a pidgin is used over a long period and for many purposes.8.What is bilingualism?It is the use of at least two languages either by an individual or by a group of speakers.A bilingual is a person who knows and uses two languages.9.What is multilingualism?It refers to the use of three or more languages by an individual or by a group of speakers such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation. Multilingualism is common in, for example, some countries of west Africa, Malaysia, Singapore, and Israel.Chapter 10-11 Language Acquisition1.What is psycholinguistics?It is the study of language in relation to the mind, with focus on the processes of language comprehension, production and acquisition. It takes upon itself the job of exploring the biological basis of human language, critical periods for child language acquisition, and the relationship between the language and thought.2.What is bottom-up processing and what is top-down processing?We may define bottom-up processing as that which proceeds from the lowest level to the highest level of processing in such a way that all of levels. That is, the identification operate without influence from the higher levels. That is, the identification of phonemes is not affected by the lexical, syntactic, or discourse levels; the retrieval of words is not affected by syntactic or discourse levels; and so on.A top-down processing model, in contrast, states that information at the higher levels may influence processing at the lower levels. For instance, a sentence context may affect the identification of words within that sentence.3.What are the six major types of speech error? Give examples of each・Six major types of speech error are:i.Exchange errors: hissed all my mystery lectures (missed all my historylectures)ii.Anticipation errors: a leading list (reading list)iii.Perseveration errors: a phonological fool (phonological rule)iv.Blends: moinly(mostly, mainly), impostinatiorfimposteE impersonator)v.Shifts: Mermaid_moves (mermaids move) their legs togethervi.Substitutions: sympathy for symphony (form), finger for toe (meaning) 4.What is the critical period for language acquisition?Language development takes place during a very specific maturational stage of human development. Sometime during the second year of life (at roughly anywhere from 12 to 18 months), children begin uttering their first words. During the following 4 to 5 years, linguistic development occurs quite rapidly. By the time children enter school, they have mastered the major structural features of their language. Refinements of the major features continue to appear, and the ability to learn language (one's native language or foreign languages) continues to be strong until the onset of puberty. At this point, for reasons that are not fully understood, the '"knack for languages95 begins to decline, to a。
Chapter 5 Meaning-S语言学.
Chapter Five MeaningSection One the Referential TheoryQ1. What is semantics?Q2. What is the referential theory?SemanticsThe subject concerning the study of meaning is called SEMANTICS. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.Meaning has always been a central topic in human scholarship, though the term “semantics” has only a history of a little over a hundred years. There were discussions of meaning in the works of the Greek philosopher Plato as early as in the fifth century before Christ. In China, Lao Zi had discussed similar questions even earlier. The fact that over the years numerous dictionaries have been produced with a view to explaining the meaning of words also bears witness to its long tradition. Nevertheless, semantics remains the least known area in linguistics, compared with phonetics, phonology, morphology and syntax.Meanings of “meaning”One difficulty in the study of meaning is that the word “meaning” itself has different meanings. In their book The Meaning of Meaning written in 1923, C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards presented a “representative list of the main definitions which reputable students of meaning have favored” (p. 186). There are 16 major categories of them, with sub-categories all together, numbering 22.The referential theoryThe theory of meaning, which relates the meaning of a word to the thing, it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory. This is a very popular theory. It is generally possible, as we have shown in the previous section, to explain the meaning of a word by pointing to the thing it refers to. In the case of proper nouns and definite noun phrases, this s especially trues. When we say “The most influential linguist Noam Chomsky teaches at MIT”, we do use “the most influential linguist” and “Noam Chomsky” to mean a particular person, and “MIT” a particular institution of higher learning.Words are in different sense relations with each other. Some words have more similar senses than others. For example, the sense of desk is more closely related to that of table than to chair. Conversely we can say the sense of desk is more different from that of chair than from table. And the sense of desk is included in the sense of furniture, or the sense of furniture includes that of desk. As a result the sense of a word may be seen as the network of its sense relations with others. In other words, sense may be defined as the semantic relations between one word and another, or more generally between one linguistic unit and another. It is concerned with the intra-linguistic relations. In contrast, as we alluded to earlier, reference is concerned with the relation between a word and the thing it refers to, or more generally between a linguistic unit and a non-linguistic entity it refers to.There are generally three kinds of sense relations recognized, namely, sameness relation, and oppositeness relation and inclusiveness relation.SynonymyAntonymyHyponymySection Two Componential AnalysisQ1. What is Componential analysis?Q2. What is the meaning smaller than word?5. Componential analysisComponential analysis refers to an approach adopted by structural semanticists in describing the meaning of words or phrases. This approach is based on the belief that the total meaning of a word can be analyzed in terms of a number of distinct elements or meaning components (called semantic features)The study of meaning in any language shows that lexical items overlap in meaning and share common properties e.g. Lions and tigers both contain an element of “wild animalness”. Calf puppy and baby can be considered as all sharing an element of non adultness, while cow, woman and tigress all containing an element of “femaleness”, But because of other properties each word contains, none of them will be said as being synonymous to any one of the others.One attempt to account for this phenomenon is to assume that lexical items, like phonemes are made up out of a number of component parts. Componential analysis is often seen as a process aiming at breaking down the meaning of a word into its minimal distinctive features or properties, which are also called components by some linguists. One way of describing the components of a word is to use feature symbols,which are usually written in capitalized letters, with “+” “-“ before them, plus sign indicates the presence of a certain property, and minus sign indicates the absence of it.e.g.man : + HUMAN+ ADULT+ MALEwoman: + HUMAN+ ADULT- MALEboy: + HUMAN- ADULT+ MALEgirl: + HUMAN- ADULT- MALEwords like father, mother, daughter and son, which involves a relation between two entities, may be shown as follows:father = PARENT (X,Y) & MALE (X)mother = PARENT (X,Y) & MALE (X)verbs can also be analyzed in this way, for exampletake = CAUSE (X, (HA VE (X,Y))give= CAUSE (X, (HA VE (X,Y)))•Advantages: by specifying the semantic features of certain words, we may better account for sense relations,Synonymy ---- having the same semantic componentsAntonymy ----- having a contrasting componentHyponymy-----having all semantic components of another. •Disadvantages: It would be senseless to analyze the meaning of every word by breaking it into its meaning components.Section Three Sentence MeaningQ1. What is Sentence meaning?Q2. What is logical semantics?Sentence meaningThe defining of sentence meaning has turned out to be a more complicated issue than the defining of the meanings of individual lexical items.The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all it components. The meaning of a sentence is a product of both lexical and grammatical meaning. There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning. (An integrated theory)(Text book)The meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined (the principle of compositionality)Logical semantics (prepositional logic & predicate logic)Prepositional logic (prepositional calculus or sentential calculus): is the study of the truth conditions for propositionsProposition: “is what is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement” (Lyons 1977:141-2), a very important property of which is that it has a truth value. It is either true or false.Disadvantage: concerned with the semantic relation between propositions, treats a simple proposition as an unanalyzed whole.If snow is white, grass is greenIf snow is black, grass is green (cf. truth table P180, P q, p→q)Predicate logic ( predicate calculus): is the study of the internal structure of simple propositions.Disadvantage: Socrates is a man, Socrates is rational, Socrates ran. All these three words are treated as one-place predicates, while in English they belong to three different word classes. Besides, there are more quantifiers in natural languages than all and some, such as, many, most, dozens of, several, a few etc. But there is no adequate provision for them in predicate logic.Chapter 5 MeaningTeaching aims: enable the students to have a better understanding of semantics and wording meaning.Focal points: Leech’s seven classifications of meaning, semantic triangle, sense relations between words and sentencesTeaching difficulties: sense relations between sentences, different types of antonymyTeaching procedureThe subject concerning the study of meaning is called semantics. In this chapter, we will study another branch of linguistics-----semantics.1. An IntroductionDefinition: In linguistics, it is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular. Its goal is to reveal how language is matched with their proper meanings by the speakers of that language.Semantics is an old and young branch.Dating from Plato, the study of meaning has a long history. Philosophers, psychologists, and sociologists all claim a deep interest in the study of meaning, although they differ in their focus of interest.Philosophers: the relation between linguistic expression and what they refer to in the real world and evaluation of the truth value of it.Psychologists: understanding the working of human mind through language.So you many find several books bearing the title “semantics” but talking about different things. Here we just focus on linguistic semantics.In linguistics, compared with other branches we have discussed, semantics is very young and new. The term semantics is a recent addition to the English language. It has only a history of over 100 years.1893 French linguist Breal coined “semantique”1897 Breal first use it as the science of meaning.1900 its English version came out1980s semantics began to be introduced into China “Cinderella of linguistics”(Kempson)One of the most famous books on semantics is The Meaning of Meaning published in 1923.2. Meanings of “meaning” P1582.1 what is meaning?What is the meaning of “desk”?√I didn't mean to hurt you. (intend)Life without faith has no meaning. (value)It was John I mean not Harry (refer to ) √1.17 Types of meaning (G. Leech)Denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrase that relates it to phenomena in the real world.Connotation: some additional, esp. emotive meaning.3. The referential theoryRelates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stand for.3.1 Semantic triangleProposed by Ogden & Richards in their “The Meaning of Meaning”. They saw the relationship between the word and the thing it refers to is not direct. It’s mediated by concept.thought or referencesymbol referentIn this diagram, the symbol or form refers to linguistic elements (words, phrases), the referent refers to the things in the real world, and thought or reference refers to “concept”.e.g. The dog over there looks unfriendly.The word “dog” is directly associated with a certain concept in our mind, i.e. what a “dog” is like, but it is not directly linked to the referent (the particular dog) in this particular case. Thus, the symbol of a word signifies thing by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the mind of the speaker of a language, and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.3.2 Sense & referencesense and reference are the two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning.They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense-----the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; It’s abstract and de-contextualized.It’s theaspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. It is concernedwith the intra-linguistic relations.Reference-----What a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; It deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements and the non-linguistic worldof experience.For example, the word “dog” is given the definition “a common domestic animal keptby human beings for work, hunting etc or as a pet”. This doesn’t refer to any particular dog that exists in the real world, but applies to any animal that meets the features described in the definition, so this is the sense of the word “dog”. But if we say “The dog is barking”, we must be talking about a certain dog existent in the situation, t he word “dog” refers to a dog known to both the speaker and the hearer. This is the reference of the word “dog” in this particular situation.To some extent, we can say every word has a sense, i.e. some conceptual content. But not every word has a reference e.g. grammatical words like but if etc, don’t refer to anything.Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.e.g. I was one bitten by a dog.Mind you. There is a dog over there.Here the two “dog” bear the same sense, but have two different references in the two utterances.Sometimes linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sensee.g. “morning star” and “ evening star” can refer to the same star “Venus”2.Major Sense relationsWords are in different sense relations with each otherThere are generally 3 kinds of sense relations: sameness relation,oppositeness relation and inclusiveness relation4.1. synonymySameness or close similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.4.2 AntonymyOppositeness of meaningWords that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.Oppositeness can be found on different dimensions.①Gradable antonymy (mainly adj.)good/ bad, long /short, narrow/ wideThey are gradable. That is, the members of a pair differ in terms of degree. The denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other. There are often intermediate forms between them.②Complementary antonymyalive/ dead, male/ female, present/ absent, pass/ fail , boy/ girlIt is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies theassertion of the other and the assertion of one means the denial of the other.In other words, it is not a matter of degree between two extremes, but a matter of either one or the other.③Converse antonymy (relational opposites)buy/ sell, lend/ borrow, before /after, teacher/ student, above /belowThe members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities.4.3Hyponymy ( a matter of class membership)the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive word and a more specific words .cow/ animal, rose/ flower, honesty/ virtueThe word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific word are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same super-ordinate are co-hyponyms to each other.1.Sense relations between sentencesSense relationships also exist between sentences4.1 A entails B ( A is an entailment of B )A: He has been to France.B: He has been to Europe.A: John picked a tulip.B: John picked a flower.Entailment is a relation of inclusion if x entails y, the meaning of x is included in y.In term of truth value: If x is true, y is necessarily true; If x is false, y may be true or false; If y is true, x may be true or false, If Y is false, x is false.In formula: A→B-B→-A4.2 Presupposition (A presupposes B)A: The queen of England is old.B: England has a queen.A: Is your father at home?B: You have a father.It refers to the kind of meaning which the speaker doesn’t assert but assumes the hearer can identify form the sentence.In term of truth value: If A is true, B must be true. If A is false, B is still true; If B is true, A is either true or false. If B is false, no truth value can be said about A.In formula: A→B-A→B4.3 A is inconsistent with BA: John is marriedB: John is a bachelorIn term of truth value: If A is true, B is false and if A is false, B is true.4.4 A is synonymous with BA: The boy killed the dog.B: The dog was killed by the boy.4.5 A is a contradictionMy unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.4.6 A is semantically anomalousThe table has bad intentions.HomeworkExercises: Identify the relations between the following pairs of sentences: A: Tom’s wife is pregnant.B: Tom has a wife.A: My sister will soon be divorced.B: My sister is a married woman.A: He likes swimming.B: He likes sports.A: John is an orphan.B: John has no father.Self-study guideRead Chapter 5 Semantics in “ Modern Linguistics” by He Zhao-xiong。
英语语言学Chapter 5 Meaning6.5 Chapter 5
Chapter 5 Meaning1. Define the following terms1) conceptual meaning2) connotation3) sense4) synonymy5) antonymy6) semantic components2. What are the major semantics schools?3. What are the possible categories of synonyms?4. How do you understand semantic change?5. Explain antonyms in details.KEYS TO CHAPTER 51. Define the following terms1) Conceptual meaning is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to.2) Connotation is the properties of the entity a word denotes.3) Sense is the abstract properties of an entity.4) The sameness relation is called the sameness relation.5) Antonymy refers to the oppositeness relation.6) Semantic components are semantic units smaller than the meaning of a word.2. What are the major semantics schools?1) The naming theory: One of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one, It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.2) The conceptualist view: It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.3) Contextualism: It is based on the presumption(假定) that one can derive推导) meaning from or reduce meaning to observable可观测的) contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context .For example, the meaning of the word "seal" in the sentence "The seal could not be found" can only be determined ac-cording to the context in whichthe sentence occurs:4) BehaviorismThe contextualist view was further strengthened by Bloomfield. He drew on behaviorist psychology when he tried to define the meaning of linguistic forms. Behaviorists attempted to de-fine the meaning of a language form as " the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer". This behaviorist theory is somewhat close to contextualism. It is linked with psychological interest.3. What are the possible categories of synonyms?Synonymy can be divided into the following groups:Dialectal synonyms (地域性同义词): Dialectal synonyms are words which have more or less the same meaning and are used in different regional dialects such as petroleum in British English and gasoline in American English. Dialectal synonyms can also be found within British, or American English itself. For example, "girl" is called "lass" or "lassie" in Scottish dialect.Stylistic synonyms文体同义词): Stylistic synonyms are words which have the same meaning but differ in style, or degree of formality. Some of the stylistic synonyms tend to be more formal, others tend to be casual , and still others are neutral in style, for example, old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent.Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning :感性或评价方面不同的同义词They are words that have the same meaning but express different emotions of the user. The emotions of the user indicate the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about, such as thrifty and miser.Collocational synonyms搭配上的区别的同义词): Some synonyms differ in their collocation. That is, they go together with different words, for example: accuse. . . of, charge. . . with, rebuke. .-for.Semantically different synonyms(语意上的差别): They refer to the synonyms that differ slightly in what they mean. For example, "amaze" and "astound" are very close in meaning to the word "surprise," but they have very subtle differences in meaning. While amaze suggests confusion and bewilderment, "astound" implies difficulty in believing.4. How do you understand semantic change?Semantic change refers to the change of meaning of a word. The major types of semantic change are as follows: (1) Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation. For example, the word “holiday” was originally used to mean a day of religious significance because it was a “holy day”. Today everyone enjoys a holiday, whether he or she is religious or not. (2) Semantic narrowing is the reverse process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning. For example, the word “liquor” in contemporary English is an alcoholic drink, but it was once synonymous with “liquid”, be it alcoholi c or not. (3) Semantic shift refers to the process in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related meaning, e.g. the word “silly”. Quite surprisingly, a “silly” person was a happy person in Old English, and a naive person in Middle English, but a foolish person in Modern English.5. Explain antonyms in details.Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.1) Gradable antonyms渐进性关系反义: Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair such as old/young, hot/cold.2) Complementary antonyms完全反义: a pair of complementary antonyms is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.3) Relational opposites相关对立反义: pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.。
语言学chapter5 meaning exercises
I. Choose the best answer.1.Which pair of antonyms does not belong to gradable antonyms?______A.good, badB. hit, missC. long, shortD. small, big2.The verb “take”can be analyzed in the following way according to the componential analysis._____A.take=CAUSE(x, (HA VE(x, y)))B. take=CAUSE(x, (~HA VE(x, y)))C. take=CAUSE(x, (BECOME(x, y)))D.take=CAUSE(x, (~BECOME(x, y)))3._______is the name for oppositeness relation, which includes three main sub-types.A.HyponymyB. AntonymyC. PolysemyD. Synonymy4.According to G. Leech, who recognizes 7 types of meaning in his Semantics , ______makes up the central part.A.conceptual meaningB. connotative meaningC. social meaningD. thematic meaning5.Of the following______does not belong to the three sub-types of antonymy.A.gradable antonymyB.converse antonymyC. complementary antonymyD. complete antonymy6.The sense relation which holds the pair of words beef-meat is_______.A.synonymyB. hyponymyC. homonymyD. converse antonymy7.There are generally three kinds of sense relations recognized, namely, sameness relation, oppositeness relation and_______relation.A.exclusivenessB. conclusivenessC. inclusivenessD. deduction8.“Can I borrow your bike?”______ “You have a bike.”A.is synonymous withB.is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes9.______is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features, semantic components or semes.A.prediction analysisB. componential analysisC. phonemic analysisD. grammatical analysis10.______deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.A.referenceB. conceptC. semanticsD. sense11.When the word “root” means “part of plant that keeps fit firmly in the soil and absorbs water and food from the soil”, the meaning is _____meaning.A.connotativeB. conceptualC. senseD. semantics12.There are generally three kinds of sense relations recognized, sameness relation, oppositeness relation and inclusiveness relation. They are represented by____respectively.A.Synonymy antonymy hyponymyB. Homonymy antonymy hyponymyC. Synonymy antonymy homonymyD. Homonymy hyponymy antonymy13.By componential analysis, BECOME(x, (~ALIVE(x))) is an explanation of ____.A.dieB. deadC. killD. murder14.The sense relationship between “John plays the piano” and “John plays a musical instrument” is______.A.synonymyB. antonymyC. entailmentD. presupposition15.More specifically, ____is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.A.pragmaticsB. semanticsC. syntaxD. phonology16.In the semantic triangle by Ogden and Richards, the SYMBOL refers to____.A.the linguistic units (words, phrases)B. the object in the world of experienceC. conceptD. idea17.The words with more or less the same meaning used in different regional dialects are called____.A.dialectal synonymsB. collocational synonymsC. stylistic synonymsD. emotive synonyms18.The word “table” has at least six meanings such as “a piece of furniture”, “all the people seated at a table”, etc. It can be called____.A.polysemyB. homonymyC. hyponymyD. antonymy19.The relation between “dog” and “animal” is that of_____.A.synonymyB. antonymyC. homonymyD. hyponymy20.The phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form is called____.A.hyponymyB. synonymyC. polysemyD. homonymy21.The words “kid, child, offspring” are examples of ______.A.dialectal synonymsB. stylistic synonymsC. emotive synonymsD. collocational synonymsII. Fill in the blanks.1.According to G. Leech, ____meaning refers to logic, cognitive, or denotative content.2.According to G. Leech, ____meaning refers to what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer.3.In the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the ____theory.4._____is the technical name for the sameness relation.5.Terms like “apple”, “banana” and “pear” are ____of the term “fruit”.6.“Mary gave a book to Jack” is synonymous with “Jack____a book from Mary”.7.Antonyms like “husband” and “wife” are____antonyms.8._______=PARENT(x, y) & MALE(x)9._______=CHILD(x, y) & MALE(x)10.Predication analysis is to break down predications into their constituents: _____and_______.11.______logic, also called predicate calculus, studies the internal structure of simple propositions.12.______opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.III. True or false1.After comparing “they stopped at the end of the corridor.” with “at the end of the corridor, they stopped.” , you may find some difference in meaning, and the difference can be interpreted in terms of collocative meaning.2.The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.3.Reference is one of the rarely used cohesive devices.4.Odgen and Richards argue that the relation between a word and a thing it refers to is not direct.5.“Tulip”, “rose” and “violet” are all included in the notion of “flower”. Therefore, they are superordinates of “flower”.6.The two words “borrow” and “lend” are antonyms but the two sentences “Jane lent some money to Jack” and “Jack borrowed some money from Jane” are synonymous.。
语言学导论第05章练习及答案
SemanticsI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False.synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself，for example，within British English or American English.is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience，while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.semantics，meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience.is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components.languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality.9.“it is hot.” is a no-place predication because it contains no argument.grammatical analysis，the sentence is taken to be the basic unit，but in semantic analysis of a sentence，the basic unit is predication，which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given.can be defined as the study of meaning.conceptualist view holds that there is no d______ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.means what a linguistic form refers to in the real，physical world；it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.that are close in meaning are called s________.two words are identical in sound，but different in spelling and meaning，they are called h__________.opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called s________ restrictions，which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.a________ is a logical participant in a predication，largely identical with the nominal element（s）in a sentence.to the n____ theory of meaning，the words in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.21. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth22. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represents _______.A. the conceptualist viewB. contexutalism40. Hyponymy：Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general，more inclusive word anda more specific word.41. Antonymy：Antonymy refers to the relation of oppositeness of meaning.42. Componential analysis：Componential analysis is a way to analyze word meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components，which are called semantic features.43. The grammatical meaning：The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality，. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.44. Predication：The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.45. Argument：An argument is a logical participant in a predication. It is generally identical with the nominal element （s）in a sentence.46. Predicate： A predicate is something that is said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.47. Two-place predication： A two-place predication is one which contains two arguments.V. Answer the following questions.48.Why do we say that a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its componentsThe meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components because it cannot be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words. For example：（A）The dog bit the man.（B）The man bit the dog.If the meaning of a sentence were the sum total of the meanings of all its components，then the above two sentences would have the same meaning. In fact they are different in meanings.As we know，there are two aspects to sentence meaning：grammatical meaning and semantic meaning. The grammatical meanings of “the dog” and “the man” in （A）are different from the grammatical meanings of “the dog” and “the man” in （B）. The meaning of a sentence is the product of both lexical and grammatical meaning. It is the product of the meaning of the constituent words and of the grammatical constructions that relate one word syntagmatically to another.49. What is componential analysis Illustrate it with examples.Componential analysis，proposed by structural semanticists，is a way to analyze word meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components，which are called semantic features. Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word，and these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. For example，the word “man” is ana lyzed as consisting of the semantic features of [+ HUMAN，+ ADULT，+ ANIMATE，+MALE]50. How do you distinguish between entailment and presupposition in terms of truth valuesEntailment is a relation of inclusion. Suppose there are two sentences X and Y：X：He has been to France.Y：He has been to Europe.In terms of truth values，if X is true，Y is necessarily true，. if he has been to France，he must have been to Europe.If X is false，Y may be true or false，e. g. if he has not been to France，he may still have been to Europe or he has not been to Europe. If Y is true，X may be true or false，. if he has been to Europe，he may or may not have been to France.If Y is false，X is false，. If he has not been to Europe，he cannot have been to France.Therefore we conclude that X entails Y or Y is an entailment of X.The truth conditions that we use to judge presupposition is as follows：Suppose there are two sentences X and Y：X：John's bike needs repairing.Y：John has a bike.If X is true，Y must be true，. if John's bike needs repairing，John must have a bike.If X is false，Y is still true， e. g. If John's bike does not need repairing，John still has a bike. If Y is true，X is either true or false，. if John has a bike，it may or may not need repairing. If Y is false，no truth value can be said about X，. if John does not have a bike，nothing can be said about whether his bike needs repairing or not. Therefore，X presupposes Y，or Y is a presupposition of X.51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as synonymous relation，inconsistent relation in terms of truth valuesIn terms of truth condition，of the two sentences X and Y，if X is true，Y is true；if X is false，Y is false，therefore X is synonymous with Y.. X：He was a bachelor all his life.Y：He never married all his life.Of the two sentences X and Y，if X is true，Y is false；if X is false，Y is true，then we can say A is inconsistent with Y..X：John is married.Y：John is a bachelor.52. According to the ways synonyms differ，how many groups can we classify synonyms into Illustrate them with examples.According to the ways synonyms differ，synonyms can be divided into the following groups.i. Dialectal synonymsThey are synonyms which are used in different regional dialects. British English and American English are the two major geographical varieties of the English language. For examples：British English American Englishautumn falllift elevatorThen dialectal synonyms can also be found within British，or American English itself. For example，"girl" is called "lass" or "lassie" in Scottish dialect，and "liquor" is called "whisky" in Irish dialect.ii. Stylistic synonymsThey are synonyms which differ in style or degree of formality. Some of the stylistic synonyms tend to be more formal，others tend to be casual，and still others are neutral in style. For example：old man，daddy，dad，father，male parentchap，pal，friend，companioniii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningThey are the words that have the same meaning but express different emotions of the user. The emotions of the user indicate the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about. For example，“collaborator” and “accomplice” are synonymous，sharing the meaning of "a person who helps another"，but they are different in their evaluative meaning. The former means that a person who helps another in doing something good，while the latter refers to a person who helps another in a criminal act.iv. Collocational synonymsThey are synonyms which differ in their collocation. For example，we can use accuse，charge，rebuke to say that someone has done something wrong or even criminal，but they are used with different prepositions accuse. . . of，charge. . . with，rebuke. . .for.v. Semantically different synonymsSemantically different synonyms refer to the synonyms that differ slightly in what they mean. For example，"amaze" and "astound" are very close in meaning to the word "surprise，" but they have very subtle differences in meaning. While amaze suggests confusion and bewilderment，"astound" implies difficulty in believing.are the major views concerning the study of meaning How do they differOne of the oldest was the naming theory，proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato，who believed that the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. The form and the meaning are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized：the situational context and the linguistic context.For example，the meaning of the word "seal" in the sentence "The seal could not be found" can only be determined according to the context in which the sentence occurs：The seal could not be found. The zoo keeper became worried.（‘seal’ meaning an aquatic mammal）The seal could not be found. The king became worried.（‘seal’ meaning the king's stamp）Behaviorism drew on behaviorist psychology when he tried to define the meaning of linguistic forms. Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as "the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer".。
英语语言学第五章练习题
英语语言学第五章练习题英语语言学第五章通常涉及语音学和音系学的内容，以下是一些练习题供学生练习：练习题一：音标识别1. 请识别下列单词的音标，并写出它们的国际音标（IPA）符号。
- cat- dog- book- car练习题二：音素对比2. 比较下列单词中的元音音素，并指出它们在发音上的不同。
- sheep / ship- meet / meat练习题三：音节划分3. 将下列单词划分音节，并标注每个音节的重音。
- beautiful- international练习题四：同化和异化现象4. 给出英语中同化和异化现象的例子，并解释它们是如何发生的。
- 同化（Assimilation）：- 异化（Dissimilation）：练习题五：连读和失爆5. 描述英语中的连读（Liaison）和失爆（Epenthesis）现象，并给出例子。
- 连读：- 失爆：练习题六：音位变体6. 解释什么是音位变体，并给出英语中的音位变体例子。
- 音位变体（Allophone）：练习题七：最小对立组7. 列出英语中的最小对立组，并说明它们是如何区分意义的。
- 例如：/ p / 和 / b / 在 "pat" 和 "bat" 中的区别。
练习题八：音系规则8. 描述音系规则的概念，并给出一个英语中的音系规则例子。
练习题九：音位和音素9. 解释音位（Phoneme）和音素（Phone）的区别，并给出例子。
练习题十：语音变化10. 讨论英语中的几种语音变化现象，如元音的缩短和延长，并给出例子。
请注意，这些练习题需要学生具备一定的英语语音学基础知识，以便能够正确完成。
希望这些练习题能够帮助学生加深对英语语音学的理解。
语言学Chapter5Meaning(revised)
Questions to be discussed:
Q4: What is semantic field? Q5: Semantic relations: between words and between
sentences
Q6: Semantic analysis
guarantees the truth of S.
e.g.:
If “Peter is married.” is true. Conditions: there must be individual called Peter; there
Knowing the meaning of a sentence is the same as knowing the conditions under which the sentence is true of false.
第十九页，编辑于星期六：二十二点 二十八分。
S is true if and only if P S is a sentence. P is the set of conditions which
Chapter 5 Semantics
Teaching aims: enable the students to have a better understanding of semantics and sense relations.
Focal points: Approaches to meaning; Types of meaning; Sense relations between words and sentences; Semantic analysis Teaching difficulties: sense & reference; semantic
英语语言学第五章练习题
英语语言学第五章练习题英语语言学第五章通常涉及语言的音韵学，即研究语音的科学。
以下是一些可能的练习题：1. 音素识别：- 列出英语中的元音音素和辅音音素。
- 区分英语中的短元音和长元音。
2. 音节结构：- 解释什么是音节，并给出三个英语单词的例子，每个单词包含一个音节、两个音节和三个音节。
3. 重音：- 描述英语中的重音模式，并给出两个单音节词和两个多音节词的例子，指出每个词的重音位置。
4. 音素对立：- 给出英语中至少三对最小对立词（minimal pairs），并解释它们之间的音素差异。
5. 音位规则：- 描述英语中的一个音位规则，并给出例子说明这个规则如何影响单词的发音。
6. 连音和同化：- 解释连音和同化现象，并给出英语中的例子。
7. 音位分布：- 描述英语中某些音素倾向于出现在特定位置的模式，例如，某些辅音不出现在词首或词尾。
8. 音位变体：- 讨论英语中音位的自由变体和条件变体，并给出例子。
9. 音位转录：- 给出一个英语句子，并使用国际音标（IPA）转录其发音。
10. 语音合成：- 描述语音合成的过程，并讨论其在语言学研究中的应用。
11. 语音识别：- 解释语音识别技术如何工作，并讨论其在现代技术中的应用。
12. 方言和口音：- 讨论英语方言和口音的多样性，并比较两种不同的英语口音。
13. 语音学与社会语言学：- 探讨语音特征如何与社会身份和群体认同相关联。
14. 语音学实验：- 设计一个简单的实验来研究英语中的一个语音现象，例如元音的长短差异。
15. 语音学软件应用：- 列出一些可以用来分析语音的软件工具，并简要描述它们的功能。
这些练习题旨在帮助学生更好地理解音韵学的基础概念，并通过实践加深对这些概念的掌握。
《英语语言学概论》配套习题(五)(问答题)答案.docx
《英语语言学概论》配套习题（五）（问答题）答案Chapter 1 Introduction to Linguistics1.What are design features of language?Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of anima communication.2.What are the characteristics of human language?The characteristics of human language include arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, discreteness, transferability and linearity.3・Explain the characteristic of arbitrariness・What are the relationship between arbitrariness and convention?Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes a language be passed from generation to generation.4.What does productivity mean for language?It means language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. It refers to the property that language enables language users to produce or understand an indefinite number of sentences including novel sentences by use of finite set of rules.5・ What functions does language have?Language has at least seven funcitons: informative, interpersonal, performative, emotive, phatic, recreational and metalingual.6・ Explain the metalingual function of language・The metalingual function of language refers to the fact that language can be used to talk about itself.7・ What is the difference between synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics?Synchronic linguistics takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. In contrast, diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history; therefore, it is also called historical linguistics.8・ What distinguishes prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studies of language?The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, norms, of correctness, which are in the scope of prescriptive linguistics.Chapter 2 Phonology1・ What does phonetics concern?Phonetis is the scientific study of speech sounds of human beings. Phonetics can be suv-classified into articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and auditory phonetics. 2・ How do the three branches of phonetics contribute to the study of speech sounds?Articualtory phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds. Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speeech. Auditory phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.3・ How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?Consonants are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. By contrast, a vowel is produced without such obstruction so no turbulance or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.4.In which two ways may consonants be classified?The categories of consonants are established on two important factors, which are termed as manners of articulation and places of articulation.5.How do phoneticians classify vowels?The di scription of vowels includes four aspects: the height of tongue raising(high, mid, low); the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back); the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short) and lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).6.T0 what extent does phonology differ from phonetics?Phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way wounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. 7.What do minimal pair refer? Give an example to illustrate・Certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word, whereas other sounds do not. For instance, the word big can be described in a phonetic transcription [big]. If [g] is replaced by [t], there is another word: bit.[g] and [t] are called minimal pairs. Therefore, when sound substitutions cause differences of meaning, these sounds are minimal pairs.8.What kind of phenomenon is complementary distribution?When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in complementary distribution. For example, the aspirated English stops never occur after [s], and the unaspirated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of [1], for instance, are also in complementary distribution. The clear[l] occur only before a vowel, the dark [1] occur after a consonant or at the end of a word.Chapter 3 Morphology1・ What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?Morpheme may be classified into free and bound. A free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning, it can exist on its own without a bound morpheme.A free morpheme is a word, in the traditional sense. Man, book, take and red are free morphemes.A bound morpheme cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance. It must appear with at least one other morphem, free or bound, like un- in unhappy, past tensemorpheme in worked.2・ What is the difference between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes?An inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree. It does not form a new word with new lexical meaning when it is added to another word. Nor does it change the word-class of the word to which it is added. The inflecitonal affixes today are the plural marker, the genetive case, the verbal endings, the comparative degrees and superlative degrees. Inflectional affixes have only their particualr grammatical meanings, so they are also called grammatical meanings, so they are also called grammatical affixes.A derivational affix serves to derive a new word when it is added to another morpheme. Derivational affix has lexical meaning, but less important than the meaning of the root in the same word, like -able in the word workable. Derivaitonal affixes are commonly subdivided into prefixes and suffixes.3・ What is compounding?Compounding or composition is a word-formation process by joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word. Compounds can be divided into three categories according to parts of the speech: (1) noun compounds (like hearbeat);(2)adjective compounds (like dutyfree); (3) verb compounds (like housekeep).4.What are the criteria of a compound word?(1)Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: solid (like airmail).hyphenated (like air-conditioning) and open (like air raid).(2)Phonologically, many compounds have a so-called compound accent, that is, asingle stress on the first element, as in "space rocket; or a main stress on the first element and a secondary stress on the second element.(3)Semantically, compounds can be said to have a meaning which may be relatedto, but cannot always be inferred from the meaning of its component parts.5.What is acronymy?Acronymy is a type of shortening by using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase・ If the shortened word is pronounced letter by letter, it is an initialism like BBC; if the shortened word is pronounced as word rather than as a sequence of letters, it is an acronym like SAM(for surface-to-air missile).6.What is blending?Blending is a preocess of word・forniation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news+ broadcast), brunch (breakfast +lunch).7.Decide which way of word formation is used to form the following words.Comsat (from communications + satellite, by blending)Motel (from motor + hotel, by blending)Lase (from laser, by back-formation)Memo (from memorandom, by back clipping)Nightmare (from daymare, by analogy)ASEAN(from the Association for South-East Asian Nations, by acronymy)ROM(from read-only memory, by initialism)Bit(from binary + digit, by blending))Babysit(from babysitter, by back・fonnatioii)cock-a・doodle・do(from the sound produced by cock, by onomatopoeia))grunt (from the sound produced by pig, by onomatopoeia)8・ What are closed-class words and open-class words?A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc., are all closed items.The open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited.With the emergence of new ideas, inventions, etc., new expressions are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.Chapter4 Syntax1.What is syntax?Syntax is a sub-field of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language. Specifically, It is the study of the rules governing the ways in which words, word groups and phrases are joined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between sentential elements.2.What is a simple, compound, or complex sentence?A simple sentence is made up of one independent clause with dependent clause attached. It consists of at least one subject and one predicate. Either the subject or the complement may be compound (consisting of more than one element joined with a coordinating conjunction), and modifiers and phrases may be added as well.A compound sentence is composed of at least two independent clauses, but no dependent clauses. The clauses are joined by a comma and a coordinating conjunction, a comma and a correlative conjunction, or a semicolon with no conjunction.A complex sentence uses one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.For example, the following five sentences are simple, compound, complex, compound, and complex sentence respectively.(1)He and I understood.(2)Lucy watches football on television, but she never goes to a game.(3)You can borrow my pen if you need one.(4)Paul likes football and David likes chess.(5)We had to go inside when it started raining.3.What is the hierarchical structure?The hierarchical structure is the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.4.Howto distinguish immediate constituents from ultimate constituents?An immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constituent a construction. Immediate constituents are often further reducible.An ultimate constituent is one of the grammatically irreducible units that constitutea construction.For example, the immediate constituents of the sentence You eat bananas are you and eat bananas; the ultimate constituents of the sentence are you. eat. banana, and —s.5.What are subordinate and coordinate constructions?Subordinate and coordinate constructions are two subtypes of endocentric constructions. Those in which there is only one head, with the head being dominant and the other constituent dependent, are subordinate constructions. For example, the short expression Lovely Lucy is a subordinate construction with Lucy as its head. While coordinate constructions have more than one head. For example, boys and girls, coffee or tea, the city Rome, are coordinate constructions, in which, both the two content constituents, boys and girls, coffee and tea, the city and Rome, are capable of serving as the head. They are of equal syntactic status, and no one is dependent on the other.6・ What are deep and surface structures?Deep structure is a central theoretical term in generative grammar, opposed to surface structure. It is the abstract syntactic representation of a sentence一an underlying level of structural organization which specifies all the factors governing the way the sentence should be interpreted.Surface structure is a central theoretical term in generative grammar, opposed to deep structure. It is the final stage in the syntactic representation of a sentence, which provides the input to the phonological component of the grammar, and which thus most closely corresponds to the structure we articulate and hear.7. Can you describe the syntactic structure of the sentence “The old tree swayed in the wind” by using a tree diagram?8・ How to reveal the differences in sentential meaning in the sentence “The mother of the boy and the girl will arrive soon” by drawing tree diagrams?The sentence is an ambiguous sentence, which can be interpreted in two different ways, so it could assigned two tree diagram, as would be shown below: Tree Diagram (1):the wind The old tree swayed in NPDetTree Diagram (2):Chapter 5 Semantics1. What is a semantic field? Can you illustrate it?It is an organizational principle that the lexicon and groups of words in the lexicon can be semantically related, rather than a listing of words as in a published dictionary. On a very general and intuitive level, we can say that the words in a semantic field, though not synonymous, are all used to talk about the same general phenomenon, and there is a meaning inclusion relation between the items in the field and the field category itself. Classical examples of semantic fields include color terms (red, green, blue, yellow), kinship terms (mother, father, sister, brother), and cooking terms (boil, fry, broil, steam) as semantic fields.2・ What are the major types of synonyms in English?They are dialectal synonyms, stylistic synonyms, emotive synonyms, collocational synonyms, and semantic synonyms. Examples are as follows:fond of, keen on (collocational)autumn, fall (dialectal)dad, father (stylistic)thrifty, miserly, economical (emotive) escape, flee (semantic)3・ In what way do the following pairs offer contrast?earth l.our planet. 2. the soil on the surface of our planet.bank l.a financial institution. 2. side of a river, bear 1. a wild animal, bare:naked.bow a. an inclination of the head or body, as in greeting, consent, courtesy, acknowledgement, submission, or veneration.(e) lead a. go in front of a group of people. 2. a soft heavy easily melted grayish-blue metal(f) found: 1. of find. 2. establish or set upThe five entities show different semantic relations of words.(a) is an example of polysemy, and it is different from the next which fall into the category of homography. (b) is an example of perfect homonymy, while “beaf and “bare" in (c) are homophones, those in (d) are homographs, and the words in (e) are homophones. \JZ \)z \)z abed z(\ /(\ /k z(\Swill arrive soonAux VPPolysemy and homonymy both deal with multiple senses of the same phonological word, but polysemy is invoked if the senses are judged to be related. Homonymous senses, however, are unrelated. Homonymy can be classified into partial homonymy and perfect homonymy. Words falling under the category of partial homonymy can be homophones or homographs. Perfect homonymy is exemplified by the words which are identical in sound and spelling or both in sound-form and part of speech.4. Categorize the following pairs: child・kid，alive-dead, big-small, husband-wife・Child-kid can be categorized under synonymy, alive-dead complementary antonymy, old-young gradable antonymy, and husband-wife converse antonymy.5・What is hyponymy composed of? Illustrate whether there is always a superordinate to hyponyms, or hyponyms to a superordinate・Hyponymy is composed of a superordinate and hyponyms; the hyponyms under the same superordinate are co-hyponyms. there is not always a superordinate to hyponyms, or hyponyms to a superordinate. Sometimes a superordinate may be a superordiante to itself. For example, the word "animal" may only include beasts like “tigef, “lion", "elephant”，"cow”，“horse" and is a co-hyponym of “hum arT. But it is also the superordinate to both “human" and "animal" in contrast to “bircT,"行sh", and “insect”，when it is used in the sense of "mammal". It can further be the superordinate to “bird'',"行sh", "insect”，and "mammal" in contrast to “pbnt". From the hyponym's point of view, “animal" is a hyponym of itself, and may be called autohyponym.6・ How is meronymy different from hyponymy?Meronymy is a term used to describe a part-whole relationship between lexical items. We can identify this relationship by using sentence frames like "X is part of or 66Y has as in "A page is part of a book", or book has pages". While hyponymy has to do with inclusiveness, we cannot do the same with hyponymy. For example, bird is the superordinate to crow, hawk, duck, and se cannot say that bird has crows, or hawks'：and so on.Meronymy also differs from hyponymy in transitivity. Hyponymy is always transitive, for example bird is the superordinate to hawk, hawk is the superordinate to sparrowhawk, and thus bird is the superordinate to sparrowhawk. But meronymy may or may not be so. A transitive example is: nail is a meronym of finger, md finger of hand. We can see that nail is a meronym of finger, and finger of hand. We can see that nail is a meronym of hand. A non-transitive example is: pane is a meronym of window, and window of room; but pane is not a meronym of room.7. Why may a sentence be ambiguous?The ambiguity of a sentence may arise from lexical ambiguity or structural ambiguity. Lexical ambiguity arises from polysemy or homonymy which can not be determined by the context. For example,(a)The table is fascinating.(b)She couldn't bear children.Table in (a) is an example of polysemy. It can be a piece of furniture, or the stated kind or quality of food served at a meal here. The ambiguity of (b) lies in the two meanings of the homonym bear一endure or produce children.The following sentence is an example of structural ambiguity.(c)The mother of the boy and the girl will arrive soon.8・ What predication analysis? What is a no-place, one-place，two-place, or three-place predicate? Give examples・Predication analysis is a new approach for sentential meaning analysis which is to break down the sentence into their smaller constituents: argument and predicate. The predicate is the major or pivotal element governing the argument. The argument is the logical participant.A no-place predicate is a predicate which governs no argument; a one-place predicate, one argument; a two-place predicate, two arguments; and a three-place predicate, three arguments. Respective examples are:(a)It is snowing. (SNOW)(b)Baby is sleeping. SLEEP(JOHN, MARY)(c)John loves Mary. LOVE(JOHN, MARY)(d)John gave Mary a book. GIVE(JOHN, MARY, BOOK)Chapter 6 Pragmatics1・ What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication. It is a comparatively new branch of study in the area of linguistics; its development and establishment in the 1960s an dl970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study of linguistics, especially that of semantics. Generally it deals with how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. The scope of pragmatic study includes “speech act theory'', “context", '"conversational implicature,\ presupposition, etc.The basic difference between pragmatics and traditional semantics is that pragmatics considers meaning in context and traditionally semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use. It may be said that pragmatics studies the meaning that is not accounted by semantics. It can also be expressed in the formula: pragmatics=meaning-semantics. G. Leech, in his principles of pragmatics holds that: Semantics answers the question: What does X mean? Pragmatics answer the question: What did you mean by X?2・ How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?Utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; the former is concrete and context-dependent and the latter is abstract and decontextualized.3・ What is contextual meaning?It is the meaning a linguistic item has in context, for example the meaning a word has within a particular sentence, or a sentence has in a particular paragraph. The question Do you know the meaning of wo厂？For example, may have two different contextual meanings:i.it may mean Do you know the meaning of the word war? , when said by alanguage teacher to a class of students.ii.It may mean war produces death, injury, and suffering, when said by an injured soldier to a politician who favors war.4.Explain the meanings of locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionaryact through examples.A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of Speech Acts between three different types of act involved in or caused by the utterance of a sentence.A locutional act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood. For example, saying the sentence Shoot the snake is a locutionary act is hearers understand the words shoot, the. snake and can identify the particular snake referred to.5.What is cooperative principle(CP)?The "'cooperative principle", proposed and formulated by P Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible to carry on the talk. The principle has the four following maxims:Quantityi.Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the currentpurposes of the exchange).ii.Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. QualityTry to make your contribution one that is true.(1)Do not say what you believe to false.(2)Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.RelationBe relevant.MannerBe perspicuous.(1)Avoid obscurity of expression.(2)Avoid ambiguity.(3)Be brief.(4)Be orderly.6・ What is conversational implicature?It is an additional unstated meaning that has to be assumed in order to maintain the cooperative principle, e.g. if someone says "The President is a mouse", something that is literally false, the hearer must assume the speaker means to convey more than is being said.7. How does the violation of the maxims of CP give rise to conversationalimplicature?There are circumstances where speakers may not follow the maxims of the cooperative principle. For example, in conversation, a speaker may violate the maxim expectations by using an expression like "No comment^^ in response to a question. Although it is typically not "as informative as is required?, in the context, it is naturally interpreted as communicating more than is said (i.e. the speaker knows the answer). This typical reaction (i.e. there must be something “special" here) of listeners to any apparent violation of the maxims is actually the key to the notion of conversational implicature.When we violate any of these maxims, our language becomes indirect. In this way, we can convey more than is literally said.8.What is adjacency pair?It refers to a sequence of two utterances by different speakers in conversation. The second is a response to the first, e.g. question-answer.Chapter 8 Language and Society1. What is sociolinguistics?Sociolinguistics is the field that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.2・ What is speech community?It is a group of people who form a community, e.g. a village, a region, a nation, and who have at least one speech variety in common as well as similar linguistic norms.In bilingual and multilingual communities, people would usually have more than one speech variety in commons.3.What is dialect?It is a variety of a language, spoken in one part of a country, or by people belonging to a particular social class, which is different in some words, grammar, an/or pronunciation from other forms of the same language.4.What is Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?It is a belief that our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express our unique ways of understanding the world. On the one hand, language may determine our thinking patterns; on the one hand, language may determine out thinking patterns; one the other hand, similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be. As this hypothesis was strongly put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf, it has often been called the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.5.What is speech variety?It is a term sometimes used instead of language, dialect, sociolect, pidgin, creole, etc. because it is considered more neutral than such terms. It may also be used for different varieties of one language, e.g. American English, Australian English, Indian English.6.What is standard language?It is also called standard variety. It is the variety of a language which has the highest status in a community or nation and which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.7.What is pidgin?It is a language which develops as a contact language when groups of people who speak different languages try to communicate with one another on a regular basis. For example, this might occur where foreign traders have to communicate with the local population or groups of workers from different language backgrounds on plantations or in factories. A pidgin usually has a limited vocabulary and a reduced grammaticalstructure which may expand when a pidgin is used over a long period and for many purposes.8.What is bilingualism?It is the use of at least two languages either by an individual or by a group of speakers.A bilingual is a person who knows and uses two languages.9.What is multilingualism?It refers to the use of three or more languages by an individual or by a group of speakers such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation. Multilingualism is common in, for example, some countries of west Africa, Malaysia, Singapore, and Israel.Chapter 10-11 Language Acquisition1.What is psycholinguistics?It is the study of language in relation to the mind, with focus on the processes of language comprehension, production and acquisition. It takes upon itself the job of exploring the biological basis of human language, critical periods for child language acquisition, and the relationship between the language and thought.2.What is bottom-up processing and what is top-down processing?We may define bottom-up processing as that which proceeds from the lowest level to the highest level of processing in such a way that all of levels. That is, the identification operate without influence from the higher levels. That is, the identification of phonemes is not affected by the lexical, syntactic, or discourse levels; the retrieval of words is not affected by syntactic or discourse levels; and so on.A top-down processing model, in contrast, states that information at the higher levels may influence processing at the lower levels. For instance, a sentence context may affect the identification of words within that sentence.3.What are the six major types of speech error? Give examples of each・Six major types of speech error are:i.Exchange errors: hissed all my mystery lectures (missed all my historylectures)ii.Anticipation errors: a leading list (reading list)iii.Perseveration errors: a phonological fool (phonological rule)iv.Blends: moinly(mostly, mainly), impostinatiorfimposteE impersonator)v.Shifts: Mermaid_moves (mermaids move) their legs togethervi.Substitutions: sympathy for symphony (form), finger for toe (meaning) 4.What is the critical period for language acquisition?Language development takes place during a very specific maturational stage of human development. Sometime during the second year of life (at roughly anywhere from 12 to 18 months), children begin uttering their first words. During the following 4 to 5 years, linguistic development occurs quite rapidly. By the time children enter school, they have mastered the major structural features of their language. Refinements of the major features continue to appear, and the ability to learn language (one's native language or foreign languages) continues to be strong until the onset of puberty. At this point, for reasons that are not fully understood, the '"knack for languages95 begins to decline, to a。
(完整word版)语言学 第5章练习(word文档良心出品)
Chapter 5 Semantics1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?答：(1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(2) The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.(3) The contextualist view held that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context –– elements closely linked with language behaviour. The representative of this approach was J.R. Firth, famous British linguist.(4) Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.” This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.2. What are the major types of synonyms in English?答：The major types of synonyms are dialectal synonyms, stylistic synonyms, emotive or evaluative synonyms, collocational synonyms, andsemantically different synonyms.Examples（略）3. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.答：(1) Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms(2) While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. There are many polysemic words in English, The fact is the more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning.(3) Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. Hyponymy is a relation of inclusion; in terms of meaning, the superordinate includes all its hyponyms.Examples（略）4. How can words opposite in meaning be classified? To which category does each of the following pairs of antonyms belong?north/south vacant/occupied literate/illiterate above/below doctor/patient wide/narrow poor/rich father/daughter答：They can be gradable antonyms, complementary antonyms and relational oppositeGradable antonyms: wide /narrow poor/richComplementary antonyms: vacant/occupied literate/illiterateRelational opposite: north/south, doctor/patient, father/daughter, above/below5. Identify the relations between the following pairs of sentences:Tom's wife is pregnant. My sister will soon be divorced'Tom has a wife. My sister is a married woman.He likes seafood, They are going to have another baby.He likes crabs. They have a child.答：“Tom's wife is pregnant”presupposes “Tom has a wife.”“My sister will soon be divorced” presupposes “My sister is a married woman.”“He likes seafood” is entailed by “He likes crabs.”“They are going to have another baby” presupposes “They have a child.”6. In what way is componential analysis similar to the analysis ofphonemes into distinctive features?答：They both base on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components.7. What is grammaticality? What might make a grammatically meaningful sentence semantically meaningless?答：Grammaticality refers to the grammatical well-formedness of a sentence. The violation of the selectional restrictions, i.e., constrains on what lexical items can go with what others, might make a grammatically meaningless.8. Try to analyze the following sentences in terms of predication analysis:The man sells ice-cream. Is the baby sleeping?It is snowing. The tree grows well.答：The man sells ice-cream.MAN, ICE-CREAM (SELL)Is the baby sleeping?BABY (SLEEP)It is snowing.(SNOW)The tree grows well.TREE (GROW)。
语言学chapter5meaningexercises
语言学chapter5meaningexercisesI. Choose the best answer.1.Which pair of antonyms does not belong to gradable antonyms?______A.good, badB. hit, missC. long, shortD. small, big2.The verb “take”can be analyzed in the following way according to the componential analysis._____A.take=CAUSE(x, (HA VE(x, y)))B. take=CAUSE(x, (~HA VE(x, y)))C. take=CAUSE(x, (BECOME(x, y)))D.take=CAUSE(x, (~BECOME(x, y)))3._______is the name for oppositeness relation, which includes three main sub-types.A.HyponymyB. AntonymyC. PolysemyD. Synonymy4.According to G. Leech, who recognizes 7 types of meaning in his Semantics , ______makes up the central part.A.conceptual meaningB. connotative meaningC. social meaningD. thematic meaning5.Of the following______does not belong to the three sub-types of antonymy.A.gradable antonymyB.converse antonymyC. complementary antonymyD. complete antonymy6.The sense relation which holds the pair of words beef-meat is_______.A.synonymyB. hyponymyC. homonymyD. converse antonymy7.There are generally three kinds of sense relations recognized, namely, sameness relation, oppositeness relation and_______relation.A.exclusivenessB. conclusivenessC. inclusivenessD. deduction8.“Can I borrow your bike?”______ “You have a bike.”A.is synonymous withB.is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes9.______is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features, semantic components or semes.A.prediction analysisB. componential analysisC. phonemic analysisD. grammatical analysis10.______deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.A.referenceB. conceptC. semanticsD. sense11.When the word “root” means “part of plant that keeps fit firmly in the soil and absorbs water and food from the soil”, the meaning is _____meaning.A.connotativeB. conceptualC. senseD. semantics12.There are generally three kinds of sense relations recognized, sameness relation, oppositeness relation and inclusiveness relation. They are represented by____respectively.A.Synonymy antonymy hyponymyB. Homonymy antonymy hyponymyC. Synonymy antonymy homonymyD. Homonymy hyponymy antonymy13.By componential analysis, BECOME(x, (~ALIVE(x))) is an explanation of ____.A.dieB. deadC. killD. murder14.The sense relationship between “John plays the piano” and “John plays a musical instrument” is______.A.synonymyB. antonymyC. entailmentD. presupposition15.More specifically, ____is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.A.pragmaticsB. semanticsC. syntaxD. phonology16.In the semantic triangle by Ogden and Richards, the SYMBOL refers to____.A.the linguistic units (words, phrases)B. the object in the world of experienceC. conceptD. idea17.The words with more or less the same meaning used in different regional dialects are called____.A.dialectal synonymsB. collocational synonymsC. stylistic synonymsD. emotive synonyms18.The word “table” has at least six meanings such as “a piece of furniture”, “all the people seated at a table”, etc. It can be called____.A.polysemyB. homonymyC. hyponymyD. antonymy19.The relation between “dog” and “animal” is that of_____.A.synonymyB. antonymyC. homonymyD. hyponymy20.The phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form is called____.A.hyponymyB. synonymyC. polysemyD. homonymy21.The words “kid, child, offspring” are examples of ______.A.dialectal synonymsB. stylistic synonymsC. emotive synonymsD. collocational synonymsII. Fill in the blanks.1.According to G. Leech, ____meaning refers to logic, cognitive, or denotative content.2.According to G. Leech, ____meaning refers to what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer.3.In the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the ____theory.4._____is the technical name for the sameness relation.5.Terms like “apple”, “banana” and “pear” are ____of the term “fruit”.6.“Mary gave a book to Jack” is synonymous with “Jack____a book from Mary”.7.Antonyms like “husband” and “wife” are____antonyms.8._______=PARENT(x, y) & MALE(x)9._______=CHILD(x, y) & MALE(x)10.Predication analysis is to break down predications into their constituents: _____and_______.11.______logic, also called predicate calculus, studies the internal structure of simple propositions.12.______opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.III. True or false1.After comparing “they stopped at the end of the corridor.” with “at the end of the corridor, they stopped.” , you may find some difference in meaning, and the difference can be interpreted in terms of collocative meaning.2.The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.3.Reference is one of the rarely used cohesive devices.4.Odgen and Richards argue that the relation between a word and a thing it refers to is not direct.5.“Tulip”, “rose” and “violet” are all included in the notion of “flower”. Therefore, they are superordinates of “flower”.6.The two words “borrow” and “lend” are antonyms but the two sentences “Jane lent some money to Jack” and “Jack borrowed some money from Jane” are synonymous.。
语言学Chapter 5 Meaning 练习
Chapter 5 MeaningI. Choose the best answer (20%).1. We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represents _______.A. the conceptualist viewB. contextualismC. the naming theoryD. behaviorism2. Which of the following is NOT true?A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. Sense is abstract and decontextualized.D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.3. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis4.Alive” and“dead” are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational antonymsC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above5. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense6. ___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy7. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.A. homonymsB. polysemiesC. hyponymsD. synonyms8. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.A. grammatical rulesB. selectional restrictionsC. semantic rulesD. semantic features9. The pair of wo rds “lend” and “borrow” are ___（）A. gradable oppositesB. relational oppositesC. co-hyponymsD. synonyms10.The semantic components of the word “gentleman” can be expressed as __.（）A. +animate，+male，+human，-adultB. +animate，+male，+human，+adultC. +animate，-male，+human，-adultD. +animate，-male，+human，+adultII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.(10%)11.Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself. For example, within British English or American English.12. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. While reference deals with the inherent meaningof the linguistic form.13. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.14. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience.15. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.16. Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.17. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components.18. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality.19. “It is hot.” is a no-place predication because it contains no argument.20. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.III. Fill in the blanks.(20%)21.__________ can be defined as the study of meaning.22. The conceptualist view holds that there is no __________ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.23. __________ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.24. Words that are close in meaning are called __________.25. When two words are identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning, they are called __________.26.__________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.27.__________ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.28. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called __________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.29. A(n) __________ is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.30. According to the __________ theory of meaning, the words in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples.(20%)31.Entailment32.Propositionponential analysis34.ReferenceV. Answer the following questions.(20%)35.What are the sense relations between the following groups of words?Dogs. cats. pets. parrots; trunk, branches. tree. roots （青岛海洋大学，1999）36.What are the three kinds of antonymy? （武汉大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation.(20%)37.For each group of words given below, state what semantic property or properties are shared by (a) words and (b) words and what semantic property or properties distinguish between the classes of (a) words and (b) words.(1) a. bachelor. man. son. paperboy. pope. chiefb. bull. rooster. drake. ram(2) a. table. stone. pencil. cup. house. ship. carb. milk. alcohol. rice. soup(3) a. book. temple. mountain. road. tractorb. idea. love. charity. sincerity. bravery. fear （青岛海洋大学，1999）Key:I.1~10 B BBCAADBBBII. 11~15 FFTFT 16~20 TFTTTIII.21.Semantics22.direct23.Reference24.synonyms25.homophones26.Relationalponential28.selectional29.argument30.namingIV.31.Entailment.It is basically a semantic relation (or logical implication).and it can be clarified with the following sentences:a.Tom divorced Jane.b. Jane was Tom’s wife.In terms of truth value.the following relationships exist between these two sentences.when A is true.B must be also true; when B is false.A must also be false.When B is true.A may be true or false.Therefore we can say A entails B.32.Proposition.It is the result of the abstraction of sentences.which are descriptions of states of affairs and which some writers see as a basic element of sentence meaning.For example.the two sentences.Caesar invaded Gaul” and.Gaul was invaded by Caesar” hold the same proposition.positional analysis.It defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.or semantic features.For example.the meaning of the word boy may be analyzed into three components.HUMAN.YOUNG and MALE.Similarly girl may be analyzed into HUMAN.YOUNG and FEMALE.34.Reference.It is what a linguistic form refers to in the real world; it is a matter of the relationship between the form and the reality.V.35.Hyponymy.metonymy or part-whole relationship36.(Omit.)VI.37.(1)The (a) words and (b) words are male.The (a) words are human.while the (b) words are non-human.(2)The (a) words and (b) words are inanimate.The (a) words are instrumental.while the (b) words are edible.(3)The (a) words and (b) words are worldly or conceptual. The (a) words are material.while the (b) words are spiritual.。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
Chapter 5 MeaningI. Choose the best answer (20%).1. We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represents _______.A. the conceptualist viewB. contextualismC. the naming theoryD. behaviorism2. Which of the following is NOT true?A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. Sense is abstract and decontextualized.D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.3. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis4.Alive” and“dead” are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational antonymsC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above5. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense6. ___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy7. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.A. homonymsB. polysemiesC. hyponymsD. synonyms8. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.A. grammatical rulesB. selectional restrictionsC. semantic rulesD. semantic features9. The pair of wo rds “lend” and “borrow” are ___（）A. gradable oppositesB. relational oppositesC. co-hyponymsD. synonyms10.The semantic components of the word “gentleman” can be expressed as __.（）A. +animate，+male，+human，-adultB. +animate，+male，+human，+adultC. +animate，-male，+human，-adultD. +animate，-male，+human，+adultII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.(10%)11.Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself. For example, within British English or American English.12. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. While reference deals with the inherent meaningof the linguistic form.13. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.14. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience.15. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.16. Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.17. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components.18. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality.19. “It is hot.” is a no-place predication because it contains no argument.20. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.III. Fill in the blanks.(20%)21.__________ can be defined as the study of meaning.22. The conceptualist view holds that there is no __________ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.23. __________ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.24. Words that are close in meaning are called __________.25. When two words are identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning, they are called __________.26.__________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.27.__________ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.28. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called __________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.29. A(n) __________ is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.30. According to the __________ theory of meaning, the words in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples.(20%)31.Entailment32.Propositionponential analysis34.ReferenceV. Answer the following questions.(20%)35.What are the sense relations between the following groups of words?Dogs. cats. pets. parrots; trunk, branches. tree. roots （青岛海洋大学，1999）36.What are the three kinds of antonymy? （武汉大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation.(20%)37.For each group of words given below, state what semantic property or properties are shared by (a) words and (b) words and what semantic property or properties distinguish between the classes of (a) words and (b) words.(1) a. bachelor. man. son. paperboy. pope. chiefb. bull. rooster. drake. ram(2) a. table. stone. pencil. cup. house. ship. carb. milk. alcohol. rice. soup(3) a. book. temple. mountain. road. tractorb. idea. love. charity. sincerity. bravery. fear （青岛海洋大学，1999）Key:I.1~10 B BBCAADBBBII. 11~15 FFTFT 16~20 TFTTTIII.21.Semantics22.direct23.Reference24.synonyms25.homophones26.Relationalponential28.selectional29.argument30.namingIV.31.Entailment.It is basically a semantic relation (or logical implication).and it can be clarified with the following sentences:a.Tom divorced Jane.b. Jane was Tom’s wife.In terms of truth value.the following relationships exist between these two sentences.when A is true.B must be also true; when B is false.A must also be false.When B is true.A may be true or false.Therefore we can say A entails B.32.Proposition.It is the result of the abstraction of sentences.which are descriptions of states of affairs and which some writers see as a basic element of sentence meaning.For example.the two sentences.Caesar invaded Gaul” and.Gaul was invaded by Caesar” hold the same proposition.positional analysis.It defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.or semantic features.For example.the meaning of the word boy may be analyzed into three components.HUMAN.YOUNG and MALE.Similarly girl may be analyzed into HUMAN.YOUNG and FEMALE.34.Reference.It is what a linguistic form refers to in the real world; it is a matter of the relationship between the form and the reality.V.35.Hyponymy.metonymy or part-whole relationship36.(Omit.)VI.37.(1)The (a) words and (b) words are male.The (a) words are human.while the (b) words are non-human.(2)The (a) words and (b) words are inanimate.The (a) words are instrumental.while the (b) words are edible.(3)The (a) words and (b) words are worldly or conceptual. The (a) words are material.while the (b) words are spiritual.。