语言学第七章知识点总结
新编语言学Ch7~12完美笔记
Linguistics 语言学Chapter 7 Discourse Analysis7.1 Discourse and Discourse Analysis1. Discourse: language above the sentence or above the clause.2. Discourse analysis 以前也叫text linguistics and discourse analysis3. Discourse analysis (discourse linguistic/discourse studies/text analysis/DA):the study of how sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units such as paragraph, conversations and interviews.4. Primary task: explore the linguistic features which characterize discourses5. Goals: examine how the reader or user of a discourse recognizes that the words/phrases/sentences in a discourse must be co-interpreted----that parts of a discourse are dependent on others.6. One of the most important features of discourse is that they have cohesion.Definitions:1. Discourse (话语):a general term for examples of language use, i.e. language which has been produced as the result of an act of communication. It refers to the larger units of language such as paragraphs, conversations and interviews7.2 Information Structure7.2.1 Given and new information1. Given information (已知信息):the information that the addresser believes is known to the addressee (often coded in condensed form)2. New information (新信息):the information that the addresser believes it not known to the addressee7.2.2 Topic and comment1. The topic represents what the utterance is about; the comment is what is said aboutit2. Topics are less central to the grammar of English than to the grammar of certain languages.3. Marking the topic is considerably more important in certain other languages. Languages such as Japanese and Korean have function words whose sole purpose is to mark a noun phrase as the topic. In Chinese, no special function words attach to topic noun phrases, but they are marked by word order. In these three languages, noun phrases marked in one way or another as the topic occur very frequently. Thus, despite the difficulty in defining it, the notion of topic is important and needs to be distinguished from other categories of information structure.Definition:1. Topic (话题): the main center of attention in a sentence2. Comment (述题): what is said about it.7.2.3 Contrast1. In the following example, Mary could be marked contrastively if the sentence were part of a conversation about how the interlocutors dislike going to Maine during the winter.Mary likes going to Maine during the winter.2. In English contrastive noun phrase can be marked in various ways, the most common of which is by pronouncing the contrastive noun phrase with strong stress.7.3 Cohesion and Coherence7.3.1 Cohesion1. Cohesive devices include reference, substitution, ellipsis conjunction and lexical cohesionDefinition:1. Cohesion (衔接): the grammatical and/or lexical relationship between the different elements of a text. This may be the relationship between different sentences or between different parts of a sentence.e.g. You can lead a horse to water but you can’t make him drink.7.3.1.1 Reference1. Reference words: pronounces (e.g. it, they, he, she, them, etc.)demonstratives (this, that, these, those)the article the, and items like such as2. Reference consists of two types:(1) endophoric reference (endophora): where the interpretive source lies in theco-text①anaphoric reference (anaphora): where the referent lies in the prior text.②cataphoric reference (cataphora): where the referent lies in the text to come(2) exophoric reference (exophora): where the interpretive source lies in thecontext.E.g. (1) Respect a man, he will do the more (anaphoric)(2) When I met her, Mary looked ill. (cataphoric)(3) (Mary is standing there) I like her. (exophoric)7.3.1.2 SubstitutionDefinitionSubstitution (替代):The process or result of replacing one word by anther at a particular position in a structure7.3.1.3 EllipsisDefinitionEllipsis (省略)(substitution by zero):The leaving out of words or phrases from sentences where they are unnecessary because they have already been referred to or mentioned. For example, when the subject of the verb in two coordinate clauses is the same, it may be omitted in the second clause to avoid.7.3.1.5 Lexical cohension1. Example:(1) RepetitionThere was a cat on the table. The cat was smiling.(2) SynonymHe got a lot of presents from his friends and family. All the gifts were wrapped in colored paper.(3) SuperordinateYesterday, a pigeon carried the first message from Pinhurst to Silbury. The bird covered the distance in three minutes.7.3.2 Coherence1. Cohenrence: the relationships which link the meanings of utterances in a discoursee.g. A: Could you give me a lift home?B: Sorry, I’m visiting my sister.There is no grammatical or lexical link (meaning link).(是指没有意义上的连接，不包括词汇上的连接)7.4 Discourse Markers1. Discourse Markers (DM):expressions that are commonly used in the initial position of an utterance and are syntactically detachable from a sentence.7.5 Conversational AnalysisDefinition:Conversational Analysis (CA) (会话分析)The analysis of natural conversation in order to discover what the linguistic characteristics of conversation are and how conversation is used in ordinary life.7.5.1 Adjacency pairs1. Adjacency pairs (相邻语对): a set of two consecutive, ordered turns that “go together” in a conversation, such as question/answer sequences and greeting/greeting exchange.2. Properties of Adjacency pairs(1) Adjacency pairs consist of two utterances, a first part and a second part(2) The two parts are spoken by different speakers.(3) The first and second parts belong to specific types, for examples, question and answer, or greeting and greeting(4) The form and content of the second part depends on the type of the first part.(5) Given that a speaker has produced a first part, the second part is relevant and expectable as the next utterance.Definition:Insertion sequence (插入语列)It often happens that a question-answer (Q-A) sequence will be delayed while another question-answer sequence intervenes.( can be infinite，但人类记忆有限，所以不行)Form: Q1---Q2---A2---A17.5.2 Preference structure7.5.3 Presequences1. Presequences (前序列): the opening sequences that are used to set up some specificpotential actions2. Greetings: Some situations do not require a greeting, as with a stanger approaching in the street to ask for the time: “Excuse me, sir, do you know what time it is?”. The expression ”Excuse me,sir” serves as a presequence appropriate to the context.3. The following is a pre-invitationA: What are you doing this Sunday?B: Nothing special. Why?A: Why don’t you come out with us then?Here the pre-invitation is treated as transparent by B who suspects by “why” that something is forthcoming.4. The example below is a pre-request:A: Are you going out tomorrow?B: No, not really.A: Are you using your car then?B: No. Do you want to borrow it?A: Yes, if you’re not using it.7.6 Critical Discourse Analysis1. Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA):the analysis of language use directed at, and committed to, discovering its concealed ideological bias.Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics8.1 IntroductionDefinition:Sociolinguistics (社会语言学):the study of language and society: how social factors influence the structure and use of language8.2 Language Varieties8.2.1 Standard languageDefinition:Standard variety (Standard language/Standard dialects):the variety of a language which has the highest status in a community or nation, and which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language8.2.2 Dialects1. Dialect: A variety of a language used recognizably in a specific region or by a specific social class2. Dialectology: the study of dialects3. Types: (1) Regional/geographical dialects.(2) Temporal dialects(3) Social dialects or sociolects①speech community: a group of people using a given language or dialect(4) Idiolects8.2.3 Registers1. Register is determined by 3 factors: field, mode, tenor of discourse(1) the field of discourse: refers to what is happening, including what is being talked about, e.g. the fields of linguistics, religion, and advertising(2) the mode of discourse: refers to the medium of language activity which determines the role played by the language in a situation. e.g. speech vs. writing (3) the tenor of discourse: refers to the relations among the participants in a language activity, especially the level of formality they adopt. e.g. colloquial or formal English 2. Example: a lecture on linguistcs in a school of foreign languages can be analyzed as follows:Field: linguistics Mode: oral (academic lecturing)Tenor: participants (teacher-students)Definition:Register (语域): a language variety associated with a particular situation of use8.2.4 Pidgins and creoles1. Creoles have large numbers of native speakers. A French-based creole is spoken by the majority of the population in Haiti, and English-based creoles are used in Jamaica and Sierra Leone.Definition:1. Pidgin (皮钦语): a variety of language that is not a native language of anyone, but is learned in contact situations2. Pidginization: the process by which a pidgin develops3. Creole (克里奥尔语): a language that begins as a pidgin and eventually becomes the first language of a speech community through its being learned by children4. Creolization: the process by which a pidgin becomes a creole8.2.5 Language planning1. Status planning: changes the function of a language or a variety of a language and the right of those who use it.2. Corpus planning: develop a variety of language or a language, usually to standardize it.Definition:Language planning (语言规划): planning, usually by a government or government agency, concerning choice of national or official language(s), ways of spreading the use of a language, spelling reforms, the addition of new words to be language and other language problems.8.3 Choosing a Code8.3.1 Diglossia1. Diglossia (双语): a situation that with a handful of languages, two very different varieties of the same language are used, side by side, for two different sets of functions8.3.2 Bilingualism and multilingualism1. Bilingualism: a situation where two languages are used by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation Definition:1. Horizontal bilingualism (横向性双语现象):the situation of the languages spoken in a bilingual society have equal status in the official cultural, and family life of the society.2. Diagonal bilingualism (倾斜性双语现象)the use of three or more languages by an individual or by a group of speakers such as the inhabitants of a particular region or nation8.3.3 Code-switching1. Code-switching: bilinguals often switch between their two languages or language varieties in the middle of a conversation.8.4 Linguistic Taboos and Euphemisms1. Taboo word: a word that we are reluctant to useDefinition:1. Taboo: words or activities that are considered inappropriate for “polite society”2. Euphemism: a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or is used to avoid reference to certain acts or subjects.8.5 Language and Gender1. Men and women speak differently; men and women are spoken about differently2. Language reflects sexism in society. Language itself is not sexist, but it can encode sexist attitudes.Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics9.1 Introduction1. Psycholinguistics: the study of the language-processing mechanismsDefinition:1. Psycholinguistics (心理语言学):the study of language and mind, the mental structures and processes which are involved in the acquisition comprehension and production of language,2. Developmental pscholinguistics (发展心理语言学)the examination of how infants and children acquire the ability to comprehend and speak their mother tongue9.2 Language Acquisition1. Children’s use of language is rule-governed. For example, children frequently say tooths and mouses instead of teeth and mice, and holded and finded, instead of held and found. These are examples of overgeneralization or overextensionDefinition:1. Language acquisition (语言习得):the learning and development of a person’s language.2. Overgeneralization (过度概括):children’s treatment of irregular verbs and nouns as if they were regular. This shows that the child has acquired the regular rules but has not yet learned that there are exceptions.3. Undergeneralization: a child uses a word in a more limited way than adults do. (e.g. refusing to call a taxi a car)4. Universal grammar (UG): the innateness or properties that pertain to the grammars of all human language.9.3 Language ProductionDefinition:Language production (语言产生): the process involved in creating and expressing meaning through language.9.3.1 Conceptualization1. Psycholinguists agree that some form of mentalese existMentalese: a representation system which is different from language.9.3.2 FormulationDefinition:1. Slips of the tongue (口误): mistakes in speech which provide psycholinguistic evidence for the way we formulate words and phrases2. Spoonerism (斯本内现象): a slip of the tongue in which the position of sounds, syllables, or words is reversed. For example: Le t’s have chish and fips instead of Let’s have fish and chips.9.3.3 Articulation9.3.4 Self-regulation9.4 Language Comprehension1. Language Comprehension: comprehension seems to be nothing more than recognition of a sequential string of linguistic symbols, although at a very rapid pace2. People do not process linguistic information in a neat, linear fashiond3. Listeners and readers use a great deal of information other than the actual language being produced to help them find the meaning of the linguistic symbols they hear or see9.4.1 Sound comprehension9.4.2 Word comprehension1. Bathtub effect: we knew the word, but could not access the whole word. For many time we could only get part of the words vaguely, such as the beginning or the ending of the words.Definition1. Parallel distributed processing (PDP) (平行分布处理):a model of cognition that attempts to account for complex behaviors such as the processing and production of speech by positing the existence of completely separate but concurrent and parallel cognitive systems operating at the same time.9.4.3 Sentence comprehension1. Garden path sentence (花园路径句): a sentence in which the comprehender assumes a particular meaning of a word or phrase but discovers later that the assumption was incorrect, forcing the comprehender to backtrack and reinterpret the sentenceFor example: The horse reaced past the barn fella.S?The horse raced past the barn fellb.SNPVP The horse raced past the barn fell9.4.4 Text comprehension9.5 Language and Thought9.5.1 Language determines thought1. Proposer: E. Sapir and B. Lee Whorf2. Theory: Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis or Whorfian HypothesisThe theory has two parts: the first is called linguistic determinism, which says that linguistic structure determines cognitive structure; the second part is called linguistic relativity, which says that the resulting cognitive systems are different in speakers of different languages.3. Evidence: Eskimo have separate words for different types of snow. A child who grows up speaking such a language will develop more cognitive categories for snow than will an English-speaking child. When the former looks out at a snowy environment, he will, in some sense, see it differently from a child who has but one word snow.4. Modern view: the Whorfian Hypothesis----language determines though----cannot be supported. However, it is equally clear that a weak version of the hypothesis----language influence thought----is reasonable and supportable9.5.2 Thought determines language1. Proposer: B. Berlin and P. Kay2. Evidence: The result of their experiment which was concerned with how speakers of different languages divide up the color spectrum showed that there appear to be some basic constraints that limit the way in which this aspect of our experience is coded in the language.Chapter 10 Cognitive Linguistics10.1 IntroductionDefinition:Cognitive linguistics (认知语言学): a new approach to the study of language and mind. According to this approach, language and language use are based on our bodily experience and the way we conceptualize it.10.2 Categorization and CategoriesCategorization: the mental process of classificationDefinition:Category: the products of categorization10.2.1 The classical theory1. Assumptions of the classical theory:(1) the first assumption: Categories are defined by a limited set of necessary and sufficient conditions/features. In other words, a thing can not both be and not be, it cannot both have a feature and not have it, it cannot both belong to a category and notbelong to it.E.g. in the BIRD category, if a creature has two wings , two legs, a beak, feathers and lays eggs, then it is a bird; on the other hand, if a creature has all these features, this is also sufficient for classifying it as a bird.(2) the second assumption: A feature is either in the definition of a category, or it is not; an entity has this feature, or it does notE.g. the BIRD category has the feature [+two legs], but[-four legs](3) the third assumption: Categories have clear boundariesE.g. BIRD and BEAST have clear boundaries(4) the fourth assumption: all members of a category have equal statusE.g. we cannot say that the sparrow is a better member than the ostrich in the BIRD category2. Problem: some members have fuzzy boundariesE.g: do ostriches and penguins belong to the BIRD category?10.2.2 The prototype thery.1. Prototypes (典型): what members of a particular community think of as the best example of a lexical category. E.g. for some English speakers “cabbage” (rather than, say, “carrot”) might be the prototypical vegitable2. Members of a category therefore differ in their prototypicality3. Proposer: E. Rosch4. Advantages: (1) It can explain how people deal with damaged examplesE.g. people would still categorize a one-winged robin who couldn’tfly as a bird, or a three-legged lion as a lion.(2) The prototype theory can work for actions as well as objectsE.g. people can judge that murder is a better example of killingthan execute or suicide(3) It is useful for explaining how people deal with atypical examplesof a categoryE.g. unbirdly birds such as penguins and pelicans can still beregarded as birds10.2.3 Levels of categorization1. Superordinate levels2. Basic-level categories* three respects: (1) Perception: overall perceived shape; single mental image; lastidentification(2) Communication: shortest, most commonly used andcontextually neutral words, first learned bychildren and first to enter the lexicon(3) Knowledge organization: most attributes of category membersare stored at this level.* Basic-level categories take primacy over categories at other levels. This is mostly because it is at this level that we perceive the evident differences between objectsand organisms of the world3. Subordinate levels10.3 Conceptual Metaphor and Metonymy10.3.1 Conceptual metaphor1. Example: LOVE IS A JOURNEYLook how far we’ve comeWe’ll just have to go our separate waysWe can’t turn back nowOur marriage is on the rocksWe’ve gotten off the trackThis relationship is founderingDefinition1. Metaphor: understanding one conceptual/cognitive domain in terms of anotherconceptual domain2. Source domain (始发域): the conceptual domain from which we draw metaphorical expressions to understand another conceptual domain3. Target domain (目标域): the conceptual domain that is understand this way Diagram: Conceptual Domain (A) Conceptual Domain (B)Target domain Source domainHe is a tiger10.3.2 Conceptual metonymy1. We have a general metonymic principle:THE BODILY SYMPTOMS OF AN EMOTION STAND FOR THE EMOTION E.g. drop in temperature for FEAR “I was chilled to the bone”erect posture for PRIDE “He swelled with pride”drooping posture for SADNESS “My heart sank”jumping up and down for JOY “He was jumping for joy2. The main difference between them is that metaphor involves a mapping across different conceptual or cognitive domains while metonymy is a mapping within one conceptual domain3. Metonymy is a cognitive process in which one cognitive category, the source, provides mental access to another cognitive category, the target, within the same10.4 IconicityDefinitionIconicity (象似性): a feature of language which means that the structure of language reflects in some way the structure of experience, that is, the structure of the word, including the perspective of imposed on the world by the speaker10.4.1 Iconicity of orderDefinitionIconicity of order: the similarity between temporal events and the linear arrangement of element in a linguistic constructione.g. I came, I saw, I conquered10.4.2 Iconicity of distance1. Iconicity of distance accounts for the fact that things which belong together conceptually tend to be put together linguistically, and things that do not belong together are put at a distance10.4.3 Iconicity of complexity1. the positive, comparative, and superlative degrees of adjective show a gradual increase in the number of phonemes, such as long, longer and longest in English2. Iconicity of complexity accounts for our tendency to associate more form with more meaning and, conversely, less form with less meaning10.5 Grammaticalization1. Grammaticalization: the process whereby an independent word is shifted to the status of a grammatical element2. Full words, with their own lexical content, thus become form words; and this categorical change tends to be accompanied by a reduction in phonological form anda “bleaching” of meaning3. Example: the transition of the lexical verb “go” into an auxiliary used to express the future tensea. Susan’s going to London next month.b. She’s going to London to work at our officec. Sh e’s going to work at our officed. You’re going to like here. You’re gonna like herf. You gonna like her. (non-standard)Chapter 11 Language Acquisition11.1 First Language Acquisition11.1.1 The behaviorist approach1. Best-known advocator: B.F.Skinner11.1.2 The innateness approach1. Under the influence of Noam Chomsky’s linguistic theories and cognitive psychology, the behaviorist hypothesis of first language acquisition has been challenged2. The innateness hypothesis says that the ability to acquire a human language is part of the biologically innate equipment of the human being, and that an infant is born with this ability just as it is born with two arms, two legs, and a beating heart. It also claims that this built-in ability is linked in some manner to physiological maturation, that it is strongest in the very small child, and that some degree of decay in its function begins around the time of puberty.11.1.3 Stages of acquiring the first language1. Pre-language stages (3~10m)2. The one-word or holophrastic stage (single-unit or single-form) (12~18m)3. The two-word stage (18~20m)4. Telegraphic speech (2~3y)(1) the child begins producing a large number of utterances which could be categorized as multiple-word utterances, but these utterances usually leave out certain word that adults omit in telegrams, such as articles, auxiliary, verbs and prepositions (2) e.g. Andrew want ball; cat drink, this shoe all wet11.2 Second Language Acquisition1. The differences between second language and foreign language(1) Second language plays an institutional and social role in the community, that is, it functions as a recognized way of communication among members who speak some other language as their mother tongueExamples: English as a second language is learned in the United States, the United Kingdom, and countries in Africa such as Zambia and Nigeria by those whose first language is not English.(2) Foreign language learning takes place in situations where the language plays no major role in the community and is primarily learned in the classroom.Examples: English learned in Japan and FranceDefinition:Second Language Acquisition (L2 acquisition/SLA) (第二语习得):the acquisition of another language or languages after first language acquisition is under way or completed11.2.1 Contrastive analysis1. Where two languages were similar, positive transfer would occur; where they were different, negative transfer, or interference, would result. That is:(1) The main difficulties in learning a new language are caused by interference from the first language(2) These difficulties can be predicted by contrastive analysis(3) Teaching materials can make use of contrastive analysis to reduce the effects ofmother tongue interference.Definition:Contrastive analysis (CA) (对比分析):systematically comparing the first language and the target language11.2.2 Error analysis1. Error analysis (EA) refers to the study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign language learnersDefinition:1. Intralingual errors: result from faulty or partial learning of the target language, rather than from language transfer.e.g. “He is comes”→correct: He is coming or He comes2. Interlingual errors: caused by the learner’s native languagee.g. He comes from China, Beijing →correct: He comes from Beijing, China11.2.3 Interlanguage1. There is some in-between system while acquiring L2 which certainly contains aspects of both L1 and L2, but which is an inherently variable system with rules of its own. This system is called an interlanguage2. The process of fossilization in L2 pronunciation is one obvious cause of a foreign accentDefinitionFossilization (僵化现象): (in second or foreign language learning) a process which sometimes occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes the target language. Aspects of pronunciation, vocabulary usage, and grammar may become fixed or fossilized in second or foreign language learning.11.3 Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition11.3.1 Language aptitude1. According to Carroll, the components of language aptitude are:(1) Phonemic coding ability (音位编码能力)(2) Grammatical sensitivity (语法的感性)(3) Inductive language learning ability (语言学习归纳能力)(4) Rote learning ability (机械学习能力)Definition:Language aptitude: the natural ability to learn a language, not including intelligence, motivation and interest, etc.11.3.2 Cognitive style: field dependence and field independence1. Field dependence: measured by asking learners to look at complex patterns and identify a number of simple geometric figures that are hidden within them(1) Characteristic:①they accept the L2 information exactly as it is presented to them by the teacher.②They do not try to analyze or think about it themselves③They are very reliant on what other people think of them and depend a great deal on positive feedback in their L2 learning④They tend to be seen as outgoing and interested in others and so would be expected to develop good interpersonal communication skills in the L22. Field independent:(1) Characteristic:①do not assume that the L2 information that they are given is necessarily correct②They tend to analyze it and think about it themselves to determine whether it is correct or not③They have a strong sense of personal identity④They often seem insensitive to and distant from other people.⑤They might, therefore, be expected to be less interested in developing communication skills in the L2(2) Examples:①they think about the input that they get.②In a formal learning context they are more likely to consciously think about and analyze the structure items that are presented to them, and consider how they fit into the grammar system as a whole③In a natural acquisition context they may more actively process the input they receive to build up hypotheses about how the language works.④They would develop a broader and deeper understanding of the structure of the language.Definition1. Cognitive style (认知风格): the particular way in which a learner tries to learn something. In second or foreign language learning, different learners may prefer different solutions to learning problems. For example, some people may want explanations for grammatical rules; others may not need any explanation2. Field dependence (场依存): a learning style in which a learner tends to look at the whole of a learning task which contains many items. The learner has difficulty in studying a particular item when it occurs within a field of other items.3. Field independence (场独立): a learning style in which a learner is able to identify or focus on particular items and is not distracted by other items in the back ground or context.11.3.3 Personality traits。
语言学教程[第七章语言文化社会]山东大学期末考试知识点复习
![语言学教程[第七章语言文化社会]山东大学期末考试知识点复习](https://img.taocdn.com/s3/m/fb14cff4910ef12d2af9e7a4.png)
第七章语言文化社会复习笔记I．语言与文化1．语言与文化的相互关系语言是文化不可替代的载体。
文化通过语言的使用得到更好的诠释。
2．萨丕尔一沃尔夫假说萨丕尔假说认为，语言塑造了我们的思维模式，相应地，不同的语言表达决定了人们认识世界方式的不同。
从这个观点出发，可以得到两点知识：一方面，语言可以决定我们的思维方式；另一方面，语言之间的相似性是相对的，结构性差异越大，反映出对于世界认识的越不同。
因此，这个假说也被称作“语言决定论”和“语言相对主义”。
3．语言教学中的文化总体而言，在语言课程中教授文化知识至少有以下三个目的：①有助于学生了解文化差异；②有助于语言学习者跳出自身文化的圈子，从目标文化的角度考虑问题；③有助于通过各种课堂练习，强调对语言与文化不可分离性的理解，促进外语学习。
II.语言与社会1．社会语言学社会语言学是研究语言与社会关系的学科，研究社会因素是如何影响语言的结构和使用。
社会语言学是研究语言与社会关系的领域，研究语言的使用与语言使用者所处的社会结构的关系。
2．语言变体语言随着社会的变化而变化。
地域、社会群体和个人之间的差异也能产生语言的变化。
这些变化的结果就是语言的变体。
每种语言都不只有一种变体，特别是在口语中。
因此，语言变体是与地域、社会阶层、教育背景和被使用语言所处环境的正式程度是密切相关的。
这些语言的变体包括标准语言、方言、语域、皮钦语、克里奥尔语等。
(1)标准语言标准语言是指在群体或者国家拥有很高地位的语言变体。
它也是当地受过教育的人口语和书面语的语言基础。
(2)方言方言是指在一个特定的区域或一个特定的社会阶层内所使用的能够识别的语言变体。
方言不一定不如语言完整、逻辑和更具语言特征。
它是语言的一个变体，由于其不同之处能够划分为一个单独的实体，但是还不足以划分成为一门语言。
有时候方言的地位也会得到提升成为一个国家的标准语言。
对方言的研究称作方言学，方言学可以细分为以下几类：①地域方言：在一个地域范围内的语言变体。
新编简明英语语言学Chapter7Languagechange语言变化分析解析
新编简明英语语⾔学Chapter7Languagechange语⾔变化分析解析Chapter 7 Language change语⾔变化知识点：1.*Definition: clipping; blend; acronym; back-formation2.Morphological and syntactic change3.*Vocabulary change4.Some recent trends in language change5.Causes of language change考核⽬标：识记：Definition: clipping; blend; acronym; back-formation领会：Morphological and syntactic change; Vocabulary change简单应⽤：Some recent trends in language change; Causes of language change⼀、定义1. Clipping略写词：A kind of abbreviation of otherwise longer words or phrases.指⽐较长的词或短语的缩写2. Blending 混合法：A process of forming a new word by combining parts oftwo other words.3. Acronym⾸字母缩略词：words derived from the initials of several words通过组合每个词的⾸位字母构成新词4. Back-formation 逆向构词法：new words are formed by taking away thesuffix of an existing word. 新词可以通过“去掉”现存的词的后缀⽽被创造出来⼆、知识点7.2 Phonological changes元⾳变化One of the most obvious change in English is the systematic and regular change in theAround the death of Chaucer in 1400，元⾳开始了进⼀步的转变。
语言学教程Chapter7精要
upon its occurrence in a given context. 2. Language functions as a link in human
activity, a mode of action.
Loan words in Japanese, Chinese, English.
第十四页，编辑于星期日：一点 一分。
Loan words
肥皂剧、卡通、布丁、苹果派、雀巢、耐克、 因特网、KTV、E-MAIL
Typhoon, gongfu, etc.
第十五页，编辑于星期日：一点 一分。
netspeak
滴(的、地)
第十六页，编辑于星期日：一点 一分。
“2006年中国主流报纸十大流行语”
和谐社会、社会主义新农村、青藏铁路、自 主创新、社会主义荣辱观（八荣八耻）、中 非合作论坛、长征精神、消费税、非物质文 化遗产、倒扁
文博会、文化创意产业、孔子、原生态、百 家讲坛、于丹、潜规则、易中天、草根文化、 恶搞
第二十四页，编辑于星期日：一点 一分。
people who claim to be users of the same language do not speak the language in the same manner.
Varieties related to the user are normally known as dialects and varieties related to use as registers.
what end”
第六页，编辑于星期日：一点 一分。
现代语言学知识点
Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communication
Phonology, which studies how sounds are put together and used in communication
Morphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words
Syntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences
Other related branches are anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics.
语言学第七章知识点总结
语言学第七章知识点总结Language is an essential part of a given culture. It is an indispensable carrier of culture. It is regarded as a mirror of society.In primitive culture, the meaning of a word greatly depended on its occurrence in a given context.Firth-Context of Situation -illustrate the close relationship between language use and its co-occurrence factors.1.The relevant features of the participants, persons, and personalitiesThe verbal action of the participants; the non-verbal action of the participant2.The relevant objects3.The effects of the verbal actionSpeech CommunityIt refers to a group of people share the same rules of speaking and one linguistic variety as well.Sapir-Whorf HypothesisOur language helps mould our way of thinking. Different languages may probably express speakers' unique ways of understanding the world.nguage may determine our thinking patterns2.Similarity between languages is relative. For two different speech communities, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse of their conceptualization of the world will beThis hypothesis has a strong version and a weak version The strong version: It refers to the claim that the original hypothesis makes, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns.The weak version: It is a modified type of its original theory, suggesting that there is a correlation between language, culture and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorial.If a language has two basic color terms, it is identified as staying in the first stage of evolution.Modla-warm color mili-cold color3 objectives for us to teach culture in our language class* to get the students familiar with cultural differences* to get the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of the target culture will* to emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture through various classroompractices.Women Register-Robin Lakoff1.Women use more fancy color terms such as "mauve, beige"2.Women use less powerful curse words.3.Women use more intensifiers such as "terrible, awful"4.Women use more tag questions5.Women use more statement questions. "Dinners will be ready at 5 o'clock?"6.Women's linguistic behavior is more indirect and more polite*It is not language itself but women's place in society that makes people linguistically behave in that way Communicative CompetenceIt refers to a language user's grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately.。
语言学笔记大全
同样的意义内容，在不同的语言中有不同的语音形式，这是不同的社会习惯决定的，是不同的民族在创造这个词的时候选择了不同的语音形式，各个社会的成员约定俗成的，因为语音形式和意义的联系是任意的，非本质的，所以不同语言之间出现这样的差异就不奇怪了。
四、怎样理解语言符号的任意性和线条性特点？
任意性和线条性是语言符号的两个最基本的特点。语言符号的任意性是指语言符号的音义关系是由社会约定的，用什么样的“音”去表达什么样的“义”人们说不出什么道理，完全由社会约定，这种音义关系又叫约定性；语言符号的线条性是指符号的使用只能在时间的线条上绵延，一个符号跟着一个符号依次出现。如以“小王打碎了杯子”为例，每个字只能顺着时间的先后一个跟着一个说出来，绝不能在同一时点同时蹦出两个字来。依次出现的符号要遵守一定的规则，不能随意编排。这就是说，符号的线条性是由规则支配的，对社会成员具有强制性。如“我吃饭”不能说成“饭吃我”。但是，语言又是不断发展变化的，具有可变性特点。如一些新词的出现，一字词的新用法。这种变化，又从另一个方面说明了语言符号的任意性特点，也即语言符号的音义联系是社会约定的，而不是天然的、本质的联系。
4、用“棋、下、有、一、完、没、的、盘”这八个词组成句子，看能组合成多少句子？
这些词可以组合成下列句子：
一盘没有下完的棋、没有下完的一盘棋、没有一盘下完的棋、没下完的棋有一盘、下完的棋一盘没有、下完的棋没有一盘、有一盘没下完的棋、有没下完的一盘棋、棋没下完的有一盘、棋有一盘没下完……
5、语言实际上是一种社会现象，怎样理解这句话？
二、什么是语言符号？为什么说语言是一种符号系统？
语言学主要知识点
名词解释：《尔雅》是我国最早的一部解释词义的语言学专著，也是第一部按照词义系统和事物分类来编纂的词典。
产生于汉代，作者不详。
作为书名，“尔”是“近”的意思（后来写作“迩”），“雅”是“正”的意思，在这里专指“雅言”，即在语音、词汇和语法等方面都合乎规范的标准语。
《尔雅》的意思是接近、符合雅言，即以雅正之言解释古语词、方言词，使之近于规范。
体例为十九篇。
《方言》全称《輶轩使者绝代语释别国方言》，作者西汉扬雄，历经27年写成，主要是诠释“别国方言”和“绝代语释”。
释词体例大致与《尔雅》相似，虽然没有象《尔雅》那样明确地标明门类，但也基本上采用分类编次法。
是我国古代第一部方言学著作，是中国语言学史上一部里程碑式的著作,成为世界上第一部方言比较词汇集而开方言地理学之先河。
《释名》作者东汉刘熙。
共8卷，27篇，体例仿《尔雅》，以音训（用音同、音近的字来训释被训字）为训释方式，是我国第一部探究汉语语源的著作（探究得名原因），阐明了许多词的理据、同源词系统。
《说文解字》简称《说文》，作者东汉许慎，历时21年写成。
旧称字书，它是我国语言学史上第一部分析字形、说解字义、辨识声读的字典。
同时，它创立了汉民族风格的语言学——文献语言学，是文献语言学的奠基之作。
共收单字9353个，分别归为540部。
贡献：确定并阐明了六书理论；创立了文字原则的部首系统；对汉字形音义三方面分析；保存了汉代的古训古音，训释本义；保存了篆文、古文、籀文的古文字系统；540部首解字体例，采用言序、形序、四角号码的检字方式。
《广韵》全称《大宋重修广韵》，五卷，是我国北宋时代官修的一部韵书，宋真宗大中祥符元年（1008年），由陈彭年、丘雍等奉旨在前代韵书的基础上编修而成，是我国历史上完整保存至今并广为流传的最重要的一部韵书，是我国宋以前的韵的集大成者。
原是为增广《切韵》而作，除增字加注外，部目也略有增订。
《马氏文通》原名《文通》，马建忠著。
是我国第一部用现代语言学理论研究中国语法的著作，在我国语言学史上具有划时代的意义。
语言学Chapter 7
Chapter 7 Language, Culture & Society
7.1 Language and culture 7.1.1 How does language relate to culture? An anthropological orientation in the study of language was developed. The orientation characterized its study of language in a socio-cultural context. Now many researches have proved that there is a close relationship between language and culture. Language is the carrier of culture and also one of the component of culture.
Language, Culture & Society 5
Chapter 7 Language, Culture & Society
7.1 Language and culture The word “culture” originated from Latin word “cultum”. It means the cultivation of soil, i.e. tillage. It also means the breeding of animals or growing of plants, especially to produce improved stock, the growing of microorganisms, tissue cells, or other living matter in a specially prepared nutrient medium, such a growth or colony, as of bacteria. Language, Culture & Society 6
英语语言学概论第七章笔记.
Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics 历史语言学1. The purpose and significance of the historical study of language 研究语言变化的目的和意义The historical study of language is of great importance to our understanding of human languagesand human linguistic competence.Researches in historical linguistics shed light on prehistoric development in the evolution oflanguage and the connections of earlier and later variants of the same language, and providevaluable insights into the kinship patterns of different languages.The historical study of language also enables us to determine how non-linguistic factors, such associal, cultural and psychological factors, interact over time to trigger linguistic change.研究语言变化对于理解人类语言和人类的语言能力极其重要。
历史语言学的研究成果揭示语言变化的史前发展和同一语言早期和后期变体自己的联系，为不同语言的亲缘关系提供线索。
历史语言学的研究还可以使我们对非语言的因素，如社会文化和心理因素等在语言变化过程中所起的作用有更深的认识。
简明语言学整理笔记
第一章1.linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language 2．The scope of linguisticsPhonetics-语音学phonology-音系学morphology-形态学syntax-句法学semantics-语义学pragmatics-语用学从语言形式划分：Sociolinguistics社会语言学，psycholinguistics心理语言学，applied linguistics应用语言学3. Important distinctions in linguistics Descriptive &> prescriptive 规定性&描写性Synchronic & >diachronic 共时性&历时性Speech&> writing 口语&书写Langue & <parole 语言&言语Competence &< performance 语言能力&语言运用(Saussure and Chomsky think rule>language fact )Traditional grammer & modern linguistics4.What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication5.Design features of language 语言的识别特征CharlesHockett①Arbitrariness(任意性)refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)②Productivity/creativity(能产性）:Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users③Duality（双重性）:The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.. ④Displacement(移位性):Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication.⑤Cultural transmission（文化传承性）人独有。
英语语言学概论第七章笔记.
Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics 历史语言学1.The purpose and significance of the historical study of language研究语言变化的目的和意义The historical study of language is of great importance to our understanding of human languages and human linguistic competence.Researches in historical linguistics shed light on prehistoric development in the evolution of language and the connections of earlier and later variants of the same language, and provide valuable insights into the kinship patterns of different languages.The historical study of language also enables us to determine how non-linguistic factors, such as social, cultural and psychological factors, interact over time to trigger linguistic change.研究语言变化对于理解人类语言和人类的语言能力极其重要。
历史语言学的研究成果揭示语言变化的史前发展和同一语言早期和后期变体自己的联系，为不同语言的亲缘关系提供线索。
历史语言学的研究还可以使我们对非语言的因素，如社会文化和心理因素等在语言变化过程中所起的作用有更深的认识。
语言学主要知识点
名词解释：《尔雅》是我国最早的一部解释词义的语言学专著，也是第一部按照词义系统和事物分类来编纂的词典。
产生于汉代，作者不详。
作为书名，“尔”是“近”的意思（后来写作“迩”），“雅”是“正”的意思，在这里专指“雅言”，即在语音、词汇和语法等方面都合乎规范的标准语。
《尔雅》的意思是接近、符合雅言，即以雅正之言解释古语词、方言词，使之近于规范。
体例为十九篇。
《方言》全称《輶轩使者绝代语释别国方言》，作者西汉扬雄，历经27年写成，主要是诠释“别国方言”和“绝代语释”。
释词体例大致与《尔雅》相似，虽然没有象《尔雅》那样明确地标明门类，但也基本上采用分类编次法。
是我国古代第一部方言学著作，是中国语言学史上一部里程碑式的著作,成为世界上第一部方言比较词汇集而开方言地理学之先河。
《释名》作者东汉刘熙。
共8卷，27篇，体例仿《尔雅》，以音训（用音同、音近的字来训释被训字）为训释方式，是我国第一部探究汉语语源的著作（探究得名原因），阐明了许多词的理据、同源词系统。
《说文解字》简称《说文》，作者东汉许慎，历时21年写成。
旧称字书，它是我国语言学史上第一部分析字形、说解字义、辨识声读的字典。
同时，它创立了汉民族风格的语言学——文献语言学，是文献语言学的奠基之作。
共收单字9353个，分别归为540部。
贡献：确定并阐明了六书理论；创立了文字原则的部首系统；对汉字形音义三方面分析；保存了汉代的古训古音，训释本义；保存了篆文、古文、籀文的古文字系统；540部首解字体例，采用言序、形序、四角号码的检字方式。
《广韵》全称《大宋重修广韵》，五卷，是我国北宋时代官修的一部韵书，宋真宗大中祥符元年（1008年），由陈彭年、丘雍等奉旨在前代韵书的基础上编修而成，是我国历史上完整保存至今并广为流传的最重要的一部韵书，是我国宋以前的韵的集大成者。
原是为增广《切韵》而作，除增字加注外，部目也略有增订。
《马氏文通》原名《文通》，马建忠著。
是我国第一部用现代语言学理论研究中国语法的著作，在我国语言学史上具有划时代的意义。
语言学概要必背知识点(自整——打印自检版)
语言系统分为音系和语法两个层面，在这两个层面上都有最小单位和小单位组成大 单位的多级组织结构。音系层的最小单位大大少于语法层，低层级单位少于高层级 单位。
u 客观现实、心理现实
现实现象分为客观现实和心理现实，客观现实是外在于人的客观存在，通过人的感 官感知并在人脑中综合处理转化为心理现实。
5、说明语言系统的层级性（二层性）
层级性：语素-词-短语-句子：低层级单位比高层级单位少，高层级单位由低层级单位按 规则组合而成 二层性：音系层+语法层 二层性的符号用较少数目的成分单位可构成很多符号形式 音系层的最小单位数远远低于符号层的最小单位数
6、人类语言符号和其他动物“语言”的区别
任意性、传授性（后天习得）、单位的明晰性、能产性（组合和替换）、结构的二层性（音 系+语法）、不受时地环境的限制
音质音位是时间维向上线性切分的最小音系单位，如果不限于线性切分，音位还可 以进一步分析为一个或几个发音特征的区分，例如辅音音位...
u 音峰、音谷 u 复元音
是在一个音节里的音值前后不一致的元音，发音时嘴唇和舌头从一个元音的位置过 渡到另一个元音的位置，如普通话语音中的ɑi，ei，ɑo，ou，uɑi，uei 等
组合规则：语法单位连接起来构成更大语言片段的规则
语言学概要必背知识点
第一章 导言+语言的功能 u 语言学
以回答“语言是什么”为研究内容，透过无处不在的语言现象来探索语言本质
u 语言
人类最重要的交际工具，是人们进行沟通的主要表达方式。 思维工具、交际工具、社会属性 作用、分类、用文字记录
u 语言交际 u 思维（特点）
认识现实世界时动脑筋的过程，也指动脑筋时进行比较、分析、综合以认识现实的 能力，概念属于哲学、逻辑学、心理学等范畴，其形式、过程、生理机制都与语言 密切相关，以语言为载体和动因，具有一定的生理基础。 普遍性、特殊性、和语言相关性、有生理基础
语言学笔记重点
《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
语言学概论第七章知识点
语言学概论第七章知识点第七章：意义与句子在语言学概论的第七章中，我们将深入探讨意义和句子之间的关系。
意义是语言的核心要素之一，它使我们能够理解和表达信息。
句子则是语言中的基本单位，准确地传递意义。
首先，我们需要了解意义是如何构建的。
语言中的词汇和语法结构通过组合和组织来产生具体的意义。
意义可以分为两个层面：词义和句义。
词义是指词汇本身所带有的基本含义，而句义则是指句子所表达的整体意义。
句义不仅仅是词义的简单叠加，还包括词语之间的关联和句子结构的影响。
句子的意义也可以通过语境来进一步确定。
语境是指句子所处的特定环境，包括上下文、发言者和听众的背景知识等因素。
语境对于句子的解释和理解至关重要。
同样的句子在不同的语境下可以产生不同的意义。
除了词义和句义，我们还需要了解逻辑语义和语用语义的区别。
逻辑语义是指句子的字面意义，它与逻辑关系和推理有关。
而语用语义则是指句子在实际交际中所达到的效果和目的。
语用语义包括语境、语气、语调等方面的影响。
在分析句子意义时，我们也需要考虑到歧义和语义的多样性。
歧义是指一个句子有多个可能的解释。
语义的多样性则是指一个句子在不同的语境下可以具有不同的意义。
理解和解决歧义和语义多样性是语言处理的重要任务之一。
总而言之，第七章主要介绍了意义与句子之间的关系及其相关的概念。
意义构建涉及词义和句义，以及词汇和句子的组合和组织。
句子的意义可以通过语境来进一步确定，同时还需要考虑逻辑语义和语用语义的区别。
此外，歧义和语义的多样性也是需要注意的问题。
语言学教程笔记第七章心得体会
语言学教程笔记第七章心得体会1.任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核心特征。
例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作a/buk/，一支钢笔读作a/pen/。
任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。
（2）句法层面上的任意性。
（3）任意性和规约性。
2.二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。
话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。
因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。
二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产性。
3.创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。
利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。
4.移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间或观点。
因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而后者位置距我们非常之远。
语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。
移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。
词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化的语境中。
他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。
5.文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。
6.互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。
元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。
比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。
这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考”。
所以只有人类才能提问：元语言功能对交际、思考及人类的意义是什么？。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
语言学第七章知识点总结
Language is an essential part of a given culture. It is an indispensable carrier of culture. It is regarded as a mirror of society.
In primitive culture, the meaning of a word greatly depended on its occurrence in a given context.
Firth-Context of Situation -illustrate the close relationship between language use and its co-occurrence factors.
1.The relevant features of the participants, persons, and personalities
The verbal action of the participants; the non-verbal action of the participant
2.The relevant objects
3.The effects of the verbal action
Speech Community
It refers to a group of people share the same rules of speaking and one linguistic variety as well.
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
Our language helps mould our way of thinking. Different languages may probably express speakers' unique ways of understanding the world.
nguage may determine our thinking patterns
2.Similarity between languages is relative. For two different speech communities, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse of their conceptualization of the world will be
This hypothesis has a strong version and a weak version The strong version: It refers to the claim that the original hypothesis makes, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns.
The weak version: It is a modified type of its original theory, suggesting that there is a correlation between language, culture and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorial.
If a language has two basic color terms, it is identified as staying in the first stage of evolution.
Modla-warm color mili-cold color
3 objectives for us to teach culture in our language class
* to get the students familiar with cultural differences
* to get the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of the target culture will
* to emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture through various classroom
practices.
Women Register-Robin Lakoff
1.Women use more fancy color terms such as "mauve, beige"
2.Women use less powerful curse words.
3.Women use more intensifiers such as "terrible, awful"
4.Women use more tag questions
5.Women use more statement questions. "Dinners will be ready at 5 o'clock?"
6.Women's linguistic behavior is more indirect and more polite
*It is not language itself but women's place in society that makes people linguistically behave in that way Communicative Competence
It refers to a language user's grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately.。