英语语言学57665

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Displacement
----Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places. A gibbon never utters a call about something he ate last year There is something special about the bee dance though. Bees communicate with other bees about the food sources they have found when they are no longer in the presence of the food. In this sense, the bee dance has a component of displacement. But this component is very insignificant. For the bees must communicate about the food immediately on returning to the hive. They do not dance about the food they discovered last month nor do they speculate about future discoveries.
Language is arbitrary

Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.

英语语言学基础知识

英语语言学基础知识一、绪论语言学的定义语言的定义语言学的研究范畴语言的甄别特征几对基本概念(2) a large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writingWhat is linguistics? 什么是语言学？ (3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native languageLanguage and parole 语言与言语 Linguistics is generally defined asthe scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, butlanguages in general. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。

语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言，Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 而是人类所有语言的特性。

Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴 Competence and performance 能力与运用 Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users’ knowledge of the rules of his language\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics应用语言学 Performance: The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性 What is language? 什么是语言？ Descriptive：A linguistic study describes and analyzes thelanguage people actually use. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationCharacteristics of language: 语言的特性 Prescriptive: it aims lay dow n rules for “correct” behavior.Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken data. Language is a rule-governed system Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on “high” written language. Language is basically vocalSynchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性 Language is arbitrary (the fact different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration the description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study quotation from Shakespeare’s play “Romeo and Juliet”: “A rose by any other name wou ld smell as sweet.”)in modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. Language is used for human communication Speech and writing 口头语与书面语 Design features of language 语言的甄别特征 Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons: American linguist Charles Hackett specified 12 design features:(1) speech precedes writing in terms of evolution1) arbitrariness 武断性 4) displacement移位性 2) productivity 创造性5) cultural transmission 文化传递性3) duality 二重性二、音系学语言的声音媒介音系学和语音学什么是语音学语音、音位、音位变体发音器官音位对立、互补分部、最小对立音标……宽式和严式标音法几条音系规则英语语音的分类超切分特征构成了语言的声音媒介。

英语语言学语言学知识点课件

4. scope of linguistics
(语言学的研究范围)
英语语言学语言学知识点
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• 1. design feature of language（语言的定义特征)
defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication
英语语言学语言学知识点
40
• 音系学定义：study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
英语语言学语言学知识点
34
• 如何记忆phonetics和phonolgy的区别: • 联想: mathematics, physics, mechanics
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phonetics 语言学，-ics科学性更强
•
•
geology, sociology, astrology
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phonology 音系学，-ology人文性更强
英语语言学语言学知识点
30
• Phonetics studies all speech sounds in human languages: how they are produced, transmitted and how they are received.
• Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.

英语语言学资料

《英语语言学》学习资料说明：各位童鞋，这个资料是在老版本的基础上编写的，故有些内容现在有了很大的变化和更改，大家要学会有选择性的进行学习和参考啊1.28.What is phonetics?"Phonetics" is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics.(1)Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2)Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer's point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear , the auditory nerve and the brain. (3)Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulatory phonetics.1.29.How are the vocal organs formed?The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al.,p41), or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.1.30.What is place of articulation?It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved,e. g. lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1 )bilabial:[p,b,m]; (2) labiodental:[f,v]; (3) dental:[,]; (4) alveolar:[t,d,l,n.s,z]; (5) retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar:[,]; (7) palatal:[j]; (8) velar[k,g,];(9) uvular; (10)glottal:[h].Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w]has both an approximation of the two lips and that two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed "labial-velar".1.31.What is the manner of articulation?The "manner of articulation" literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstream may be obstructed in various ways, resulting invarious manners of articulation, are the following : (1) plosive:[p,b,t,d,k,g]; (2) nasal:[m,n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap; (5) lateral:[l]; (6) fricative:[f,v,s,z]; (7) approximant:[w,j]; (8) affricate:[].1.32.How do phoneticians classify vowels?Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1) long and short vowels, e.g.,[i:,]; (4) rounded and unround vowels,e.g.[,i]; (5) pure and gliding vowels,e.g.[I,].1.33.What is IPA? When did it come into being ?The IPA, abbreviation of "International Phonetic Alphabet", is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.1.34.What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription?In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet made a distinction between "narrow" and "broad" transcriptions, which he called "Narrow Romic". The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1.35.What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology?(1) "Phonology" is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.(2) Phonetics, as discussed in I.28, is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign "accent", to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one's language.1.36.What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?(1) A "phone" is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced:[pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different[p]'s, readily making possible the "narrow transcription or diacritics". Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A "phoneme" is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].(2) The phones representing a phoneme are called its "allophones", i. e., the different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different[p]'s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.1.37.What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a "minimal pair", e.g., "pill" and "bill", "pill" and "till", "till" and "dill", "till" and "kill", etc. All these words together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).1.38.What is free variation?If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in "free variation". The plosives, for example, may not be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme.1.39.What is complementary distribution?When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in "complementary distribution". For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after[s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of[l], for example, are also incomplementary distribution. The clear[l] occurs only before a vowel, the voiceless equivalent of[l] occurs only after a voiceless consonant, such as in the words "please", "butler", "clear", etc., and the dark[l] occurs only after a vowel or as a syllabic sound after a consonant, such as in the words "feel", "help", "middle", etc.1.40.What is the assimilation rule? What is the deletion rule?(1) The "assimilation rule" assimilates one segment to another by "copying" a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasal[n] that occurs within a word. The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant[n] assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant. The negative prefix "in-" serves as a good example. It may be pronounced as [in], [i] or [im] when occurring in different phonetic contexts: e. g., indiscrete-[ ](alveolar)inconceivable-[ ](velar)input-[‘imput](bilabial)(3) The "deletion rule" tells us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographically represented. While the letter "g" is mute in "sign", "design" and "paradigm", it is pronounced in their corresponding derivatives: "signature", "designation" and "paradigmatic". The rule then can be stated as: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling (see Dai Weidong ,pp22-23).1.41.What is suprasegmental phonology? What are suprasegmental features?"Suprasegmental phonology" refers to the study of phonological properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.Hu Zhuanglin et al.,(p,73) includes stress, length and pitch as what they suppose to be "principal suprasegmental features", calling the concurrent patterning of three "intonation". Dai Weidong(pp23-25) lists three also, but they are stress, tone and intonation.1.42.What is morphology?"Morphology" is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. It is generally divided into two fields: inflectional morphology and lexical/derivational morphology.1.43.What is inflection/inflexion?"Inflection" is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which does not change the grammatical class of the items to which they are attached.1.44.What is a morpheme? What is an allomorph?(1) The "morpheme" is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. The word "boxes", for example, has two morphemes: "box" and "-es", neither of which permits further division or analysis if we don't wish to sacrifice meaning. Therefore a morpheme is considered the minimal unit of meaning.(2) Allomorphs, like allophones vs. phones, are the alternate shapes (and thus phonetic forms) of the same morphemes. Some morphemes, though, have no more than one invariable form in all contexts, such as "dog", "cat", etc. The variants of the plurality "-s" make the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map-maps, mouse-mice, sheep-sheep etc.1.45.What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?A "free morpheme" is a morpheme that constitutes a word by itself, such as ‘bed", "tree" ,etc. A "bound morpheme" is one that appears with at least another morpheme, such as "-s" in "beds" , "-al" in "national" and so on. All monomorphemic words are free morphemes. Those polymorphemic words are either compounds (combination of two or more free morphemes )or derivatives (word derived from free morphemes).1.46.What is a root ? What is a stem? What is an affix?A "root" is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. In other words, a "root" is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. "Internationalism" is a four-morpheme derivative which keeps its free morpheme "nation" as its root when " inter-", "-al" and "-ism" are taken away.A "stem" is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix can be added. It may be the same as , and in other cases, different from, a root. For example, in the word "friends" , "friend" is both the root and the stem, but in the word "friendships", "friendships" is its stem, "friend" is its root. Some words (i. e., compounds ) have more than one root ,e. g., "mailman" , "girlfriend" ,ect.An "affix" is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used, only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem). Affixes are limited in number in a language, and are generally classified into three subtypes: prefix, suffix and infix, e.g. , "mini-", "un-", ect.(prefix); "-ise", "-tion", ect.(suffix).1.47.What are open classes? What are closed classes?In English, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs make up the largest part of the vocabulary. They are "open -class words", since we can regularly add new lexical entries to these classes. The other syntactic categories are, for the most part, closed classes, or closed-class words. The number of them is hardly alterable, if they are changeable at all.1.48.What is lexicon? What is word? What is lexeme? What is vocabulary? Lexicon? Word? Lexeme? Vocabulary?"Lexicon", in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary. In its technical sense, however, lexicon deals with the analysis and creation of words, idioms and collocations. "Word" is a unit of expression which has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. This definition is perhaps a little vague as there are different criteria with regard to its identification and definition. It seems that it is hard , even impossible, to define "word" linguistically. Nonetheless it is universally agreed that the following three senses are involved in the definition of "word", none of which, though, is expected to cope with all the situations: (1)a physically definable unit ,e. g.,[it iz ‘w](phonological), "It is wonder" (orthographic); (2) the common factor underlying a set of forms (see what is the common factor of "checks", "checked", "checking ", etc.); (3) a grammatical unit(look at (1) again; every word plays a grammatical part in the sentence).According to Leonard Bloomfield, a word is a minimum free form (compare: a sentence is a maximum free form, according to Bloomfield ). There are other factors that may help us identify words: (1) stability (no great change of orthographic features); (2)relative uninterruptibility (we can hardly insert anything between two parts of a word or between the letters). To make the category clearer we can subclassify words into a few types: (1) variable and invariable words(e. g.,-mats, seldom-?); (2) grammatical and lexical words(e. g. to, in ,etc., and table, chair, ect. By "lexical words" we mean the words that carry a semantic content, e.g., nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs; (3) closed-class and open-class words(see I.47).In order to reduce the ambiguity of the term "word" ,the term "lexeme" is postulated as the abtract unit which refers to the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units. A lexeme can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written texts. For example, "write" is the lexeme of the following words: "write", "write", "wrote", "writing", and "written." "Vocabulary" usually refers to all words or lexical items a person has acquired about technical or/and untechnical things. So we encourage our students to enlarge their vocabulary. "vocabulary" is also used to mean word list or glossary.1.49.What is collocation?"Collocation" is a term used in lexicology by some linguists to refer to the habitual co-occurrences of individual lexical items. For example, we can "read" a "book"; "correct" can narrowly occur with "book" which is supposed to have faults, but no one can "read" a "mistake" because with regard to co-occurrence these two words are not collocates.1.50.What is syntax?"Syntax" is the study of the rules governing the ways in which words, word groups and phrases are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between sentential elements.1.51.What is a sentence?L. Bloomfield defines "sentence" as an independent linguistic form not included by some grammatical marks in any other linguistic from, i. e., it is not subordinated to a larger linguistic form, it is a structurally independent linguistic form. It is also called a maximum free form.1.52.What are syntactic relations?"Syntactic relations" refer to the ways in which words, word groups or phrases form sentences; hence three kinds of syntactic relations: positional relations, relations of substitutability and relations of co-occurrence.(1) "Positional relation", or "word order", refers to the sequential arrangement to words in a language. It is a manifestation of a certain aspect of what F. de Saussure called "syntagmatic relations", or of what other linguists call "horizontal relations" or "chain relations".(2) "Relations of substitutability" refer to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in same sentence structures. Saussure called them "associative relations". Other people call them "paradigmatic/vertical/choice relations".(3) By "relations of co-occurrence", one means that words of different sets of clauses may permit or require the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations and partly to paradigmatic relations.1.53.What is IC analysis? What are immediate constituents(and ultimate constituents)?"IC analysis" is a new approach of sentence study that cuts a sentence into two(or more) segments. This kind of pure segmentation is simply dividing a sentence into itsconstituent elements without even knowing what they really are . What remain of the first cut are called "immediate constituents", and what are left at the final cut are called "ultimate constituents". For example, "John left yesterday" can be thus segmented: "John| left | | yesterday". We get two immediate constituents for the first cut (|), and they are "John" and "left yesterday". Further split(||) this sentence generates three "ultimate constituents": "John", "left " and "yesterday".1.54.What are endocentric and exocentric constructons?"Endocentric construction" is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i. e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable "centre" or "head". Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the head. "Exocentric construction", opposite of endocentric construction, refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as whole ;that is to say ,there is no definable centre or head inside the group. Exocentric construction usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate(verb+object) construction, and connective(be+complement) construction.1.55.What is a subject? A predicate? An object?(1) In some language, an "subject" refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case, such as "pater" in the following example: "pater filium amat" (put literally in English: the father the son loves). In English, a "grammatical subject" refers to a noun which can establish correspondence with the verb and which can be checked by a tag-question test, e.g., "He is a good cook(, isn't he?)."(2) A "predicate" refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject are considered together. e.g., in the sentence "The monkey is jumping ", "is jumping " is the predicate.(3) Traditionally "object" refers to the receiver or goal of an action, and it is further classified into two kinds: direct object and indirect object. In some inflecting languages, an object is marked by case labels: the "accusative case" for direct object, and the "dative case " for direct object, and the "dative case" for indirect to word order(after the verb and preposition) and by inflections(of pronouns). E .g., in the sentence "John kissed me", "me" is the object. Modern linguists suggest that an object refers to such an item that it can become a subject in passive transformation.1.56.What is category?The term "category" in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g., noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. Morespecifically it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability ;and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, etc.1.57.What is number? What is gender? What is case?(1) "Number" is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc. In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural. Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs.(2) "Gender" displays such contrasts as "masculine", "feminine", "neuter", or "animate" and "inanimate", etc., for the analysis of word classes. When word items refer to the sex of the real-world entities, we natural gender(the opposite is grammatical gender).(3) "Case" identifies the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence. In Latin grammar, cases are based on variations in the morphological forms of the word, and are given the terms "accusative", "nominative", "dative",etc. In English, the case category is realized in three ways: by following a preposition and by word order.1.58.What is concord? What is government?"Concord " may be defined as requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category or categories, e.g., "man runs", "men run". "Government" requires that one word of a particular class in a given syntactic class shall exhibit the form of a specific category. In English, government applies only to pronouns among the variable words ,that is , prepositions and verbs govern particular forms of the paradigms of pronouns according to their syntactic relation with them, e.g. , "I helped him; he helped me."1.59.What is a phrase? What is a clause?(1) A "phrase" is a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of "clauses". Traditionally, it is seen as part of a structural hierachy, falling between a clause and word, e.g., "the three tallest girls" (nominal phrase). There is now a tendency to make a distinction between word groups and phrases. A "word group" is an extension of a word of a particular class by way of modification with its main features of the class unchanged. Thus we have nominal group, verbal group, adverbial group, conjunction group and preposition group.(2) A "clause" is group of words with its own subject and predicate included in a larger subject-verb construction, namely, in a sentence. Clauses can also be classifiedinto two kinds: finite and non-finite clauses, the latter referring to what are traditionally called infinitive phrase, participle phrase and gerundial phrase. (For "sentence", see I.51.)1.60.What is conjoining? What is embedding? What is recursiveness?"Conjoining" refers to a construction where one clause is co-ordinated or conjoined with another, e. g., "John bought a cat and his wife killed her." "Embedding" refers to the process of construction where one clause is included in the sentence (or main clause) in syntactic subordination, e.g., "I saw the man who had killed a chimpanzee." By "recursiveness" we mean that there is theoretically no limit to the number of the embedded clauses in a complex sentence. This is true also with nominal and adverbial clauses, e.g., "I saw the man who killed a cat who...a rat which...that..."1.61.What is hypotactic relation? What is paratactic relation?"Hypotactic relation" refers to a construction where constituents are linked by means of conjunction, e.g. "He bought eggs and milk." "Paratactic relation" refers to constructions which are connected by juxtaposition, punctuation or intonation, e. g., "He bought tea, coffee, eggs and milk" (pay attention to the first three nouns connected without "and").1.62.What is semantics?"Semantics" refers to the study of the communication of meaning through language. Or simply, it is the study of meaning.1.63.What is meaning?Though it is difficult to define, "meaning" has the following meaning: (1) an intrinsic property; (2) the connotation of a word; (3) the words put after a dictionary entry; (4) the position an object occupies in a system; (5) what the symbol user actually refers to; (6) what the symbol user should refer to; (7) what the symbol user believes he is referring to; (8) what the symbol interpreter refers to; (9) what the symbol interpreter believes it refers to; (10) what the symbol interpreter believes the user refers to... linguists argued about "meaning of meaning" fiercely in the result of "realism", "conceptualism/mentalism", "mechanism", "contextualism", "behaviorism", "functionalism", etc. (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp140-142). Mention ought to be made of the "Semantic Triangle Theory" of Ogden & Richards. We use a word and the listener knows what it refers to because, according to the theory, they have acquired the same concept/reference of the word used and of the object/referent.1.64.What is the difference between meaning, concept, connotation, sense, implication, denotation, notation, reference, implicature and signification?。

英语语言学

语言学分类-按研究内容分
MicroLinguistics sound Phonetics word Morphology sentence Syntax meaning Semantics
(语音学) Phonology （音系学）
（形态学）
（句法学）
（语义学）
Pragmatics (语用学)
语言学分类-按研究内容分
举例1：/k/ ,/a:/, /p/---- carp or park 举例2：England, defeated, France England defeated France. France defeated England.

4）Displacement（替代性）: 定义：Human languages enable their users to symbolize something which are not present at the moment of communication.
Slavic group 斯拉夫语族
West Branch 西日耳曼语支英语，德语
North Celtic group 北凯尔特语支爱尔兰语，盖尔语 South Celtic group 南凯尔特语支威尔士语
West Roman Group 西罗曼语支法语，西班牙语等
West Slavic group 斯拉夫语西支波兰语，捷克语东支俄语
Computational Linguistics
计算机语言学
语言学分类-按研究导向分
Linguistics
Theoretical Linguistics
Applied Linguistics
Linguistic nature, universal rules

语言学概论第一章要点英语

语言学概论第一章要点(2011-08-26 10:30:48)第一章Introduction1.Linguistics定义It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Nowadays, the generally accepted definition of language is that language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2.The scope of linguistics语言学的主要分支是什么。

每个分支的研究对象是什么？1.General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study①Phonetics,which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communication②Phonology,which studies how sounds are put together and used in communication③Morphology,which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words④Syntax,which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences⑤Semantics, which is the study of meaning in language.⑥Pragmatics,which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in context of use⑦Sociolinguistics,which is the study of language with reference to society⑧Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.⑨Applied linguistics,which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Other related branches are anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics.3.现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language . It sets models for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is "correct" or not.4.Some important distinction in linguistics语言学五对基本概念1、descriptive(描述性) :A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.2、prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct” behaviors. i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.1、synchronic(共时语言学): It refers to the study of variation in language in different places and among different groups at a given point in time.2、diachronic(历时语言学): Studies language change over various periods of time and at various historical stages.什么叫共时研究Synchronic study;？什么叫历时研究diachronic study？The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes alanguage as it is at some particular point in rime, while a diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.1、speech and writing are the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.1、langue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community. It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate.2、parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.1、competence(语言能力):As the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language2、performance(语言应用):the actual realization of his knowledge in linguistic communication.5、What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system i.e. elements of language are combined according to rules.Language is arbitrary .because the fact that different languages have different words for the some object.Language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages.Language is symbols.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.6、人类语言的甄别性特征design features是什么？（五个）Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.The American Charles Hockett specified 12 design features, 5 of which will be discussed here.Arbitrariness:任意性there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds .A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different language, but it is not entirely arbitrary.Productivity:创造性language make possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it users. Productivity is unique to human language.Duality(二重性):Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels at the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words.Displacement:移位性Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in past, present or future. or in far-away place. In other words, language can be used to refer to context removed from the immediate situations of speakers.Cultural transmission(文化传递性)While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew.5. Chomsky的语言能力和语言使用各指什么？American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.7、Saussure是如何区分语言和言语的？The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue and parole are French words. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract;It is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.。

英语语言学分支

英语语言学分支摘要：一、英语语言学概述1.英语语言学的定义2.英语语言学的发展历程二、英语语言学的分支领域1.语音学2.语法学3.语义学4.语用学5.词汇学6.修辞学7.社会语言学8.心理语言学9.历史语言学10.计算语言学三、各分支领域的主要研究内容1.语音学：音位、音高、音节、音调等2.语法学：句法结构、词法结构、句法规则等3.语义学：词汇意义、句子意义、语义规则等4.语用学：语境、语义、意图等5.词汇学：词汇构成、词汇变化、词汇意义等6.修辞学：修辞手法、修辞目的、修辞效果等7.社会语言学：语言与社会的相互影响、语言变异、语言习得等8.心理语言学：心理过程、语言理解、语言产生等9.历史语言学：语言起源、语言演变、语言谱系等10.计算语言学：自然语言处理、机器翻译、语音识别等四、英语语言学在实际应用中的价值1.提高英语教学质量2.促进跨文化交流3.推动人工智能技术发展4.促进语言学研究的发展正文：英语语言学是一门研究英语语言的学科，涉及英语的各个方面，包括语音、语法、语义、语用等。

英语语言学有许多分支领域，它们共同构成了英语语言学的知识体系。

首先，英语语言学可以分为语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学、词汇学、修辞学、社会语言学、心理语言学、历史语言学和计算语言学等十个分支领域。

这些领域分别研究英语语言的不同方面，如语音、语法结构、词汇意义、语境、修辞手法等。

语音学研究音位、音高、音节和音调等语音现象，探讨它们在英语中的规律和特点。

语法学研究句法结构和词法结构，即句子和单词的组成方式，以及它们之间的关系。

语义学研究词汇意义和句子意义，以及语义规则和语义变化。

语用学研究语境、语义和意图等因素，以了解语言的实际运用。

词汇学研究词汇构成、词汇变化和词汇意义等方面的问题。

修辞学研究修辞手法、修辞目的和修辞效果，以提高英语表达的艺术性。

社会语言学研究语言与社会之间的相互影响，如语言变异、语言习得和社会语言习惯等。

英语语言学知识点

英语语⾔学知识点英语语⾔学是英语语⾔⽂学专业培养计划中的⼀门基础必修课，接下来店铺为你整理了英语语⾔学知识点，⼀起来看看吧。

英语语⾔学知识点：定义 1.语⾔学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语⾔学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语⾔language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语⾔是⼈类⽤来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语⾔识别特征是指⼈类语⾔区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission⽂化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 5.语⾔能⼒Competence Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语⾔运⽤performance Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语⾔运⽤是所掌握的规则在语⾔交际中的体现。

英语语言学概论

英语语言学概论一、要求《英语语言学概论》是英语教育专业的一门基础理论课。

语言学是主要研究语言的性质、语言的功能、语言的产生和发展、语言的习得以及语言和人类其它活动关系的学科。

随着对语言研究的不断深入，人们更多地把注意力集中在语言学研究和语言教学研究的关系上。

本课程开设的目的在于帮助中学英语教师了解英语语言的性质、结构、特征和功能，以及它们与外语教学的关系，从而促进英语语言的学习和英语教学法的研究，提高英语语言水平和英语语言教学能力。

二、考试内容本课程使用《英语语言学导论》作为基本教材，根据中学英语教学的实际酌情进行修订、增删和补充。

具体内容如下：第一章绪论1.语言学和英语语言学(P.1)2.语言的本质(P.2)系统性、符号性、有声性、任意性、人类特有性、交际性、双重结构（语音、语法意义）性、可变性、可创造性。

3.语言学的分支(P.20)语音学、音位（系／韵）学、形态学、句法（学）、语义学、（语用学）4.小结(P.24)第二章语音学1.发音器官(P.28)2.辅音与元音(P.30)2.1 国际音标(P.30)2.2 辅音分类(P.33)软颚的位置、发音部位、发音方法以、清浊音2.3 元音分类(P.39)组成部分、舌头隆起的部位、舌位隆起的高低、口腔开合程度、音的长短、肌内的张弛、圆唇与否3.小结(P.39)Exx.1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9,10第三章音位（系／韵）学1.音位学重要概念（P.53）1.1 音位（P.53)1.2 最小对立体（P.54)1.3 音位与音位变体(P.55)1.4 音位、音素与音位变体(P.57)2.音位的鉴别(P.57)2.1 环境与分布(P.57)2.2 分布的类别（P.58)对立分布（最小对立位）、互补分布、自由变异3.区分特征(P.65)4.单词中音位排列（5,P.67)5.超切分（／音段）特征（6,P.69）5.1 单词重音（6.1,P.70)5.2 声调与语调(6.2,P.70)5.3 连音（／音渡）（6.3,P.72）6.小结（P.76)Exx.1,2(1)(2)(3)(4),3,4,5,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15第四章形态学（词法）1.语素(P.82)2.语素分类（P.84)2.1 词根与词缀(P.84)2.2 前缀、后缀与中缀(P.86)2.3 屈折变化词缀与派生变化词缀(P.87)3.形素与语素变体(P.90)4.语素的鉴别(P.92)4.1 将语音序列分割为形素(P.92)4.2 将形素归并为语素(P.94)4.3 空形素与零形素(P.97)5.语素分析（P.98)6.词法功能（P.103）6.1 屈折变化词法的语法功能（P.103)6.2 派生变化词法与构词法（P.104)6.2.1 主要构词法（P.105)派生（／词缀）法、转换法、合成法6.2.2 次要构词法（P.107)拼缀、截短、首字母缩略、首字母拼音、逆向构词7.小结（P.110)Exx.1-14第五章句法1.序列（／横组合）关系（P.116）2.替代（／纵聚合）关系（P.117)3.层次（／等级）关系（P.118)4.鉴别句法范畴（P.121)4.1 名词与名词短语（P.121)4.2 动词与动词短语（P.123)4.3 形容词（P.124)4.4 副词（P.124)5.层次与带标记的直接成分分析（P.125)5.1 直接成分分析法（P.125)5.2 带标记的直接成分分析法（P.125)5.3 完整的短语标记分析法（P.127)5.4 部分短语标记分析法（P.130)5.5 括号分析法（P.130)5.6 带标记的括号分析法（P.130)6.小结（P.131)Exx.1-8第八章语义学1.何谓意义？（P.210)2.词汇语义学（P.212)2.1 成分分析法（P.213)2.2 语义场（P.215)2.2.1 何谓语义场？（P.215)2.2.2 语义关系（P.216)2.2.2.1 下义关系（P.216)2.2.2.2 部分／整体关系（P.220)2.2.2.3 同义关系（P.220)2.2.2.4 反义关系（P.221)互补反义词、分等级性的反义词、关系对立反义词2.3 词语歧义（P.224)2.3.1 一词多义（P.224)2.3.2 同音（同形）异义词（P.224)3.句子语义学（P.226)5.3 完整的短语标记分析法（P.127)5.4 部分短语标记分析法（P.130)5.5 括号分析法（P.130)5.6 带标记的括号分析法（P.130)6.小结（P.131)Exx.1-8第八章语义学1.何谓意义？（P.210)2.词汇语义学（P.212)2.1 成分分析法（P.213)2.2 语义场（P.215)2.2.1 何谓语义场？（P.215)2.2.2 语义关系（P.216)2.2.2.1 下义关系（P.216)2.2.2.2 部分／整体关系（P.220)2.2.2.3 同义关系（P.220)2.2.2.4 反义关系（P.221)互补反义词、分等级性的反义词、关系对立反义词2.3 词语歧义（P.224)2.3.1 一词多义（P.224)2.3.2 同音（同形）异义词（P.224)3.句子语义学（P.226)3.1 决定句子意义的主要因素（P.228)3.2 语义功能（P.231)3.3 语法功能与语义功能（P.231)3.4 语义反常（P.232)4.小结（P.233)Exx.1-8三、说明1.本大纲与教材内的章节略有区别。

英语语言学第一章第二章

第一章：绪论1．什么是语言学？1．1定义语言学常被定义为是对语言进行系统科学研究的学科。

语言学研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有的语言。

为了揭示语言的本质，语言学家首先要对语言实际使用进行观察，并在此基础上形成有关语言使用的概括性假设，这些初步形成的假设要在语言使用中进行进一步的检验，最终形成一条语言理论。

1．2语言学的研究范畴:语言学研究有不同的侧重。

对语言体系作全面研究的语言学研究称为普通语言学。

语音学主要是对语言声音媒介的研究，它不只是研究某一特定的语言的声音媒介，而是所有语言的声音媒介。

音系学与语音学不同，它主要研究特定语言的语音体系，即音是如何结合在一起产生有意义的单位。

形态学主要研究单词的内部语义结构，及这些叫做词素的语义最小单位是如何结合构成单词。

句法学主要研究构成潜在句子的句法规则。

语义学以研究语义为目的，传统语义学主要研究抽象的意义，独立于语境之外的意义，语用学也是研究语义，但是它把语义研究置于语言使用语境中加以研究。

语言不是一个孤立的现象，而是一种社会现象，各种社会因素都会对语言的使用产生影响。

从社会的角度来研究语言的科学被称之为社会语言学。

语言和社会之间的关系是社会语言学研究的主要内容。

心理语言学主要从心理学的角度来研究语言。

它要研究人们在使用语言时大脑的工作机理，如人是如何习得母语的，人的大脑是如何加工和记忆语言信息等问题。

把语言学的研究成果应用到实践中的科学形成了应用语言学。

狭义上，应用语言学指把语言理论和原则运用于语言教学的科学，在广义上，它指把语言理论与原则应用于解决实际问题的科学。

除此之外还有人类语言学、神经语言学、数学语言学、计算语言学等。

1．3语言学研究中的几对基本概念1．3．1规定性和描述性语言学研究是描述性的，不是规定性的。

这是语言学和传统语法的一个重要区别。

语言学研究的目的是对人们使用的语言进行客观描述与分析，而不是对语言的使用作出规定。

传统语法是规定性的，它主要建立在笔头语言基础之上，旨在规定一系列的语法规则，并且把这些语法规则强加给语言使用者。

英语语言学基础知识

语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言，Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 而是人类所有语言的特性。

英语语言学第一章

Language can describe real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future or in far-away places.
Productivity
Language speakers can produce and understand utterances that they have never heard before.
◆ modern linguistics, a creation of the 20th century
◆ speech sounds→ grammar→ meaning → texts
1.3 The scope of linguistic study
• phonetics and phonology
2. One of the main features of our human languages is arbitrariness. Can you briefly explain what this feature refer to? Support your argument with examples.
linguistics
• Anthropological linguistics
• Applied linguistics
Recent Developments
●Corpus linguistics ●Cognitive linguistics
2Some Important Concepts
prescriptive & descriptive P: lay down rules
Interchangeability

英语语言学第二章讲课课件

英语语言学第二章讲课课件一、教学内容本节课我们将学习英语语言学第二章，主要内容包括：语系与语言分类、语音学与音系学基础、以及词汇学初步。

具体涉及教材第二章的13节，重点探讨语言的起源、语言如何通过语音和词汇表达意义，以及不同语言之间的相似与差异。

二、教学目标1. 理解世界主要语系的特点及其分类依据，能列举至少三种语系并说明其代表性语言。

2. 掌握语音学基本概念，识别不同语音特征，并能在实际语境中进行应用。

3. 运用词汇学知识分析词语构成，提高词汇理解和运用能力。

三、教学难点与重点重点：语音学基本概念、词汇学的主要理论。

难点：语音的发音规则、词汇在不同语境中的应用。

四、教具与学具准备教具：PPT展示、录音机、语音示例CD。

学具：笔记本、词典、语音学基础教材。

五、教学过程1. 导入（5分钟）：通过展示世界地图，引入不同地区语言的多样性，激发学生对语言起源和分类的兴趣。

2. 理论讲解（20分钟）：介绍语系分类、语音学基础和词汇学构成，结合教材第二章13节内容。

3. 实践情景引入（10分钟）：播放不同语言的问候语录音，让学生体验语言差异。

4. 例题讲解（15分钟）：讲解语音学中元音、辅音的分类及发音规则，通过例词进行示范。

5. 随堂练习（10分钟）：分组进行语音模仿和词汇构造练习。

六、板书设计1. 语系与语言分类印欧语系汉藏语系阿尔泰语系2. 语音学基础元音与辅音发音规则3. 词汇学初步词根、词缀词语构成七、作业设计beautifulunderstand2. 答案：beautiful: beauty, beautifully, beastunderstand: understanding, understandable, misunderstand八、课后反思及拓展延伸1. 反思：关注学生在课堂上的参与度，针对语音模仿环节进行教学调整，提高学生的发音准确性。

2. 拓展延伸：鼓励学生课下阅读更多关于语音学和词汇学的资料，了解语言的发展趋势及其背后的文化因素。

英语语言学知识精编版

英语语言学知识GE GROUP system office room 【GEIHUA16H-GEIHUA GEIHUA8Q8-Chapter 1 Introduction语言学的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.问题：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language?→It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.What the linguist has to do “first, then, but”:①to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.②to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.③to check the hypotheses thus formed repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)问题: What are the major branches of linguisticsWhat does each of them study?→phonetics（语音学）→the study of sounds→phonology（音位学）→study how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning→morphology（形态学）→study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.→syntax（句法学）→the study of rules of forming sentences→semantics（语义学）→the study of meaning→pragmatics（语用学）→ the context of language useSociolinguistics（社会语言学）：The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch. Psycholinguistics（语言心理学）：Relate the study of language to psychologyApplied linguistics（应用语言学）：In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Some important distinctions in linguistics:①prescriptive（规定性）/descriptive（描写性）②synchronic（共时）/diachronic（历时）③speech（口语）/writing（书面语）④langue（语言）/parole（言语）（the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure——Course in General Linguistics）⑤competence（语言能力）/performance（语言应用）（the American linguist N. Chomsky）⑥traditional grammar （传统语法）/modern linguistics（现代语言学）问题：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?①linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.②modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.③modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.问题：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronicWhyIn modern linguistics, a synchronic (不考虑历史演进的, 限于一时的) approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic (探求现象变化的, 历时的) one.Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in itshistorical development.Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.问题：For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written.Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. And linguists’ data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.语言的定义：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Design features of language（7个识别特征）①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization and abstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Functions of language：三大主要功能：The descriptive functionThe expressive functionThe social functionRoman Jacobson（6种首要因素，结构主义语言学家）①speaker addresser→emotive 感情功能②addressee→conative 意动功能③context→referential所指功能④message→poetic 诗学功能⑤contact→phatic communion交感功能⑥code→metalinguistic 元语言功能Other functions:①phatic function 问候功能②informative f. 信息功能③interrogative f. 询问功能④expressive f. 表达功能⑤evocative f. 感染功能⑥directive f. 指令功能⑦performative f. 行使（权力）功能①ideational②interpersonal（indicate/establish/maintain/social relationships）③textual问题：How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?The distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langueis relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while parole varies from people to people, and from situation to situation.The distinction between competence and performance proposed by the American linguists Chomsky, competence is a deal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors.Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investigation, and that linguistics should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.问题：What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animalcommunication system?①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization and abstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics: （语音学）①the study of the phonic medium of language②look at speech sounds from 3 distinct but related points of view.Ⅰstudy the sounds from the speaker’s point of view→articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）Ⅱlook at the sounds from the hearer’s point of view→auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）Ⅲstudy the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves→acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）③study how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived.Organs of speech:⒈three important areas①The pharyngeal cavity→the throat② the oral cavity→the mouth③ the nasal cavity→the nose⒉ The pharyngeal cavity→windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocal cords⒊ the oral cavity→tongue/uvula/soft palate(velum)/hard palate/teeth ridge(alveolus)/teeth/lipsInternational Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）①diacritics 附加符号②broad transcription（宽式标音）→the transcription with letter-symbols only③narrow transcription（严式标音）→the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics Classification of English speech sounds①two broad categories of speech sounds in English: Vowels/consonants②two ways to classify the English consonants: In terms of manner ofarticulationIn terms of place of articulation ③In terms of manner of articulation:Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glides④In terms of place of articulation:Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottal⑤Classification of English vowels⒈criteria :（monophthongs）单元音The position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/backThe openness of the mouth: close vowels/semi-close vowels/semi-openvowels/open vowelsThe shape of the lips: unrounded/roundedThe length of the vowels: tense/lax⒉diphthongs 双元音/ ei // ai // au // u // i // i? //ε// u? /Phonology 音韵学，语音体系Difference of phonology and phonetics:①Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all humanlanguages.②Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language formpatterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning inlinguistic communication.Phone（音素）: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme（音位）: It is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.Allophone（音位变体）: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Phonemic contrast（音位对立）Complementary distribution（音位变体的互补分布）Minimal pairs（最小对立体）：含音位的单词的全部音标Minimal set（最小对立集）：is used to find the important sounds in language.Phonological Analysis（音位分析）Principle: certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase, whereas other sounds do not.Phonetically similar sounds:描述音位关系Free variants: 音位的自由变体The difference of pronouncing a sound caused by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule.Some rules in phonology①sequential rules: 序列规则If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:The first phoneme must be / s /The second phoneme must be / p / / t / / k /The third phoneme must be / l // r // w /②assimilation rule:同化规则③deletion rule：省略规则Suprasegmental features 超音段特征≠超音段（比音位更大的语言单位）①stress（单词，句子层面）：the location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.Syllable音节：A syllable nucleus (often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (often consonants)单音节词多音节词英语单词都有重读音位学中，单词由音节构成，音节由音位构成。

英语语言学第二章

Chapter 22011-09-29 22:17:14| 分类：讲义内容| 标签：|字号大中小订阅II. PHONOLOGY2.1 The phonic medium of languageThe linguist is not interested in all sounds, but in speech sounds that are produced by humans through their speech organs and have a role to play in linguistic communication. This limited range of sounds is the phonic medium oflanguage.2.2 Phonetics2.2.1 What is phonetics?Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language, which refers to a limited range of speech sounds that are produced by humans through their speech organs and that have a role to play in linguistic communication. Phonetics has three branches—articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, andauditory phonetics.Articulatory phonetics: from speaker’s point of view, how speakers articulatesoundsAcoustic phonetics: how sound waves travel in the airAuditory phonetics: from hearer’s po int of view, how hearers perceive sounds2.2.2 Organs of speechPharyngeal cavitylungs <<<< windpipe <<<< glottis < vocal cords (when they are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration — voiceless sounds; if they are held together tautly so that the air stream vibrates them at different vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing” ---voicedsounds.Oral cavity:Lips, tongue, teeth, teeth ridge, hard palate, soft palate, uvular[ p ] [ v ] [ s ] [ d ] [ l ] [ k ]Nasal cavity:Lungs<<<< windpipe<<<<glottis<<<< nostrils2.2.3 Orthographic representation of speech sounds –broad and narrowtranscriptionsInternational Phonetic Alphabet: the basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speechsound.Diacritics: a set of symbols which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do.Broad transcription: a set of symbols with each letter representing one sound (used in textbooks, dictionaries, ect) Narrow transcription: letter symbol + diacritics (a set of symbol to show the finedistinctions between sounds)(used by phoneticians for the detailed study of sounds)2.2.4 Classification of English speech soundsThe English speech sounds can first of all be classified into vowels and consonants. The basic difference between these two classes is that in the production of the former the air stream meets with no obstruction in the nose or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is somehow obstructed.2.2.4.1 Classification of the English consonantsThe English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation and also in terms of place of articulation. Table 1 Consonants in EnglishIn terms of manner of articulation, the English consonants can be classifiedinto the following types:1) Stops (plosives) the obstruction created by the speech organs is total and the speech sound is produced with the obstruction audibly released and the airpassing out again.2) Fricatives The obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrowpassage in the mouth so as to cause definite local friction at the point.3) affricates The obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly with thefriction resulting from partial obstruction as in fricatives.4) liquids 5) nasals 6) glides (semivowels)According to the place in the mouth where the obstruction occurs, the English vowels can be classified into the following types:1) bilabials 2) labiodental 3) dental 4) alveolar5) alveolar-palatal 6) palatal 7) velar 8) glottal2.2.4.2 Classification of the English vowels1. Which part of the tongue is raised the highestPure vowels can be distinguished as front, central, and back according to the part of the tongue that is raised the highest. front vowels centralvowels back vowels2. The openness of the mouthThere are open and close vowels. All the rest are either semi-open orsemi-close.3. The shape of the lips.They can be rounded and unrounded.4. The length of the vowelsTense (long) and lax (short) vowels. When we pronounce a long vowel, the larynx is in a state of tension, and in the pronunciation of a short vowel, thelarynx is quite relaxed.Individual vowels are also known as monophthongs. In English there are alsoa number of diphthongs, which are produced by moving from one vowelposition to another through intervening.2. 3 Phonology2. 3.1 Phonetics and phonologyBoth phonetics and phonology study the speech sounds. Phonetics is of a general nature: it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ form each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology is concerned with the sound system of a particular language, so the conclusions we reach about the phonology of one language is very often language specific and should not be applied to another language withoutdiscretion.Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguisticcommunication.2.3.2 Phone, phoneme and allophoneA phone is a phonetic segment or unit. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistics communication are all phones. One speech sound is one phone. But phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning.A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. Phonemes are abstract. They are not any particular sound, but rather they are realized by a certain phones in certain phonetic contexts.The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.。

英语语言学

I. Introduction1. What is LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for humancommunication.2. What is Linguistics(语言学)Linguistics is the scientific study of language.3.Some Basic Distinctions(区分) inLinguistics3.1 Speech and Writing/???One general principle(原则) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范畴) and usesthat speech does not have.3.2 Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性)A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.3.3 Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) StudiesThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.3.4 Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)This is a distinction made by the Swisslinguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔）early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue.3.5 Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)Competence is theuser's knowledge of the rules of hislanguage. Performance is the realization of this knowledge i n utterances(发声).4.The Scope of LinguisticsGeneral linguistics is the study of language as a whole.Phonetics(语音学)is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.Morphology(词法) is the branch oflinguistics which studies the form of words.Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.pragmatics 语用学: the way in which language is used to express meaning in particular situation.Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language.Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages.Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between l anguage and the mind.Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes.Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics.Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts(概念) are applied, often with the aid of a computer.II. Phonetics(语音学）1. scope of phoneticsSpeech sounds may be studied from different angles, thus we have at least three branches of phonetics:Articulatory phonetics(发音语音学）we may examine the way WHERE a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate(协调）in the process.Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学）we may look into the i mpression a speaker makes on the hearer as mediated(调节）by the ear, theauditory nerve(神经）and the brain.Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）we study the physical properties o f speech sounds, as transmitted（传送）between mouth and ear.2. The vocal organsThe vocal organs may be viewed as consisting of three parts, the initiator of the air-stream,(气流发生器官）the producer of voice（声音发生器官）and the resonating cavities.（声音共振器官）3. Consonants(辅音）Places of articulation(发音部位）: bilabial,(双唇）Labiodentals,（唇齿）dental,（齿）alveolar,（齿龈）retroflex,（卷舌）palate-alveolar,（上齿龈）palatal,（上颚）velar,（软腭）uvular,（小舌）glottal(声门）Manners of articulation: plosive,（暴破）nasal,（鼻音）trill,（颤音）lateral,（边音）fricative,（摩擦）approximant,（近似音）affricate（破擦）4. Vowels (元音）The classification of vowels: the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low), the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back), and the degree of lip rounding(rounded, unrounded)III. Phonology（音韵学）sound pattern还没看音标是音素的表示方式元音 2012个单元音长元音/i:/ /ə:/ /a:/ /ɔ:/ /u:/短元音/i/ /e/ /ae/ /ə/ /ʌ/ /ɔ/ /u/8个双元音/ei/ /ai/ /ɔi/ /əu/ /au/ /iə/ /εə/ /uə/辅音 10对 20清辅音/p/ /t/ /k/ /f/ /θ/ /s/ /ʃ/ /h/ /tʃ/ /ts/ /tr/浊辅音/b/ /d/ /g/ /v/ /ð/ /z/ /ʒ/ /r/ /dʒ/ /dz/ /dr/ /j/ /w/ /m/ /n/ /ŋ/ /l/3个鼻音/m/ /n/ /ŋ/3个似拼音/h/ /r/ /l/2个半元音[2]/w/ /j/国际音标的输入国际音标的输入国际音标的输入Phoneme : the smallest unit of speech1. phonemes(音素）：a distinctive(有区别的）sound in a language. / feuni:m/2. Allophones(音位变体）：The nondistinctive sounds are members of the same phoneme.Different forms of the same phoneme, I 有两个发音3. Minimal pairs(最小对立体）/ the least difference：word forms which differ from each other only by one sound. ROT LOT4. Free variation (自由变异）：If two sounds occurring in the same environment(环境）, they does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word.5. Complementary distribution(补充分类）：Not all the speech sounds occur in the same environment. When two sounds never occur in the same environment connected with allophone. Relationship between two different elements, in which one is used in a situation, another one is used in a different situation. /p/ 有两个allophone，spin/pin6.Suprasegmental phonology(超音段音位）/ secondary phoneme：the study of phonological properties(性质）of units lager than the segment-phoneme. They are syllable(音节），stress,（重音）word stress, sentence stress. pitch （音调）and intonation（语调）. 语调就是声调的高低起伏，已于顿挫IV. Morphology（词法）1. inflection(屈折变化）word changes its form to show different meanings or use.：the grammaticalrelationships through the addition of inflectional affixes.(屈折词缀）2. Word-formation(构词）：the process es(过程）of word variations signaling lexical relationships.（表明词法关系）They are compound(合成）and derivation (派生）.compound: a noun or adjective made up of two or more words.Derivation: a word that comes from another word or language.3. Morpheme(词素）：the smallest semantically meaningful unit in terms of relationship between expression and content.∙Unbreakable" comprises three morpheme s: un- (a bound 粘合morpheme signifying "not"), -break- (the root, a free morpheme), and -able (a bound morpheme signifying "can be done").∙Allomorphs of the plural morpheme for regular nouns: /s/ (e.g. in cats /kæts/), /ɨz/ (e.g.in dishes /dɪʃɨz/), and /z/ (e.g. in dogs /dɒɡz/).5. Types of morphemes: They are roots,(词根）affix （词缀）and stem（词干）.Root: the basic part of a word showing its mainmeaning .Stem: the part of a word that stays the same whendifferent endings are added to it4. Allomorph(同质异象变体）：some morphemes have considerable variation,for instance, alternate shapes or phonetic forms.巧记：allo 意思是多，多音素。

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Chapter 10 Language Acquisition1. Try to explain the terms:Language acquisitionLanguage Acquisition DeviceCritical Period Hypothesis,答：Language acquisition refers to the child's acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.Language Acquisition Device, (also known as LAD). The LAD was described as an imaginary “black box” existing somewhere in the human brain. The “black box” is said to contain principles that are universal to all human languages. Children need access to the samples of a natural language to activate the LAD, which enables them to discover his language's structure by matching the innate knowledge of basic grammatical system to that particular language.Closely related to the external language environment, age is another factor that is worth mentioning in first language acquisition. Observed that children's ability to develop normal behaviors and knowledge in environments does not continue indefinitely end that children who have never learned language (for various reasons) cannot return to normal if these deprivations go on for too long, Eric Lenneberg, a biologist, argued that the LAD, like other biological functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time ––a specific and limited time period for language acquisition –– which is referred to as the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH). There are two versions of the CPH. While the strong one suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure, the weak holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty.2. Among the language acquisition theories mentioned in this chapter, which one do you think is more reasonable and convincing? Explain why.答：The language acquisition theories mentioned in this chapter have different emphasis on different aspects. Behaviorists view sounds reasonable in explaining the routine aspects, the innatist accounts most plausible in explaining children's acquiring complex system, and the interactive description convincing in understanding how children learn and use the language appropriately from their environment. In my opinion, behaviorists view is more reasonable and convincing because language acquisition is a process of enforcing and reinforcing. Only through this process can a person learn a language well.3. Which of the following statements are TRUE and which are FALSE? Why?a) All normal children have equal ability in learning their first language.b) It is easy for parents to teach their children grammar.c) The young child is not taught to speak, or to understand his language. There is no formal learning of grammar or pronunciation practice.d) At first children do not inflect nouns or verbs.e) Children learn their native language well whenever they start and whatever kinds of language samples they receive.f) For a child to acquire his mother tongue the most basic requirement is that he hears people speaking this language. He will then begin to learn the language.g) Phonology and grammar are finite, tightly structured systems, the child must master them before puberty in order to be a native speaker of the language.答：a) True, because of LAD.b) False, because children's grammatical development is gradual and some subtle grammatical distinctions may not be mastered much before the age of ten.c) True, because his language is acquired.d) True, because at the very beginning, children's language is totally about content.e) False, because of CPH.f) True, because when a child acquires his native language he needs language environment.g) True, because of CPH.4. Each of the following utterances comes from the speech of a child in the two-word state. Identify the semantic relation expressed by each of these utterancesIntended meaning Child’s utterancea) Jimmy is swimming? Jimmy swimb) Ken’s book Ken bookc) Daddy is at his office. Daddy officed) You push the babies. Push babye) Mommy is reading. Mommy read答：(略)Chapter 11 Second Language Acquisition1. To what extent is second language learning similar to first language learning? Can you list some proof from your own learning experiences?答：(1) From a theoretical point of view, the new findings and advances in first language acquisition especially in learning theories and learning process are illuminating in understanding second language acquisition. The techniques used to collect and analyze date in first language acquisition also provide insights and perspectives in the study of second language acquisition. For example, we started to learn our native language from listening, and then speaking.(2) (略)2. Try to observe yourself and pay attention to your own learning experience, what conclusions can you reach about the role of Chinese in your English learning? On what occasions are you more likely to use or depend on Chinese in learning or using English?答：(略)3. Identify the errors in the following sentences and trace the possible cause for each error.a) Please do not hinder my work.b) –– Would you mind lending me your tape-recorder?–– Yes, certainly.c) During the meeting we discussed about the research project.d) Alison is in poor health. She is easy to catch cold.e) Tile light can impress the film and in this way to fix the image of the film.f) The scenery is too beautiful to describe it.答：a) Please do not hinder me in my work.(negative transfer)b) –– Would you mind lending me your tape-recorder?–– No, I don't.(negative transfer)c) During the meeting we discussed the research project.(overgeneralization)d) Alison is in poor health. She catches cold easily.(overgeneralization)e) The light can impress the film and in this way can fix the image of the film.(negative transfer)f) The scenery is too beautiful to describe.(cross-association)4. Based on your own experience, give at least three examples which are related to overgeneralization and performance errors.答：Overgeneralization: * I losed the game.* There are ten sheeps.* I was devoted to do this job.5. What kind of a language learner you are? Have you ever thought of why and how you learn English?答：(略)6. List the learning strategies you use frequently, and then compare that with the strategy listed in 11. 8.答：(略)7. Identify personality factors that may contribute to the success of learning a second/foreign language.答：The personality traits such as extroversion, talkativeness, self-esteem,self-confidence may contribute to the success of learning a second/foreign language.女人，应该活出自己的自信和精彩，不能把赖以生存的东西寄托在他人身上，不管他多么爱你，终有一天会厌倦你的依赖和无所事事。