communicative competence

Communicative competence is a term in linguistics which refers to a language user's grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately.The term was coined by Dell Hymes in 1966,[1]reacting against the perceived inadequacy of Noam Chomsky's (1965) distinction between competence and performance.[2]To address Chomsky's abstract notion of competence, Hymes undertook ethnographic exploration of communicative competence that included "communicative form and function in integral relation to each other".[3]The approach pioneered by Hymes is now known as the ethnography of communication.Debate has occurred regarding linguistic competence and communicative competence in the second and foreign language teaching literature, and scholars have found communicative competence as a superior model of language following Hymes' opposition to Chomsky's linguistic competence. This opposition has been adopted by those who seek new directions toward a communicative era by taking for granted the basic motives and the appropriateness of this opposition behind the development of communicative competence.[Use in educationThe notion of communicative competence is one of the theories that underlies the communicative approach to foreign language teaching.[3]Canale and Swain (1980) defined communicative competence in terms of three components:[5]1.grammatical competence: words and rules2.sociolinguistic competence: appropriateness3.strategic competence: appropriate use of communication strategiesCanale (1983) refined the above model, adding discourse competence: cohesion and coherenceA more recent survey of communicative competence by Bachman (1990) divides it into the broad headings of "organizational competence," which includes both grammatical and discourse (or textual) competence, and "pragmatic competence," which includes both sociolinguistic and "illocutionary" competence.[6]Strategic Competence is associated with the interlocutors' ability in using communication strategies (Faerch & Kasper, 1983; Lin, 2009).Through the influence of communicative language teaching, it has become widely accepted that communicative competence should be the goal of language education, central to good classroom practice.[7] This is in contrast to previous views in which grammatical competence was commonly given top priority. The understanding of communicative competence has been influenced by the field of pragmatics and the philosophy of language concerning speech acts as described in large part by John Searle and J.L. Austin.Linguistic competence is the system of linguistic knowledge possessed by native speakers of a language. It is in contrast to the concept of Linguistic performance, the way the language system is used in communication. The concept was first introduced by Noam Chomsky[1]as part of the foundations for his Generative grammar, but it has since been adopted and developed by other linguists, particularly those working in the generativist tradition. In the generativist tradition competence is the only level of language that is studied, because this level gives insights into the Universal Grammar, that generativists see as underlying all human language systems. Functional theories of grammar tend to dismiss the sharp distinction between competence and performance, and particularly the primacy given to the study of competence.According to Chomsky, competence is the 'ideal' language system that makes it possible for speakers to produce and understand an infinite number [nb 1]of sentences in their language, and to distinguish grammatical sentences from ungrammatical sentences. This is unaffected by "grammatically irrelevant conditions" such as speech errors.[1]Competence and components of grammarFurther information: Theoretical LinguisticsOne's competence is defined by the grammar,[nb 2][3]or set of language rules, that is represented mentally and manifested based on his or her own understanding of acceptable usage in a given linguistic idiom. Therefore, grammatical competence defines an innate knowledge of rules rather than knowledge of items or relations. According to Chomsky, it is regarded to be innate because one does not have to be trained to develop it and will still be able to apply it in an infinite number of unheard examples.[4]The core components of the grammar are included in the speaker's linguistic competence and these components corresponds to five of the major subfields of linguistics:•Phonetics: The physical production and perception of the inventory of sounds used in producing language.•Phonology: The mental organization of physical sounds and the patterns formed by the way sounds are combined in a language, and the restrictions on permissible sound combinations.E.g.: slip vs *slib and *sbill•Morphology: The identification, analysis and description of units of meaning in a language. One will know the inflectional andderivational morphology present in the language, such as theaffixes of words.E.g.: re-cuddle can be derived but not *re-rich•Syntax: The structure and formation of sentences. One can distinguish between grammatical sentences and ungrammaticalsentences.E.g.: My hair needs washing is acceptable but not *My hair needswash•Semantics: Understanding the meaning of sentences. This is also howa user of the language is able to understand and interpret thenon-literal meaning in a given utterance. They are threedistinctions drawn here:(i) Meaningful and non-meaningful sentencesE.g.: The accident was seen by thousands is meaningful but not *Theaccident was looked by thousands(ii) Same structure but different meaningsE.g.: The cow was found by the stream but not *The cow was foundby the farmer(iii) Different structures and still be able to relate the meaningsE.g.: The police examined the bullet.The bullet was examined by the police.Competence in PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics is primarily concerned with language as a psychological phonomenon.[18] It provides insights into how we assemble our own speech and writing and how we understand that of others; into how we store and use vocabulary; into how we manage to acquire language in the first place.[19]According to experimental linguist N.S. Sutherland, the task of psycholinguistics is not to confirm Chomsky's account of linguistic competence by undertaking experiments. It is by doing experiments, to find out what are the mechanisms that underlie linguistic competence.[20] Psycholinguistics generally do not see the distinction between performance and competence to accurately reflect the empirical data, but tend to prefer usage based theories.[21]There are 3 important elements of psycholinguistics that are used to describe the mechanisms underlying our language understanding and production.(i) The language signalThis refers to all forms of language expression, such as writing and speech, which are generated and perceived by language users. The most striking characteristic of the language signal is its perceptual invariance, both in writing and in speech, as there is always a salient and stable form that stands out against its physical environment. In our perception of such forms, gaps are closed, and irregularities are overlooked.[18](ii) Operations of our neuropsychological systemThe operations of our neuropsychological systems determine how language signals are perceived and generated. For both speech and writing, there are two very different sorts of biological system involved. Speech involves auditory pathways from sensory organs to the brain then the vocal tract whilst writing involves motor pathways from sensory organs to the brain followed by the hand-arm system. However, they do have a similarity in that both involve short pathways to the central processing areas in the brain, regarded as the central language area.[18](iii) Language SystemThis is more abstract than the first two since it may be implemented even when we are not using palpable language signals at all, as in silent verbal reasoning, contemplation of our language and general language knowledge .[18][edit] Communicative competenceMain article: Communicative competenceAnother functionalist theory advances the notion of communicative competence, which focuses on socially-situated performance, was developed by Dell Hymes in response to the abstract nature of linguistic competence.[22][23] Communicative competence is also sometimes referred to as pragmatic or sociolinguistic competence, especially when the emphasis is on how to interpret the speaker's intended meaning in a particular utterance, apart from the literal meaning.[24]The major criticism towards Chomsky's notion of linguistic competence by Hymes is the inadequate distinction of competence and performance. Furthermore, he commented that it is unreal and that no significant progress in linguistics is possible without studying forms along with the ways in which they are used. As such, linguistic competence should fall under the domain of communicative competence since it comprises four competence areas, namely, linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic.Communicative Language Teaching approachThe Definition Of CLTCommunicative Language Teaching (CLT) originated from the changes in the British Situational Language Teaching approach dating from the late 1960s (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). Stemming from the socio-cognitive perspective of the socio-linguistic theory, with an emphasis on meaning and communication, and a goal to develop learners’ “communicative competence”, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach evolves as a prominent language teaching method and gradually replaced the previous grammar-translation method and audio-lingual method (Warschauer & Kern, 2000). Since the concept of “communicative competence” was first int roduced by Hymes in themid-1960s, many researchers have helped develop theories and practices of Communicative Language Teaching approach (Brown, 1987; Canale, 1983; Hymes, 1971; Littlewood, 1981; Nattinger, 1984; Nunan, 1987 &1989; Richards & Rodgers, 1986; Widdowson, 1990). Hymes coined this term in contrast to Chomsky’s “Linguistic Competence”. As Stern (1992) explicated, “Competence represents proficiency at its most abstract and psychologically deepest level” (p.73). Chomsky indicated that underlying the concrete language performance, there is an abstract rule system or knowledge and this underlying knowledge of the grammar of the language by the native speaker is his “linguistic competence”. In contrast, Hymes argue that in addition to linguistic comp etence, the native speaker has another rule system. In Hymes’ view, language was considered as a social and cognitive phenomenon; syntax and language forms were understood not as autonomous, acontextual structures, but rather as meaning resources used in particular conventional ways and develop through social interaction and assimilation of others’ speech (Warschauer & Kern, 2000). Therefore, speakers of a language have to have more than grammatical competence in order to be able to communicate effectively in a language; they also need to know how language is used by members of a speech community to accomplish their purposes (Hymes, 1968). Based on this theory, Canale and Swain (1980) later extend the “Communicative competence” into four dimensions. In Canal e and Swain, “‘Communicative competence’ was understood as the underlying systems of knowledge and skill required for communication. Knowledge refers here to what one knows (consciously or unconsciously) about the language and about other aspects of communicative language use; skill refers to how well one can perform this knowledge in actual communication (Canale, 1983, p.5)”. From this perspective, what language teachers need to teach is no longer just linguistic competence but also socio-linguistic compe tence (“which utterances are produced and understood appropriately in different socio-linguistic contexts”), discourse competence (“mastery of how to combine grammaticalforms and meanings to achieve a unified spoken or written text in different genres”), and strategic competence (“mastery of verbal and non-verbal communication strategies that may be called into action for compensating or enhancing communication”) (Canale, 1983, pp.7-11).Distinguishing Features Of CLTRichards and Rodgers (2001) have revi ewed a number of people’s works on CLT and described several distinguishing features of it. As “communicative competence” is the desired goal, in CLT, meaning is paramount (Finocchiaro & Brumfit, 1983, cited by Richards and Rodgers, 2001). In socio-cognitive perspectives, language is viewed as a vehicle of conveying meaning, and knowledge is transmitted through communication involving two parts, for example, speakers and listeners, and writers and readers, but is constructed through negotiation. As a consequence, “communication is not only a matter of following conventions but also of negotiating through and about the conventions themselves. It is a convention-creating as well as convention-following activity (Breen & Candlin, 2001, p.10)”. Therefore, there are three elements involved in the underlying learning theory: communication principle, task-based principle, and meaningfulness principle (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.161). Based on this perception, when applied to language learning, “functional activities” and “social interaction activities” (Littlewood, 1981) are consequently selected according to how well they engage the learner in meaning and authentic language use; learning is interpersonal to learn to communicate; attempt to communicate may be encouraged from the very beginning; dialogues, if used, centre around communicative functions and not normally memorized; and contextualization is basic premise; drilling may occur, but peripherally; any device that helps to communicate and understand is acceptable (Finocchiaro & Brumfit, 1983, cited by Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.156). To some extent, that is to say, students do not simply learn the linguistic structures andgrammar rules. Rather, they should be actively making meaning through activities such as collaborative problem solving, writing for a purpose, discussion of topics of genuine interest, and reading, viewing and responding to authentic materials (Murphy, 2000).Since knowledge and learning are viewed as socially constructed through negotiation according to socio-cognitive perspectives (Breen & Candlin, 2001), another dimension of CLT is learner-centred andexperience-based. “With interactive communicative language use as the call of the day, communicative processes became as important as linguistic product, and instruction became more learner-centered and less structurally driven” (Kern & Warschauer, 2000, p.5). In another word, in CLT context, learners are seen as active participants in the construction of knowledge, rather than passive recipients of information provided by the teacher or the textbook. In contrast, language teachers are no longer viewed as the authority of the knowledge, playing a dominant role. Rather, they share different roles such as communication facilitater, independent participant, needs analyst, counselor, and group process manager (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.167) to create more fascinating experiences for the learners.Besides the above features, Richards and Rodgers (2001) describe other significant characteristics of this approach including its efforts to make tasks and language relevant to a target group of learners through an analysis of genuine, realistic situations, its emphasis on the use of authentic, from-life materials, and its attempt to create a secure, nonthreatening atmosphere. All these attempts also follow the major principles of communicative view of language and language learning: helping learners learn a language through authentic and meaningful communication, which involves a process of creative construction, to achieve fluency. In this vein, in terms of classroom activity, it includes group work, task-work, information-gap activities, and projects.The Weaknesses Of CLTYet, inevitably, despite these outstanding characteristics, CLT also have weaknesses. Schmitt (2000) argued that CLT needs supportive vocabulary for functional language use but it gives little guidance about how to handle vocabulary. However, it has been now realized that mere exposure to language and practice with functional communication will not ensure the proficiency in language learning, so current best practice includes “both a principled selection of vocabulary, often according to frequency lists, and an instruction methodology that encourages meaningful engagement with words o ver a number of recyclings” (p.14). Stern (1992) also pointed out that CLT approach puts an excessive emphasis on the single concept “communication” so that “in order to account for all varieties and aspects of language teaching we either stretch the concept of communication so much that it loses any distinctive meaning, or we accept its limitations and then find ourselves in the predicament of the “method” solution” (p. 14). Some people criticized that as CLT focus on learner-centered approach, while in some accounts of CLT, learners bring preconception of what teaching and learning should be like, which when unrealized can lead to learner confusion and resentment (Henner-Stanchina & Riley, 1978, cited by Richards & Rodgers, 2001).In addition, some people contended that CLT has not given an adequate account of EFL teaching despite its initial growth in foreign language teaching in Europe (Li, 2001). Stern (1992) argued that one of the most difficult problems is making classroom learning communicative is the absence of native speakers. Apparently, CLT are more successful in English as a Second Language (ESL) context because students usually have a very supportive learning environment outside school. They have more chances to be exposed to the authentic contact with native speakers and the target language, which reinforces what they learn in class. Besides, they have the motivation to work on oral English because they need it in their lives. In contrast, in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context, due to some physical limitations, such as the purpose of learning English, learning environments, teachers’ Englishproficiency, and the availability of authentic English materials, CLT meets much more difficulties during its application.confronted by language teachers but it has a great potential that gain the apparent popularity in language teaching and learning domain. It also needs to realize that there In summary, CLT cannot be seen as a panacea for the problems that have been isn’t a fix framework of CLT. As learners and the learning context are dynamic, when CLT is applied to a certain context, the adaptation and innovation of it is necessary.。

communicative-competence交际能力资料

municative competence typically refers to how well someone is able to communicate with others, though this can be elaborated upon and further refined in a number of ways.2. Communicative competence is important for anyone who wishes to be able to communicate clearly, especially public speakers and people learning a second language.Politicians and other public speakers often seek high levels of communicative competence to be able to effectively convey meaning and express ideas to others. People who are learning a second language also tend to focus on this type of competence to ensure they understand subtext and various aspects of communication within that language that may be subtle and complex.The idea behind communicative competence is that the ways in which people communicate can be analyzed and considered with regard to effectiveness. Someone is often considered competent, at least on a surface level, if he or she can talk to someone else in a way that is appropriate and which conveys meaning in an accurate way. This actual process, however, is often seen as being composed of three basic steps that occur in communication. Planning is a vital part of communicative competence as it demonstrates that someone is able to think about communication ahead of time and prepare for it.2.During communication, the way in which a person communicates is often considered in two elements regarding his or her communicative competence. The message that is delivered is the actual content that a person speaks, writes, or otherwise expresses in some way. Within this message, however, is the meaning that a person manages to convey. Someone may feel that his or her message expresses one idea, but the actual meaning might not necessarily match the intention of the message.Communicative competence is important for just about anyone who wishes to communicate with other people in any type of relationship. Arguments and disagreements can often be avoided if people are able to effectively express meaning in a message.3. Comment1: Communicative competence starts developing at a young age. So childhood and education is important. But it's also true that some people naturally have more skill andcompetence in this area. I think it has to do with the various areas of the brain and which areas an individual uses more heavily.For example, my brother is a very smart person but his communication skills are very poor. I don't think he will every be competent in this area. He has always been this way.Comment2: Those who want to know what excellent communicative competence means can observe lawyers. Lawyers, naturally, have to be great communicators. They have to present their ideas and information in the right ways in order to make an impact on the listener.I knew many law students in school and they were some of the best communicators I have come across. The amazing part was that they used language so well that they could convince me of one thing and then argue against it and convince me of the opposite argument in a matter of minutes. Now that's communicative competence.4Language teaching in the United States is based on the idea that the goal of language acquisition is communicative competence: the ability to use the language correctly and appropriately to accomplish communication goals. The desired outcome of the language learning process is the ability to communicate competently, not the ability to use the language exactly as a native speaker does。

语言交际能力（communicativelanguageability）

第一章语言交际能力本章学习目标1. 了解语言能力的界定2. 掌握交际能力理论的研究内容及发展3. 了解Bachman的语言交际能力模式4. 明确什么是语言交际能力本章概述20世纪60年代起，语言能力与交际能力的概念及其范围逐渐广为人们接受，后者还被确立为外语教学的最终目标。

但对语言交际能力的界定，人们的认识不尽相同。

因此，本章拟通过对各学者的语言能力理论的介绍与分析，梳理一下语言交际能力的构成和发展。

1965年乔姆斯基（Chomsky）提出了“语言能力”(Linguisticcompetence)这一概念。

Chomsky认为：“能力”是指说话人—听话人的内在语言知识，或称内有语法。

语言能力是某种远比语言本身抽象的知识状态，是一套原则系统，一种知识体系，并非一种处事的能力，甚至也不是一种组织句子和理解句子的能力。

1972年海姆斯（Hymes）提出了与乔姆斯基相对立的“交际能力”这一概念。

他认为，一个人的交际能力包括语法(合法性)、心理(可行)、社会文化(得体)和概率(实际出现)等方面的判断能力。

用他自己的话说，交际能力是“何时说，何时不说以及关于何时何地以何方式与何人说何内容”。

“交际能力”(communicativecompetence)一词自从被海姆斯首次提出后，在语言学与应用语言学界引起了强烈的反应。

在对交际能力经过系统的研究之后，卡纳尔(Canale)与斯温(Swain)归纳出其四个组成部分：即语法能力(grammaticalcompetence)、社会语言能力(sociolinguistic competence)、策略能力(strategic competence)与话语能力(discoursecompetence)。

进入90年代，应用语言学教授Lyle·F·Bachman(1990)提出了自己的关于语言交际能力(Communicative Language Ability,CLA)的观点。

communicative competence

Communicative competence is a term in linguistics which refers to a language user's grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately.The term was coined by Dell Hymes in 1966,[1]reacting against the perceived inadequacy of Noam Chomsky's (1965) distinction between competence and performance.[2]To address Chomsky's abstract notion of competence, Hymes undertook ethnographic exploration of communicative competence that included "communicative form and function in integral relation to each other".[3]The approach pioneered by Hymes is now known as the ethnography of communication.Debate has occurred regarding linguistic competence and communicative competence in the second and foreign language teaching literature, and scholars have found communicative competence as a superior model of language following Hymes' opposition to Chomsky's linguistic competence. This opposition has been adopted by those who seek new directions toward a communicative era by taking for granted the basic motives and the appropriateness of this opposition behind the development of communicative competence.[Use in educationThe notion of communicative competence is one of the theories that underlies the communicative approach to foreign language teaching.[3]Canale and Swain (1980) defined communicative competence in terms of three components:[5]1.grammatical competence: words and rules2.sociolinguistic competence: appropriateness3.strategic competence: appropriate use of communication strategiesCanale (1983) refined the above model, adding discourse competence: cohesion and coherenceA more recent survey of communicative competence by Bachman (1990) divides it into the broad headings of "organizational competence," which includes both grammatical and discourse (or textual) competence, and "pragmatic competence," which includes both sociolinguistic and "illocutionary" competence.[6]Strategic Competence is associated with the interlocutors' ability in using communication strategies (Faerch & Kasper, 1983; Lin, 2009).Through the influence of communicative language teaching, it has become widely accepted that communicative competence should be the goal of language education, central to good classroom practice.[7] This is in contrast to previous views in which grammatical competence was commonly given top priority. The understanding of communicative competence has been influenced by the field of pragmatics and the philosophy of language concerning speech acts as described in large part by John Searle and J.L. Austin.Linguistic competence is the system of linguistic knowledge possessed by native speakers of a language. It is in contrast to the concept of Linguistic performance, the way the language system is used in communication. The concept was first introduced by Noam Chomsky[1]as part of the foundations for his Generative grammar, but it has since been adopted and developed by other linguists, particularly those working in the generativist tradition. In the generativist tradition competence is the only level of language that is studied, because this level gives insights into the Universal Grammar, that generativists see as underlying all human language systems. Functional theories of grammar tend to dismiss the sharp distinction between competence and performance, and particularly the primacy given to the study of competence.According to Chomsky, competence is the 'ideal' language system that makes it possible for speakers to produce and understand an infinite number [nb 1]of sentences in their language, and to distinguish grammatical sentences from ungrammatical sentences. This is unaffected by "grammatically irrelevant conditions" such as speech errors.[1]Competence and components of grammarFurther information: Theoretical LinguisticsOne's competence is defined by the grammar,[nb 2][3]or set of language rules, that is represented mentally and manifested based on his or her own understanding of acceptable usage in a given linguistic idiom. Therefore, grammatical competence defines an innate knowledge of rules rather than knowledge of items or relations. According to Chomsky, it is regarded to be innate because one does not have to be trained to develop it and will still be able to apply it in an infinite number of unheard examples.[4]The core components of the grammar are included in the speaker's linguistic competence and these components corresponds to five of the major subfields of linguistics:•Phonetics: The physical production and perception of the inventory of sounds used in producing language.•Phonology: The mental organization of physical sounds and the patterns formed by the way sounds are combined in a language, and the restrictions on permissible sound combinations.E.g.: slip vs *slib and *sbill•Morphology: The identification, analysis and description of units of meaning in a language. One will know the inflectional andderivational morphology present in the language, such as theaffixes of words.E.g.: re-cuddle can be derived but not *re-rich•Syntax: The structure and formation of sentences. One can distinguish between grammatical sentences and ungrammaticalsentences.E.g.: My hair needs washing is acceptable but not *My hair needswash•Semantics: Understanding the meaning of sentences. This is also howa user of the language is able to understand and interpret thenon-literal meaning in a given utterance. They are threedistinctions drawn here:(i) Meaningful and non-meaningful sentencesE.g.: The accident was seen by thousands is meaningful but not *Theaccident was looked by thousands(ii) Same structure but different meaningsE.g.: The cow was found by the stream but not *The cow was foundby the farmer(iii) Different structures and still be able to relate the meaningsE.g.: The police examined the bullet.The bullet was examined by the police.Competence in PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics is primarily concerned with language as a psychological phonomenon.[18] It provides insights into how we assemble our own speech and writing and how we understand that of others; into how we store and use vocabulary; into how we manage to acquire language in the first place.[19]According to experimental linguist N.S. Sutherland, the task of psycholinguistics is not to confirm Chomsky's account of linguistic competence by undertaking experiments. It is by doing experiments, to find out what are the mechanisms that underlie linguistic competence.[20] Psycholinguistics generally do not see the distinction between performance and competence to accurately reflect the empirical data, but tend to prefer usage based theories.[21]There are 3 important elements of psycholinguistics that are used to describe the mechanisms underlying our language understanding and production.(i) The language signalThis refers to all forms of language expression, such as writing and speech, which are generated and perceived by language users. The most striking characteristic of the language signal is its perceptual invariance, both in writing and in speech, as there is always a salient and stable form that stands out against its physical environment. In our perception of such forms, gaps are closed, and irregularities are overlooked.[18](ii) Operations of our neuropsychological systemThe operations of our neuropsychological systems determine how language signals are perceived and generated. For both speech and writing, there are two very different sorts of biological system involved. Speech involves auditory pathways from sensory organs to the brain then the vocal tract whilst writing involves motor pathways from sensory organs to the brain followed by the hand-arm system. However, they do have a similarity in that both involve short pathways to the central processing areas in the brain, regarded as the central language area.[18](iii) Language SystemThis is more abstract than the first two since it may be implemented even when we are not using palpable language signals at all, as in silent verbal reasoning, contemplation of our language and general language knowledge .[18][edit] Communicative competenceMain article: Communicative competenceAnother functionalist theory advances the notion of communicative competence, which focuses on socially-situated performance, was developed by Dell Hymes in response to the abstract nature of linguistic competence.[22][23] Communicative competence is also sometimes referred to as pragmatic or sociolinguistic competence, especially when the emphasis is on how to interpret the speaker's intended meaning in a particular utterance, apart from the literal meaning.[24]The major criticism towards Chomsky's notion of linguistic competence by Hymes is the inadequate distinction of competence and performance. Furthermore, he commented that it is unreal and that no significant progress in linguistics is possible without studying forms along with the ways in which they are used. As such, linguistic competence should fall under the domain of communicative competence since it comprises four competence areas, namely, linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic.Communicative Language Teaching approachThe Definition Of CLTCommunicative Language Teaching (CLT) originated from the changes in the British Situational Language Teaching approach dating from the late 1960s (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). Stemming from the socio-cognitive perspective of the socio-linguistic theory, with an emphasis on meaning and communication, and a goal to develop learners’ “communicative competence”, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach evolves as a prominent language teaching method and gradually replaced the previous grammar-translation method and audio-lingual method (Warschauer & Kern, 2000). Since the concept of “communicative competence” was first int roduced by Hymes in themid-1960s, many researchers have helped develop theories and practices of Communicative Language Teaching approach (Brown, 1987; Canale, 1983; Hymes, 1971; Littlewood, 1981; Nattinger, 1984; Nunan, 1987 &1989; Richards & Rodgers, 1986; Widdowson, 1990). Hymes coined this term in contrast to Chomsky’s “Linguistic Competence”. As Stern (1992) explicated, “Competence represents proficiency at its most abstract and psychologically deepest level” (p.73). Chomsky indicated that underlying the concrete language performance, there is an abstract rule system or knowledge and this underlying knowledge of the grammar of the language by the native speaker is his “linguistic competence”. In contrast, Hymes argue that in addition to linguistic comp etence, the native speaker has another rule system. In Hymes’ view, language was considered as a social and cognitive phenomenon; syntax and language forms were understood not as autonomous, acontextual structures, but rather as meaning resources used in particular conventional ways and develop through social interaction and assimilation of others’ speech (Warschauer & Kern, 2000). Therefore, speakers of a language have to have more than grammatical competence in order to be able to communicate effectively in a language; they also need to know how language is used by members of a speech community to accomplish their purposes (Hymes, 1968). Based on this theory, Canale and Swain (1980) later extend the “Communicative competence” into four dimensions. In Canal e and Swain, “‘Communicative competence’ was understood as the underlying systems of knowledge and skill required for communication. Knowledge refers here to what one knows (consciously or unconsciously) about the language and about other aspects of communicative language use; skill refers to how well one can perform this knowledge in actual communication (Canale, 1983, p.5)”. From this perspective, what language teachers need to teach is no longer just linguistic competence but also socio-linguistic compe tence (“which utterances are produced and understood appropriately in different socio-linguistic contexts”), discourse competence (“mastery of how to combine grammaticalforms and meanings to achieve a unified spoken or written text in different genres”), and strategic competence (“mastery of verbal and non-verbal communication strategies that may be called into action for compensating or enhancing communication”) (Canale, 1983, pp.7-11).Distinguishing Features Of CLTRichards and Rodgers (2001) have revi ewed a number of people’s works on CLT and described several distinguishing features of it. As “communicative competence” is the desired goal, in CLT, meaning is paramount (Finocchiaro & Brumfit, 1983, cited by Richards and Rodgers, 2001). In socio-cognitive perspectives, language is viewed as a vehicle of conveying meaning, and knowledge is transmitted through communication involving two parts, for example, speakers and listeners, and writers and readers, but is constructed through negotiation. As a consequence, “communication is not only a matter of following conventions but also of negotiating through and about the conventions themselves. It is a convention-creating as well as convention-following activity (Breen & Candlin, 2001, p.10)”. Therefore, there are three elements involved in the underlying learning theory: communication principle, task-based principle, and meaningfulness principle (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.161). Based on this perception, when applied to language learning, “functional activities” and “social interaction activities” (Littlewood, 1981) are consequently selected according to how well they engage the learner in meaning and authentic language use; learning is interpersonal to learn to communicate; attempt to communicate may be encouraged from the very beginning; dialogues, if used, centre around communicative functions and not normally memorized; and contextualization is basic premise; drilling may occur, but peripherally; any device that helps to communicate and understand is acceptable (Finocchiaro & Brumfit, 1983, cited by Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.156). To some extent, that is to say, students do not simply learn the linguistic structures andgrammar rules. Rather, they should be actively making meaning through activities such as collaborative problem solving, writing for a purpose, discussion of topics of genuine interest, and reading, viewing and responding to authentic materials (Murphy, 2000).Since knowledge and learning are viewed as socially constructed through negotiation according to socio-cognitive perspectives (Breen & Candlin, 2001), another dimension of CLT is learner-centred andexperience-based. “With interactive communicative language use as the call of the day, communicative processes became as important as linguistic product, and instruction became more learner-centered and less structurally driven” (Kern & Warschauer, 2000, p.5). In another word, in CLT context, learners are seen as active participants in the construction of knowledge, rather than passive recipients of information provided by the teacher or the textbook. In contrast, language teachers are no longer viewed as the authority of the knowledge, playing a dominant role. Rather, they share different roles such as communication facilitater, independent participant, needs analyst, counselor, and group process manager (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.167) to create more fascinating experiences for the learners.Besides the above features, Richards and Rodgers (2001) describe other significant characteristics of this approach including its efforts to make tasks and language relevant to a target group of learners through an analysis of genuine, realistic situations, its emphasis on the use of authentic, from-life materials, and its attempt to create a secure, nonthreatening atmosphere. All these attempts also follow the major principles of communicative view of language and language learning: helping learners learn a language through authentic and meaningful communication, which involves a process of creative construction, to achieve fluency. In this vein, in terms of classroom activity, it includes group work, task-work, information-gap activities, and projects.The Weaknesses Of CLTYet, inevitably, despite these outstanding characteristics, CLT also have weaknesses. Schmitt (2000) argued that CLT needs supportive vocabulary for functional language use but it gives little guidance about how to handle vocabulary. However, it has been now realized that mere exposure to language and practice with functional communication will not ensure the proficiency in language learning, so current best practice includes “both a principled selection of vocabulary, often according to frequency lists, and an instruction methodology that encourages meaningful engagement with words o ver a number of recyclings” (p.14). Stern (1992) also pointed out that CLT approach puts an excessive emphasis on the single concept “communication” so that “in order to account for all varieties and aspects of language teaching we either stretch the concept of communication so much that it loses any distinctive meaning, or we accept its limitations and then find ourselves in the predicament of the “method” solution” (p. 14). Some people criticized that as CLT focus on learner-centered approach, while in some accounts of CLT, learners bring preconception of what teaching and learning should be like, which when unrealized can lead to learner confusion and resentment (Henner-Stanchina & Riley, 1978, cited by Richards & Rodgers, 2001).In addition, some people contended that CLT has not given an adequate account of EFL teaching despite its initial growth in foreign language teaching in Europe (Li, 2001). Stern (1992) argued that one of the most difficult problems is making classroom learning communicative is the absence of native speakers. Apparently, CLT are more successful in English as a Second Language (ESL) context because students usually have a very supportive learning environment outside school. They have more chances to be exposed to the authentic contact with native speakers and the target language, which reinforces what they learn in class. Besides, they have the motivation to work on oral English because they need it in their lives. In contrast, in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context, due to some physical limitations, such as the purpose of learning English, learning environments, teachers’ Englishproficiency, and the availability of authentic English materials, CLT meets much more difficulties during its application.confronted by language teachers but it has a great potential that gain the apparent popularity in language teaching and learning domain. It also needs to realize that there In summary, CLT cannot be seen as a panacea for the problems that have been isn’t a fix framework of CLT. As learners and the learning context are dynamic, when CLT is applied to a certain context, the adaptation and innovation of it is necessary.。

10. communicative competence

Topic10 Communicative competence and communicative language teachinga.linguistic competenceN. Chomsky: the speaker-hearer’s knowledge of his language.A set of (finite or infinite) sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finiteset of elements.municative competenceD. Hymes: Whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible.Whether (and to what degree) something is feasible, in virtue of the means ofimplementation available.Whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate (adequate, happy,successful) in relation to the context in which it is used and evaluated.Whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done, actually performed, andwhat its doing entails.Knowledge vs ability for use: “the individual’s potential to realize a possible, feasible and appropriate speech act, not the realization itself”. Its scope is broad, including cognitive andnon-cognitive factors such as motivation, courage, gameness, gallantry, composure, presence of mind, dignity, stage confidence and others.M. Canale and M. Swain: Grammatical competenceSociolinguistic competenceDiscourse competenceStrategic competenceCanale and Swain deliberately exclude ability for use from their model of communicative competence. They argue that while performance may demonstrate such factors as volition,motivation, etc., they doubt that there is any theory of human action that can adequately explicateability for use and hence, as it cannot be modeled, it cannot be included in their framework. Theyview ability for use as simply part of communicative performance.municative language abilityL. Bachman:communicative language abilitylanguage competence strategic competence psychomotor skills organizational competence productive receptive grammatical competence textual competence visual oral visual orallexis morphology syntax phonology/ pragmatic competencegraphologycohesion rhetorical organizationillocutionary competence sociolinguistic competenceideational manipulative heuristic imaginative register cultural naturalness function function function function and referencesdialect and figuresof speechcohesion: comprises ways of explicitly marking semantic relations such as reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction and lexical cohesion, as well as the conventionsgoverning the ordering of old and new informationrhetorical organization: pertains to the overall conceptual structure of a text and is related to the effect of a text on the language user. Conventions of rhetorical organizations include common methods of development such as narration, description, comparison,classification and process analysis.an utterance act: simply the act of saying something.a propositional act: involving referring to something or expressing a predication aboutsomething.an illocutionary act: is the function (assertion, warning, request, order, etc.) performed by saying something or the purpose for which an utterance is produced.perlocutionary acts: the effect of an utterance upon the hearer.ideational function: by which we express meaning in terms of our experience of the real world.manipulative function: whose primary purpose is to affect the world around us and includes instrumental (to get thing done), regulatory (to control the behavior of others) and interactive (to form, maintain and change interpersonal relations) functions.heuristic function: pertains to the use of language to extend our knowledge of the world around us and occurs commonly in such acts as teaching, learning, problem-solving and conscious memorizing.imaginative function: to create or extend our own environment for humorous or estheticpurposes: telling jokes, communicating fantasies, creating metaphors or other figures ofspeech, as well as reading literary works for enjoyment.dialect: regional, class, temporalregister: degrees of formalitycultural references and figures of speech: The ability to interpret cultural references and figures of speech is another aspect of sociolinguistic competence. Many culturalreferences and figures of speech are incorporated, with set meanings, into the lexicon ofany language and are thus considered part of lexical competence. Nevertheless,knowledge of the extended meanings given by a specific culture to particular events,places, institutions, or people is required whenever these meanings are referred to inlanguage use.naturalness: to either formulate or interpret an utterance in a native-like way.strategic competence:1)interactional view: mastery of verbal and non-verbal strategies both to compensate forbreakdowns in communication due to insufficient competence or to performancelimitations and to enhance the rhetorical effect of an utterance.2)psycholinguistic view:I. Assessment component: i) identify the information needed for realizing a particularcommunicative goal in a given context, ii) determine what language competencies are at our disposal for most effectively bringing that information to bear in achieving the communicative goal, iii) ascertain the abilities and knowledge that are shared by our interlocutors, and iv) follow the communication attempt, evaluate the extent to which the communicative goal has been achieved.II. Planning component: retrieves relevant items from language competence and formulates a plan whose realization is expected to achieve the communicative goal.III. Execution component: draws on the relevant physiological mechanisms to implement the plan in the modality and channel appropriate to the communicative goal and context.psychophysiological mechanisms: are essentially the neurological and physiological processes. We can distinguish the visual from the auditory channel and the productive from the receptive mode. In receptive language use, visual and auditory skills are used, while in productive, neuromuscular skills (articulatory and digital)II. Components of communicative language ability in communicative language useKNOWLEDGE STRUCTURES LANGUAGE COMPETENCEKnowledge of the world Knowledge of languageSTRATEGIC COMPETENCEPSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMSCONTEXT OF SITUATIONNonverbal Communication1. Fundamental concepts of nonverbal communication1.1. The definitionNonverbal communication is the process by which nonverbal behaviors are used, either singly or in combination with verbal behaviors, in the exchange and interpretation of messages within a given situation or context.1.2. The functions of nonverbal messages1) complementing: consistent with the accompanying verbal message but add or strengthen orclarify the meaning of the verbal message.2) contradicting: contradict the verbal message.3) repeating: repeat the verbal message and can stand alone when the verbal message is notpresent.4) regulating: regulate the cooperative communication.5) accenting: accent or emphasize distinct points in verbal messages.6) substituting: nonverbal rather than verbal messages are sent.1.3. Nonverbal communication and culture1) transfer: when an item in the target nonverbal communication system corresponds in both form and meaning to an item in the native nonverbal communication system, the learner can simply transfer the native item to the target one: nodding2) underdifferentiation: an item in the native nonverbal communication system has no corresponding item in the target nonverbal communication system, the learner has to avoid using that item when interacting with the native user of that system: the turtle gesture as a swear gesture 3) reassociation: when an item in the target body language corresponds in meaning but not in form to an item in the native nonverbal communication system, the learner has to associate the meaning with a different form: eight. When an item in the target body language corresponds in form but not in meaning to an item in the native nonverbal communication system, the learner has to associate the form with a different meaning: the OK gesture means 0 in Chinese.4) reinterpretation: an item in the target nonverbal communication system is similar but not identical to an item in the native nonverbal communication system: the speaker claps his hands together with the audience when he completes his speech.5) overdifferentiation: an entirely new item in the target nonverbal communication system must be learned: thumb down to mean a strong “no”.6) conflict: an item in the target body language is similar or identical in form to an item in the native body language, but the two convey conflicting meaning in the two cultures: laugh when seeing, for example, somebody fall down.2. Kinesics or body language2.1. Facial expressions and eye behaviorThe four basic facial management techniques1) intensifying: to exaggerate one’s facial expression to meet others’ expectations: receiving gifts.2) deintensifying: deemphasize one’s facial behavior to maintain social relations: getting a jobwhile a close friend does not.3) neutralizing: avoid showing any emotion: hide one’s feelings of frustration or despair.4) masking: replace felt emotions with emotions thought to be appropriate: to smile to the winners. The three qualities or characteristics of eye behaviors1) saliency: having a high probability of being noticed.2) arousal: creating arousal.3) involvement: eye behaviors are involved in human interactions.02.2. GesturesThe five categories of gestures1) emblems: intentional and can replace spoken words: waving good bye.2) illustrators: intentional and illustrate the spoken words: that big.3) regulators: intentional and regulate conversations with one’s interlocutors:4) affect displays: unintentional, shaking when experiencing fear.5) adapters: unintentional, responses to boredom or stress-producing situations or responses tonegative feelings towards ourselves or someone else: rubbing one’s head.2.3. PosturesThe three categories of postures1) inclusive vs non-inclusive: acts or positions of a group that either include or block out otherpeople.2) face to face vs parallel body orientation: postural relationship between two people during aconversation.3) congruence vs non-congruence: whether the two persons involved imitate or share similarposture.3. T erritory and proxemicsThe three basic categories of territory1) primary territory: the space that exclusively belongs to its owner.2) secondary territory: not central to the daily activities of its owners and not under their exclusivecontrol. It might be invaded.3) public territory: open to anyone but subject to temporary ownership and can be defended aspersonal property.The four interpersonal distance zones1) the intimate zone: from touching to 18 inches, usually reserved for the very few special peoplein one’s life.2) the casual-personal zone: from 18 inches to about 4 feet, used when talking with close friendsor relatives.3) the socio-consultative zone: from 4 feet to 8 feet, used to discuss business.4) the public zone: from 8 feet to the limits of our vision and hearing, used to deliver a speech. 4. Kinethetic dimensionsThe five categories of touch1) functional-professional touch: impersonal, e.g. a doctor’s touching of his patients.2) socio-polite touch: acknowledge the other as a social role and are willing to show politeness tohim or her, e.g. hand-shaking.3) friendship-warmth touch: let others know that we appreciate them as unique individuals,hand-shaking, shoulder-clapping, hugging.4) love-intimacy touch: kissing, stroking the face or hair of another person.5) sexual arousal touch: the highest level of bodily contact.5. Dress and artifactsThe three functions of dress1) comfort and protection from the weather2) concealment3) cultural display (also the function of artifacts)6. Olfactory dimensionsBody odors are affected by diet, drinking water, mood, living habits, race, gender, age, reproductive state, health, exercise schedule, hygiene and emotional state.7. TimePsychological time orientation1) the past-oriented society: China2) the present-oriented society: Latin America3) the future-oriented society: North AmericaCultural time orientation1) technical time: impersonal, non-emotional, non-interpersonal2) formal time: the way in which a culture keep track of time.3) informal time: the casual time employed by a culture.。

关于Hymes对交流能力定义的分析与见解

2018年04期总第392期ENGLISH ON CAMPUS关于Hymes对交流能力定义的分析与见解文/何礼交流能力很难进行准确定义。

尤其是随着交流过程的复杂化，交流能力的定义更加困难。

在语言学历史上，交流能力被多次定义。

在不同时期，不同的语言学家都提出了不同的见解。

在本文的研究中，笔者将重点研究Dell Hymes对于这一概念的定义和理解。

交流能力概念产生的社会政治背景在1965年，美国民权运动(the Civil Rights Movement)空前发展。

时任美国总统约翰逊提出了“向贫困宣战”(War on Poverty)的计划。

在此情况下，美国的启智计划(Head Start)正式开始实施。

孩子的教育得到了前所未有的重视。

连总统本人也亲自去学校任教，因此约翰逊总统也被称为“教育总统”。

在语言教学方面，大多数语言学家认为，不标准的方言(nonstandard dialect)是语言层面教育失败的重要原因。

1965年秋，the federal Office of Education主办了一个小型邀请会。

其中心议题为“校园生活中，贫困儿童语言层面所受到的影响研究”。

在这个会议的基础上，1966年6月，在Ferkauf Graduate School of Education，一个名为“Research Planning Conference on Language Development among Disadvantaged Children”的会议正式召开。

在本次会议上，Hymes首次公开提出了交流能力(Communicative Competence)这一理论。

Hymes对交流能力的定义尽管和C ho msk y在知识的研究方向上比较一致，但是Hymes却和Chomsky在交际民族学对语言能力产生的影响方面存在很大的分歧。

与Chomsky的理论相反，Hymes却认为交流能力的研究应该利用民族文化学(ethnology)来分析每一个语言使用者基本知识的差异。

Communicative__competence1

Communicative competence
Definition
Communicative competence is a term in linguistics which refers to a language user’s grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterance appropriately.
Inclusion
• a. knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary of the LANGUAGE • b. knowledge of rules of speaking (e.g. knowing how to begin and end conversations, knowing what topics may be talked about in different types of SPEECH ENENTS, knowing which ADDRESS FORMS should be used with different persons one speaks to and in different situations).
Communicative competence also involves knowing what to say to whom in what circumstances and how to say it. (Hymes)
Linguistic competence Innately-derived power in the Garden of Eden intuition and linguistic knowledge of an abstract ,isolated, ideal speaker-hearer Linguistic performance eating the apple thrusting the perfect speakerhearer into a fallen world real speech of interlocutors in a social world

语言能力和语言运用的区别(语言学导论)

语言能力和语言运用的区别摘要:：在语言学习过程中 ,人们常常谈起“语言能力”和“语言运用”。

“语言能力”和“语言运用”是语言学习的两项技能 ,它们互为依托 ,相互促进。

正确理解两者的含义以及区别 ,对我们的外语学习有着积极的意义。

语言能力与语言运用的区别语言是一种社会能力 ,是社会制度的综合 ,是人类用以互相交际的结构规则系统和因文化而异的社会行为规范系统。

语言是交际的工具。

一个人的语言能力与语言运用是在不断变化的。

人们掌握语言的根本目的是交际。

要想理解语言能力与语言运用这两个概念 ,我们必须提及语言学界乔姆斯基和海姆斯两人关于语言能力与语言运用的定义。

关键词：语言能力，语言运用The difference between linguistic competence and linguistic performanceAbstract: In the language learning process, people often talk about the linguistic competence”and “linguistic performance." linguistic compe tence”and “linguistic performance" is language learning two skills, they rely on each other and promote each other. Correct understanding of both the meaning and difference between our foreign language learning has a positive meaning. A distinction between language, “linguistic competence” and “linguistic performance “is a social capacity, is a comprehensive social system is the structural rules for the mutual communication and culture of human social behavior specification system. The language is a tool of communication. A person's linguistic competence and linguistic performance is constantly changing. People grasp the fundamental purpose of language is communication. To understand these two concepts, linguistic competence and linguistic performance, we must refer to the definition of the field of linguistics, Chomsky and Hymes both “linguistic competence”and “linguistic performance”.Key Words: linguistic competence language performance一乔姆斯基的观点对于“语言能力”这个问题，国内外许多学者做过不同的研究和界定。

3. Communicative Competence

2. Composition of Communicative Competence
Communicative
competence a language user’s linguistic knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology and the like as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances ability and the goal of language teaching and learning.
Communicative
Competence was first introduced by Dell Hymes
A language speaker has to have more than grammatical competence in order to be able to communicate effectively;
Linguistic aspects
Pragmatic aspects
Linguistic aspects of communicative competence
Pragmatic aspects of communicative competence
Phonological competence
3. Pedagogical Implications
3.1 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
CLT

is an approach to the teaching of second and foreign languages; Where the teacher sets up a situation that students are likely to encounter in real life; With a primary focus on helping learners create meaning rather than helping them develop perfectly grammatical structures or acquire native-like pronunciation.

2014青教赛专题--Communicative competence

Open the window. Open the window.
Request Very polite
Would you please open the windБайду номын сангаасw?
Pragmatic competence
In this section, we have examined the discrepancies between language used in real life and language taught in traditional pedagogy; defined “communicative competence”;
What does it mean to middle school English teaching? Activity 4: In English you uses a command or a request when you want someone to do something. Please look at the three sentences and tell the difference. Command Not polite
Fluency
Pragmatic Appropriate competence language use
Strategic Strategies in communication competence
Discourse competence
Coherent language use
What does it mean to middle school English teaching? Group task: Study the following classroom activities and think about how the teacher helps students develop different component competence. Activity 1: Transform the following sentences into indirect speech “I don’t know the address of my new home,” said Anne. “I need to pack up my things in the suitcase very quickly,” the girl said. …

linguistic competence and communicatiove competence语言能力和交际能力

From Linguistic Competence toCommunicative CompetenceIntroductionLinguistic competence and communicative competence are closely related and distinguished with each other. Communicative competence contains the linguistic competence, and linguistic competence is the basis of the communicative competence. The communicative competence without linguistic competence is completely impossible in practice; the linguistic competence is a pile of rules without practical application. Thus the primary goal of the foreign language teaching should be cultivating the linguistic competence in order to achieve the ultimate goal of cultivating the communicative competence of the language learners.Linguistic CompetenceLinguistic competence, which is put forward by Noam Chomsky (1928), refers to the knowledge of a language system. It is a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules. To acquire this competence is to obtain the ability of recognizing and producing acceptable grammatical sentences in language. But this competence is an idealization, it is the knowledge of the “ideal speaker-listener operating with a completely homogeneous speech community, who knows its language perfectly and is unaffected by such grammatical irrelevant conditions as memory limitations, distractions, shift of attention and interest and errors in applying his knowledge of the language in actual performance” (Hymes, 1972). It is necessary but not far from sufficient for a language user to communicate with others successfully in a speech community.Communicative competenceIt is an obvious fact that any foreign language teaching/learning program is aimed to make its learners competent enough to use the target language for effective communication. In the early 70s, the term “communicative competence” was coined by Dell Hymes (1972), a sociolinguist who was believed that the linguistic competence is too limited. Then the communicative competence is “th e aspect of ourcompetence that enables us to convey and interpret messages and to negotiate meanings interpersonally with specific context (Brown, 2002).” Michael Canale and Merrill Swain (1980) suggested that four different subcategories, grammatical competence, discourse competence, sociolinguistic competence, strategic competence, make up the construct of communicative competence. The first two competences reflect the use of linguistic system itself. It is suggested that the communicative competence encompasses the linguistic competence.The relationship between the two competencesThe communicative competence theory suggests that a good mastery of grammar is far enough to make an appropriate language use in a real social context, and the language learners should not only stay in the stage of linguistic competence, but also need to struggle for the development of communicative competence. A good example is the sentence “Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.” This sentence is grammatically possible, and idiomatically feasible, but semantically either inappropriate or absurd, and practically rarely, if not never, used in a real language interaction situation (Brumfit, 2000).So are these two competences incompatible? Brumfit gives us a diagram to show the logical relationship between the two competences.Diagram 1:CC: communicative competenceLC: linguistic competenceThe diagram implies that some areas of linguistic competence are essentially irrelevant to the communicative, but in general, linguistic competence is the part of the communicative competence. Thus we can know that, teaching the linguistic competence will necessarily leave a large area of the communicative competence untouched. The mastery of the linguistic competence is sure to enable a speaker to produce grammatical sentences, but can not sure to enable the speaker to have theability to communicate successfully in that language, but in the opposite, if one possess the communicative competence, it is certain that he or she has a well understanding of the linguistic aspect, and fulfill the task of communication. The most efficient communicator in a foreign language is not always the person who is best at manipulating its structure. It is often the person who is most skilled at processing the complete situation involving himself and his hearer, taking account of what knowledge is already shared between them, and selecting items which will communicate his message effectively(Littlewood,1981). Take the sentence of “Would you be so kind to give me a sandwich and a yogurt, please?”This sentence is grammatically correct and can show the speaker’s good command of linguistic ability. But if this sentence is uttered by a guest, and it is intended to speak to the waitress, then it is inappropriate and show the communicative incompetence of the language learners. For the language learners, they should possess the ability to use acceptable forms and avoid offensive ones, but not only the repertory of linguistic knowledge. Thus language learners should try their best to use limited linguistic knowledge for communicating effectively and economically.ConclusionResearchers have long bene asking the answers to questions like “which competence is sufficient for language learners to communicate effectively?” After the review of the pertinent literature, it is safe to reach the conclusion that, the linguistic competence is the basic of the communicative competence. It is not to say that, linguistic competence is enough for language learners, because the communicative competence is water without a source if it is deprived of linguistic competence.The linguistic competence and the communicative competence are two different concepts, however, without the linguistic competence; the communicative competence will be deprived of solid foundation. The two competences are inextricably linked. Linguistic competence contains the understanding and acquisition of the language knowledge, and reflects the language communication rules. It is the major component of the communicative competence, because no communicative activities contain without the certain language forms. What’s more, the linguisticknowledge is the criteria of the communicative competence.The foreign language teaching must be concerned with one thing, that is, the foreign language teaching occurs not only in the classroom, but also outside the classroom. This reality is intricate and the linguistic knowledge is woefully inadequate to guarantee the success of the language communication. Thus the aim of the foreign language teaching is to ensure the students to master the communicative competence based on the training of the linguistic knowledge.References[1] Brown, H. D. Principles of language learning and teaching. Beijing: ForeignLanguage Teaching and Research Press, 2002[2] Brumfit, C. J., &Johnson, K., (Eds) . The communicative approach to languageteaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979[3] Hymes, D., On communicative competence. In: Pride, J. B., Holmes, J. (Eds.),Sociolinguistics: Selected Readings. Penguin, Middlesex, 1972, pp.269-293. [4] Larsen Freeman D,MIchael H. An Introduction to Second Language AcuisitionResearch Chapter 6 [M]. Longman, 2006.[5] Littlewood, W. what is communicative ability, communicative language teaching,1981, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press[6] Nunan, D. (1992). Research methods in language learning. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.[7] Paulston, C. B. (1974). Linguistic and communicative competence. TESOLQuarterly, 8(4), 347-367.[8] Savignon, S. J. (2002). Communicative language teaching: Linguistic theory andclassroom practice. In S. J. Savignon (Ed.). Interpreting communicative language teaching (pp. 1-27). New Haven & London: Yale University Press。

交际能力用英语怎么说

交际能力用英语怎么说交际能力不仅包括对一种语言的语言形式的理解和掌握，而且还包括在任何时地、以什么方式恰当使用语言形式进行交际的知识体系的理解和掌握。

那么你知道交际能力用英语怎么说吗?下面来学习一下吧。

交际能力的英语说法1：communicative ability交际能力的英语说法2：communicative competence交际能力的相关短语：语言交际能力communicative competence ; communicative language ability ; language communicative competence 交际能力理论communicative competence ; the theory of capacity for communication ; communicative competence theory 培养交际能力Cultivation of communicative competence ; develop interpersonal skills ; Develop communicative competence言语交际能力speech communication ability ; the ability of language communication ; ability in speech communication 外语交际能力foreign language communicative ability ; foreign language communicative competence ; communicative competence of foreign language提高交际能力improve communicative competence ; improving the communicative ability ; enhancing the intercommunication ability互动交际能力interactive communication ability ; interactive communicative competence英语会话交际能力 english communicative competence互动交际能力培养interactive communicative competencefostering交际能力的英语例句：1. He has the faculty for making friends.他有交际能力.2. He is very sociable and makes friends easily.他交际能力强,很容易交到朋友.3. I am good with people and have excellent communication skills.我很受人欢迎并且有很出色的交际能力.4. Writing ability is an essential part of the learner's communicative competence.写作能力是学习者外语交际能力的重要组成部分.5. Drama also boosts the communication skills of students with special needs.戏剧也能够提高有特殊教育需要的学生的交际能力.6. Cross - cultural awareness raising aimed at enhancing the students ability to cross - cultural communication.养跨文化意识的目的是提高学生的跨文化交际能力.7. Having good communication skill and negotiation high ability of expression.有较强的交际能力和优秀的表达能力,反应灵敏,能独立开发客户.8. It affects thinking, feeling, language, and the ability relate to others.它影响思维, 感觉, 语言和交际能力.9. I am also quite competent in oral communication in English.英语交际能力也相当强.10. Excellent interpersonal skills and capability to manage different function.有良好的交际能力及管理不同职能部门的能力.11. Have strong capability in communication, familiar with English reading and speaking.有很强的交际能力, 较好的英语阅读和口语.12. And I gained valuable skills in teamwork and communication.同时我也学会了团体合作技巧,交际能力也得到锻炼.13. Sociolinguistics thinks that grammar is a necessary part of communicative competence.社会语言学家认为语法是交际能力的必要组成部分.14. The social development and progress would demand more from the future professionals.社会发展和进步对未来人才的口语交际能力提出了更高的要求.15. This ability is needed by the modem talents.交际能力的培养是造就现代化英语人才的需要.。

海姆斯交际能力

交际能力（communicative competence）是社会语言学家海姆斯于20世纪70年代针对乔姆斯基的“语言能力"（1inguistic compe-tence）这一概念的缺陷首次提出的.乔氏的语言能力指一个理想的操本族语者所内在化了的语法规则。

海姆斯认为这一概念抽出了语言的社会文化特点，舍弃了语言的交际功能.因此，他采用了交际能力这一术语，把如何在社会环境中有效地、恰当地使用语言的能力包括了进去。

用海姆斯自己的话说,交际能力是“何时说,何时不说,以及关于何时、何地、以何方式与何人谈何内容”即能否在一定的语言环境中恰当地使用语言的能力，在不同的场合、地点对不同的人进行成功的交际的能力。

具体地讲,交际能力应由四个部分组成:形式上的可能性、实施手段上的可行性、语境适应性和现实中的实施情况。

其中第一部分相当于乔氏的“语言能力”,体现为语言形式上的准确性,后三部分体现为具体情境中语言运用的得体性,常被通称为语用能力。

“交际能力”（communicative competence）的概念可以理解为运用语言（或非语言手段）进行社会交往的能力，包括传递信息、交流思想和表达感情。

既用口头形式，也用书面形式；既指听、读的理解能力，也指说、写的表达能力。

交际能力有着四个特征：语法性-——某种语法是否在形式上可能，即能从语法、语音、词汇等语言系统本身的角度判别某种说法是否正确；可行性——-——在交际中能否被接受；得体性—-—--在一定的语境中是否恰当，是否合乎社会文化习惯；现实性——-——是否是现实常用的,有些话语虽然具备上述三个条件，但在实际生活里却不这样使用.海姆斯交际性教学原则的核心内容是“用语言去学”和“学会用语言”，而非单纯的“学语言”，目的是提高学生的语言交际能力.其原则基本特征可以概括为三点：其一，语言是表达意义的体系其二,语言的主要功能是交际功能，其三,语言的主要单位不仅是语法、结构特征，还包括功能范畴.他的语言能力是语言知识和技能的综合体，即一方面是知识，另一方面是使用。

Communicative competence and TBL

Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /wiki/Communication
Communication “means ‘know how’ to understand and response to different situations that aris; 1977; 1994) discussed the ethnographic-oriented exploration of communicative competence that included 'communicative form and function in integral relation to each other. His research-oriented ideas have undergone an epistemic transformation: from empirically oriented questions to an idealized pedagogic doctrine‘
Communicative competence
- refers to a learner's L2 ability . Abiliyt to apply and use grammatical rules . Ability to form correct utterances .ability to know how to use these utterances appropriately
Georges Duquette (1995: Viii)
2. Types of communication
According to Mehrabian and Ferris (1967) communication is determined by: • body language--postures, gestures, and eye contact 55% • the tone of voice 38% • the content or the words used in the communication process 7%

communicativecompetence

Communicative Competence
Whether the language learner is a small child acquiring his of her first language, or anyone learning a new language, the fact remains that language acquisition involves not linguistic competence alone but what Hymes has called Communicative Competence.
• (3) Besides these changes in the language sciences, several pedagogical developments of the 1970s contributed to the concept of communicative language teaching. Two of these were novel approaches to the language curriculum, while a third concerned classroom treatment.
(4) In the communicative classroom, students ultimately have to use the language, productively and receptively, in unrehearsed contexts.
Reference
Brown, H. D. 1994. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching: Chapter 9. Prentice Hall, Inc.

communicative-competence交际能力

municative competence typically refers to how well someone is able to communicate with others, though this can be elaborated upon and further refined in a number of ways.municative competence is important for anyone who wishes to be able to communicate clearly, especially public speakers and people learning a second language.Politicians and other public speakers often seek high levels of communicative competence to be able to effectively convey meaning and express ideas to others. People who are learning a second language also tend to focus on this type of competence to ensure they understand subtext and various aspects of communication within that language that may be subtle and complex.The idea behind communicative competence is that the ways in which people communicate can be analyzed and considered with regard to effectiveness. Someone is often considered competent, at least on a surface level, if he or she can talk to someone else in a way that is appropriate and which conveys meaning in an accurate way. This actual process, however, is often seen as being composed of three basic steps that occur in communication. Planning is a vital part of communicative competence as it demonstrates that someone is able to think about communication ahead of time and prepare for it.2.During communication, the way in which a person communicates is often considered in two elements regarding his or her communicative competence. The message that is delivered is the actual content that a person speaks, writes, or otherwise expresses in some way. Within this message, however, is the meaning that a person manages to convey. Someone may feel that his or her message expresses one idea, but the actual meaning might not necessarily match the intention of the message.Communicative competence is important for just about anyone who wishes to communicate with other people in any type of relationship. Arguments and disagreements can often be avoided if people are able to effectively express meaning in a message.3. Comment1: Communicative competence starts developing at a young age. So childhood and education is important. But it's also true that some people naturally have more skill and competence in this area. I think it has to do with the various areas of the brain and which areas an individual uses more heavily.For example, my brother is a very smart person but his communication skills are very poor. I don't think he will every be competent in this area. He has always been this way.Comment2: Those who want to know what excellent communicative competence means can observe lawyers. Lawyers, naturally, have to be great communicators. They have to present their ideas and information in the right ways in order to make an impact on the listener.I knew many law students in school and they were some of the best communicators I have come across. The amazing part was that they used language so well that they could convince me of one thing and then argue against it and convince me of the opposite argument in a matter of minutes. Now that's communicative competence.4Language teaching in the United States is based on the idea that the goal of language acquisition is communicative competence: the ability to use the language correctly and appropriately to accomplish communication goals. The desired outcome of the language learning process is the ability to communicate competently, not the ability to use the language exactly as a native speaker does。

communicative competence

Bachman:Conponents of CLA(1990)
Language competence(Bachman:1990:87)
The model of language use(Bachman 1990:103)
心理生理机制

Bachman （ 1990 ）认为，心理生理机制指的是“在实际完成语言这一物理现象时所涉及到的神经或心理过程。心理生理机制有视觉和听觉渠道，生成和接收方式等。在接受性的语言使用中，要用到视觉和听觉技能，而在生成性的语言使用中也要用到肌肉神经技能（如发音）。 Bachman(1990,1991)认为，语言交际能力 (即CLA) 就是把语言知识和语言作用的场景特征结合起来，创造并解释意义的能力，它由语言知识和一系列元认知策略以及心理生理机制组成。
国内研究现状

我国外语教学一直把培养学生的交际能力作为教学的主要目标。但 “交际策略研究在我国相对来说还是一个空白”（戴炜栋，束定芳， 1994）。20世纪90年代，许多学者开始引进、介绍国外交际策略理论，如戴曼纯，1992；戴炜栋、束定芳，1994；束定芳、庄智象，1996；王立非，2000 等。有关中国学生交际策略能力的实证研究也已展开，据笔者所知就有：陈思清（1990），高海虹（2000），谭雪梅，张承平（2002）等进行的有关交际策略使用的研究；王立非（2002），孔京京（2004，2006）等对交际策略培训的研究；张荔，王同顺（2005）对交际策略问卷信度和效度进行的研究等。所以，在我国对交际策略进行更广泛的研究是很有必要的。

Communicative competence is that aspect of our competence which enables us to convey and interpret messages and to negotiate meanings interpersonally within specific contexts. To learn a second language, learners should not only be able to produce the target language correctly, but also be able to use it appropriately. Second language competence can be perceived along two dismensions: accuracy and appropriateness.