跨文化心理学复习提纲
跨文化交际复习纲要
跨⽂化交际复习纲要跨⽂化交际复习纲要Unit 11.Culture Defined from the Intercultural PerspectiveCulture is a system of shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviours and artifacts that are transmitted from generation to generation through learning.2.Three Ingredients of cultureartifacts⼈造物品concepts (beliefs, values, world views…)behavior3.The Characteristics of CultureCulture is Not Innate, it is Learned.Culture is DynamicCulture is pervasiveFacets of Culture are InterrelatedCulture is EthnocentricCulture is adaptive4.The definition of communication/doc/488e977502768e9951e7388f.html ponents of communication (第⼀课课件P66-71)6.Intercultural CommunicationIntercultural communication refers to communication between people whose cultural backgrounds (perception and symbol system) are distinct enough to alter their communication (课本p.10).7.co-culturecultures which exist side-by sidethe following would be some good examples:The cultures of youth and the culture of older personsThe cultures of media-worshipers and mainstream American cultureUnit 21.Verbal intercultural communication“verbal” means “consisting of words”. Language, spoken or written, is a means of verbal communication. Verbal communication refers to the communication that is carried either in oral or in written form with the use of words. Verbal intercultural communication happens when people from different cultural backgrounds communicate with each other by using language.2.Individualism and collectivism34Cultures are typically divided into two categories: collectivist and individualist. Individualist cultures, such as those of the United States and Western Europe, emphasize personal achievement at the expense of group goals, resulting in a strong sense of competition. Collectivist cultures, such as those of China, Korea, and Japan, emphasize family and work group goals above individual needs or desires.Unit 31. Power distance权⼒差距Power distance is “the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organizations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally”. (Hofstede)⼀个国家内的机构和组织的弱势成员期望和接受权⼒分配不均的程度。
智慧树跨文化沟通心理学教程考试复习资料
•名称跨文化沟通心理学•对应章节•成绩类型分数制•截止时间 2016-06-09 23:59•题目数35•迟交处理允许迟交•总分数 120•说明:•评语:••提示：选择题选项顺序为随机排列，若要核对答案，请以选项内容为准•第1部分•总题数:20•1【单选题】(3分)在有些文化中，人们更愿意表达自己的情绪，有更丰富的肢体语言，这种文化是：A.中性文化B.感性文化C.高情境文化D.低情境文化正确答案是:B2【单选题】(3分)对新语言的理解总是受限制于我们原有的知识，而知识又可以被我们的语言所反映。
A.对B.错C.无法判断D.视情况而定正确答案是:A3【单选题】(3分)下面描述的是哪种时间观的特点？时间是为关系服务的，不按时间表做事也是可以接受的，或者在一个时间段里可能会同时做几件事情，多头并进是正常的。
A.轮回时间观B.线性时间观C.灵活时间观D.短期导向正确答案是:C4【单选题】(3分)在哪个国家的餐厅就餐时给服务员小费是一种不礼貌的行为？A.意大利B.新加坡C.法国D.美国正确答案是:B5【单选题】(3分)在典型的美国文化中，沟通强调直截了当、开门见山，把要沟通的信息用明白无误的可编码的文字语言传达出去，常常没有隐藏在字里行间的意义。
A.对B.错C.无法判断D.视情况而定正确答案是:A6【单选题】(3分)以下哪一个不属于跨文化适应的特点：A.和其他文化必须直接并且第一手接触B.和其他文化的接触短时间即可C.两种文化相互影响D.文化接触带来变化正确答案是:B7【单选题】(3分)以下哪一项不属于跨文化适应障碍认知上的表现：A.抑郁B.刻板印象C.归因偏见D.非理性地看待正确答案是:A8【单选题】(3分)根据Belay的综合性三维度模型，情感角度的跨文化沟通能力是指：A.跨文化沟通意识B.跨文化敏感性C.跨文化机敏性D.跨文化同理心正确答案是:B【单选题】(3分)在不同的语言中，部分隐喻是表现出了跨语言、跨文化的一致性的。
跨文化心理学-参考资料
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（拷贝或打印本文件时，不得删除本段内容）一、名词解释ratchet effect 棘轮效应The concept that humans continually improve on improvements, that they do not go backward or revert to a previous state. Progress occurs because improvements move themselves upward, much like a ratchet.人类在改善的基础上不断改善，不会倒退或回到原先状态。
之所以会出现这种发展进程是因为改善驱使人类不断前行，就像棘轮一样。
这个现象叫做棘轮效应。
back translation 回译A technique of translating research protocols that involves taking the protocol as it was developed in one language, translating it into the target language, and having someone else translate it back to the original. If the back-translated version is the same as the original, they are generally considered equivalent. If it is not, the procedure is repeated until the back-translated version is the same as the original.将文稿由第一语言翻译成第二语言以后，让另一个人（这个人没有看过第一语言版本）将第二语言版本翻译回到第一语言。
跨文化期末复习大纲
跨⽂化期末复习⼤纲Chapter 1 Introduction to Intercultural Communication 1.Definition of Intercultural Communication1.1Definition of Intercultural CommunicationICC is the term first used by Edward Hall in 1959 andis simply defined as interpersonal communication between members of different cultures.1.2According to Rich, ICC can be classified into five forms:(1)Intercultural communication(2)International communication(3)Interracial communication(4)Interethnic of minority communication(5)Contracultural communication1.3Gudykunst and Hammer(1987) classified ICC by using interactive-comparative and mediated-interpersonal dimensions to divide the realm of the inquiry intofour categories:(1)Intercultural communication(2)Cross-cultural communication(3)International communication(4)Comparative communication1.4As a phenomenon, ICC has the following features:(1)Universal phenomenon(2)Long history(3)Daily Occurrence2.Development of ICC2.1The History of ICC Studies in America2.1.1The Burgeoning PeriodUS government in 1946 passed the ForeignService Act and established Foreign Service Institute.2.1.2From 1960 to 1970Books: Oliver’s Culture and Communication(1962) and Smith’s Communication andCulture (1966)The first ICC training actually started in the 1960s with Peace Corps members.The first college class in this field was in 1966 at the University of Pittsburgh.2.1.3From 1971 to 19801970 and 1971 ICA & NCA1975 SIETAR-International (the International Society for Intercultural Education, Training and Research)1977 International Journal of Intercultural Relations-Dan Landis2.1.4From 1981 to the Present Time1960s scholars began to make their contribution to ICC in 1980sHart (1996) summarized, the study of ICC gained acceptance through training and testing practice in the 1960s and 1970s, formed its basic framework in the late 1970s and has made great achievements in theory and practice ever since the 1980s both inside and outside the US.2.2The History of ICC Studies in China Professor Hu Wenzhong (1999)(1)The Germinating Period:1980-1990(2)The Establishing Period:1991-2000(3)The Expanding Period:2001-present3.Reasons for Studying ICC3.1Global Demographics(全球⼈⼝统计)3.2Global Economy3.3Technological Development3.4Effective Outcomes3.5Peace and Conflicts3.6Ethical Imperative4.Challenges in Studying ICC4.1Potential Problems in Learning ICC4.1.1Avoidance of the unfamiliar4.1.2Uncertainty4.1.3Withdrawal(退缩)4.1.4Stereotype(刻板印象)4.1.5Prejudice4.1.6Racism4.1.7Ethnocentrism(民族优越感)4.1.8Cultural shock(⽂化冲击)4.2Cultural Shocks and Cross-cultural Adaption3 cross-cultural interactions(1)short-term travelers(2)sojourners(3)immigrantsThe typical pattern of cultural adjustment often consists of distinct phases.(1)Honeymoon(2)Crisis(3)Recovery(4)Adjustment((5) Re-entry Shock-going home)“w-curve” figureHoneymoon-Crisis-Recovery-Adjustment-Honeymoon at home- Crisis at home (reentry shock)-Recovery at home-Adjustment at homeChapter 2 Communication and Culture1.Basics of Communication1.1Definition of CommunicationThe act and process of sending and receiving messages among people.1.2Functions of Communication(1)Practical functions(2)Social functions(3)Decision making functions(4)Personal growth functions1.3Types of CommunicationBased on the channels used for communication(1)Verbal communication(2)Nonverbal communicationBased on the style of communication(1)Formal communication(2)Informal communicationBased on the social levels(1)Intrapersonal communication(2)Interpersonal communication(3)Organizational communication(4)Mass communication1.4Components of Communicationmessage, sender, receiver, channel,noise(disturbances along the communication process), feedback, encoding, decoding1.5Communication Models1.5.1Lasswell’s 5W Linear Model1.5.2Wilbur Schramm’s Ring Model1.5.3The Contextualized Model1.6Characteristics of Communication Communication is dynamic, symbolic, contextual, self-reflective, interactive, learned.2.Basics of Culture2.1Definition of CultureThe total accumulation of beliefs, customs, values behaviors, institutions and communication patternsthat are shared, learned, passed down through the generations in an identifiable group of people. (Hall) Little culture is concerned with spiritual product such as language, literature, and art.Big culture refers to the sum total of human-made material product and non-material product. Dominant culture includes the cultural components common to most members of society, including the views of politics, conceptions of self and others, basic roles, standard forms of speech and general norms. E.g. Han culture in ChinaSubcultures can be ethnic, regional, occupational, social, economical, religious or gender-related in nature. E.g. northern and southern culture in China 2.2Functions of CultureDressler and Carns (1969):Culture enables us to communicate with others through a language that we have learned and that we share in common.Culture makes it possible to anticipate how others in our society are likely to respond to our actions. Culture gives us standard for distinguishing between what is considered right or wrong, beautiful and ugly, reasonable and unreasonable, tragic and humorous, safe and dangerous.Culture provides the knowledge and skill necessary for meeting sustenance needs.Culture enables us to identify with – that is, include ourselves in the same category with – other people of similar background.2.3Components of CultureCommunication aspect: language and symbols. Environment aspect: geography, climate ad places in the country.Science and technology aspect: math, physics,inventions, roads, bridges, railways.Economic system: money, finance, trade.Spiritual aspect: religion, mythology.Cognitive aspect: values, belief.Artistic aspect: art, literature, architecture.Behavioral aspect: laws, rituals(仪式惯例), mores(习俗)Daily life aspect: family, education, entertainment,dress, food, transportation, house.Social structure: social classes, ethnicityCulture consists of two levels:A level of values (invisible)A level of resultant behavior or artifacts of someform (visible)2.4Characteristics of CultureLearned, transmitted, selective, ethnocentric(民族中⼼主义的), dynamic(动态的), integrated(综合的)2.5Metaphor of Culture2.5.12.5.22.5.32.5.43.Relationship between Communication and CultureOn the one hand, culture is largely created, shaped, shared and learned through communication.Communication is the very medium of human interaction through which created and shared. Culture is considered more as a natural by-product of human communication and interaction than an intentional creation of human beings. In a sense, culture is the “residue(剩余)” of communication. Without communication, culture cannot be passed on and reinforced from generation to generation. Owing to the communication medium and other factors, culture is experiencing constant change.On the other hand, communication is also created, shaped, and transmitted by culture. When people communicate within an intercultural context, they take with them different cultural backgrounds, experiences, values and ways of thinking. Inevitably, human beings communicate with the imprint or mark of their own cultures.!!Chapter 3 Cultural Value Orientation Values are matters of preferences.Behavior Effectiveness) Study(1) Society an Hierarchy in China (2) Role of Family and Family Life (3) Politeness (4) Face(5) Guanxi (Interpersonal relationship) (6) Reciprocity(互惠) (7) HarmonyDeveloping&changing!!Chapter 4 Culture and Verbal Communication1.The Relationship between Language and Culture1.1Language Reflects the EnvironmentWe (only) label the things that are around us.1.2Language Reflects Cultural ValuesE.g. The kinship structure shows a complex butorderly communication system in which a clearterminology describes each positional role. There isan elaborate system of kinship terms, becauseChinese families used to be very big and highlyhierarchical.1.3Language Affects People’s Way of ThinkingLanguage determinism(语⽤决定论) is based on thehypothesis that the language people speakdetermines the way they perceive the world anddetermines culture.(Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis)2.Culture-loaded WordsIt is said in Chapter 2 that the fundamental general communication principle is that symbols the sender uses to communicate must have essentially the same meaning in BOTH the sender’s and the receiver’s minds.(Misunderstanding occurs when the sender and the receiver attribute different meanings to the same word or use different words to express the same meaning.)2.1Denotational(指称)meanings refer to definitionmeaning depending upon our choice of wordselection.2.2Connotational(隐含) meanings refer to extendedmeanings or associated meanings.As busy as a beeAs cunning as a foxAs strong as a horseAs slippery as an eel(鳝鱼)As blind as a batAs meek as a lamb(温顺)As happy as a kingAs foolish as a donkeyAs stubborn as a muleAs wise as an owlAs majestic as a lion(庄严宏伟的)As stupid as a goose3.Culture Rules of SpeakingPragmatic transfer(语⽤迁移) is the use of rules of speaking from one’s own native speech community when interacting with members of the host speech community or simply when speaking in a second language.3.1Addressing(1) A proper Chinese name is arranged in the orderof surname plus given name(s).A proper Englishname is arranged in reverse order.(2)Some Chinese kinship term(亲属⽤语) are notonly used within one’s own family, but also onknown or unknown people to show one’spoliteness, respectfulness and friendliness.(3)Most occupational titles(⼯作职称) can be usedas addressing terms(称谓语) in Chinese, buttheir English equivalents are not necessarilyused in the same manner.3.2Greeting and Leave-taking3.2.1GreetingChinese often start with asking personalinformation to show warmth and to shortensocial distance.Native English prefer impersonal questionslike weather.3.2.2Leave-takingChinese: others-orientedWesterner: self-orientedIn English, informal offers are often performed by interrogative sentences(疑问句).Chinese offers may sound a little bit commanding.3.5Invitation and ResponseIn China, a successful inviting-transaction often takes several talk exchanges or preferred pairs, which an American may think the host is imposing and aggressive and the guest is hypocritical(虚伪).3.6Compliment and ResponseChinese regard compliments as virtues, as Americansaccept them as a kind of recognition of theirindividual efforts.3.7ApologiesFor the Chinese, apology most often occurs betweenpeople of unequal social status, and it is usually theperson with less power apologizes to the peosonwith more power.But for the native English speakers, an apology isnecessary whenever inconvenience or offense ismake with little consideration of the status or socialpower of the people concerned.4.Verbal Styles4.14.25 key aspects of Chinese verbal style(1)implicit communication （含蓄）(2)listening centeredness （听话）(3)politeness （客⽓）(4) a focus on insiders （⾃⼰⼈）(5)face-directed communication strategies （⾯⼦）4.38 Chinese and North Americans clash(冲突) ineveryday interactions:(1)What is not said vs. What is said(2)The use of We vs. I(3)Polite vs. Impolite talk(4)Indirect vs. Direct talk(5)Hesitant vs. Assertive speech(6)Self-effacing(谦逊的) vs. Self-enhancing talk(7)Private vs. Public personal questions(8)Reticent(沉默的) vs. Expressive speech!!Chapter 5 Culture and Nonverbal communication 1.The Nature of Nonverbal Communication1.1Definition of Nonverbal Communication Edward Hall: nonverbal communication is metacommunication(元信息传递), paralinguistic(副语⾔如⼿势等，超语⾔如叹息声等), second-order messages, the silent language, and the hidden dimension of communication.Judee Burgoon defined nonverbal communication as all those messages that people exchange beyond the words themselves.We may simply say that nonverbal communication is communication without the use of words contrary to verbal communication.1.2The Importance of Nonverbal communication Research shows: less than 35% of communication is verbal. 65% of communication takes place nonverbally.1.3Functions of Nonverbal Communication(1)Replacing means that using body language and other gestures to replace verbal communication. (2)Contradicting means that our nonverbal being opposite from the literal meaning.(3)Repeating signifies(表⽰) using body languageto add to the verbal meaning.(4)Conveying means using gestures and expressions to express the emotions and attitudes.(5)Modifying is using expressions, body language and other nonverbal means to correct the verbal meaning.(6)Regulating means using nonverbal gestures to guide the order of speaking.(7)Complementing is adding to the verbal meaning.1.4Similarities and Differences between Verbal andNonverbal communications (Characteristics of Nonverbal communication) 1.4.1Similarities(1)Use symbols(2)Are products of an individual(3)Require that someone attach meaningto these symbols(4)Are coding systems that we learn andpass on as part of the culturalexperience1.4.2Differences(1)Clear vs. ambiguous(2)Conscious vs. unconscious(3)Acquired and controllable vs. Naturaland uncontrollable(4)Nonverbal communication is moreuniversal than verbal communication.1.5Classification of Nonverbal Communication(1)Body movement(Kinesics)⾝势语(2)Eye contact(Oculesic)眼神学(3)Touching(Haptic)接触(4)Spatial language(Proxemics)空间语⾔(5)Chronemics(temporal language)时间语⾔(6)Paralanguage副语⾔学2.Nonverbal Communications in Different cultures 2.1Body Movement2.1.1PostureStanding-northern Europeans (slouch ×)Sitting-Japanese (sit on legs, cross legs ×) Bowing-AsiansSquating-northern and northwesternfarmers in China and Mexicans(less sophisticated)2.1.2GestureVictory,Peace: U.SOffensive Gesture: Britain; South Africa2.1.3Head Movement@Bulgaria no=nod2.1.4Facial expressionsOn the whole, Asian cultures tend to restrictthe range of facial expressions by Western standards.Reasons: People who have rich facial expressions in Asia would be considered as shallow persons (浅薄的⼈). People shouldhide our real feelings2.2Eye ContactVery direct: Middle Easterners, some Latin American groups, FrenchModerate: Mainstream Americans, Northern Europeans, BritishMinimal: East Asians, Southeast Asians, East Indians, Native Americans2.3Body touchTouch: Arabs, Southern and Western Europeans, Jews and Latins.Non-touch: Americans, Northern Europeans, Orientals.2.4Spatial LanguageAccording to Edward Hall, people from high-context cultures tend to stand close when talking to someone. Low-context cultures prefer a greater amount of interpersonal space.2.5.1Monochromic(单时制):Things scheduledonce at a time. @Germany, America2.5.2Polychronic(多时制) different things with2.6.1refers to nonverbal voice qualities, such astone, rate, pitch, accents, laughing, cryingand shouting2.6.2nonword noises “un-huh” in English, “hai” inJapanese2.6.3silence has different interpretations indifferent culturesChapter 6 Thought Patterns and Language1.Culture, Thought Patterns and Language1.1 The Relationships among Culture, Thought and LanguageLanguage is an instrument used in the communication of thought. Thought is influenced by language.Each of them influences and shapes others.They are seen as three parts of a whole.1.2Different Ways of Thinking between Chinese and Westerners1.2.1Cognitive Differences in language learningbetween East Asian and Western cultures:(1)Science and Mathematics(2)Attention and Perception(洞察⼒)(3)Casual Inference(4)Organization of Knowledge(5)Reasoning1.2.2Conceptual differences between Chineseand Western Thinking(1)Chinese traditional way of thinkingemphasizes on the morality andharmony of the society, and promotesthe collectivism, responsibility,devotion and so on.(2)The western way of thinkingemphasizes on logic and science,individual achievement or competition,and so on./doc/3517372007.htmlparing Thought Patterns between Chinese andWesterners2.1Synthetic(综合的) Thinking Mode vs. TheAnalytic(分析的) Thinking Mode(1) Chinese philosophy emphasizes unity of heavenand man, harmony”, t he blending of objects and man.(2) Westerners: man and objects should beseparated from each other, emphasize the formcoherence, logical deduction.2.1.1Holistic(整体论的) Thinking Mode vs.Analytic Thinking ModeChinese: Holistic (整体论的) Thinking:Orientation to the context as a whole, rely on experience-based knowledge Westerners: Analytic Thinking ModeDetachment of the object from its context,Tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories2.1.2Dialectical(辩证的)-focus Thinking Mode vs.Formal Logical-focus Thinking ModeChinese: Dialectical-focus Thinking ModeRecognition of contradiction, ”middle way”(中庸之道)Westerners: Formal Logical-focus ThinkingModeAvoidance of contradiction, black of white 2.2The Curvilinear(曲线的) Thinking Mode vs. The Linear(直线) Thinking ModeRobert Kaplan (1966)line”represents the Oriental languagegroup, including Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Thai, and so on.2.3The Image Thinking Mode vs. The Abstract Thinking Mode(1)Chinese itself is the imagery language.Chinese characters are the mimicry (模仿) ofnatural phenomenon. Chinese people expressabstract things through concrete images.(2)English is a kind of alphabetic writing, man-made regulated signals.Determine the meaning by the soundcombinationWestern people prefer using the abstract notionto express the concrete objects.2.4The Ontological(本体论) Thinking Mode vs. The Objective Thinking Mode(1)The Chinese people regard man as the center to observe, analyze, deduce and study the objects.(2)The English-speaking people take the objectiveworld as the center.Chapter 7 Culture and Interpersonal Relationship1.The Nature of Interpersonal Relationship1.1Types of Interpersonal Relationship(1)Kinship and Family Relations(2)Friends(3)Comradeship(同事关系)(4)Soul mates1.2Principles for Establishing Good Interpersonal RelationshipsMutual attractions to both sides(2)Credit principle(诚信原则)Treat others with trust and sincerity(3)Respect principleMaintain equal positions of each party(4)Tolerance PrincipleSeek for common grounds while putting asidedifferences(5)Moderation principleTime, distance, frequency for communicationshall be moderate. The degree of closenessshould be properly maintained.2.Cultural Differences in Interpersonal RelationshipsIn the US, people tend to use four dimensions to distinguish among different types of relationships(1)Cooperative-friendly to competitive-hostile(2)Equal to unequal(3)Intense to superficial(4)Socio-emotional(社会情感性的)-informal to task-oriented-formalIn Japan,(1)In-group(2)Those whose background is fairly well known(3)Out-group/stranger2.1Intercultural FriendshipsGenerally, friendships are closer in collectivistcultures than in individualistic cultures.2.2Intercultural Romantic RelationshipsGenerally speaking, in high power distance cultures,romantic relationships are expected to take placewithin your cultural class. In low power distancecultures, a person is expected to select romanticpartners on the basis of individual factors such aspersonality and appearance.In Western cultures, marriage is seen as the union ofmarriage is seen as the alliance between two families.2.3Intercultural MarriageSubmission(顺从), compromise, obliteration(忘却),consensus(⼀致)(best)2.4Internet Friendship and Love3.Challenges to Intercultural Personal Relationships3.1Possible stumbling block(绊脚⽯) for interculturalrelationships(1)Cultural differences(2)Prejudice and discrimination(3)Historical relationships(4)Different perceptions(认知,观念) ofcommunication competence3.2A key to having a successful intercultural relationshipis establishing an effective relational culture(确⽴相互关系的⽂化).In essence, relational partners develop their ownculture –a mix of both of their larger culturalbackgrounds and their idiosyncratic(有⽓质的)behaviors and personalities.3.3Effective relational cultures are based on(1)Positive affect toward the partner(2)Perception of positive motives (assuming yourpartner is supporting you)(3) A perception of the relationship(4)As a benefit to each other (e.g. I am better offwith my partner than without her.)Chapter 8 Culture and Business Etiquette1.The Basis of Business EtiquetteEtiquette is a set of practices and forms which are followed in a wide variety of situations. Carl Nelson’s eight common protocol element areNamesRank and titleTimeCommunicationsGift givingFood and drink2.Creating a Powerful First Impression2.1Introducing yourself and othersRule 1: show respect for the most important person in the setting by mentioning his/her name first.Rule 2: try to include a brief comment about each person being introduced so that they have some basic knowledge about each other.2.1.1Introducing yourselfTell the name and information about the circumstance2.1.2Introducing othersSay the “more respected” person’s namefirst2.2Greeting peopleUS: first name, middle name, last nameFrench: Monsieur/MadameGermany: last name basisItaly: titles and surnamesBritish: use of first names is prevalent(普遍的)Latin America: add mother’s maiden name to their surnameChina: surname first, often titles are used2.3Card ExchangingBilingual cards: name, job title, company name, address, telephone number, facsimile number, e-mail address2.4Business DressComfortable, tasteful and stylishA reflection of your social status and relative success3.Business Scheduling3.1Appointing MakingMake appointments in advance. E.g. Germans3.2Recognizing Rules and CustomsThe first thing you should know is their typical hoursof work, lunch, and break time so as to makeappointments at a proper time.4.Social Entertaining 4.1Dining Practices4.1.1SeatingBritish method:4.1.2Table setting4.1.3Eating StylesAsians: chopsticksMiddle Easterners: Eat with your fingers, if the host does. But use the right hand only4.1.4Table MannersDo not point or gesticulate with your knife(or any other implement for that manner)while engaged in conversation at table.4.1.5FoodFrance: You may ask for more water, but notwine. You are supposed to wait for your hostto serve you.4.2Drinking ProtocolIn Russia and South Korea, in northern Europe,theability to consume a great quantity of alcohol isconsidered a measurement of an individual'smanhood.Toast:The first toast is offered before eating and serves towelcome the guests.A toast to the guest of honor is made after thedessert course when the wine glasses have been4.3Tipping ProtocolChina, Japan, Australia, New Zealand are some of thenon-tipping countries.A tip of 15% considered generousA tip of 20% when service is excellent5.Gift-giving EtiquetteU.S.Presenting a gift is a thoughtful gesture, but not expected.Business gifts are often presented after the deal is over.In most situations, gifts are opened immediately and shown to all present.For your business associates, you can choose gifts such as useful office items, liquor, wine, or something that comes from your country.JapanGift giving is an important part of business protocol.Business culture emphasizes on the ritual of gift-giving, rather than the gift itself.It is a good policy to prepare enough gifts for your trip.“this is only a small gift or it is a dull thing”Gifts should not be opened in the presence of the giver.Favorite gifts for the Japanese are imported liquor, designer-made also musical tapes and CDs.6.Digital Etiquette6.1Telephone EtiquetteDon’t be distracted by other work or chew gum whileon the phone.This lack of respect is transferred to the other end of the conversation, even though the person can’t see you.If you need to find information for a caller while he or she is on the line, put the caller on hold; offer to phone the caller back if you need to place him or her on hold for more than a minute.Always try to smile when you speak; your warmth and sincerity will come through the person with whom you are speaking.6.2Email EtiquetteBusiness email may involve more traditional use of capitalization and spelling.For external emails, use the recipient’s formal title.Add headings, lists, or numbers that will make your email easier to skim.Use jokes, slang, emotional punctuations, and emotions with care.Chapter 13 Intercultural Communication Competence1.The Challenges in the Setting of Glocalization1.1The Concept of Glocalizationthe local considerations.“Think globally and act locally.”全球化视⾓本⼟化⾏动1.2Facing the Challenges of Glocalization1.2.1The ethics of intercultural competenceThree dilemmas(1)How much do you think we should giveup of ourselves to become “Romans”?(2)Should belief, value, norm or socialpractice be judged by your ownknowledge and value system?(3)Should all intercultural contacts be encouraged?Is ICC always positive?1.2.2Appropriateness and EffectivenessThey are two primary criteria of Intercultural Communication CompetenceAppropriateness means that the valuedrules, cultures, norms and expectances ofthe relationships are not violatedsignificantly.Effectiveness is the achievements of thegoals.2.Becoming a Competent Intercultural Communicator 2.1The Components of Intercultural Communication Competence2.1.1Cross-cultural Attitude ModelThis approach pays more attention tocultural knowledge and affective aspect ofthe communicator.2.1.2Behavioral-skill ModelIncorporate the different approachesThey believe that the most ideal condition ofICC competence occurs when an individual possesses high degrees of interculturalknowledge, motivation and skills.2.1.3Young Yun Kim’s ICC Competence ModelCognitive components (knowledge ofcommunication codes/rules, culturalunderstanding, cognitive complexity)Affective components ( adaptationmotivation, identity flexibility, emotionalcoorientation成对取向).[inward components] in one’s mindOperational components (technicalcompetence, synchrony⼀致性,resourcefulness善于随机应变)[outward components] behavior The three facts are inseparable in reality.⼗⼩时泣⾎之作T T2013-1-9 0:42:56加油！！灰⾊背景为2013.1.9的问答框架Case analysis 是到中国来教外语的mark和中国同事的相处⽭盾判断和选择要求对知识点感性认识，注意重点细节问答注意那种不太长⼤概涉及四五个知识点的内容，还要举个栗⼦=w=Case analysis要扯术语，上课好好听Ps知识点整理和考试题回忆都不是重点，上课要好好听考前好好复习！！⾄少两个下午⼀个晚上吧学姐只能帮你到这了T T2013-1-9 13:21:25。
《跨文化交际》复习提纲
《跨文化交际》复习提纲1. Intercultural communication competence involves being able to communicate efficiently and effectively with people from other cultures, to achieve mutual understanding and to gain better cooperation.2. In order to make effective cross-cultural communication, people should not only know the differences of a foreign language in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar, but should also know the pragmatic rules that govern the language.3. People in Asia, Africa and Europe interacted with each other through “ Silk Road”in Chinese history.4. Edward Hall is considered as the father of IC with his publication “The Silent Language”in1959 and his many other books.5. Intercultural Communication, as a relatively newly developed discipline, started in America in 1960s.6. Intercultural Communication is of a multi-disciplinary nature. It has direct or indirect relationship with the development of its neighboring disciplines.7. It is more important to know “how to say” than “ what to say” in intercultural communication.8. It is often thought that people can communicate with foreigners effectively if they have listening, speaking, reading and writing abilities in a foreign language.9. All the components of culture are interrelated, and the change of one aspect of culture will certainly bring about changes in other aspects as well.10. Both communication and culture are dynamic, they are not static.11. Communication mainly includes the following levels: 1) international communication, 2) interracial communication, 3) interethnic communication, 4) inter-regional communication, and 5) intracultural communication.12. Generally speaking, the people from China belong to high –context communication nations, more information can be obtained from contexts, while the people from English-speaking countries belong to low –context communication nations, more information can be provided through explicit words.13. Language, culture and communication are inseparable. Language is not only a channel of culture but also a means of communication.14. Communication is just like the swimming action, language is just like the swimming skill, and culture is just like water. Without language, communication would remain to a very limited degree; without culture, there would be no communication at all.15. In Britain, “east wind” may bring coldness which makes life dull, and “ west wind” may bring spring which makes life awakening, while, in China, “east wind” may bring spring and warmth which makes life prosperous, and “ west wind” may bring deep autumn and coldness which makes life withering,16. Cranes, pines, cypress, plum blossoms, orchard, bamboos and chrysanthemums are simply common plants or animals to English-speaking people, but to the Chinese people, they are embodiments, of longevity, uprightness, perseverance, endurance, and loftiness.17. In English, dragon is a mythical monster like a reptile with wings able to spout fire while in Chinese, it is a symbol for power, glory and luck.18. In English, dog has positive meaning, usually standing for man’s best friend while in Chinese, it usually has negative or derogative meaning.19. In English, willow is a symbol for depression, sadness resulting from death while in Chinese, it usually refers to sadness resulting from departure.20. In English, “red”is usually associated with such negative sense as danger, violence, misfortune, etc. while in Chinese, it is usually associated with such positive senses as victory, revolution, etc.21. In English, “bat”, “dog”, “chicken”, “cat”, “cow”, “hen”, or “mutton” can be used to refer to old woman or prostitutes.22. Such 4-letter words as “shit”, “hell”, “damn”, “fuck” or “tits” are taboos which are considered very rude and offensive and should be avoided.23. Such expressions as “relieve oneself”, “wash one’s hands”, “pay a call”, or “powder one’s nose” are euphemisms which are considered “good speech” for excretion and should be applied in daily life.24. Euphemisms change with times and circumstances.25. Such communicative styles as being polite and interdependent, being loyal to group, face-saving, respecting others and disgracing oneself are the typical cultural values of the Chinese people’s collectivism.26. Such values as privacy, independence, equality, fairness and competition are the direct product of are the typical cultural values of the English-speaking people’s individualism.27. The typical cultural values of the Chinese people’s collectivism has been labeled as “we”cultures..28. The typical cultural value of the English-speaking people’s individualism has been labeled as “I” cultures.29. Chinese people have put more stress on “what a man should be” than “what a man should do”. As a result, they avoid being aggressive, tend to talk less or even just keep silent in their interpersonal communication.30. People in the English-speaking countries prefer doing something to being somebody. As a result, they like taking risks, tend to be talkative in their interpersonal communication.31. The Asians, including the Chinese people, like to look backward. As a result, they tend to conform the conventions and respect elders.32. The American people tend to look forward. As a result, they do not like to conform the conventions or respect elders as much as the Chinese people do.33. The Chinese people like to be masters to time, they use time more freely and elastically. As a result, they are not as punctual as the westerners.34. Unlike the Chinese people, the westerners like to be slaves to time and they use time strictly and elastically. As a result, they are punctual.35. “A man’s home is his castle”, which originated from England, reflects such English-speaking people’s cultural value as privacy.36. “Time is money”, which originated from USA, reflects such American people’s cultural value as efficiency.37. “All people are created equal”, which originated from USA, reflects such American people’s cultural value as equality.38. “树有皮，人要脸”, which originated from China, reflects such Chinese people’s cultural value as face.39. “先天下之忧而忧，后天下之乐而乐”, which originated from China, reflects such Chinesepeople’s cultural value as collectivism.40. “君臣父子，上下有序”, which originated from China, reflects such Chinese people’s cultural value as hierarchy.41. Traditional Chinese medicine is a typical example of Chinese synthetic thinking pattern.42. Western medicine is a typical example of western analytical thinking pattern.43. Traditional Chinese painting is a typical example Chinese synthetic thinking pattern.44. According to Kalpan (1970), Asians employ indirect thinking pattern while westerners employ direct thinking pattern.45. The formation of Chinese characters , especially 象形字，is a typical example of Chinese concrete thinking pattern.46. English words, which are made up of 26 letters, neglect concrete images, are more abstract.47. English is overtly coherent and hypotactic because it frequently uses relative words, conjunctions and prepositions in a sentence. In contrast, Chinese is covertly coherent and paratactic with fewer or even no conjunctions and prepositions in a sentence.48. As a result of inductive thinking pattern, Chinese sentences are top-heavy, looking like an inverted pyramid ( lion head), in which, the important elements are often said at the end of a sentence.49. As a result of deductive thinking pattern, English sentences are end-heavy, looking like a pyramid ( peacock tail), in which, the shorter elements often go before longer ones.50. In most cases, English –speaking people like to introduce topic first and then give supporting details while the Chinese people prefer giving supporting details first and then generalize results.51. In Chinese, the family name comes first and the given name comes second, while in English, the order is just the opposite.52. In English, kinship terms are more general while In Chinese, they are more specific.53. It is culturally wrong in English to address “Teacher Wang”, and idiomatically correct to address “Mr. Wang/ Miss Wang”54. “Lisa” is one of the 16 pet names for “Elizabeth” which means “devoted to God”55. “Madge” is one of the pet names for “Margaret” which means “pearl”56. “Maria” is one of the pet names for “Mary” which means “suffering”57. “Bob” is one of the pet names for “Robert” which means “brightness”58. In English –speaking countries, people usually introduce males to females, unmarried females to married females, people of lower status to people of higher status, or younger people to elder people.59. While introducing others, people in China usually introduce people of higher status, elder people, or males first.60. In Chinese, “Have you eaten? 吃了吗？” is not a genuine question in fact, but only a form of greetings.61. In English, “Good night!” is used only when people will not meet again after parting at night.62. “ Thank you” is far frequently used in English than “谢谢” in Chinese. Yet it does not mean that the Chinese people do not like to thank others, they have far more ways.63. “It doesn’t matter” , “ Never mind” are responses to apologies “ I’m sorry” , not to thanks64. “Lets get together soon.” or “I’ll invite you to tea later.” are just expressions of goodwill rather than genuine invitations.65. English –speaking people tend to accept the compliments whereas the Chinese people tend toefface themselves in words, although they do feel comfortable about the compliments.66. In English, the pronoun “ I” is used more often, e.g. “ I love it”, “ Like it”, while in Chinese, the compliments often begin with the pronouns “你”or “你的”67. While asking who the caller is, English –speaking people usually do so: “Is that Mary?? Or “Is that Mary speaking?”, not “ Are you Mary?”68. In broad terms, nonverbal communication covers four areas: Body language, paralanguage, object language and environmental language.69. The function “repeating” of nonverbal communication is reflected in the following example: we point in a certain direction after we have said: “The dinning hall is south of the library.”70. Being the core of body language, gesture is the most commonly used and the most important means in the process of nonverbal communication.71. For the “OK” sign in America, it means “ money” in Japan；in France, it means “ zero’；in Brazil and Germany, it means something quite rude.72. Handshaking is imported into China from outside, It should go together with smile, polite postures, appropriate distance and eye-contact in cross-cultural communication.74. In America, a smile can be a sign of happiness or friendly affirmation, In China, however, it can be used to mask an emotion, or to avoid answering a question, or even to hide embarrassment.75. U.S people tend to need more space than do persons of certain cultures such as Greeks, Latin Americans or Arabs.76. The Americans tend to talk with those people opposite them rather than those seated or stand beside them; the Chinese people tend to talk with those people sitting next to each other.77. In western banquets, the right side is considered as superiority, while the left side is considered as inferiority. In Chinese banquets, the seats facing the gate or facing the south is considered to be superior.78. Past-oriented cultures such as the Chinese, the British place much emphasis on tradition and are often perceived as resisting change; Filipinos and Latin Americans are present-oriented and emphasize living in the moment; Most of the Americans are future-oriented and put great faith in the future.79. Northern American and Western European cultures are typical M- Time cultures; Latin American, African, Arab and most of the Asian cultures are P-Time cultures.79. Most of the traditional Chinese festivals originate from seasons while most of the traditional Western festivals originate from religion.80. In the Western world, the largest traditional festival is Christmas, and the second largest traditional festival is Easter.81. Chinese diets have been focusing on the delicacy and flavor while the western diets have been focusing on the nutrition and its balance.82. The word “friend” in the United States has a broad meaning, including everyone from a casual acquaintance to a long-time best friend, while in China, people reserve the word “friend” for a few people who are very close.83. The Americans tend to help their friends to find out the solutions to problems by asking “What do you want to do?”while the Chinese people tend to give their friends specific advice by suggesting “You should…” or “ You can…”.84. People in the English-speaking countries usually give some novelties as gifts while people in China would like to give something expensive or even money as gifts.85. People in the English-speaking countries will take gifts happily and open them quickly while in China, gift-receivers usually complain much to gift-givers before they receive the gifts or even just put them aside, leaving uncovered.86. In the west, the tradition “Lady First” may come from Christianity, where Maria is respected as embodying noble and lofty emotions or from knighthood, which originated in the middle Ages Europe.87. People in the English-speaking countries usually regard age, marriage status, health, salary, price, religion or politics as something private, which should be avoided talking about.88. Both English-speaking people and Chinese people can share talking about such topics as entertainments, traveling, weather, work or spending holidays.89. “Thinking culturally and globally”by Linell Davis tells us that nowadays,in intercultural communication, people should take cultural differences into consideration.90.Potential problems in intercultural communication mainly include ethnocentrism, stereotype, culture shock and prejudice.91.Prejudice is an unfair, biased or derogatory attitude or set of attitudes towards all or most of the members of a group.92. Empathy is generally defined as the degree to which we can accurately infer other people’s thoughts or feelings, or the ability to put oneself in other people’s shoes.93. Adaptability refers to the ability to adjust and fashion our communication behaviors to culture differences as well as a new culture.94. Ethnocentrism refers to the belief that one’s culture is better or the belief in the superiority of one’s own ethnic group.95. Stereotypes are the beliefs or perceptions people hold about groups or individuals based on previously formed opinions and attitudes.96. Culture shock is the feeling of confusion, insecurity, and anxiety caused by the strangeness ofa new environment.97. Culture shock has four stages: honeymoon, crisis, recovery and adjustment.98. There is a reverse culture shock that takes place when people return “home” after a long period of time in another country.99. China is called “中国”, meaning “the center of the world”, in the past, the world beyond China was called “蛮夷”, meaning “the place of savages”. The belief above is called ethnocentrism.100, The belief that “Men are breadwinners” and “Women are homemakers” is called stereotype.。
跨文化心理学复习提纲
跨文化心理学复习提纲《跨文化心理学》2012年秋季学期复习提纲一、名词解释1.默许反应偏差：对研究者呈现的大多数或所有的陈述和问题，都给予同意而不是反对的倾向。
2.生态谬误：认为在不同的分析层面，两个变量之间的关系仍然相同的错误信念。
过去通常指从国家层面关系到个人层面关系的不合逻辑的推断。
（“生态谬误指用一种高层次的分析单位做调查，却用另一种低层次的分析单位做结论。
）3.主位法和客位法：主位研究是从研究的直接背景中抽取材料，对其发现的跨文化的普遍性并不做假设。
而客位研究是做出一个暂时的假设，认为正在研究的现象是可比较的和普遍的。
主位研究是指研究者不凭自己的主观认识，尽可能的从当地人的视角去理解文化，通过听取当地提供情况的人即报道人所反映的当地人对事物的认识和观点进行整理和分析的研究方法。
主位研究将报道人放在更重要的位置，把他的描述和分析作为最终的判断。
同时，主位研究要求研究者对研究对象有深入的了解，熟悉他们的知识体系、分类系统，明了他们的概念、话语及意义，通过深入的参与观察，尽量像本地人那样去思考和行动。
客位研究是研究者以文化外来观察者的角度来理解文化，以科学家的标准对其行为的原因和结果进行解释，用比较的和历史的观点看待民族志提供的材料。
这样在研究理论和方法上，要求研究者具有较为系统的知识，并能够联系研究对象实际材料进行应用。
4.强加式客位研究：在某一种文化背景中形成的客位的测量。
事先没有评估它的适用性或者它的意义是否等值，就应用与其他的文化背景的研究的。
（采取绝对主义的哲学预设，认为西方心理学者所建构出来的理论和研究典范具有一定程度普适性，可以运用到不同文化之中，不必做任何的调整与修改）5.社会文化适应：通过学习当地社会系统的运转和获得必要的技能和方式，以在不熟悉的文化情境中完成一些事物，从而去适应新的文化背景。
6.自主-关系型自我诠释：自我知觉的一个维度，既重视自主行动的能力又强调与他人关系的重要性。
跨文化心理学
名解1、文化：①文化是特定民族的生活方式，包括基本生活特性，食物和衣饰，居住和建筑，经济和交通，个人和家庭的活动，社会和政府形式，宗教、科学和福利，性和繁殖方式。
②文化也是历史学的一个重要概念，它指的是一个特定人群的传统和历史遗传特性。
2、跨文化沟通：是指在不同的文化背景下，人与人之间信息、情感、思想的传递。
3、词汇假设：如果人类的某一个活动或者环境中的某一事物，对我们的生存和发展有着特别重要意义的时候，相对而言有关这一事物的词汇就会较多。
4、高情境的沟通文化：强调在很多情况下沟通的情境、信息和意义的交换不是由你说的语句和内容来决定的，而是由你表达的方式、手势、语调、语速等情境性的因素来决定的。
5、低情境的沟通文化：强调沟通的方式是直接的、明确的，它的意义应该是直接由字面表达的。
6、激化现象：重复呈现人们先前比较喜欢的事物可以导致比较积极的评价；反之，重复呈现人们先前比较不喜欢的事物可以导致更加消极的评价。
7、中央路径的说服：指的是人们主动、系统的思考一个问题，他们对观点、论据、证据、理论更感兴趣，如果这些信息很弱，人们就很容易找到反对理由，从而达不到影响的效果。
如果这些信息很强，他们就很可能被说服。
8、边缘路径的说服：不需要人们关注论据本身，而是去关注那些不需要动脑子的线索。
9、自我参照效应：当信息与我们的自我概念有关时，我们会对它进行非常快速的加工，而且能记忆的很明确，保存的非常好。
10、自我焦点效应：自己比别人更重要。
我们人类常常把自己看做一切的中心，并且直觉的高估别人对我们的注意度。
在现实情况下，真正注意到我们的人要比我们认为的少的多。
11、接触文化：通常鼓励身体的接触，允许对话双方之间身体的接近甚至触摸亲吻；12、非接触文化：通常不鼓励身体的接触，对话双方之间隔得较远；一、跨文化沟通的特点：寻求共同点、强烈的投入感、沟通中断的顾虑、谈判的持续性二、语言的跨文化差异维度：词汇的差异、对话距离的差异、语言使用的差异、非言语成分三、两种沟通风格的差异：第一，沟通双方是否能推测到对方的意思。
（完整word版）跨文化交际复习提纲
（完整word版）跨文化交际复习提纲Intercultural CommunicationIntercultural Communication Defined1. IC is actually an academic and applied discipline that has developed internationally since the 1950s. Sometimes called “cross-cultural communications” or “comparative culture,” or “transculture”.2. On one level, IC is represented by culture studies, where we examine the political, economic and lifestyle systems of other countries.3. On another level, it is applied linguistics, where we seek to understand the relationship between language and culture.4. IC is a broad and well-developed field of study.5. IC is an interdisciplinary application of fields like cultural anthropology, sociology, psychology (and social psychology), communication studies, applied linguistics and educational pedagogy.6. IC is a comprehensive attempt to understand all aspects of human cultures and how they interact with each other.Forms of Intercultural Communicationa. International Communicationb. Interethnic Communicationc. Interracial Communicationd. Intracultural CommunicationDefinition Final5) Culture is the total accumulation of beliefs, customs, values, behaviors, institutions and communication patterns that are shared, learned and passed down through the generations in an identifiable group of people.2.Cultural Metaphors1. The Cultural Iceberg2. The Cultural Onion3.The Cultural Software4.The Cultural Fish5. The Cultural Story6. Culture by Chinese7. Culture by Americans3. Characteristics of Culture1) Culture is sharedThe members of a culture share a set of ‘ideals, values, and standards of behaviors’, and this set of ideals is what gives meaning to their lives, and what bond them together as a culture.2) Culture is learnedActually, culture is not innate sensibility, but a learned characteristic. Children begin learning about their own culture at home with their immediate family and how they interact each other, how they dress, and the rituals they perform. When the children are growing in the community, their cultural education is advanced by watching social interactions, taking part in cultural activities and rituals in the community, forming their own relationships and taking their place in the culture.3) Culture is based on symbols.In order for the culture to be transmitted from one person to the next, and from one generation to the next, a system of symbols needs to be created that translates the ideals of the culture to its members. This is accomplished through language, art, religion and money.4) Culture is integratedFor the sake of keeping the culture, functioning all aspects ofthe culture must be integrated. For example, the language must be able to describe all the functions within the culture in order for ideas and ideals to be transmitted from one person to another. Without the integration of language into the fabric of the culture, confusion and dysfunction would reign and the culture would fail.5) Culture is subjective to change (Dynamic)It is necessary to recognize that cultures are dynamic rather than static. They are constantly changing and evolving under the impact of events and through contact with other cultures.6) Culture is ethnocentricEthnocentrism is the belief that your own cultural background, including ways of analyzing problems, values, beliefs, language, and verbal and nonverbal communication, is correct. Ethnocentrists believe their culture is the central culture and other cultures are incorrect, ineffective, or quaint.7) Culture is adaptiveHistory offers so many examples of how cultures have changed as a result of laws, shifts in values, natural disasters, wars, or calamities. More and more women work as CEOs in major companies and as officials in government instead of remaining at home looking after children. Both women and men have made adaptation to this cultural change.Western Perspective of communicationIn western cultures, communication is studied as the means of transmitting ideas. Western cultures emphasize the instrumental function of communication; that is, effectiveness is evaluated in terms of success in the manipulation of others to achieve one’s personal goal Eastern perspective of communicationDefinitions of communication from many Asian countriesstress harmony, which is most notable in cultures with a Confucian tradition. Eastern cultures’understanding would define communication as a process where all parties are searching to develop and maintain a social relationship.2. Components of communicationSender/Source（信息源）A sender/source is the person who transmits a messageMessage （信息）A message is any signal that triggers the response of a receiver.Encoding （编码）Encoding refers to the activity during which the sendermust choose certain words or nonverbal methods to send an intentional message.Channel /Medium（渠道）. Channel/Medium is the method used to deliver amessage.Receiver （信息接收者）A receiver is any person who notices and givessome meaning to a message.Decoding （解码）Decoding is the activity during which the receiver attaches meaning to the words or symbols he/she has received.Feedback （反馈）The response of a receiver to a sender’s message is called feedback.Noise （干扰）Noise is a term used for factors that interfere with the exchange of messages, including external noise ，physiological noise, psychological noise and semantic noise. Noise is inevitable.1)External NoiseSounds that distract communicators:voices in the next room; annoying ring of someone’s cell phone in a meeting; etc.Other types of external noise that don’t involve sound:an overcrowded room or a smelly cigar(2) Physiological Noiseillnesses and disabilities(3) Psychological Noiseforces with the sender or receiver that interfere with understanding: egotism; hostility; preoccupation; fear; etc.(4) Semantic Noisecaused by using different languages; the use of jargon; different understanding of the message delivered; etc.3.Characteristics of Communicationa. Communication is dynamicb. Communication is systematicc. Communication is symbolicd. Communication is irreversiblee. Communication is transactionalf. Communication is self-reflectiveg. Communication is contextual.High ContextA high-context (HC) communication or message is one in which most of the information is either in the physical context or internalized in the person, which very little is in the coded, explicit, transmitted part of the message.Communication occurs in ways other than through language. People share context.HC communication is fast and efficient, but takes long timeto learn.Low ContextA low-context (LC) is just the opposite, the mass of information is vested in the explicit code. Communication occurs mostly through language.low-context sources: newspapers, textbooks, lectures, roadmaps, announcements, instruction sheets etc.More impersonal, but effective in transmitting information among people who do not share the same experience.Hofstede’s cultural dimensions1. Individualism versus collectivism2. Uncertainty avoidance3. Power distance4. Masculinity versus femininityUncertainty AvoidanceThis dimension refers to how comfortable people feel towards ambiguityCultures which ranked low (compared to other cultures), feel much more comfortable with the unknown.According to Hofstede (霍夫斯太德), uncertainty avoidance refers to the lack of tolerance for ambiguity and the need for formal rules and high-level organizational structure.\1. Culture Shock◆refers to the traumatic [tr?:'m?tik] experience that an individual may encounter when entering a different culture.◆expresses the lack of direction, the feeling of not knowing what to do or how to do things in a new environment, and not knowing what is appropriate or inappropriate.4. Stages of culture shockThe honeymoon stage ?The hostility stage ?The recovery stage ?The adjustment stage ?The biculturality stage1. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesislinguistic determinist interpretation---Language structure controls thoughts and cultural norms.linguistic relativity interpretation---Culture is controlled by and controls language.According to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, language is a guide to " social reality". It implies that language is not simply a means of reporting experience but, more important, it is a way of defining experience.Eg. Nothing is more important than rice to the Chinese, so we have expressions like “人是铁，饭是钢”and “铁饭碗”.Verbal Communication StylesCulture influences the style of communication at great level. The communication style isconcerned with the use of language1.Direct and Indirect Verbal Interaction StylesIn the direct verbal style, statements clearly reveal the speaker’s intentions.Eg. U.S. Americans tend to use a straightforward form of request.In the indirect verbal style, on the other hand, verbal statements tend to hide the speaker’s actual intentions.Eg. Chinese tend to ask for a favor in a more roundabout and implicit way.（P180)2. Self-Enhancement and Self-Effacement Verbal StylesThe self-enhancement verbal style emphasizes theim portance of boasting about one’s accomplishments and abilities.Eg. In the classified ads, American ad might begin with, “A handsome, at hletic male with a good sense of humor seeks a fun-loving partner…”The self-effacement verbal style, on the other hand,emphasizes the importance of humbling oneself via verbal restraints, hesitations and modest talk.Eg. In the classified ads, Japanese ad might read, “AlthoughI am not very good-looking, I’m willing to try my best.”3. Elaborate, Exacting and Succinct StylesAn elaborate style emphasizes flashy and embellished language. This style of communication can be seen in many Arab, Middle Eastern, and Afro-Americancultures.An exacting style, where persons say no more or less than is needed, is used by Americans.A succinct style is characterized by the use of concise statements, understatements,and even silence. A succinct style can be found in Japan, China, and some NativeAmerican cultures4. Personal and Contextual StyleThe personal communication style emphasizes the individual identity of the speaker. Eg. English has only one form for the second person, that is, you.The con textual style highlights one’s role identity and status.Eg. Chinese, German and French, for example, have informal and formal forms of the pronoun you (你/您; du/Sie; tu/vous).5. Instrumental and Affective StyleAn instrumental verbal style is sender-based and goal-outcome based. The instrumental speaker uses communication to achieve some goal or outcome. Theburden of understanding often rests with the speaker.An affective communication style is receiver and process oriented. The affective speaker is concerned not so much with the outcome of the communication, but withthe process. The responsibility of understanding rests with both the speaker and the listener.2. Categories of Nonverbal CommunicationKinesics(身势语）oculesics(目光语)olfactics(嗅觉)haptics(触觉行为)chromatics(色彩学)attire (服饰)paralanguagesilencetimespacecontext1)KinesicsKinesics is the non-verbal behavior related to movement, either of any part of the body, or the body as a whole. In short all communicative body movements are generally classified as kinesics.1.Human Perception(1) Sensation(2) Perception(3) Selection(4) Organization(5) InterpretationThe definition of acculturationAcculturation（文化适应）refe rs to an individual’s learning and adopting the norms and values of the new host culture2. Modes of acculturationa. Assimilationis a process in which members of an ethnic group are absorbed into the dominant culture, losing their culture in the process.b. Integrationis a process of desiring a high level of interaction with the host culture while maintaining identity with their native culture.c. Separation and segregationSeparation is when individuals prefer low levels of interaction with the host culture and associated microcultural groups while desiring a close connection with, and reaffirmation of, their native culture. If such separation is initiated and enforced by the dominant society, this is called segregationd. Marginalization (边缘化)Marginalization occurs when the individual chooses not to identify with his or her native culture or with the host culture.StereotypingStereotypes, found in nearly every intercultural situation, are a means of organizing our images into fixed and simple categories that we use to stand for the entire collection of people. The reason for the pervasive nature of stereotypes is that human beings have a psychological need to categorize and classify.Second, stereotypes also keep us from being successful as communicators because they are over-simplified, over-generalized, and/or exaggerated. They are based on half-truths, distortions, and often untrue premises and create inaccurate pictures of the people with whom we are interacting.Third, stereotypes tend to impede intercultural communication in that they repeat and reinforce beliefs until they often become taken for "truth." For years, women were stereotypes as a rather one dimensional group. The stereotype of women as "homemakers" often keeps women from advancing in the workplace.EthnocentrismEthnocentrism refers to the belief that one' s culture is primary to all explanations of reality. We learn ethnocentrism very early in life, and primarily on the unconscious level. So it might be the major barrier to intercultural communication. The negative impact of ethnocentrism on intercultural communication is clearly highlighted by Steward and Bennett (Samovar, et al, 1998):Competent communicationCompetent communication is interactionthat is perceived as effective in fulfillingcertain rewarding objectives and is alsoappropriate to the context in which theinteraction occurs.Communication CompetenceCommunication competence is a social judgment that people make about others.Intercultural Competence“The ability to become effective and appropriate in interacting across cultures”Intercultural communication competenceIntercultural communication competence refers to the ability to accomplish effective and appropriate intercultural communication between communicators of different cultures.c. AttitudesMany attitudes contribute to intercultural communication competence, including tolerance for ambiguity, empathy, and nonjudgmentalnessd. Behaviors and skillstwo levels of behavioral competence. The macro level includes many culture-general behaviors, then there is the micro level, at which these general behaviors are implemented in culture-specific ways.Contextual Components of Intercultural CompetenceContext refers to all the information in the actual communication setting, so some intercultural communication scholars would use another term “situational features” to refer to the context.-- Another aspect of context is the communicator's position within a speech community.-- In addition, an individual’s competence may be constrained by the political, economic, and historical contexts.Things We Can Do1.Knowing ourselves2.Respecting differences and appreciate similarities3.Empathy4.Knowing ourselves5.First, we have to identify our attitudes, prejudices, and opinions that we allcarry and that bias the way the world appears to us.6.If we hold a certain attitude toward gay men, and when aman who is a gaytalks to us, our pre-communication attitude will color our response to what he says.7.Knowing our likes, dislikes, and degrees of personal ethnocentrism enables us toplace them out in the open so that we detect the ways in which these attitudesinfluence communication.Appreciate Similarities and Respect DifferencesEmpathyTo improve empathy, first, we have to remind ourselves to pay attention to the spontaneous emotional expressions of others and the situation where the interaction takes place. Then, as empathy is a reciprocal act, both parties have to be expressive so as to achieve understanding. Third, empathy can be enhanced through awareness of specific behaviors that members of a particular culture or co-culture might find impertinent or insulting. Finally, we have to remember that empathy can be increased if you resist the tendency to interpret the other's verbal and nonverbal actions from your culture' s orientation.。
跨文化企业管理心理学复习提纲及思考题
跨文化企业管理心理学复习提纲及思考题第一篇：跨文化企业管理心理学复习提纲及思考题《跨文化企业管理心理学》复习提纲及思考题第一章跨国公司与合资企业的一般概念本章提要1.跨国公司与合资企业是全球化的产物，随着全球化进程的深化，跨国经营企业成为对中国市场有重要影响的经济力量。
从总体看，外资企业进入中国打破了我国经济原有的体制内循环格局，推动了我国从计划经济到市场经济的体制改革进程，有助于市场建设和经济发展。
2.跨国公司和合资企业在中国的发展有以下特点：世界著名大公司纷纷看好中国市场，中国外资企业在数量和质量上都呈上升趋势；外资企业技术水平有显著提高；中国利用外资的效益也较好。
但外资企业存在地域和行业的差异。
3.合资企业在中国得以发展成功的原因主要有：相对稳定的政治环境和良好的投资环境；国家外资政策的导向和扶持；构建和完善外资法律体系；在中外合资企业管理模式上进行探索，包括共同管理文化新模式；引进资金、技术管理制度的同时，还引进创新能力；嫁接式管理；管理和技术人才当地化等。
4.合资企业和跨国公司在中国发展面临的主要问题有：收益铁则则规律与中方利益的冲突；国有资产在合资过程中的流失；国有品牌被收购、取消；以市场换技术与失去市场之间的矛盾；民族工业与合资企业之间的关系等。
5.合资企业和跨国公司在中国面临的挑战主要有：中国有些行业市场竞争激烈；市场购买力主要集中在大城市；运作成本上升等。
6.合资企业在中国失败的主要原因有：沟通不畅或低效率；双方诚意不够；价格转移；对中国市场的误解；当地化问题。
思考与探索1、名词解释：跨国公司、中外合资企业、收益动机铁则2、简述跨国公司的优势。
中外合资企业3、合资企业和跨国公司在中国发展面临的主要问题与挑战4.合资企业目前在我国的发展状况如何?对我国经济建设起到了什么作用?5.中外合资企业成功的管理因素主要是什么?请举例说明。
6.中外合资企业失败的主要因素是什么?请举例说明。
7.你是如何看待中外合资企业目前在中国遇到的困难和问题？8.摩托罗拉公司人本管理思想主要体现在哪些方面?它在中国的公司采取了哪些中国特色的管理措施?6.王朝引资创自己名牌的战略是怎样实现的?这对其他企业何启示?第二章文化差异与合资企业的管理本章提要1.文化具有习得性、群体性、差异性和共性、约束力、变迁性与稳定性。
跨文化心理学复习笔记
跨文化心理学复习笔记文化心理学是心理学的最新研究领域之一，它是研究心理和文化之间相互影响关系的的学科，它的主要目的在于揭示文化和心理之间的相互整合的机制。
文化心理学是研究文化传统与社会活动的调整、表达、传递以及渗透与影响人类心理生活方式的学科，它涉及主观与客观、自我与他人、心理和文化、个人与生活环境等诸多领域的内容。
文化心理学有两个最基本的前提：人类的生活受制于自身所生活的社会文化情境；文化本身又是人类创造性活动的结果。
（1）个人主义与集体主义个人主义：Gould 和Kolb（1964）最早定义了个人主义—集体主义的概念，认为个人主义是一种以个体自己为最终目的、认识到自我和自己的决断以及不能容忍社会压力之下的从众的信念。
鲁克斯（Lukes 1973）进一步深化了这一概念的主题，认为它包括重视个人尊严与自我发展、自主与个人隐私，同时强调个体是社会的基础。
集体主义：与个人主义相反，集体主义则是一种以强调内团体（为核心的信念，它关注内团体的目标与需要胜于个体自己，强调团体的规范与责任，而不是个体自身的快乐，并且乐于接受他人。
集体主义与个人主义的测量何友晖（Hui）和垂安迪斯（1988）构建了一个个人主义—集体主义量表（Individualism —Collectivism Scale 简称IC），从个体对待配偶、父母、亲戚、朋友、邻居及同事的态度等六个方面衡量一个人的集体主义倾向。
他们还以此为工具证明了这一人格结构具有跨文化的普遍性。
个人主义与集体主义的影响服从性来自集体主义文化的人有较高的服从倾向。
梁爵（Leung 1986）在研究到美国留学的中国学生时就发现，在他们处理与导师的关系时，服从的倾向要远高于美国学生对导师的服从。
当他们遇到困难时，更愿意求助于来自上下级的帮助，而不象美国学生那样求助于同级的朋友。
自我概念马库斯认为，东方文化中依赖型的自我结构使得自我的内容延伸到了与自我关系密切的他人。
对中国人来说，自我在一定程度上与内团体重合，因此在处理与外界的关系时往往以内团体为准。
跨文化心理学大纲
跨文化心理学大纲引言：跨文化心理学是一门研究不同文化背景下人类心理活动的学科。
它探讨了文化对个体心理过程和行为的影响，并试图理解不同文化间的差异和相似性。
本文将围绕跨文化心理学大纲展开，探讨跨文化心理学的背景、基本概念、研究方法以及对社会的重要意义。
一、跨文化心理学的背景1.全球化的背景下，文化交流与冲突日益加剧随着全球化的加速发展，跨国交流和移民现象愈发普遍。
不同文化之间的接触和碰撞，导致了人们对文化差异的关注与思考。
2.文化对个体心理活动和行为的影响文化是人们共同生活的社会环境，塑造了个体的价值观、信念、行为模式等。
不同文化条件下的个体会呈现出不同的心理特征和行为习惯。
二、跨文化心理学的基本概念1.文化文化是一系列共享的信仰、价值观、行为规范和社会习俗的集合。
它是人类共同生活的基础，是心理活动和行为的重要决定因素。
2.文化相对主义文化相对主义认为每个文化都有其独特的价值观和行为模式，不存在绝对的优劣之分。
不同文化之间的比较需要建立在相对主义的基础上。
3.社会认知社会认知研究个体在社会环境中的认知过程和社会信息的加工。
它关注文化对个体认知的影响以及个体如何理解和处理跨文化信息。
三、跨文化心理学的研究方法1.比较研究法比较研究法通过对不同文化群体进行比较，揭示文化差异对心理活动和行为的影响。
研究者需要选择合适的研究对象和方法，确保研究结果的有效性和可靠性。
2.文化分析法文化分析法关注文化对个体心理过程和行为的塑造作用。
通过深入了解文化的特点和价值观，研究者可以揭示文化对个体的影响机制。
3.实地观察和问卷调查实地观察和问卷调查是跨文化心理学研究中常用的方法。
研究者可以通过观察和调查收集到大量的数据，深入了解不同文化群体的心理特征和行为习惯。
四、跨文化心理学的重要意义1.促进文化交流与理解跨文化心理学研究可以帮助人们更好地理解不同文化之间的差异和相似性，促进跨文化交流与合作，减少文化冲突和误解。
2.拓展心理学理论与知识跨文化心理学研究为心理学领域提供了新的视角和理论框架。
(完整word版)跨文化交际复习提纲
Intercultural CommunicationIntercultural Communication Defined1. IC is actually an academic and applied discipline that has developed internationally since the 1950s. Sometimes called “cross-cultural communications” or “comparative culture,” or “transculture”.2. On one level, IC is represented by culture studies, where we examine the political, economic and lifestyle systems of other countries.3. On another level, it is applied linguistics, where we seek to understand the relationship between language and culture.4. IC is a broad and well-developed field of study.5. IC is an interdisciplinary application of fields like cultural anthropology, sociology, psychology (and social psychology), communication studies, applied linguistics and educational pedagogy.6. IC is a comprehensive attempt to understand all aspects of human cultures and how they interact with each other.Forms of Intercultural Communicationa. International Communicationb. Interethnic Communicationc. Interracial Communicationd. Intracultural CommunicationDefinition Final5) Culture is the total accumulation of beliefs, customs, values, behaviors, institutions and communication patterns that are shared, learned and passed down through the generations in an identifiable group of people.2.Cultural Metaphors1. The Cultural Iceberg2. The Cultural Onion3.The Cultural Software4.The Cultural Fish5. The Cultural Story6. Culture by Chinese7. Culture by Americans3. Characteristics of Culture1) Culture is sharedThe members of a culture share a set of ‘ideals, values, and standards of behaviors’, and this set of ideals is what gives meaning to their lives, and what bond them together as a culture.2) Culture is learnedActually, culture is not innate sensibility, but a learned characteristic. Children begin learning about their own culture at home with their immediate family and how they interact each other, how they dress, and the rituals they perform. When the children are growing in the community, their cultural education is advanced by watching social interactions, taking part in culturalactivities and rituals in the community, forming their own relationships and taking their place in the culture.3) Culture is based on symbols.In order for the culture to be transmitted from one person to the next, and from one generation to the next, a system of symbols needs to be created that translates the ideals of the culture to its members. This is accomplished through language, art, religion and money.4) Culture is integratedFor the sake of keeping the culture, functioning all aspects of the culture must be integrated. For example, the language must be able to describe all the functions within the culture in order for ideas and ideals to be transmitted from one person to another. Without the integration of language into the fabric of the culture, confusion and dysfunction would reign and the culture would fail. 5) Culture is subjective to change (Dynamic)It is necessary to recognize that cultures are dynamic rather than static. They are constantly changing and evolving under the impact of events and through contact with other cultures.6) Culture is ethnocentricEthnocentrism is the belief that your own cultural background, including ways of analyzing problems, values, beliefs, language, and verbal and nonverbal communication, is correct. Ethnocentrists believe their culture is the central culture and other cultures are incorrect, ineffective, or quaint.7) Culture is adaptiveHistory offers so many examples of how cultures have changed as a result of laws, shifts in values, natural disasters, wars, or calamities. More and more women work as CEOs in major companies and as officials in government instead of remaining at home looking after children. Both women and men have made adaptation to this cultural change.Western Perspective of communicationIn western cultures, communication is studied as the means of transmitting ideas. Western cultures emphasize the instrumental function of communication; that is, effectiveness is evaluated in terms of success in the manipulation of others to achieve one’s personal goal Eastern perspective of communicationDefinitions of communication from many Asian countries stress harmony, which is most notable in cultures with a Confucian tradition. Eastern cultures’understanding would define communication as a process where all parties are searching to develop and maintain a social relationship.2. Components of communicationSender/Source（信息源）A sender/source is the person who transmits a messageMessage （信息）A message is any signal that triggers the response of a receiver.Encoding （编码）Encoding refers to the activity during which the sendermust choose certain words or nonverbal methods to send an intentional message.Channel /Medium（渠道）. Channel/Medium is the method used to deliver amessage.Receiver （信息接收者）A receiver is any person who notices and givessome meaning to a message.Decoding （解码）Decoding is the activity during which the receiver attaches meaning to the words or symbols he/she has received.Feedback （反馈）The response of a receiver to a sender’s message is called feedback.Noise （干扰）Noise is a term used for factors that interfere with the exchange of messages, including external noise ，physiological noise, psychological noise and semantic noise. Noise is inevitable.1)External NoiseSounds that distract communicators:voices in the next room; annoying ring of someone’s cell phone in a meeting; etc.Other types of external noise that don’t involve sound:an overcrowded room or a smelly cigar(2) Physiological Noiseillnesses and disabilities(3) Psychological Noiseforces with the sender or receiver that interfere with understanding: egotism; hostility; preoccupation; fear; etc.(4) Semantic Noisecaused by using different languages; the use of jargon; different understanding of the message delivered; etc.3.Characteristics of Communicationa. Communication is dynamicb. Communication is systematicc. Communication is symbolicd. Communication is irreversiblee. Communication is transactionalf. Communication is self-reflectiveg. Communication is contextual.High ContextA high-context (HC) communication or message is one in which most of the information is either in the physical context or internalized in the person, which very little is in the coded, explicit, transmitted part of the message.Communication occurs in ways other than through language. People share context.HC communication is fast and efficient, but takes long time to learn.Low ContextA low-context (LC) is just the opposite, the mass of information is vested in the explicit code. Communication occurs mostly through language.low-context sources: newspapers, textbooks, lectures, roadmaps, announcements, instruction sheets etc.More impersonal, but effective in transmitting information among people who do not share the same experience.Hofstede’s cultural dimensions1. Individualism versus collectivism2. Uncertainty avoidance3. Power distance4. Masculinity versus femininityUncertainty AvoidanceThis dimension refers to how comfortable people feel towards ambiguityCultures which ranked low (compared to other cultures), feel much more comfortable with the unknown.According to Hofstede (霍夫斯太德), uncertainty avoidance refers to the lack of tolerance for ambiguity and the need for formal rules and high-level organizational structure.\1. Culture Shock◆refers to the traumatic [trɔ:'mætik] experience that an individual may encounter when entering a different culture.◆expresses the lack of direction, the feeling of not knowing what to do or how to do things in a new environment, and not knowing what is appropriate or inappropriate.4. Stages of culture shockThe honeymoon stage ◊The hostility stage ◊The recovery stage ◊The adjustment stage ◊The biculturality stage1. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesislinguistic determinist interpretation---Language structure controls thoughts and cultural norms.linguistic relativity interpretation---Culture is controlled by and controls language.According to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, language is a guide to " social reality". It implies that language is not simply a means of reporting experience but, more important, it is a way of defining experience.Eg. Nothing is more important than rice to the Chinese, so we have expressions like “人是铁，饭是钢”and “铁饭碗”.Verbal Communication StylesCulture influences the style of communication at great level. The communication style isconcerned with the use of language1.Direct and Indirect Verbal Interaction StylesIn the direct verbal style, statements clearly reveal the speaker’s intentions.Eg. U.S. Americans tend to use a straightforward form of request.In the indirect verbal style, on the other hand, verbal statements tend to hide the speaker’s actual intentions.Eg. Chinese tend to ask for a favor in a more roundabout and implicit way.（P180)2. Self-Enhancement and Self-Effacement Verbal StylesThe self-enhancement verbal style emphasizes theimportance of boasting about one’s accomplishments and abilities.Eg. In the classified ads, American ad might begin with, “A handsome, at hletic male with a good sense of humor seeks a fun-loving partner…”The self-effacement verbal style, on the other hand,emphasizes the importance of humbling oneself via verbal restraints, hesitations and modest talk.Eg. In the classified ads, Japanese ad might read, “Although I am not very good-looking, I’m willing to try my best.”3. Elaborate, Exacting and Succinct StylesAn elaborate style emphasizes flashy and embellished language. This style of communication can be seen in many Arab, Middle Eastern, and Afro-Americancultures.An exacting style, where persons say no more or less than is needed, is used by Americans.A succinct style is characterized by the use of concise statements, understatements,and even silence. A succinct style can be found in Japan, China, and some NativeAmerican cultures4. Personal and Contextual StyleThe personal communication style emphasizes the individual identity of the speaker. Eg. English has only one form for the second person, that is, you.The con textual style highlights one’s role identity and status.Eg. Chinese, German and French, for example, have informal and formal forms of the pronoun you (你/您; du/Sie; tu/vous).5. Instrumental and Affective StyleAn instrumental verbal style is sender-based and goal-outcome based. The instrumental speaker uses communication to achieve some goal or outcome. Theburden of understanding often rests with the speaker.An affective communication style is receiver and process oriented. The affective speaker is concerned not so much with the outcome of the communication, but withthe process. The responsibility of understanding rests with both the speaker and the listener.2. Categories of Nonverbal CommunicationKinesics(身势语）oculesics(目光语)olfactics(嗅觉)haptics(触觉行为)chromatics(色彩学)attire (服饰)paralanguagesilencetimespacecontext1)KinesicsKinesics is the non-verbal behavior related to movement, either of any part of the body, or the body as a whole. In short all communicative body movements are generally classified as kinesics.1.Human Perception(1) Sensation(2) Perception(3) Selection(4) Organization(5) InterpretationThe definition of acculturationAcculturation（文化适应）refe rs to an individual’s learning and adopting the norms and values of the new host culture2. Modes of acculturationa. Assimilationis a process in which members of an ethnic group are absorbed into the dominant culture, losing their culture in the process.b. Integrationis a process of desiring a high level of interaction with the host culture while maintaining identity with their native culture.c. Separation and segregationSeparation is when individuals prefer low levels of interaction with the host culture and associated microcultural groups while desiring a close connection with, and reaffirmation of, their native culture. If such separation is initiated and enforced by the dominant society, this is called segregationd. Marginalization (边缘化)Marginalization occurs when the individual chooses not to identify with his or her native culture or with the host culture.StereotypingStereotypes, found in nearly every intercultural situation, are a means of organizing our images into fixed and simple categories that we use to stand for the entire collection ofpeople. The reason for the pervasive nature of stereotypes is that human beings have a psychological need to categorize and classify.Second, stereotypes also keep us from being successful as communicators because they are over-simplified, over-generalized, and/or exaggerated. They are based on half-truths, distortions, and often untrue premises and create inaccurate pictures of the people with whom we are interacting.Third, stereotypes tend to impede intercultural communication in that they repeat and reinforce beliefs until they often become taken for "truth." For years, women were stereotypes as a rather one dimensional group. The stereotype of women as "homemakers" often keeps women from advancing in the workplace.EthnocentrismEthnocentrism refers to the belief that one' s culture is primary to all explanations of reality. We learn ethnocentrism very early in life, and primarily on the unconscious level. So it might be the major barrier to intercultural communication. The negative impact of ethnocentrism on intercultural communication is clearly highlighted by Steward and Bennett (Samovar, et al, 1998):Competent communicationCompetent communication is interactionthat is perceived as effective in fulfillingcertain rewarding objectives and is alsoappropriate to the context in which theinteraction occurs.Communication CompetenceCommunication competence is a social judgment that people make about others.Intercultural Competence“The ability to become effective and appropriate in interacting across cultures”Intercultural communication competenceIntercultural communication competence refers to the ability to accomplish effective and appropriate intercultural communication between communicators of different cultures.c. AttitudesMany attitudes contribute to intercultural communication competence, including tolerance for ambiguity, empathy, and nonjudgmentalnessd. Behaviors and skillstwo levels of behavioral competence. The macro level includes many culture-general behaviors, then there is the micro level, at which these general behaviors are implemented in culture-specific ways.Contextual Components of Intercultural CompetenceContext refers to all the information in the actual communication setting, so some intercultural communication scholars would use another term “situational features” to refer to the context.-- Another aspect of context is the communicator's position within a speech community.-- In addition, an individual’s competence may be constrained by the political, economic, and historical contexts.Things We Can Do1.Knowing ourselves2.Respecting differences and appreciate similarities3.Empathy4.Knowing ourselves5.First, we have to identify our attitudes, prejudices, and opinions that we allcarry and that bias the way the world appears to us.6.If we hold a certain attitude toward gay men, and when a man who is a gaytalks to us, our pre-communication attitude will color our response to what he says.7.Knowing our likes, dislikes, and degrees of personal ethnocentrism enables us toplace them out in the open so that we detect the ways in which these attitudesinfluence communication.Appreciate Similarities and Respect DifferencesEmpathyTo improve empathy, first, we have to remind ourselves to pay attention to the spontaneous emotional expressions of others and the situation where the interaction takes place. Then, as empathy is a reciprocal act, both parties have to be expressive so as to achieve understanding. Third, empathy can be enhanced through awareness of specific behaviors that members of a particular culture or co-culture might find impertinent or insulting. Finally, we have to remember that empathy can be increased if you resist the tendency to interpret the other's verbal and nonverbal actions from your culture' s orientation.。
【精选】跨文化复习提纲
一、价值维度（霍夫斯泰的价值维度5个）IBM(任务题)四个价值维度：1、权利距离2、不确定性规避3、个人主义4、阳刚之气5、未来导向和短期导向1、指一个社会的不平等分配的接受水平（社会决定！）高权利距离的国家：集权结构，专制领导低权利距离国家：权利上是平等，一致与合作高权利距离国家有：马来西亚、阿拉伯、墨西哥、印度低权利距离国家有：英国、丹麦、以色列、奥地利从高到低排：马来西亚、阿拉伯、墨西哥、印度、英国、丹麦、以色列、奥地利2、指一个社会中人们对攻击情境感受多大程度的威胁高不确定性规避的国家：严格法律与程序，民族主义低不确定性规避的国家：抗议，组织化程度低，工作流动性高不确定性规避的国家：希腊、日本、法国、韩国低不确定性规避的国家：美国、英国、丹麦、新加波从高到低：希腊、日本、法国、韩国、美国、英国、丹麦、新加坡3、指人们考虑自己和其所在小群体而忽略社会需求的程度个人主义国家：鼓励民主，个人创新（经济，情感层次）自主独立集体主义国家：感情依赖于组织，集体信念，社会和谐，面子，企业家长式作风个人主义国家：澳大利亚、美国、英国、加拿大集体主义国家：日本、韩国、意大利、中国个人主义从高到低：澳大利亚、美国、英国、加拿大、日本、意大利、韩国、中国4、男子气概：过于自信，物质主义，缺乏对别人的考虑妇女地位，工作压力大，阴柔气质：对他人、关系和生活质量的照顾妇女地位，冲突少，工作压力小男子气概高的：日本、墨西哥、德国、英国男子气概低的：法国、意大利、丹麦、瑞典阳刚之气从高到低：日本、墨西哥、德国、英国、法国、意大利、丹麦、瑞典二、Maslow五大需求：生理需要、安全需要、归属需要、尊重需要、自我实现。
三、文化是学习而来的：（交互、察觉、模仿）文化的功能：文化构造了社会，使物种流传下来，并且传递知识和经验，以及从反复的失败中找到解决的方法。
文化的要素：历史、宗教、价值观、社会团体、语言、交流文化的特征：文化是学习而来的、文化是分享的、文化基于符号、文化是动态的、文化是不断综合的最重要的特征：文化是学习而来的：我们生出来就有基本的需求，这些需求产生形成了行为。
跨文化心理学(去年的重点仅供参考)
简答题：1、关于文化的界定：英国人类学家泰勒认为：文化是一个社会的成员所获得的知识、信仰、艺术、法律、道德、习俗及其他能力的综合体。
赫斯科维茨（荷兰）认为：文化是一切人工创造的环境，即除了自然生态之外，所有由人添上去的东西可称之为文化。
2、文化的特征文化的习得性、文化的群体性、文化的差异和共性、文化的约束力3、文化层次论表层文化：外在直观事物，通过外在物品表现。
往往给人以强烈的直接冲击，让人感受到文化存在和力量。
中层文化：由表层文化所折射出的社会更深的理念。
即社会规范和价值观。
核心文化：存在的基本假设，是一个社会共同的关于人为什么存在的假设，它触及到该社会中人们最根深蒂固不容置疑的东西。
比如人与生俱来的权力、人存在的价值、个人与他人的关系。
涉及到社会文化核心理念这类问题，生活在该文化中的人往往很少关注，他们视为理所应当的事情，却很难被生活在另一个社会中的人所完全理解。
三层之间有着不可分的联系：核心层驱动影响中间层，中间层又驱动影响表层文化。
我们平时能观察到的通常是表层文化，理解中间层与核心层文化才是理解文化学好跨文化心理学的关键。
4、什么是跨文化心理学？赛格尔等的观点：是对人类行为及其传播的科学研究，探讨社会和文化力量形塑和影响行为的途径或方式。
该定义要求人们注意两个方面：世界上人的行为之差异和个体行为与它发生于其中的文化语境的联系。
川迪斯等认为：跨文化心理学包括对来自两个或两个以上的文化中的人的研究，使用相同的测量方法，测定在一般心理学理论所保持的范围内的限度和修正这些理论以使他们更具普遍性的类别。
5、研究中的等值性（1）概念等值：是指在所研究的不同文化中，人们对特定概念的理解是一致的。
这是跨文化比较研究的第一步：验证核心概念是否等值。
（2）功能等值：是指问题让不同文化背景中的人产生同样类似的反应。
有时不同的问题会带来同样的反应。
（3）语言等值：是指如果在研究中用到两种或者两种以上的语言，所用调查问卷、访谈等口头和书面语要有语言意义上的相等。
跨文化心理学大纲
跨文化心理学大纲跨文化心理学是研究不同文化之间心理差异和相似性的学科，其涉及到个体与文化之间的相互影响和互动。
通过跨文化心理学的研究，我们可以更好地理解不同文化背景下的心理特点、行为模式以及价值观念，有助于我们更好地跨越文化障碍，促进文化间的交流与理解。
一、跨文化心理学的基础理论1. 文化的概念及其影响：文化是指一个群体所共有的知识、信仰、价值观念、行为模式等，它对个体的认知、情感、行为等方面都有深远的影响。
2. 文化与心理学的关系：文化是心理学研究的一个重要因素，个体的心理特点往往受其所处文化的影响。
3. 文化间的心理差异：不同文化背景下的个体往往表现出不同的心理特点，跨文化心理学通过比较研究不同文化间的心理差异，揭示文化对心理的影响。
二、跨文化心理学的研究方法1. 比较研究法：通过比较不同文化背景下的个体的心理特点，揭示文化对心理的影响。
2. 田野调查法：深入到不同文化的实地，观察、访谈、调查当地的文化现象和心理特点。
3. 实验研究法：通过实验的方式，探究文化对个体的心理特点的影响，验证理论和假设。
三、跨文化心理学的研究领域1. 人格心理学：不同文化背景下的人格特点的比较研究，揭示文化对人格的塑造。
2. 发展心理学：不同文化环境下的发展心理特点的比较研究，探究文化对发展的影响。
3. 社会心理学：不同文化间的社会互动的心理特点的比较研究，揭示文化对社会行为的影响。
4. 心理健康：不同文化背景下的心理健康问题的研究，探究文化对心理健康的影响。
四、跨文化心理学的应用1. 跨文化交流：通过跨文化心理学的理论和方法，促进不同文化之间的交流与理解，化解文化冲突。
2. 教育与培训：根据跨文化心理学的研究成果，制定针对不同文化的教育和培训计划，促进文化间的理解与融合。
3. 组织与管理：跨文化心理学的理论可以应用于组织与管理领域，帮助企业更好地理解不同文化的员工，提高跨文化团队的协作效率。
通过学习跨文化心理学，我们可以更好地理解文化的多样性，增进文化间的理解与尊重，促进文化的交流与融合。
心理学中的跨文化心理学
心理学中的跨文化心理学跨文化心理学，简称“跨心”，是研究不同文化间个体和群体的对人类心理的差异和相似之处的学科。
跨心的目标是描绘不同文化背景下人类的普遍心理特征，为跨文化交流和跨文化理解提供基础。
一、跨文化心理学的起源及发展跨心源于20世纪中期美国心理学家郭文雅（Berry, J.W）对美国新移民进行的一项多元文化研究。
自此以后，跨心日益成为心理学领域中的重要分支。
二、跨文化心理学的重要概念1.文化文化是指群体所共有的思维模式、信仰、价值观、习俗、传统和行为形式等。
不同文化间的差异会对人类行为和智力产生明显影响。
2.文化冲突发生文化冲突的原因是不同文化之间的价值观和信仰体系不同，导致人们之间的相互理解和交流产生困难。
文化冲突常把人们推向彼此对抗的局面，对社会和个人造成负面影响。
3.文化自传效应文化自传效应（Cultural Transmission Effect）是指确立某种文化模式的人们会按其自身信仰、价值观、生活习惯等教育后代或他人，使他们认同和接受这种文化，从而实现对文化的自我传承。
三、跨文化心理学的重要理论1.霍夫斯泰德文化维度理论霍夫斯泰德文化维度理论包括6个纬度因素，分别是权利、不确定性规避、个人主义/集体主义、男性/女性、短程/长程取向和克制/放纵取向。
这一理论主张，不同国家的文化模式取向对人们的价值观、习惯、信仰和行为有重大影响。
2.高、低情境文化理论高、低情境文化理论指出，在高情境文化中，前景、行为和话语等均不是完全清晰的，这就要求人们必须深入了解文化背景、把握复杂的意向，从而进行更有效的交往。
而在低情境文化中，前景、行为和话语均是清晰且可见的。
四、跨文化心理学的应用跨文化心理学对人际、组织间以及国际交流等领域非常有应用价值。
跨文化心理学的应用能大大帮助人们降低文化差异造成的冲突，提高交际合作的效果，从而进一步促进全球化进程。
五、跨文化心理学的问题和挑战1.方法论问题跨文化心理学的研究需要依托于文化的理解、定义与分析，因此文化的属性性、分级方式、区域划分方法等都会带来进一步的研究方法论问题。
跨文化心理学教学大纲
跨文化心理学教学大纲导论近年来，全球化进程不断加速，跨文化交流和合作日益频繁。
在这种背景下，跨文化心理学作为一门重要学科逐渐受到人们的关注。
本课程将以跨文化心理学为主题，通过系统性的教学，帮助学生深入了解不同文化间的心理差异，培养他们的跨文化交流能力和跨文化适应能力。
第一部分：跨文化心理学基础1. 跨文化心理学的概念和发展历程- 定义跨文化心理学的概念- 回顾跨文化心理学的历史发展2. 文化的概念与心理学的关系- 文化的定义及其特点- 不同文化对个体心理活动的影响3. 跨文化心理学的研究方法- 比较研究法- 文化间调查法- 历史文化分析法第二部分：跨文化心理学基本概念1. 文化与个体- 个体主义与集体主义- 高、低上下文文化2. 跨文化交流中的心理差异- 语言差异对沟通的影响- 非语言交流的文化差异- 价值观念的不同及其影响3. 文化冲突与文化适应- 文化冲突的成因分析- 文化适应的策略与方法第三部分：跨文化心理学在实践中的应用1. 跨文化心理学在教育领域的应用- 跨文化教学中的挑战与对策- 跨文化交流中的教育心理学问题2. 跨文化心理学在跨国企业中的应用- 跨文化管理的挑战与策略- 跨文化团队建设与协作3. 跨文化心理学在国际援助中的应用- 跨文化援助中的心理支持- 跨文化援助中的文化适应问题结语通过本课程的学习，希望学生们能够深刻理解跨文化心理学的基本理论和实践应用，提升他们的跨文化交流能力和文化适应能力，为未来的跨文化交流和合作做出积极的贡献。
愿大家在今后的学习和工作中，能够更加理解并尊重不同文化之间的差异，促进文化交流与和谐发展。
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《跨文化心理学》2012年秋季学期复习提纲一、名词解释1.默许反应偏差：对研究者呈现的大多数或所有的陈述和问题，都给予同意而不是反对的倾向。
2.生态谬误：认为在不同的分析层面，两个变量之间的关系仍然相同的错误信念。
过去通常指从国家层面关系到个人层面关系的不合逻辑的推断。
（“生态谬误指用一种高层次的分析单位做调查，却用另一种低层次的分析单位做结论。
）3.主位法和客位法：主位研究是从研究的直接背景中抽取材料，对其发现的跨文化的普遍性并不做假设。
而客位研究是做出一个暂时的假设，认为正在研究的现象是可比较的和普遍的。
主位研究是指研究者不凭自己的主观认识，尽可能的从当地人的视角去理解文化，通过听取当地提供情况的人即报道人所反映的当地人对事物的认识和观点进行整理和分析的研究方法。
主位研究将报道人放在更重要的位置，把他的描述和分析作为最终的判断。
同时，主位研究要求研究者对研究对象有深入的了解，熟悉他们的知识体系、分类系统，明了他们的概念、话语及意义，通过深入的参与观察，尽量像本地人那样去思考和行动。
客位研究是研究者以文化外来观察者的角度来理解文化，以科学家的标准对其行为的原因和结果进行解释，用比较的和历史的观点看待民族志提供的材料。
这样在研究理论和方法上，要求研究者具有较为系统的知识，并能够联系研究对象实际材料进行应用。
4.强加式客位研究：在某一种文化背景中形成的客位的测量。
事先没有评估它的适用性或者它的意义是否等值，就应用与其他的文化背景的研究的。
（采取绝对主义的哲学预设，认为西方心理学者所建构出来的理论和研究典范具有一定程度普适性，可以运用到不同文化之中，不必做任何的调整与修改）5.社会文化适应：通过学习当地社会系统的运转和获得必要的技能和方式，以在不熟悉的文化情境中完成一些事物，从而去适应新的文化背景。
6.自主-关系型自我诠释：自我知觉的一个维度，既重视自主行动的能力又强调与他人关系的重要性。
7.心理依赖型家庭模型：一种对持续的亲缘关系和后代行动的自主性都给予强调达到代际关系系统。
二、简答题1.列出跨文化心理学中的三种家庭模型，并举例分析。
依赖型家庭模型（中国）：一种特别强调持续的亲缘关系和代际依赖的代际关系系统。
强调的是顺从和服从，不管是在子女们年幼时还是已经长大成人，原生家庭在生计上均对子女有很强的依赖性。
每个子女对于年老的父母都有经济上的贡献。
在依赖型家庭模型中，倾向于对孩子进行服从性导向的教育，并不会促进独立性和自主性的发展，独立性不被当成有价值的东西，甚至可能会被看成是对家庭完整和生计的威胁。
代际之间的依赖性是通过家庭生命周期来表现的，一开始就是儿童渴望得到的依赖而言，这种依赖以后就发生逆转，变成了年迈双亲的依赖，随着生命周期的运转，他们不得不依赖于长大成人的孩子们的赡养。
独立型家庭模型（美国）：一种支持后代分离、独立和自主的代际关系系统。
它可以很少或不依靠子女的物质贡献，而从子女身上获得快乐、爱以及自豪感。
它倾向于培养自主性和主动性。
独立性家庭模式使成长中的儿童形成了依靠自己和独立的品质，因为物质上的富足和社会保障措施，如养老金，使得依赖家庭的必要性减少，再加上客观生活条件支持独立性并渗透到文化价值观之中，这样的价值观又会培养独立性和分离性，并使独立性和分离性正常化，成为人类健康发展的一个必要条件。
心理依赖型家庭模型（希腊）：一种对持续的亲缘关系和后代行动的自主性都给予强调达到代际关系系统。
在人际/家庭关系紧密的集体主义文化背景之下，关系的联结表现为：情感方面的依赖得到了维持，而由于财富和其他养老保险资源的增加，物质方面的依赖性就削弱了。
在心理依赖型家庭模型里，孩子的养育涉及控制而不是放任自流，因为养育的目标并不是分离的、个人主义的独立。
然而，此模型中的孩子的养育，除了控制之外还有自主性的空间与之相结合，这主要有两个原因。
其一，随着物质依赖性的减少——年迈的父母具有可替代的养老资源，孩子成长中的自主性不再被看成是对家庭生计的威胁。
其二，成长中孩子的自主性，而不是温顺的驯服，有助于适应城市的生活方式。
子女对父母的经济价值削弱，心理价值增强，子女的实用/经济价值反映了家庭中代际之间的依赖性；另一方面，子女的心理价值反映了心理上（情感上）的依赖性。
2.列出并简单分析跨文化心理学中的三种自我诠释类型。
依赖型自我诠释：强调一个人与他人相互联系的自我知觉。
依赖型家庭模型中培养出来的个体自我诠释强调相关性和依赖性，因为在培养的过程中并不鼓励自主性，一个依赖他人、缺乏自主性的人往往以这种自我诠释为特征。
依赖型自我诠释是一种独特思维方式的一个方面，是一种理解世界的模式，它认为世界不仅仅涉及自我，还涉及个体生态所处的所有其他方面。
独立型自我诠释：强调一个人的自主性和与他人相分离在自我知觉。
一个自主独立的人往往以独立型家庭模型中塑造出来的自我诠释为特征。
独立型自我诠释认为个人比群体拥有更大的能动性，即更相信自我效能。
自主-关系型自我诠释：自我知觉的一个维度，既重视自主行动的能力又强调与他人关系的重要性。
心理依赖型家庭模型中塑造出来的自我诠释被定义为自主——关系型自我诠释，它可以看成是独立型自我诠释和依赖型自我诠释整合性的综合体，自主性和相关性共存于自主-关系型自我诠释。
与依赖型自我诠释相比，自主-关系型自我诠释其特征在于既相信自我效能，又相信集体效能。
在能动性和人际距离这两个基本的基础性维度基础上，家庭模型与子女养育导向的不同将形成不同的自我诠释类型。
3.列出并简单描述霍夫施泰德（Hofstede）的四种划分文化的维度（1）权力距离人们对社会或组织权力分配不平等的接受程度，也可以理解为社会和组织对权力的分配，以及权力较少者接受这种权力分配不平等的程度。
霍夫施泰德将其表述为：“B在多大程度上能够决定S的行为以及S在多大程度上能够决定B的行为方面存在的差异”（B是老板，S是下属）。
权力距离越小，人与人之间就越平等。
权力距离越大，人与人之间越不平等。
对这个维度，各个国家由于对权力赋予的意义不完全相同，所以也存在着很大的差异。
比如，美国对权力的看法跟阿拉伯国家的看法就存在很大的差异，美国不是很看中权力，他们更注重个人能力的发挥，对权力的追求比阿拉伯国家要逊色不少；阿拉伯国家由于国家体制的关系，注重权力的约束力，由此，阿拉伯国家的机构，不管是政府部门或者企业都多多少少带有权力的色彩。
举例：雇员害怕向他们的经理提出异议；我喜欢独断专行的或有参与精神的经理，但不是那些遇事商量，然后却自行作出决定的经理。
（2）不确定性规避不确定性规避是指人们对不明确的、模糊的状态感受到的威胁程度，以及在多大程度上会采取一些措施来回避这种不确定性，简言之就是对模糊性的避免。
在不确定性规避低的文化中，人们更愿意接受，甚至享受不确定性，而不是逃避，组织中层级较少。
在不确定性规避高的文化中，人们更倾向于采取一些措施甚至是冒险来防止不确定性，组织中层级较多。
强不确定性回避国家的人民比较起来更忙碌，常常坐立不安，喜怒形于色，积极活泼，其文化对法律、规章的需要是以情感为基础的，这不利于产生一些根本性的革新想法，但却可以培养人们精细、守时的特质，因而善于将别人的创意付诸实施，使之在现时生活中生效；而弱不确定性回避国家的人们比较起来则显得更沉静些，也更矜持，随遇而安、怠惰、喜静不喜动、懒散一些，人们对于成文法规在感情上是接受不了的，除非绝对必要，社会不会轻易立法，其文化能容忍各种各样的思想和形形色色的主意，因而有利于产生一些根本性的革新想法，但却不善于将这些想法付诸实施。
举例：公司的规矩是不可以随便破坏的，即使当雇员认为是为了公司的最大利益时也是如此；我打算在这个公司最少呆五年。
（3）个人主义对集体主义个人主义对集体主义的关注点在于文化着眼于集体还是个体的利益。
个人主义文化被定义为那些其个体认为他们具有相对独立身份的文化，而集体主义是那些更多的一群体成员的关系来定义身份的文化。
个人主义关注自己，自我被认为是独立于周围人际环境的自给自足的统一体，个人目标优先于群体目标，因此个人主义也往往你以为这更高的竞争取向。
集体主义指以紧密的社会框架为特征，人们会在其中区分自己的团体和他人的团体。
热体被看作是群体中的一份子，群体规范优先于个人目标，个人的主要目标是保持与他人的和谐关系。
举例：对我来说拥有下述事项很重要：个人的时间、使用我自己的方法及挑战性；对我来说拥有下述事项次为重要：良好的物质条件、培训机会、个人技能的发挥。
（4）男性气质对女性气质该维度区分了重视自信价值的国家和重视抚育价值的国家。
男性气质是指社会的主导价值观中对于自信以及得到金钱和其他物质的强调程度（即对事业成功）。
在男性气质度高的文化中，人们会关注数量型的生活。
女性气质指社会主导的价值观中对人际关系的强调以及对生活品质的考虑（即对生活质量的追求与关注程度）。
在女性气质度高的文化中，人们会关注质量型的生活。
在上述四种维度中，霍夫施泰德关注的是国家，而不是个体。
在男性气质突出的国家中，社会竞争意识强烈，成功的尺度就是财富功名，社会鼓励、赞赏工作狂，人们崇尚用一决雌雄的方式来解决组织中的冲突问题，其文化强调公平、竞争，注重工作绩效，信奉的是“人生是短暂的，应当快马加鞭，多出成果”，对生活的看法则是“活着是为了工作”；而在女性气质突出的国家中，生活质量的概念更为人们看中，人们一般乐于采取和解的、谈判的方式去解决组织中的冲突问题，其文化强调平等、团结，人们认为人生中最重要的不是物质上的占有，而是心灵的沟通，信奉的是“人生是短暂的，应当慢慢地、细细地品尝”，对生活的看法则是“工作是为了生活”。
举例：对我来说拥有下述事项很重要：高薪酬、对良好工作表现的赏识、提升和挑战；对我来说拥有下述事项次为重要：与上司的良好关系，与他人的合作、合意的生活区域及工作保障。
4.简述大五人格的主要内容，并分析人格差异的形成原因。
经验开放性O：指人对待事物变化的反应和对新事物的接受程度；人格特质表现为：想象力丰富、审美、感性、行动、创意、价值观尽责性C：指人对构建良好生活秩序的意愿和能力；人格特质表现为：能力、秩序、责任心、进取心、自律、慎思外倾性E：指一个人愿与他人交际的倾向性和支配团队的倾向；人格特质表现为：热情、合群、自信、活跃、寻求刺激、积极心态宜人性A：指人与人之间愿意和谐相处的倾向；人格特质表现为：信任、直率、利他、顺从、谦逊、温和亲切神经质N：情绪的不稳定性，易产生负面情绪；人格特质表现为：焦虑、愤怒的敌意、抑郁、自我警觉、冲动、脆弱人格的形成取决于各种因素的综合作用，主要包括：（1）生物遗传因素：根据研究：遗传是人格不可缺少的影响因素，遗传因素对人格的作用程度因人格特征的不同而异，通常在智力、气质这些与生物因素相关较大的特征上，较为重要；而在价值观、信念、性格等与社会因素关系紧密的特征上，后天环境因素更重要。