markets and states in tropical africa中文
托福阅读tpo52R-3原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识
tpo52阅读-3Early Food Production in Sub-Saharan Africa原文 (1)译文 (3)题目 (4)答案 (8)背景知识 (11)原文Early Food Production in Sub-Saharan Africa①At the end of the Pleistocene (around 10,000 B.C.), the technologies of food production may have already been employed on the fringes of the rain forests of western and central Africa, where the common use of such root plants as the African yam led people to recognize the advantages of growing their own food. The yam can easily be resprouted if the top is replanted. This primitive form of "vegeculture" (cultivation of root and tree crops) may have been the economic tradition onto which the cultivation of summer rainfall cereal crops was grafted as it came into use south of the grassland areas on the Sahara's southern borders.②As the Sahara dried up after 5000 B.C., pastoral peoples (cattle herders) moved southward along major watercourses into the savanna belt of West Africa and the Sudan. By 3000 B.C., just as ancient Egyptian civilization was coming into being along the Nile, they had settled in the heart of the East African highlands far to the south. The East African highlands are ideal cattle country and the home today of such famous cattle-herding peoples as the Masai. The highlands were inhabited byhunter-gatherers living around mountains near the plains until about 3300 B.C., when the first cattle herders appeared. These cattle people may have moved between fixed settlements during the wet and dry seasons, living off hunting in the dry months and their own livestock and agriculture during the rains.③As was the case elsewhere, cattle were demanding animals in Africa. They required water at least every 24 hours and large tracts of grazing grass if herds of any size were to be maintained. The secret was the careful selection of grazing land, especially in environments where seasonal rainfall led to marked differences in graze quality throughout the year. Even modest cattle herds required plenty of land and considerable mobility. To acquire such land often required moving herds considerable distances, even from summer to winter pastures. At the same time, the cattle owners had to graze their stock in tsetse-fly-free areas The only protection against human and animal sleeping sickness, a disease carried by the tsetse fly, was to avoid settling or farming such areas - a constraint severely limiting the movements of cattle-owning farmers in eastern and central Africa. As a result, small cattle herds spread south rapidly in areas where they could be grazed. Long before cereal agriculture took hold far south of the Sahara, some hunter-gatherer groups in the savanna woodlands of eastern and southern Africa may have acquired cattle, and perhaps other domesticated animals, by gift exchange or through raids on herding neighbors.④Contrary to popular belief: there is no such phenomenon as "pure" pastoralists,a society that subsists on its herds alone. The Saharan herders who moved southward to escape drought were almost certainly also cultivating sorghum, millet; and other tropical rainfall crops. By 1500 B.C., cereal agriculture was widespread throughout the savanna belt south of the Sahara. Small farming communities dotted the grasslands and forest margins of eastern West Africa, all of them depending on what is called shifting agriculture. This form of agriculture involved clearing woodland, burning the felled brush over the cleared plot, mixing the ash into the soil, and then cultivating the prepared fields. After a few years, the soil was exhausted, so the farmer moved on, exploiting new woodland and leaving the abandoned fields to lie fallow. Shifting agriculture, often called slash-and-burn, was highly adaptive for savanna farmers without plows, for it allowed cereal farming with the minimal expenditure of energy.⑤The process of clearance and burning may have seemed haphazard to the uninformed eye, but it was not. Except in favored areas, such as regularly inundated floodplains: tropical Africa's soils were of only moderate to low fertility. The art of farming was careful soil selection, that is, knowing which soils were light and easily cultivable, could be readily turned with small hoes, and would maintain their fertility over several years' planting, for cereal crops rapidly remove nitrogen and other nutrients from the soil. Once it had taken hold: slash-and-burn agriculture expanded its frontiers rapidly as village after village took up new lands,moving forward so rapidly that one expert has estimated it took a mere two centuries to cover 2,000 kilometers from eastern to southern Africa.译文撒哈拉以南非洲的早期粮食生产①更新世末期（大约公元前10000年），人们或许已经在非洲西部和中部的热带雨林周边运用粮食生产技术，例如非洲山药等根茎植物在这些地区的普遍种植使人们意识到粮食种植的优势。
外刊经贸知识选读课带中文翻译
外刊经贸知识选读课带中文翻译The Curtain Goes up 竹幕卷起Peking permits foreign investment all along its coastline ― creating differing rules and added confusion中国政府允许外国在沿海投资― 从而差生了不同的法则并引起困惑By Mary Lee in Beijing1. A clearly confident China has rolled up a large section of its bamboo curtain, declared itself "open to the outside world" and hung signs on nearly all its cities inviting foreign investors to come and do serious business.满怀信心地中国卷起大部分竹幕，向世界宣布“对外开放”，几乎所有的城市都张挂起邀请外商来投资作正当生意的招牌。
2. The four special economic zones (SEZs) in Guangdong and Fujian Provinces, 14 coastal cities (all former treaty ports) and Hainan island (19 "open" areas in all) nave specifically designed tax and other incentives for the foreign investor. But every Provincial capital is doing its best to attract foreign investment.广东省和福建省的4个经济特区、14个沿海开放城市（都是以前的通商口岸）和海南岛（总共十九个“开放”区）为外国投资者制定了税收和其他方面的鼓励政策。
课名：比较政治经济学 Comparative Political Economy
课名：比较政治经济学Comparative Political Economy课号：研究生课程03216270/本科生讨论课03231330学分：3时间：周一9:00（研究生课程）地点：廖凯原楼（政府管理学院大楼）436教师：朱天飚（/faculty/zhutianbiao/）通讯：62767273或62767272tianbiao@答疑：周一14:30-17:30（廖凯原楼423）简介：比较政治经济学主要讨论国家、社会与经济互动的历史、理论及相关专题。
主要问题包括：当代国际政治、经济体系是怎样形成和演化的？全球化下国家、社会与经济的关系是什么？政府应该介入多少经济事务？经济因素是怎样影响国内政治的？本课在回答上述问题时致力于对政治与经济的基本关系做一个全面介绍。
其主要目的在于帮助学生深入分析政治、经济体系、力量、与主体行为者在国内层面的相互作用。
要求：1．课堂讨论（可用一篇老师指导下的研究论文代替）：50%2．每周阅读总结与评论（每周阅读总结成绩为5分，共50分）：50%3．每次缺课减总成绩3分。
网址：政治经济系网址：/政经学园网址：/（未名BBS—分类讨论区—课程特区）必读：1.《比较政治经济学》第二版草稿。
2. 每周阅读。
泛读（仅作参考，非必读）：1. Barry Clark, Political economy: a comparative approach (New York, Westport, and London: Praeger, 1991).《政治经济学——比较的视点》王询译（当代政治经济学译丛，经济科学出版社，2001年）。
2. James Caporaso and David P. Levine, Theories of political economy(Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992).《政治经济学理论》刘骥等译（南京：江苏人民出版社，2009年）。
第12课市场竞争外刊经贸知识选读,每课重要知识点,串讲,课文翻译,推荐文档(2021年整理)
第12课市场竞争外刊经贸知识选读,每课重要知识点,串讲,课文翻译,推荐文档(word版可编辑修改)编辑整理：尊敬的读者朋友们：这里是精品文档编辑中心，本文档内容是由我和我的同事精心编辑整理后发布的，发布之前我们对文中内容进行仔细校对，但是难免会有疏漏的地方，但是任然希望（第12课市场竞争外刊经贸知识选读,每课重要知识点,串讲,课文翻译,推荐文档(word版可编辑修改)）的内容能够给您的工作和学习带来便利。
同时也真诚的希望收到您的建议和反馈，这将是我们进步的源泉，前进的动力。
本文可编辑可修改，如果觉得对您有帮助请收藏以便随时查阅，最后祝您生活愉快业绩进步，以下为第12课市场竞争外刊经贸知识选读,每课重要知识点,串讲,课文翻译,推荐文档(word版可编辑修改)的全部内容。
第12课市场竞争Soft Drink Wars： the Next Battle软饮料战：下一次战争The reformulation of Coke has given the feuding cola giants a chance to go at each other again.可口可乐的重新配方为长期不和的可乐巨头提供了一个新开战的机会。
But Coca-Cola and PepsiCo are spoiling for yet another fight, and this time they’re picking on the little guys： non—cola makers like Seven—Up and Dr Pepper。
By Monci Jo Williams但是可口可乐和百事可乐一心想进行另一场战斗，这一次它们选中了小企业：“七喜”和“佩拍博士”。
In the U。
S.soft drink industry， where 1% of the market is worth ＄ 300 million in retail sales, Coca-Cola and PepsiCo don’t wage mere market share battles.They fight holy wars.These days the fighting is on two fronts。
剑桥雅思阅读解析8（test2）
剑桥雅思阅读解析8(test2)店铺为大家整理收集了剑桥雅思阅读8真题解析：test2阅读原文解析，希望对各位考生的备考有所帮助,祝每位烤鸭考试顺利，都能取得好成绩!剑桥雅思阅读8原文(test2)READING PASSAGE 1You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13, which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.Sheet glass manufacture:the float processGlass, which has been made since the time of the Mesopotamians and Egyptians, is little more than a mixture of sand, soda ash and lime. When heated to about 1500 degrees Celsius (℃) this becomes a molten mass that hardens when slowly cooled. The first successful method for making clear, flat glass involved spinning. This method was very effective as the glass had not touched any surfaces between being soft and becoming hard, so it stayed perfectly unblemished, with a 'fire finish'. However, the process took a long time and was labour intensive.Nevertheless, demand for flat glass was very high and glassmakers across the world were looking for a method of making it continuously. The first continuous ribbon process involved squeezing molten glass through two hot rollers, similar to an old mangle. This allowed glass of virtually any thickness to be made non-stop, but the rollers would leave both sides of the glass marked, and these would then need to be ground and polished. This part of the process rubbed away around 20 per cent of the glass, and the machines were very expensive.The float process for making flat glass was invented by Alistair Pilkington. This process allows the manufacture of clear, tinted and coated glass for buildings, and clear and tinted glass for vehicles. Pilkington had been experimenting with improving the melting process, and in 1952 he had the idea of using a bed of molten metal to form the flat glass, eliminating altogether the need for rollers within the float bath. The metal had to melt at a temperature less than the hardening point of glass (about 600℃), but could not boil at a temperature below the temperature of the molten glass (about 1500℃). The best meta l for the job was tin.The rest of the concept relied on gravity, which guaranteed that the surface of the molten metal was perfectly flat and horizontal. Consequently, when pouring molten glass onto the molten tin, the underside of the glass would also be perfectly flat. If the glass were kept hot enough, it would flow over the molten tin until the top surface was also flat, horizontal and perfectly parallel to the bottom surface. Once the glass cooled to 604℃ or less it was too hard to mark and could be transported out of the cooling zone by rollers. The glass settled to a thickness of six millimetres because of surface tension interactions between the glass and the tin. By fortunate coincidence, 60 per cent of the flat glass market at that time was for six-millimetre glass.Pilkington built a pilot plant in 1953 and by 1955 he had convinced his company to build a full-scale plant. However, it took 14 months of non-stop production, costing the company ￡100,000 a month, before the plant produced any usable glass. Furthermore, once they succeeded in making marketable flat glass, the machine was turned off for a service to prepare it for years of continuous production. When it started up again it took another four months to get the process right again. They finallysucceeded in 1959 and there are now float plants all over the world, with each able to produce around 1000 tons of glass every day, non-stop for around 15 years.Float plants today make glass of near optical quality. Several processes —melting, refining, homogenising —take place simultaneously in the 2000 tonnes of molten glass in the furnace. They occur in separate zones in a complex glass flow driven by high temperatures. It adds up to a continuous melting process, lasting as long as 50 hours, that delivers glass smoothly and continuously to the float bath, and from there to a coating zone and finally a heat treatment zone, where stresses formed during cooling are relieved.The principle of float glass is unchanged since the 1950s. However, the product has changed dramatically, from a single thickness of 6.8 mm to a range from sub-millimetre to 25 mm, from a ribbon frequently marred by inclusions and bubbles to almost optical perfection. To ensure the highest quality, inspection takes place at every stage. Occasionally, a bubble is not removed during refining, a sand grain refuses to melt, a tremor in the tin puts ripples into the glass ribbon. Automated on-line inspection does two things. Firstly, it reveals process faults upstream that can be corrected. Inspection technology allows more than 100 million measurements a second to be made across the ribbon, locating flaws the unaided eye would be unable to see. Secondly, it enables computers downstream to steer cutters around flaws.Float glass is sold by the square metre, and at the final stage computers translate customer requirements into patterns of cuts designed to minimise waste.Questions 1-8Complete the table and diagram below.Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.Write your answers in boxes 1-8 on your answer sheet.Early methods of producing flat glassMethod Advantages Disadvantages1............Glass remained2........... ? Slow3.............RibbonCould produce glass sheets of varying 4.............non-stop process ? Glass was 5...........20% of glass rubbed awayMachines were expensive图片11Questions 9-13Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?In boxes 9-13 on your answer sheet, writeTRUE if the statement agrees with the informationFALSE if the statement contradicts the informationNOT GIVEN if there is no information on this9 The metal used in the float process had to have specific properties.10 Pilkington invested some of his own money in his float plant.11 Pilkington’s first full-scale plant was an instant commercial success.12 The process invented by Pilkington has now beenimproved.13 Computers are better than humans at detecting faults in glass.READING PASSAGE 2You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-26, which are based on Reading Passage 2 on the following pages.Question 14-17Reading passage 2 has six paragraphs, A-F.Choose the correct heading for paragraphs B and D-F from the list of headings below.Write the correct number, i-ix, in boxes 14-17 on your answer sheet.List of Headingsi Predicting climatic changesii The relevance of the Little Ice Age todayiii How cities contribute to climate change.iv Human impact on the climatev How past climatic conditions can be determinedvi A growing need for weather recordsvii A study covering a thousand yearsviii People have always responded to climate changeix Enough food at lastExample AnswerParagraph A Viii14 Paragraph BExample AnswerParagraph C V15 Paragraph D16 Paragraph E17 Paragraph FTHE LITTLE ICE AGEA This book will provide a detailed examination of the Little Ice Age and other climatic shifts, but, before I embark on that, let me provide a historical context. We tend to think of climate — as opposed to weather — as something unchanging, yet humanity has been at the mercy of climate change for its entire existence, with at least eight glacial episodes in the past 730,000 years. Our ancestors adapted to the universal but irregular global warming since the end of the last great Ice Age, around 10,000 years ago, with dazzling opportunism. They developed strategies for surviving harsh drought cycles, decades of heavy rainfall or unaccustomed cold; adopted agriculture and stock-raising, which revolutionised human life; and founded the world's first pre-industrial civilisations in Egypt, Mesopotamia and the Americas. But the price of sudden climate change, in famine, disease and suffering, was often high.B The Little Ice Age lasted from roughly 1300 until the middle of the nineteenth century. Only two centuries ago, Europe experienced a cycle of bitterly cold winters; mountain glaciers in the Swiss Alps were the lowest in recorded memory, and pack ice surrounded Iceland for much of the year. The climatic events of the Little Ice Age did more than help shape the modern world. They are the deeply important context for the current unprecedented global warming. The Little Ice Age was far from a deep freeze, however; rather an irregular seesaw of rapid climatic shifts, few lasting more than a quarter-century, driven by complex and still little understood interactions between the atmosphere and the ocean. The seesaw brought cycles of intensely cold winters and easterly winds, then switched abruptly to years of heavy spring and early summer rains, mild winters,and frequent Atlantic storms, or to periods of droughts, light northeasterly winds, and summer heat waves.C Reconstructing the climate changes of the past is extremely difficult, because systematic weather observations began only a few centuries ago, in Europe and North America. Records from India and tropical Africa are even more recent. For the time before records began, we have only 'proxy records' reconstructed largely from tree rings and ice cores, supplemented by a few incomplete written accounts. We now have hundreds of tree-ring records from throughout the northern hemisphere, and many from south of the equator, too, amplified with a growing body of temperature data from ice cores drilled in Antarctica, Greenland, the Peruvian Andes, and other locations, we are close to a knowledge of annual summer and winter temperature variations over much of the northern hemisphere going back 600 years.D This book is a narrative history of climatic shifts during the past ten centuries, and some of the ways in which people in Europe adapted to them. Part One describes the Medieval Warm Period, roughly 900 to 1200. During these three centuries, Norse voyagers from Northern Europe explored northern seas, settled Greenland, and visited North America. It was not a time of uniform warmth, for then, as always since the Great Ice Age, there were constant shifts in rainfall and temperature. Mean European temperatures were about the same as today, perhaps slightly cooler.E It is known that the Little Ice Age cooling began in Greenland and the Arctic in about 1200. As the Arctic ice pack spread southward, Norse voyages to the west were rerouted into the open Atlantic, then ended altogether. Storminess increased in the North Atlantic and North Sea. Colder, much wetter weatherdescended on Europe between 1315 and 1319, when thousands perished in a continent-wide famine. By 1400, the weather had become decidedly more unpredictable and stormier, with sudden shifts and lower temperatures that culminated in the cold decades of the late sixteenth century. Fish were a vital commodity in growing towns and cities, where food supplies were a constant concern. Dried cod and herring were already the staples of the European fish trade, but changes in water temperatures forced fishing fleets to work further offshore. The Basques, Dutch, and English developed the first offshore fishing boats adapted to a colder and stormier Atlantic. A gradual agricultural revolution in northern Europe stemmed from concerns over food supplies at a time of rising populations. The revolution involved intensive commercial farming and the growing of animal fodder on land not previously used for crops. The increased productivity from farmland made some countries self-sufficient in grain and livestock and offered effective protection against famine.F Global temperatures began to rise slowly after 1850, with the beginning of the Modern Warm Period. There was a vast migration from Europe by land-hungry farmers and others, to which the famine caused by the Irish potato blight contributed, to North America, Australia, New Zealand, and southern Africa. Millions of hectares of forest and woodland fell before the newcomers' axes between 1850 and 1890, as intensive European farming methods expanded across the world. The unprecedented land clearance released vast quantities of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, triggering for the first time humanly caused global warming. Temperatures climbed more rapidly in the twentieth century as the use of fossil fuels proliferated and greenhouse gas levels continued to soar. The rise has been even steeper since theearly 1980s. The Little Ice Age has given way to a new climatic regime, marked by prolonged and steady warming. At the same time, extreme weather events like Category 5 hurricanes are becoming more frequent.Questions 18-22Complete the summary using the list of words, A-I, below.Write the correct letter, A-I, in boxes 18-22 on your answer sheet.Weather during the Little Ice AgeDocumentation of past weather conditions is limited: our main sources of knowledge of conditions in the distant past are 18...........and 19.................. We can deduce that the Little Ice Age was a time of 20.............. , rather than of consistent freezing. Within it there were some periods of very cold winters, other of 21...............and heavy rain, and yet others that saw 22................with no rain at all.A climatic shiftsB ice coresC tree ringsD glaciersE interactionsF weather observationsG heat waves H storms I written accountsQuestions 23-26Classify the following events as occurring during theA Medieval Warm PeriodB Little Ice AgeC Modern Warm PeriodWrite the correct letter, A, B or C, in boxes 23-26 on your answer sheet.23 Many Europeans started farming abroad.24 The cutting down of trees began to affect the climate.25 Europeans discovered other lands.26 Changes took place in fishing patterns.READING PASSAGE 3You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40, which are based on Reading Passage 3 on the following pages.Questions 27-32Reading Passage 3 has six paragraphs, A-F.Choose the correct heading for each paragraph from the list of headings below.Write the correct number, i-viii, in boxes 27-32 on your answer sheet.List of Headingsi The difficulties of talking about smellsii The role of smell in personal relationshipsiii Future studies into smelliv The relationship between the brain and the nosev The interpretation of smells as a factor in defining groups vi Why our sense of smell is not appreciatedvii Smell is our superior senseviii The relationship between smell and feelings27 paragraph A28 paragraph B29 paragraph C30 paragraph D31 paragraph E32 paragraph FThe meaning and power of smellThe sense of smell, or olfaction, is powerful. Odours affect us on a physical, psychological and social level. For the most part, however, we breathe in the aromas which surround us without being consciously aware of their importance to us. It is only when the faculty of smell is impaired for some reason that we begin torealise the essential role the sense of smell plays in our sense of well-beingA A survey conducted by Anthony Synott at Montreal's Concordia University asked participants to comment on how important smell was to them in their lives. It became apparent that smell can evoke strong emotional responses. A scent associated with a good experience can bring a rush of joy, while a foul odour or one associated with a bad memory may make us grimace with disgust. Respondents to the survey noted that many of their olfactory likes and dislikes were based on emotional associations. Such associations can be powerful enough so that odours that we would generally label unpleasant become agreeable, and those that we would generally consider fragrant become disagreeable for particular individuals. The perception of smell, therefore, consists not only of the sensation of the odours themselves, but of the experiences and emotions associated with them.B Odours are also essential cues in social bonding. One respondent to the survey believed that there is no true emotional bonding without touching and smelling a loved one. In fact, infants recognise the odours of their mothers soon after birth and adults can often identify their children or spouses by scent. In one well-known test, women and men were able to distinguish by smell alone clothing worn by their marriage partners from similar clothing worn by other people. Most of the subjects would probably never have given much thought to odour as a cue for identifying family members before being involved in the test, but as the experiment revealed, even when not consciously considered, smells register.C In spite of its importance to our emotional and sensorylives, smell is probably the most undervalued sense in many cultures. The reason often given for the low regard in which smell is held is that, in comparison with its importance among animals, the human sense of smell is feeble and undeveloped. While it is true that the olfactory powers of humans are nothing like as fine as those possessed by certain animals, they are still remarkably acute. Our noses are able to recognise thousands of smells, and to perceive odours which are present only in extremely small quantities.D Smell, however, is a highly elusive phenomenon. Odours, unlike colours, for instance, cannot be named in many languages because the specific vocabulary simply doesn't exist. ‘It smells like…,’ we have to say when describing an odour, struggling to express our olfactory experience. Nor can odours be recorded: there is no effective way to either capture or store them over time. In the realm of olfaction, we must make do with descriptions and recollections. This has implications for olfactory research.E Most of the research on smell undertaken to date has been of a physical scientific nature. Significant advances have been made in the understanding of the biological and chemical nature of olfaction, but many fundamental questions have yet to be answered. Researchers have still to decide whether smell is one sense or two — one responding to odours proper and the other registering odourless chemicals in the air. Other unanswered questions are whether the nose is the only part of the body affected by odours, and how smells can be measured objectively given the non-physical components. Questions like these mean that interest in the psychology of smell is inevitably set to play an increasingly important role for researchers.F However, smell is not simply a biological and psychologicalphenomenon. Smell is cultural, hence it is a social and historical phenomenon. Odours are invested with cultural values: smells that are considered to be offensive in some cultures may be perfectly acceptable in others. Therefore, our sense of smell is a means of, and model for, interacting with the world. Different smells can provide us with intimate and emotionally charged experiences and the value that we attach to these experiences is interiorised by the members of society in a deeply personal way. Importantly, our commonly held feelings about smells can help distinguish us from other cultures. The study of the cultural history of smell is, therefore, in a very real sense, an investigation into the essence of human culture.Questions 33-36Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.Write the correct letter in boxes 33-36 on your answer sheet.33 According to the introduction, we become aware of the importance of smell whenA we discover a new smell.B we experience a powerful smell.C our ability to smell is damaged.D we are surrounded by odours.34 The experiment described in paragraph BA shows how we make use of smell without realising it.B demonstrates that family members have a similar smell.C proves that a sense of smell is learnt.D compares the sense of smell in males and females.35 What is the write doing in paragraph C?A supporting other researchB making a proposalC rejecting a common beliefD describing limitations36 What does the write suggest about the study of smell in the atmosphere in paragraph E?A The measurement of smell is becoming more accurate.B Researchers believe smell is a purely physical reaction.C Most smells are inoffensive.D Smell is yet to be defined.Questions 37-40Complete the sentences below.Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.Write your answers in boxes 37-40 on your answer sheet.37 Tests have shown that odours can help people recognise the.......... belonging to their husbands and wives.38 Certain linguistic groups may have difficulty describing smell because they lack the appropriate ................ .39 The sense of smell may involve response to................ which do not smell, in addition to obvious odours.40 Odours regarded as unpleasant in certain.................are not regarded as unpleasant in others.剑桥雅思阅读8原文参考译文(test2)PASSAGE 1 参考译文：玻璃板制造：浮法工艺早在美索不达米亚时期和古埃及时期人们就开始制造玻璃，当时制作出的玻璃只不过是沙子、碳酸钠和石灰的混合物而已。
世界上茶和咖啡-消费的模式【外文翻译】
原文The worlds of tea and coffee: Patterns of consumption Material Source: 2003 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Author: David grigg Abstract Coffee and tea are both drunk in most countries, but typically one predominates. Coffee is the preferred drink in European the Americas, tea elsewhere. Until the early eighteenth century coffee production and consumption was confined to the Islamic world, tea production to East Asia. European traders altered this pattern dramatically. The present pattern of coffee consumption is influenced by income per capita,that of tea is not. Religious influences played some part in the early development of both tea and coffee but have little relevance at the present. National factors have influenced wider patterns. British preference for tea was taken to all their colonies. In recent years fears about health have had some influence on coffee consumption.IntroductionGeographers have always been interested in the production of food on the farm, but recently there has been a growing interest in aspects of food beyond the farm gate such as food processing, food security, restaurants and food health (Atkins and Bowler, 2001; Bell and Valentine, 1997).However, somewhat surprisingly the geography of food consumption–who eats what, where and why –has been an interest of only a few geographers and economists (Cépède and Lengelle, 1961; Grigg, 1995; Simoons, 1990; Bennett,1954; Kariel, 1966). But if little attention has been paid to international and regional variations in food consumption, the geography of drink attracts even less. Granted the production of wine has its students (Unwin, 1991; Blij, 1984) but alcoholic beverages are not the major drinks in most countries. In Europe coffee is generally the leading drink –excluding water –except in Britain and Ireland where it is tea ( P.V.G.D,1998.). Tea and coffee compete with each other in many countries, a topic investigated by N. Berdichevsky (1976),when however there was little data available on consumption in much of Africa and Asia, and Berdichevsky excluded producer countries from his study. TheFood and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations subsequently published data on food consumption, and it is now available for most member states from 1961 to 1996(FAO, 2001). It seems worthwhile, now world-wide statistics are available, to reexamine the geography of tea and coffee consumption.The nature of tea and coffeeTea is a drink made by pouring hot water on the dried leaves of the tea plant, camellia sinensis. Coffee is prepared in a similar way, with hot water and the seeds of the coffee tree, of which coffea arabica and coffea canephoria var. robusta are the most used. The flesh of the cherries is removed, and the seeds roasted. The two drinks have a number of properties in common. The aroma and taste of both is pleasant although some find them bitter, especially coffee, unless milk and sugar are added. Hot drinks not only warm the body, but assuage hunger, at least temporarily; more important, prior to the advent of safe public water supplies, the boiling of water reduces the harmful bacteria carried in many water sources. Neither drink has any major nutritional value; a cup of tea contains only four calories, but forty if milk and sugar are added (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1985a,p. 735).Far more important however is that both contain caffeine which stimulates the central nervous system, reduces sleepiness and increases vigilance; it is this that explains the popularity of both drinks. When they were first introduced into Europe in the seventeenth century the only alternative drinks, other than the frequently polluted water supplies, were the alcoholic beverages, which were also free of bacterial contamination. Tea and coffee were thus a valuable alternative to wine, beer or spirits and much beloved by temperance campaigners. In the twentieth century other non-alcoholic drinks have become widely available, such as mineral waters, soft drinks and juices, and have competed with both tea and coffee. In the United States for example, the consumption of soft drinks exceeds that of tea, coffeeand alcoholic beverages combined (P.V.G.D., 1998).World Patterns of consumption per capitaPredominates in North Africa, and is the preferred drink in much of the rest of Africa, although the amount drunk there is very small. There are distinct outliers of tea drinking in the British Isles, in South Africa, Argentina, Chile, and New Zealand (and Australia until recently). Coffee is the favoured drink only in Europe and the Americas. Not surprisingly, the per capita distribution of tea and coffee consumption largely replicates the map of preferences. Coffee consumption is highest in North America and Europe, but hardly drunk at all in the former Soviet Union, Africa orAsia, except in Japan, the Philippines, Israel and South Korea (Figure 3). However it is notable that whilst coffee is the preferred beverage in most of Latin America, wheremuch of the production takes place, per capita consumption is below that in Western Europe and North America. Tea consumption per capita is at its highest in south west and south Asia and North Africa, Russia and also in the British Isles, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. Tea is little drunk in most of the Americas, tropical Africa or in Europe (Figure 4).Economic factorsThere is a marked difference between the influence of income per capita upon coffee and upon tea. The consumption of coffee per capita for all countries has been regressed upon GDP per capita which has been logarithmically transformed. There is a high correlation (r = 0.72) between income and consumption, and income accounts for half the variation in consumption (r2 = 0.52)(Figure 5). As noted earlier the highest consumption is in Western Europe and North America, the lowest in Africa and Asia, with most of the countries in Latin America falling between the two, as they do in incomes (Figure 3). In contrast tea shows very little correlation (Figure 6) between income and consumption (r = 0.17) nor does income help account for variations in consumption (r2 = 0.03). This is explained by the fact that coffee is the preferred drink in the richer countries, in North America and Europe, and tea drinking is the preferred drink in the poorer countries of Asia and Africa. However if the regression analysis is confined to only those countries where tea is the preferred drink, and those where coffee consumption per capita exceeds tea are excluded, then there is a much higher correlation r( = 0.65) between tea and income, and income is a more powerful determinant (r2 = 0 .4) of variations. It is debatable what conclusions can be drawn from this evidence. Income is clearly important in determining in which countries there are the highest levels of consumption of the more expensive beverage, coffee; but this does not preclude the possibility of people in rich countries that can afford coffee, choosing to drink the cheaper beverage, tea. Cultural factorsIn 1900 even the United States, where coffee consumption had run well ahead of tea, still had a tea consumption much the same as Russia, where far more tea than coffee was drunk. In all the English- speaking countries, except the United States, more cups of tea were drunk than cups of coffee; tea was imported mainly from the British dominions in South Asia. However in the twentieth century the allegiance to tea has weakened (Table 6); the consumption of tea has declined in the English speaking countries except surprisingly in the United States, and coffee consumption has increased everywhere but the United States and South Africa; more cups of coffee than tea are now drunk in the United States, Canada and Australia; only New Zealand, theUnited Kingdom and South Africa remain faithful to tea (FAO, 2001) and only in South Africa is a greater quantity of tea than coffee consumed (Table 6). There are three possible reasons for the decline of tea and the increase of coffee. First is the changing nature of immigration. Since 1945 migration from Britain and Ireland has been a falling proportion of all migrants to Australia, New Zealand and Canada, reducing the proportion from tea drinking countries. Second, and a more likely explanation, has been the rising incomes in all these countries. It has been noted that in Britain since 1950 tea has behaved like an inferior good; as long as incomes were low the cheaper beverage was preferred, but as incomes have risen so coffee consumption has increased, and tea consumption has fallen (Ritson,1994). Much the same is true of the other English–speaking countries other than the United States. In the latter, concerns about the effect of caffeine on health may help explain the fall of coffee drinking, although the competition from soft drinks may be an equally powerful factor. A third possible reason may be the revival of the coffee house, which was an important factor in the early spread of coffee in the Middle East and in Western Europe in the eighteenth century. In Britain coffee houses had a temporary revival in the 1950s with the introduction from Italy of the expresso machine; more potent has been the rise of the Starbucks coffee chain in the United States and its spread to Britain. Coffee and tea have become associated with different lifestyles, tea being drunk at home by the old, coffee by the young and outgoing.ConclusionsIt is not possible to give a simple explanation of the world pattern of consumption of tea and coffee. It can be shown how the location of production and consumption of both tea and coffee has changed over time. Thus coffee drinking was once confined to the Middle East, then spread to Western Europe and later North America, and when production shifted to Latin America so consumption increased there. But consumption has never been other than negligible in tropical Africa and east, south and south east Asia. Tea consumption remained confined to East Asia until the middle of the seventeenth century. Consumption then spread to the English speaking world and the Muslim countries of the Middle East and North Africa, as well as Russia and its empire. But China remained the leading source oftea until replaced by the plantations of south and south east Asia in the 1880s. Incomes and price have been important but not always paramount factors in determining whether tea or coffee predominates. As tea has always been cheaper per litre than coffee this may explain the sway the former has always had in Asia. Japan and Korea becamecoffee drinkers after the growth of incomes, and American influence in the 1940s and 1950s. The presence of high incomes suggests why consumers in the countries of Western Europe and North America have been able to drink coffee in large quantities. But it does not follow that the richer countries automatically drink coffee, the poor tea. Tea was the preferred drink in Britain, Australia, New Zealand and Canada for a long period when they were among the richest countries in the world. Cultural factors have perhaps been less important than might have been expected, although the migration of the British and Irish spread tea drinking. If no simple model can be provided to explain the patterns of consumption, at least this analysis demonstrates the great diversity in drinking habits and the need to look at the geography of consumption from different viewpoints.译文世界上茶和咖啡: 消费的模式资料来源: 2003 年学术出版机构作者：葛里格大卫摘要咖啡和茶两个在多数国家被喝，但通常是一个占主导地位。
【译林牛津版】2020年高中英语必修五【Unit 2 The environmen】单元检测卷附答案解析
2020年高中英语必修五【Unit 2 The environmen】单元检测卷(时间：100分钟，满分：120分)第一部分阅读理解(共两节，满分40分)第一节(共15小题；每小题2分，满分30分)阅读下列短文，从每题所给的A、B、C和D四个选项中，选出最佳选项。
AAre you planning for your first ever international trip？No worries！We have a list of places that are perfect for first-time getaways.BaliBali is ever charming.Photographs cannot describe the beauty of its beaches，coral reefs，temples and forest areas.The temples，especially Tanah Lot，are quite a sight.The Mt. Batur is another amazing experience.Top attractions：Tanah Lot，Kuta Beach，Nusa Dua and Jimbaran Beach.MaldivesMaldives is an amazing beach destination.Here you can spend quality time away from the city life.Its bright blue shoreline，clean air and white sand can make you start feeling as if you had landed in heaven.Then you get on a seaplane to the hotel that you have booked.The seaplane journey is an adventure that helps you see some of the most beautiful islands.Top attractions：water sports，beach and outdoor activities，local markets and more.MauritiusWhether you are into scenic beauty，adventure，or food，this island will not disappoint you.Mark Twain said，“Mauritius was made first and then heaven.”You can spend an evening in Port Louis and have dinner in Namaste Restaurant.Spend all the other days visiting only the beaches.If you are visiting Ile Aux Cerfs，ensure you reach the island as early as possible as it closes at 4 p．m.Top attractions：Grand Bay，Blue Bay，skydiving and bird watching.SingaporeClassical buildings stand tall with elegant skyscrapers(摩天大楼) all around the island-city，mixing perfectly with fancy shopping malls.This small country has good enough places for your 5－6 days’ stay.Top attractions：shopping，street foods，museums and theme parks.【解题导语】本文向初次进行海外旅行的人们推荐了几个不可错过的旅游目的地。
上海市普通中学三校联考2024学年英语高三上期末综合测试试题含解析
上海市普通中学三校联考2024学年英语高三上期末综合测试试题注意事项：1．答卷前，考生务必将自己的姓名、准考证号、考场号和座位号填写在试题卷和答题卡上。
用2B铅笔将试卷类型（B）填涂在答题卡相应位置上。
将条形码粘贴在答题卡右上角"条形码粘贴处"。
2．作答选择题时，选出每小题答案后，用2B铅笔把答题卡上对应题目选项的答案信息点涂黑；如需改动，用橡皮擦干净后，再选涂其他答案。
答案不能答在试题卷上。
3．非选择题必须用黑色字迹的钢笔或签字笔作答，答案必须写在答题卡各题目指定区域内相应位置上；如需改动，先划掉原来的答案，然后再写上新答案；不准使用铅笔和涂改液。
不按以上要求作答无效。
4．考生必须保证答题卡的整洁。
考试结束后，请将本试卷和答题卡一并交回。
第一部分（共20小题，每小题1.5分，满分30分）1．Be calm, Madam. Can you remember _____________ you had your mobile phone stolen?A．when was it that B．that it was whenC．where it was that D．it was where that2．I could not ________my tears when I saw the picture of my father working at the quake zone.A．bring In B．turn upC．take off D．hold back3．—Starting a conversation is a good way to kill time on the train.—_______. I also like to talk with strangers.A．That is true B．It sounds like funC．I don’t think so D．Y ou are kidding4．A public health campaign _____ the number of heart disease deaths by 80 percent over the past three decades．A．had reduced B．had been reducedC．has reduced D．has been reduced5．--Could you please cut the price a little?--Er... _________ you buy more than ten.A．even if B．so long as C．in case D．as soon as6．He has made little preparation for the interview, so the chance of him succeeding in it is .A．slim B．fantasticC．obvious D．gentle7．一When he know the result of today’s job interview?一In a couple of days．A．should B．may C．shall D．must8．We sell a lot of products offshore and the opportunity to open up markets in regions ________ we don't currently sell a lot to is a great one.A．where B．thatC．what D．when9．In the early morning all of us stood at the top of the mountain ___________ east of the city, watching __________burning sun rising.A．/; a B．the; aC．the; the D．/; the10．An international team of astronomers announced Wednesday that they ________ the first-ever image of a black hole.A．have captured B．were capturingC．had captured D．would capture11．If you were to have a few minutes free, I______ the opportunity to ask you one more question.A．would appreciate B．would have appreciatedC．were to appreciate D．had appreciated12．The national park has a large collection of wildlife, ________ from butterflies to elephants.A．to range B．rangeC．ranging D．ranged13．Where was it ______ the road accident happened the other day?A．that B．whenC．how D．which14．Alice’s father always brings her a nice gift ________ he returns home from his business trip.A．by the time B．all the timeC．every time D．in the time15．Was it from the lake ______ he often went fishing ______ he saved the drowning girl?A．that; that B．where; whereC．where; that D．that; where16．It is reported that the ______ in Libya is hotting up.A．strength B．violence C．power D．activity17．With a travelling speed of up to 350 kilometres per hour, the railway to be built between Beijing and Shanghai _______ the journey time from 12 hours to 5 hours．A．cuts B．will cut C．is cutting D．has cut18．--- It’s raining hard and we can’t go picnicking today.---If only the weather _____ fine!A．is B．were C．had been D．would be19．You’ll recognize me when you get out of the station. I______ jeans and a whiteT-shirt.A．will be wearing B．had wornC．was wearing D．have worn20．---Hi, Betty, are you free at present? I have to ask you for a favor．----_____．With pleasure．A．Sorry, I am busy B．Go aheadC．Help yourself D．Ask, please第二部分阅读理解（满分40分）阅读下列短文，从每题所给的A、B、C、D四个选项中，选出最佳选项。
第14课初级商品市场外刊经贸知识选读,每课重要知识点,串讲,课文翻译
第14课初级商品市场外刊经贸知识选读,每课重要知识点,串讲,课文翻译编辑整理：尊敬的读者朋友们：这里是精品文档编辑中心，本文档内容是由我和我的同事精心编辑整理后发布的，发布之前我们对文中内容进行仔细校对，但是难免会有疏漏的地方，但是任然希望（第14课初级商品市场外刊经贸知识选读,每课重要知识点,串讲,课文翻译）的内容能够给您的工作和学习带来便利。
同时也真诚的希望收到您的建议和反馈，这将是我们进步的源泉，前进的动力。
本文可编辑可修改，如果觉得对您有帮助请收藏以便随时查阅，最后祝您生活愉快业绩进步，以下为第14课初级商品市场外刊经贸知识选读,每课重要知识点,串讲,课文翻译的全部内容。
第14课初级商品市场Soft Commodities非耐用商品一、(Excerpts)（摘录）Many prices are at historic lows， and the IMF expects further falls。
Yet there are signs that the worse may be over。
One key commodity, sugar，has recovered。
许多商品的价格处于历史最低点，虽然国际货币基金组织预计价格还会进一步下跌。
但是，有迹象表明,最糟的局面已经结束了.因为“糖”这种关键性商品的价格已经回升了.Markets Have Lost Their Allure市场已失去吸引力For Most people involved in the production and trading of “soft” or agricultural commodities， this is proving to be a grim decade.对于大多数生产并买卖非耐用商品或农业品的人来说，这十年无疑是阴暗的十年。
Prices are in many cases at，or near, historic lows in real terms as markets struggle to cope with floods of surplus produce.And—with most soothsayers forecasting flat，or still lower，prices-the markets themselves have lost much of their allure.许多情况下,产品的价格都在实际意义上处于或接近历史最低价，这是因为市场要应付泛滥成灾的过剩的农产品。
IAPP书目
IAPP书目IAPP Research Bibliography in Chinese and in English毛寿龙Mao Shoulong制度分析与公共政策研究(IAPP)并不是凭空产生的，它与人类学术发展史密切相关。
在人类知识宝库中，它与一些学者、一些著作有特别密切的关系。
这些学者是IAPP研究的先驱或者同行，这些著作构成了IAPP研究的知识资源。
本评论开列了IAPP学者或者学生的中文和英文必读书目，这些著作是用制度分析与发展(IAD)框架进行IAPP研究的基础。
这些英文著作部分已经有了中译文，许多中文著作都是英文译成中文的，由于翻译必然损失部分信息量，建议IAPP学者能够阅读英文版原著。
一、IAPP Chinese Bibliography阿罗，肯尼思：《社会选择与个人价值》，四川人民出版社，1987。
阿特金森和斯蒂格里茨：《公共经济学》，上海三联书店和上海人民出版社，1994。
埃格特森：《新制度经济学》，商务印书馆，1996。
奥尔森：《集体行动的逻辑》，上海三联书店、上海人民出版社，1995。
奥斯特罗姆、菲尼、皮希特：《制度分析与发展的反思》，商务印书馆，1992。
奥斯特罗姆，文森特：《复合共和制的政治理论》，上海三联书店，1999。
奥斯特罗姆，文森特：《美国公共行政的思想危机》，上海三联书店，1999。
奥斯特罗姆，埃莉诺：《公共事物治理之道》，上海三联书店，2000。
贝克尔，加里：《人类行为的经济分析》，上海三联书店，1993。
边沁：《政府片论》波普：《波普文集》波普：《通过知识获得解放》波普：《开放社会及其敌人》波普：《历史决定论的贫困》波斯纳：《法律的经济分析》伯林：《两种自由概念》布坎南：《民主财政论：财政制度和个人选择》，商务印书馆，1993。
布坎南：《自由、市场与国家》，上海三联书店，1989。
布坎南和理查德·瓦格纳：《赤字中的民主》，北京经济学院出版社，1988。
Agrochemical Market in South Africa and The United States
LITERATURE OVERVIEWCONTENTS1. WEED MANAGEMENT (11)2. CONSERVATION TILLAGE (12)3. CYPERUS ESCULENTUS (13)3.1 C. ESCULENTUS INTERFERENCE WITH CROP PRODUCTION (14)3.2 CONTROL MEASURES FOR C. ESCULENTUS (16)4. COVER CROPS (18)4.1 WEED SUPPRESSION DUE TO ENVIRONMENTAL INTERFERENCE (18)4.2 WEED SUPPRESSION DUE TO CHEMICAL INTERFERENCE (20)4.2.1 Allelopathy research (20)4.2.2 Allelochemicals (21)4.3 COVER CROPS USED (24)4.3.1 Cereals: stooling rye and oats (24)4.3.2 Annual ryegrass (28)5. REFERENCES (29)CHAPTER 1LITERATURE OVERVIEW“Other seed fell among thorns and the thorns grew up and choked them”Matthew 13:7KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) is one of the nine provinces of the Republic of South Africa, characterized by the Great Drakensberg Escarpment to the west and the Indian Ocean to the east. Most of the mean annual rainfall of 845 mm is received during the summer months (October-March) with the mean maximum and minimum temperatures reaching 25.2−30.4°C and -1.4−10.7°C, respectively. An average of 6.1−7.2 hours of sunshine is received in summer (Kars et al., 1999). Growing conditions are more favourable for crop production compared to most of the other provinces. Smaller areas of maize (Z ea mays), soyabeans (Glycine max), dry beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) and potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) are planted in KZN, yet higher yields per hectare are produced compared to provinces with bigger production areas. On average 4.4 tons ha-1 of maize are produced in KZN (4.6% of the total maize production) compared to the 3.0 tons ha-1 in the Free State Province which has 38% more land planted to maize (Anonymous 2005).However, not only is maize the second most important field crop besides sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) in KZN, it also forms part of the agricultural activities that provide 60% of the rural population in the province with food security and a sole or complementary income. Some of the factors that affect agriculture and rural development include poverty, high input costs, uneconomical farm sizes and the quality and quantity of produce (Kars et al., 1999). For instance, for a conservation tillage maize farmer in KZN to make a profit in 2010, more than nine tons of yellow maize per hectare, valued at R1255 ha-1 (US$1=R7), had to be produced (Whitehead & Archer 2008). Because weeds are one of the major pests in most cropping systems, it contributes not only to the higher input costs, but to the overall quantity and quality of produce. If weedinterference could be minimized not only could it lead to obtaining higher yields but also contribute to food security.1. WEED MANAGEMENTThere is a close association between weed growth and crop production. Moss (2008) stated that the primary objective of weed management should be to better understand this association in order to improve current weed management and control programmes. Weed control is generally directed at controlling weed seedlings, not only because they are more manageable but weeds become less competitive later in the season. Amaranthus palmeri (Palmer amaranth) reduced maize yields between 11 and 91% as amaranth densities increased from 0.5−8 plants m-1 row (Massinga et al., 2001), while with Echinochloa crus-galli (barnyard grass) interference, maize yield loss ranged between 26 and 35% when barnyard grass emerged early. Yield loss due to the latter weed was only 6% when it emerged later in the maize growth season (Bosnic & Swanton 1997).The development of herbicides during the late 1940s and onwards, provided a simple solution to weed control, resulting in higher crop yields. Currently however, this reliance on chemical control has been critically scrutinized due to the development of herbicide resistance, the negative impact on food and environmental safety, the growth in the organic food production sector (Bastiaans et al., 2008) and shifts in weed populations (Buhler 2002). In addition, the availability and less complicated management of weeds with herbicides in comparison to other methods, gives the impression that weeds can easily be controlled after crop establishment and therefore cultural and tillage methods are in many instances not considered.Arguments against this simplification of weed management and the reliance on one weed control method have recently been published (Liebman & Davis 2000; Buhler 2002; Bastiaans et al., 2008). More emphasis should be placed on reducing weed densities, preventing weed reproduction minimizing weed competition and manipulating the crop competitiveness with the weeds. Weed emergence anddensity can be reduced through crop rotations, restricting light from reaching the soil surface, the formation of a physical barrier and preventing seed dispersal. Crop competitiveness can be enhanced through modification of the planting date to ensure crop emergence before the weeds, improved cultivars for rapid germination and root development, quicker canopy closure, increased planting populations (Bastiaans et al., 2008) and using allelopathic crop cultivars (Belz 2004; Khanh et al., 2005). Conservation tillage, together with the use of cover crops, are two important factors in adjusting existing weed management systems aimed at reducing weed fitness and improving crop yields.2. CONSERVATION TILLAGEAlthough the primary objective of tillage operations is to prepare a crop seedbed and not weed control, tillage influences weed seed germination by reducing the soil surface cover, it changes the soil temperature and moisture patterns, and it alters weed seed distribution in the soil profile (Locke et al., 2002). Land users in South Africa are obliged by law to adhere to the Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act of 1983 to conserve natural resources by, among other things, combating and preventing soil erosion and maintaining the production potential of the soil. Methods such as conservation tillage, suitable conservation works and avoidance of cultivation during periods of high erosion hazard are advised (Russell 1998). Conservation tillage makes use of crop residue left on the soil surface to reduce the impact of raindrops on the soil surface and to reduce the velocity of surface runoff. In KZN, conservation tillage is practised as direct drilling when a blade cuts through the crop residue, opening a furrow into which seed and fertilizer are deposited. It has several advantages over conventional tillage systems as it reduces soil erosion, soil compaction, energy requirements, evaporation and runoff (Russell 1998; Giller et al., 2009).These advantages came at a cost to weed management as the increased complexity thereof requires a higher level of management. According to Locke et al. (2002) careful management with herbicides is required as more post-emergence herbicides could be needed if the weeds were allowed to establish aftercrop planting. The introduction of herbicide-resistant genetically modified (GM) crops improved weed control options for conservation agriculture and it could be economically viable if only post-emergence herbicides were used (Reddy 2001). There is, however, a possibility that with the continued use of these GM crops and the limited seed migration into the field, traits such as herbicide resistance could evolve faster than under conventional tillage (Martínez-Ghersa et al., 2000).Also, weed populations and seed bank dynamics can be altered by conservation tillage. Most of the weed seeds occur in the upper 10 mm of soil and very few below 100 mm (Buhler 1995; Peachy et al., 2004). Small-seeded annual broadleaf and most grass species have the ability to increase prolifically because they germinate and become established when the seeds are at or near the soil surface. Summer annual species that do not require burial for establishment are also well adapted to proliferate (Buhler 1995). Conventional tillage appears to favour Digitaria sanguinalis (crab finger-grass), Sorghum halepense (Johnson grass) and Tagetes minuta (khaki weed), whereas conservation tillage promotes E. crus-galli (De La Fuente et al., 1999), Amaranthus retroflexus (redroot pigweed), Setaria viridis (green foxtail) (Buhler 1992), Chenopodium album (common lambsquarters) and Solanum nigrum (black nightshade) (Barberi & Mazzoncini 2001). Perennial weed populations tend to increase (Giller et al., 2009) and be more diverse (Locke et al., 2002) under conservation tillage. In KZN, Cyperus esculentus (yellow nutsedge), among others, can become a dominant and difficult weed to control in conservation tillage if insufficient weed control is practiced (Fowler 2000).3. CYPERUS ESCULENTUSCyperus esculentus is an herbaceous perennial weed which can be identified by an above-ground triangular stem-like fascicle of leaves which later develops into a solid triangular rachis. Thin rhizomes and roots develop from bulbs situated at the base of the fascicle. Rhizomes consist of elongated internodes and nodal cladophylls which differentiate into tubers and shoots (Wills et al., 1980; Stoller& Sweet 1987). C. esculentus spreads mainly through germinating tubers, and not as effectively by sexually produced seeds, which are viable and have longevity, but seedlings lack the vigour for survival in field situations (Stoller & Sweet 1987; Lapham & Drennan 1990).In most soils, the rhizomes of C. esculentus are concentrated in the upper 15 cm of soil, resulting in 80% and more of the tubers occurring in this zone. Very few tubers are found below 20 cm (Friesen & Hamill 1977; Stoller & Sweet 1987). Day length determines the vegetative and reproductive growth of C. esculentus periods of 8−12 hours promote tuber formation, and 12−16 hours are conducive for vegetative growth (Friesen & Hamill 1977; Williams 1982). Tubers are formed four to six weeks after seedling emergence (Stoller & Sweet 1987).During dormancy, storage conditions influence tuber sprouting, as cool moist conditions are more favourable than dry conditions (Friesen & Hamill 1977). Differences in tuber germination and multiple sprouting are not correlated with tuber weights but tuber size does influence seedling vigour (Stoller et al., 1972; Thullen & Keeley 1975). During tuber sprouting, one or more of the buds on the tuber begin to grow. A tuber can have more than one sprout forming, while others stay dormant. The number of sprouts decreases after each germination. More than 60% of the dry weight and nutrients in the tuber are used for the initial sprouting, 6−18% during the second and 2−10% during the third sprouting (Stoller et al., 1972; Thullen & Keeley 1975). Removing sprouts at regular intervals reduces the shoot numbers and tuber longevity, especially when done at four-week intervals (Thullen & Keeley 1975; Stoller & Sweet 1987).3.1 C. esculentus interference with crop productionCyperus esculentus interference with crop production has been demonstrated by various authors. Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) yields decreased linearly with an increase in C. esculentus densities. Regression equations revealed an average yield loss of 19 kg ha-1 for each additional initial tuber m-1 of crop row (Moffett & McCloskey 1998), and approximately 18 kg ha-1 for each additional nutsedgeplant m-2 (Patterson et al., 1980). C. esculentus competition with cotton for the entire growth season reduced yields more than if the weed was present for shorter periods of time.Stoller et al. (1979) reported that, although variability was seen from year to year, average maize yield losses were 8% for every 100 shoots m-2.Yield reductions were more prominent in years when lower than normal rainfall was received during the growing season. Jooste and van Biljon (1980) found that the second sprouting of C. esculentus on the Mphumalanga Highveld in South Africa competed more with maize during the 8−16 week period than in the 0−8 week period. Maize yields were reduced by 11.4% on a Hutton soil (dry soils) and by 23.9% on an Avalon soil form (relatively wet soils). They concluded that it was possible that the first flush of nutsedge may reduce maize yields more than what they reported. Reinhardt and Bezuidenhout (2001) found that maize emergence was retarded in soil where C. esculentus grew for 28 days and then removed on the day the maize was sown. Maize was not affected if tubers and maize seeds were planted at the same time.Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) yields were reduced when 15 or more C. esculentus plants m-2 grew with the crop. However, the cucumber plants were able to compete successfully with C. esculentus if the crop was seeded at optimum densities, producing an optimum stand (Johnson III & Mullinix Jr 1999). The shoot dry weight of tomatoes (Lycopersicum esculentum) were reduced by 34% due to C. esculentus competition, with no differences in the interference from below- and above-ground competition (Morales-Payan et al., 2003).Little and van Staden (2003) reported that C. esculentus was the main competitor for water and nutrients with an Eucalyptus hybrid clone, Eucalyptus grandis x E. camaldulensis in Zululand, South Africa, directly after planting, with a subsequent reduction in tree growth. Aqueous extracts of tubers and foliage of immature and mature C. esculentus plants inhibited the growth of the essential ectomycorrhiza, Boletus maxaria on agar medium isolated from patula pine(Pinus patula) roots (Reinhardt & Bezuidenhout 2001). Their findings proposed that the interference of C. esculentus with seedling development of patula pine was indirect, through the primary inhibition of the ectomicorrhizal symbiont B. maxaria by allelochemicals released from the weed.Although Jangaard et al. (1971) did not investigate the allelopathic effects of C. esculentus, they identified certain phenolic compounds in the tubers that are known for their allelopathic potential. Compounds identified included p-coumaric, ferulic, p-hydroxybenzoic, syringic, vanillic, salicylic, protocatechuic and caffeic acids, with p-coumaric and ferulic acids in higher concentrations. Allelopathic effects were suggested when extracts and dried material of C. esculentus and C. rotundus (purple nutsedge) reduced the growth of cereals, vegetables and soyabeans (Tames et al., 1973; Meissner et al., 1979; Drost & Doll 1980).3.2 Control measures for C. esculentusShading reduces the total number of shoots and tubers, dry weight, plant height and leaf area of C. esculentus due to its C4 photosynthesis pathway. C. esculentus growth was significantly increased when plants were removed from the shade into full sunlight (Patterson 1982). Both Keeley and Thullen (1978) and Santos et al. (1997) found that 20−30% shade was detrimental to growth. In contrast, Jordan-Molero and Stoller (1978) reported that 30% shade did not influence the weed’s growth. Various crops planted at different plant populations reduced the above-ground growth of C. esculentus due to the low intensity of light reaching the weed. Ghafar and Watson (1983) showed that increasing the maize population from 33 300 to 133 300 plants ha-1 significantly reduced the C. esculentus above-ground biomass, tuber number, weight and height at the end of the growing season, with a concomitant significant increase in maize yield. Maize, barley (Hordeum vulgare), hemp (Cannabis sativa) and stooling rye (Secale cereale) reduced the above-ground biomass and density of C. esculentus secondary shoots in comparison with when a crop was absent (Lotz et al., 1991).Crops that create a regime of low light intensity during a long C. esculentus growth period suppressed tuber formation more strongly than crops that shadow the weed for a relatively short period of time (Lotz et al., 1991). Various other authors confirmed that shading suppresses tuber formation (Jordan-Molero & Stoller 1978; Keeley & Thullen 1978; Patterson 1982; Li et al., 2001). However, according to Stoller et al. (1979), maize planted in 75-cm rows did not provide enough shade to prevent C. esculentus from producing tubers. This is supported by Santos et al. (1997). Reductions in total leaf area were primarily the result of less leaves produced, as well as them being thinner compared to those in full sunlight (Patterson 1982). Thomas (1969) found that temperature had the greatest effect on C. esculentus tuber survival, while the duration of desiccation did not significantly influence tuber survival. A combination of temperature and humidity was more effective in killing tubers than either treatment alone.Although Stoller and Woolley (1983) and Stoller and Sweet (1987) stated that mulching would not be effective for growth suppression because the leaves of C. esculentus have sharp tips that could penetrate hard surfaces, Webster (2005) found that pots covered with 32 µm black-opaque and colourless-clear polyethylene mulches restricted nutsedge growth, as very few shoots emerged through the mulch. The biomass of C. esculentus shoots under the mulch was lower compared to the non-mulched treatment, with shoots under the black having a greater biomass than those under the clear mulch. Both mulches reduced tuber production to nearly half of the non-mulched control. Ormeño-Núñez et al. (2008) concluded that a dense stooling rye mulch between rows in a vineyard reduced C. esculentus growth by 81%.The limitation of herbicide options for C. esculentus control in conservation agriculture and the variability of chemical control (Jooste & van Biljon 1980), creates the opportunity to incorporate the use of cover crops in a weed management system to reduce the weeds’ fitness in order to increase crop competitiveness4. COVER CROPSIf the reliance on herbicides for weed management is reduced or eliminated, weed suppression must be approached from a crop cultivation perspective. Interest in the use of cover crops has been motivated primarily to produce crops in a more environmentally sustainable manner. Some of the benefits of cover crops include improving water infiltration, soil structure, reducing soil erosion, releasing nutrients upon decomposition, increasing the soil organic matter and preventing the leaching of N from the previous season (Liebman & Davis 2000). Cover crops can be grown in rotations after the main crop has been harvested or could grow simultaneously during part or all of the main crop season. For the purpose of reducing C. esculentus growth in a maize conservation tillage system in KZN, the term cover crop refers to crops planted in autumn after the main crop has been harvested and then killed during the following spring before planting the next main crop into the residues. The cover crop residues remaining on the soil surface could suppress weed growth through environmental and chemical interference.4.1 Weed suppression due to environmental interferenceSeed germination is dependent on adequate, but not excessive, supply of water, suitable oxygen:carbon dioxide ratio, and optimum temperatures and light (Monaco et al., 2002). Cover crop residues remaining on the soil surface can physically modify the germination environment by intercepting light and rain and interfering with the heat and water transfer between the soil and atmosphere (Teasdale et al., 2007).Exposure to light is one of the basic requirements of many weed seeds to germinate. Residues on the soil surface would intercept the incoming radiation promoting dormancy of species with a light requirement. According to Teasdale and Daughtry (1993) light transmission was more obstructed by live hairy vetch (Vicia villosa) plants than desiccated hairy vetch material, influencing the suppression of weed growth. Changes in the light spectrum reaching the seed under plant residue could affect the light quality, thereby suppressing germination and growth of photo-dormant species (Teasdale & Mohler 1993). Redlight converts phytochrome to an active form, promoting germination, while far-red light inactivates phytochrome, thus inhibiting germination. Most weed seeds germinate when exposed to the red light portion of sunlight and not in darkness. However, desiccated cover crops have limited influence on the red:far red light ratio due to the absence of chlorophyll (Teasdale & Mohler 1993).Plant residues on the soil surface lower the soil surface temperature by acting as insulation from the air temperature and intercepting solar radiation thus delaying cooling of the soil surface more than heating (Teasdale & Mohler 2000). Not only could germination be delayed at lower maximum soil temperatures due to the residues but the temperature of the residues itself could suppress germination. Teasdale and Mohler (1993) recoded residue temperatures of 41°C when the air temperature was 37°C. Changes in the soil temperature may enhance mineralization rates, thereby influencing nutrient availability (Facelli & Pickett 1991).Plant litter on the soil surface may retain some rain water, depending on the litter characteristics (Facelli & Pickett 1991), thereby limiting the amount of water available for germination. During dry periods soil moisture under the residues could be higher creating favourable conditions for germination. However, saturated conditions could reduce germination. C. album and S. viridis establishment was reduced by soil moistures above field capacity under hairy vetch residues (Teasdale 1993).The residues on the soil surface may obstruct seedling roots reaching the soil thereby reducing the growht of seeds and sprouts. Seedlings emerging from beneath the residues need to devote more energy penetrating it, leading to higher seedling mortalities. Small seeded species are more sensitive to covering, especially at the cotyledon stage. Once the stored resources of the seed are depleted no energy is available for growth (Baerveldt & Ascard 1999; Liebman & Davis 2000). The degree of weed control provided by the residues is likely to beinfluenced by the weed species and growth stage, the thickness of soil cover and the soil type.4.2 Weed suppression due to chemical interferenceThe allelopathic effects of cover crops on weed growth is the primary means of chemical interference and have been documented (Weston & Duke 2003). Plants interfere directly and indirectly with their neighbours, with a subsequent reduction in growth in any one or both of them as a consequence. Direct effects are attributed to competition and allelopathy, while indirect effects are attributed to changes in the growth environment due to physical effects and the presence of pests and diseases (Hoffman et al., 1996). With competition, growth factors are diminished, while with allelopathy, chemical compounds that are released into the environment affect plant growth (Khanh et al., 2005).4.2.1 Allelopathy researchThe root exudation and leaching of allelochemicals from a range of crops employed as cover-, smother-, companion- or intercrops form the basis of a weed management strategy involving allelopathy (Belz 2004; Khanh et al., 2005). However, the discipline of allelopathy has had its share of controversy, in part due to the following limitations: (a) complex research methodology is required for distinguishing between allelopathy and competition (Belz 2004), (b) the widely held assumption that all chemicals extracted from plants would exhibit allelopathic characteristics, and (c) the assumption that the mere presence of allelochemicals in plant tissue presents strong evidence for allelopathy (Inderjit & Callaway 2003).In the past, to prove that allelopathy was the cause of plant growth inhibition, unrealistic bioassays using leachates or extracts of plant parts in artificial conditions have been used (Foy & Inderjit 2001; Olofsdotter et al., 2002). Bioassays are important in the study and demonstration of allelopathy. Therefore, in order that experiments produce more convincing evidence for the existence and function of allelochemicals they should meet the following criteria: (a) showing allelochemicals being released from the donor plant and arrives infunctional concentrations under natural conditions at the receiver plant, (b) determination of the fate and persistence of allelochemicals in soil, (c) elucidation of the uptake mechanism of the receiver plant and its subsequent response (Blum 1999; Inderjit & Callaway 2003). To discover whether or not these subunits work together, a field study is necessary (Inderjit & Weston 2000; Khanh et al., 2005), but the evaluation of the contribution of each phenomenon to the overall effect in a field situation is difficult and therefore selection of allelopathic cover crop plants under field conditions is not an option (Foy & Inderjit 2001; Olofsdotter et al., 2002). In evaluating the ability of rice to control weed growth, research was focused on bioassays and field work that led to a correlation between growth inhibition and allelochemical release, which formed the basis of a subsequent international breeding programme for developing competitive rice cultivars (Olofsdotter 2001).4.2.2 AllelochemicalsAll plants synthesize secondary metabolites which are generally considered not important for primary metabolic processes essential for a plant’s survival. These metabolites represent a vast number of biologically active compounds, of which some are allelopathic and are referred to as allelochemicals. The allelopathic effect on plants is often the result of a combination of these chemicals released together, as individual compounds are often present in concentrations below their inhibition thresholds (An et al., 1998; Inderjit & Nayyar 2002).Allelopathic plants do not develop in isolation and environmental conditions influencing plant growth will directly affect allelochemical production and expression. The extent of their phytotoxicity depends on soil characteristics, abiotic and biotic factors, the donor and target plant species and cultivars used (Inderjit & Nayyar 2002).Adsorption, desorption and degradation of allelochemicals in soil are just as common a phenomena as with herbicides, and therefore, soil texture, organic andinorganic matter, moisture and micro-organisms as well as allelochemical solubility in water will affect their phytotoxic activity in the soil (Inderjit et al., 2001; Kobayashi 2004). A recent example of this is the abiotic and biotic variables that degraded the allelochemical parthenin released from the alien invader plant Parthenium hysterophorus (Parthenium), causing it to have short but variable half-lives in soil, depending on temperature, moisture and microbial activity (Belz et al., 2009). Soil micro-organisms can use allelochemicals as a food source and if allelochemicals are released, the micro-organism population can increase in response. Plant growth inhibition can be the result not only of the allelochemicals present but also because the micro-organisms can transform these compounds to new chemicals of lower or higher bioactivity. In addition, microbes can immobilize nutrients, with subsequent reduction in plant growth (Schmidt & Ley 1999).The abiotic factors water and nutrient content, temperature and applied herbicides have a significant influence on the availability of allelochemicals. In a review by Tang et al. (1995) various examples were given in which stress factors caused an elevation in allelochemicals. Gershenzon (1984) came to the conclusion that the accumulation of secondary metabolites under stress conditions must be an adaptive response to conditions under which the function of these compounds becomes important. Einhellig (1987) showed how certain herbicides synergize or supplement the activity of allelochemicals, which can have implications for conservation tillage as it is dependent on herbicide use. The fate of allelochemicals under stress cannot be generalized. The availability of growth resources for donor and target plants can be influenced by the presence of allelochemicals. Donor plants may be less influenced due to their adaptation to the stress, while target plants could lack this ability. Damage is therefore caused by abiotic stress or allelochemicals, or by both (Inderjit & Nayyar 2002).Choosing the cover crop species and cultivar would also have an impact on the allelopathic effect produced on weed species (Weston & Duke 2003). Differences in their ability to suppress weed growth were reported for, among others, stooling。
(2021年整理)第13课市场分析外刊经贸知识选读,每课重要知识点,串讲,课文翻译
第13课市场分析外刊经贸知识选读,每课重要知识点,串讲,课文翻译编辑整理：尊敬的读者朋友们：这里是精品文档编辑中心，本文档内容是由我和我的同事精心编辑整理后发布的，发布之前我们对文中内容进行仔细校对，但是难免会有疏漏的地方，但是任然希望（第13课市场分析外刊经贸知识选读,每课重要知识点,串讲,课文翻译）的内容能够给您的工作和学习带来便利。
同时也真诚的希望收到您的建议和反馈，这将是我们进步的源泉，前进的动力。
本文可编辑可修改，如果觉得对您有帮助请收藏以便随时查阅，最后祝您生活愉快业绩进步，以下为第13课市场分析外刊经贸知识选读,每课重要知识点,串讲,课文翻译的全部内容。
第13课市场分析Hong Kong is Tops at Cracking U。
S。
Shell Eggs香港是美国蛋类的大市场By Michael L.HumphreyWhile most people think of Hong Kong as a small market， it is, in fact, the largest export market for U.S.shell eggs。
In 1985， the United States exported over 7 million dozen shell eggs valued as ＄ 4 million for food use in Hong Kong.That market alone accounted for half of the volume and 40 per cent of the value of total U。
S。
exports of shell eggs for food use。
大多数人认为香港是一个小市场，可它实际上是美国蛋类的最大的出口市场。
1985年，美国向香港出口了7百多万打食用蛋类，价值4百万美元。
仅此市场就占据了美国食用蛋类出口量的一半，总价值的40%。
外刊经贸知识选读全部课文翻译
Lesson 1 China in the Market Place市场经济中的中国(Excerpts)（摘录）Barry Coulthurst examines the development of China’s trade policy and the present state of the overseas links--巴里库尔塞斯特对中国贸易政策的演变和当前与海外经济往来状况的研究自从中华人民共和国成立以来，中国对外贸易的模式发生了巨大的变化。
20世纪50年代，中国向苏联和东欧国家出口农产品换取制造品和资本设备，用于侧重于重工业发展所必须的工业化项目。
1958~1959年的―大跃进‖最初在工农业生产上带来收益，但随后又导致了严重的经济平衡。
三年自然灾害(1959-1961)加剧了经济问题，造成1960-1962年间的国民收入和对外贸易额的减少。
20世纪60年代，苏联经济和技术援助撤走，导致了中国与苏联及经互会成员国的贸易转向于日本和西欧国家的贸易。
中国对外贸易政策的一贯宗旨是重视与第三世界国家发展贸易关系。
―文化大革命‖期间（1966-1976）工农业生产一落千丈，交通运输限制更加严重，中国对外贸易的增长再次中断。
The Sino-USA agreement on trade relations, which came into force（解释：施行）in February 1980, accords China most-favoured nation treatment.（最惠国待遇）在实现四个现代化中起着很大作用的对外贸易在近几年发展很快。
1978年2月于日本签订了一个主要贸易协定，根据这个协定，中国向日本出口每盒石油换取工业设备和技术。
1978年中国也与欧共体签订了长期贸易协定，继1979年初与美国的外交关系正常化以后，中美贸易发展迅速。
美国遵照1980年1月25日生效的中美贸易关系协定给与中国最惠国待遇。
美国文化教案
Part Two: USAUnit One: GeographyI. Objectives•In this chapter we will look at some general features of America and set the scene for the more detailed examination of particular aspects of life there which are dealt with in later chapters.II. Focal Questions•What is the full name of the American state?•What are the physiographic features of America?•What are the natural resources in America?III. Procedures•Presentation by Students – Focal questions•Lectures by the teacher•Class discussion – Exploitation Activities•On class exercises•Assignment for the next chapterIV. Teaching hours:3 hoursV. ContentsIntroduction to US①The Land Area●The total land area of the USA is 9,372,615 square kilometers●the fourth largest country in the world②The Capital●Washington, D.C. is the capital of the United States of America.●Named after the first U.S. president, George Washington.●It is the heart of a dynamic metropolitan region.③The National Flag , Emblem and Anthem●The flag of the United States of America consists of 13 equal horizontal stripes ofred (top and bottom) alternating with white, with a blue rectangle (长方形) in the canton bearing 50 small, white, five-pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternating with rows of five stars.●The bald eagle was chosen on June 20, 1782 as the emblem (徽章) of the UnitedStates of America.●“The Star-Spangled Banner” was recognized for official use by the Navy in 1889and the President in 1916, and was made the national anthem (国歌) by a congressional resolution on March 3, 1931, which was signed by President Herbert Hoover.④National Flower, Stone and Bird●September 23, 1986, the House of Representatives passed a joint resolutionnaming the rose as the “national floral emblem” of the United States.●The national stone of the United States is blue sapphire (蓝宝石).●The national bird of the United States is the bald eagle.1)Physiographic Features①Geographic Divisions●The eastern United States is broad, flat coastal plain.●The Great Plains lie west of the Mississippi River and east of the RockyMountains.●In the west of the Rocky Mountains lies the Intermontane Plateaus (高原).●The Intermontane Plateaus come to an end at the Cascade Range and the SierraNevada.●Alaska contains some of the most dramatic and untapped scenery in the country.②Rivers in the US●The Missouri River is 4,090km long and its tributaries cover an area of about1,502,200 sq km.●The Mississippi River flows about 3,730km which drains all the central area of theUSA and has a wide delta (三角洲), and many tributaries. The river was named by the Indians the Mississippi, meaning “Father of Waters”, or the “Old Man River”.●The Ohio River, 1,579km long and its tributaries is about 490,603 sq km.●The Colorado River flows 2,330km which drains an area of 629,100 sq km●The Rio Grande River runs about 3,034km which forms the border between Texasand Mexico.●The Columbia River, about 2,000km long, rises in British Columbia on the westernslope of the Rocky Mountains.●The Potomac River is famous not only because Washington D.C. is located on itsbank but also because it is the dividing line between the South and the North.●The Hudson River is famous because New York stands at its estuary.③Lakes in the US●The most important lakes in America are the Great Lakes which include five biglakes: Lake Superior, Lake Michigan, Lake Huron, Lake Erie, and Lake Ontario.●Only Lake Michigan is wholly in the United States; the other four are shared withCanada.●The Great Lakes cover more than 764,000 sq km.●The Great Salt Lake is the largest inland salt lake in North America.●The Great Salt Lake is several times more saline (咸的) than seawater whichcontains about 4.4 billion tons of minerals.④Mountains in the US●The Rocky Mountains is a chain of mountains in the west of North America,running from the border of the USA and Mexico up to Canada. Several peaks are 4,000m high.●T he Appalachian Mountains’ highest peak is Mountain Mitchell, 2,038m..2)Climate and Natural Disasters①Climate●Taking the country as a whole, the climate of the United States can be classifiedas temperate with some mild subtropical zones (亚热带) and the southern Florida and Hawaii being tropical.●The climate of New England is relatively cold.●The climate of the Middle Atlantic States region is generally pleasant. There arefour definite seasons.●The South enjoys a warm climate and abundant rainfall. Some states in thisregion are sometimes harassed by the disaster of hurricanes (飓风).●Since the Great Plains stretch from the Canadian border to Texas, the climate inthis region varies widely.●The climate of the Midwest is temperate. This is a largely open country, and thewind blows freely, often bringing sudden and extreme changes in temperature.Midwest summers are sometimes very hot; winters are sometimes extremely cold.●The states west of the Rocky Mountains have sharply different climatic conditions.The part of Washington near the Pacific Ocean has the largest rainfall in the country. But after crossing these mountains, very little rain falls and deserts appear.②Natural Disasters●More recently, the western U.S. experienced widespread drought from 1999 to2004, and signs of a major, long-term drought across the Great Plains have developed.●The United States also experiences the most frequent and powerful tornadoes(龙卷风) in the world.●Another natural disaster are hurricanes, which can hit anywhere along the GulfCoast or the Atlantic Coast as well as Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean. Hurricane season runs from June 1 to November 30, with a peak from mid-August through early October.●The Great Mississippi Flood happened in 1927.●The Great Flood happened in 1993.●The American Northwest sees the highest concentration of active volcanoes inthe United States. There are several active volcanoes located in the islands of Hawaii.3)Natural Resources●The United States is a land rich in natural resources, such as coal, copper (铜),lead, molybdenum (钼), phosphates (磷酸盐), uranium (铀), bauxite (矾土), gold, iron, mercury, nickel (镍), potash (碳酸钾), silver, tungsten (钨), zinc, petroleum, natural gas, timber (木材), are especially plentiful in the country.●America has a large deposit of iron ore (铁矿石).●Coal is another major natural resource found in large quantities in the U. S. whichcan last for hundreds of years.●America, very rich in oil, was once the largest oil producing country in the world.●Other basic metals and minerals mined on a large scale in America include zinc,copper, silver, and phosphate rock.●America enjoys abundant water resources.●America also has plenty of fertile soil.Unit Two:HistoryI. Objectives•In this chapter we mainly concentrate on the history of United States, which dates from 1607 to the present. Teachers should try to make students familiar with some outstanding figures and historic events that have great impacts on the whole country, even the whole world.II. Focal Questions•How was the New World discovered? Why was it important?•Why was the Declaration of Independence important?•What was the significance of the Civil War?•Why was the prosperity in 1920s false?•Search for more materials and state briefly the relations between the United States and China from 1990 to the present.III. Procedures•Presentation by Students – Focal questions•Lectures by the teacher•Class discussion – Exploitation Activities•Assignment for the next chapterIV. Teaching hours: 4 hoursV. Contents1. Colonial period (1607-1776)The period of colonization is from the first settlement of English colonists to the independence of America.1) American IndiansThe earliest inhabitants in North and South Americas were the American Indians, who had lived and labored there for thousands of years before Christopher Columbus, an Italian navigator, discovered the New World in 1492.The American Indians were divided into hundreds of tribes, enormously varied in physical appearance, language and civilization. Some tribes made their living by hunting, others by fishing, farming or gathering rye seeds. Later, the sea covered the land bridge from Asia to America and separated the two Americas from the rest of the world. The Indians and the people of the rest of the world knew little about each other until the New World was discovered in 1492.2) Discovery of AmericaBy the end of 15th century, the modern European world was to be formed. In the mid 15th century, a great number of long ocean voyages took place. History will always remember two names —Christopher Columbus and Amerigo Vespucci. It was they who discovered and identified the new continents.3) Colonization of North AmericaThe New World was a great and rich land. North and South Americas together made up an area almost as large as Africa and Europe combined.The ruling class of Europe fell upon this rich land greedily. Only 50 years after Columbus’ first voyage, the Spanish and Portuguese had overrun the vast land of what is now called Latin America. For about 100 years after Columbus’ crossing of the Atlantic, only explorers and traders visited North America. But at the beginning of 17th century, European settlers began to arrive. Portugal set up colonies in Brazil, while Spain explored and colonized much of South America and Mexico.The settling of present United States and Canada by the English and French went moreslowly, though quite cruelly. During the reign of Queen ElizabethⅠ(1588-1603), the English in growing numbers realized that the New World was their best place to make their fortunes, and to worship and live according to their beliefs.In April 1607, three ships with 104 English settlers arrived off the Virginia coast. They built the first successful settlement called Jamestown. In 1620 the first group of Puritans arrived from England. In order to escape from religious persecution at home, a group of Puritans set sail for America on a ship called the Mayflower.Later more Puritans arrived in the nearby areas of Massachusetts. By 1679 they set up four New England colonies: Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New Hampshire. The colonies of New York, New Jersey, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware were called the Middle Colonies.By the mid 18th century North America had been actually divided out among the European colonists. Most of the east coast, south of the St. Lawrence River, north of Florida and stretching inland as far as the Appalachians in the west were in the hands of the British.4)Thirteen coloniesBy the time when Georgia was set up, the 13 colonies had had a population of 629,000. By 1750 it increased to 1,171,000. In terms of their political administration, the 13 colonies could be divided into three types: the proprietary colonies, which belonged to a person or a group of persons; the Royal colonies, those controlled directly by the King of England and the English Government; and self-governing colonies, which were ruled by the colonists living in them. Most of the proprietary colonies soon became Royal ones. Only Connecticut and Rhode Island were self-governing colonies.Society in the 13 British colonies was like a pyramid, the top of which was made up of foreign merchants and landlords, and the base refugees from Europe, black slaves from Africa and the American Indians. The Africans were out-and-out slaves, who were sold like animals. As for the Indians, they would not put up with slavery. If any Indian was enslaved, his fellow tribe members would fight to free him. So the colonists soon gave up the attempt to use them as slave labor. Instead they seized the land of the Indians and drove them away or killed them. Slaves, indentured servants and workers who found themselves unable to bear their conditions used to run away to the frontier where they cleared the forests and opened up farms of their own. Uprisings or rebellions often took place against the Royal Government of the colonies.2. War of independence1) Britain’s policy t oward American colonies1763 Royal Order, forbidding the colonists to buy any more land from the Indians in the west beyond a certain line, and vesting in the Crown the sole power to hold and dispose of such lands.1764 Sugar Act, imposing import duties on non-English goods to the American colonies in order to raise more money for supporting British Government in the colonies.1764 Currency Act, forbidding the colonies to issue paper money.1765 Stamp Act, taxing numerous articles and transactions in America to help pay the costs of British Government in the colonies.1765 Quartering Act, requiring colonists to help house and feed British regular troops stationed in the colonies.1766 Declaratory Act, asserting the supremacy of the British Parliament in making laws for the colonies.1767 Customs Collecting Act, establishing British commissioners in the colonies to collect customs and other duties.1767 Revenue Act, laying taxes on lead, paint and other articles imported into the colonies.1767 Tea Act, regulating importation of tea in British dominions in America in favor of the British East India Company.2) Unity of the coloniesThe contradiction between England and her 13 colonies became more acute, and the colonies began to unite.In September 1774, 55 representatives from all the colonies except Georgia held a meeting in Philadelphia to talk about their troubles with their mother country. The meeting was called the First Continental Congress. At the meeting the majority of representatives still thought they could settle their quarrel with the British by peaceful means. They agreed to refuse to buy British goods, hoping in this way to force the British Government to give in to their demands. They also agreed to raise a volunteer army to protect the colonies if Britain used force to break the boycott.3) The outbreak of war and the Declaration of IndependenceIt was here in Lexington that the first shot in the American War of Independence was fired.Immediately after this, in May 1775, the Second Continental Congress was held with representatives from all the 13 colonies.At the beginning of 1776, Thomas Paine, an American patriot published a pamphlet entitled Common Sense. Finally a committee, composed of Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams and some other members, was appointed to draw up a Declaration of Independence. After three weeks of discussion, the committee prepared the famous document which was formally adopted on July 4, 1776, a day which has been celebrated each year as Independence Day or National Day in US.4)Progress of the warThe War of Independence started in 1775 and ended in 1783, lasting about eight years.The war did not go well for Americans at first who suffered repeated setback. It was under such unfavorable circumstances that George Washington, with his intelligence and determination, won a great victory in the battle of Trenton.The victory at Saratoga was the turning point of the war. But then the American army was still not strong enough to beat the British; it won some battles but lost others. Finally in 1781, the Americans, with the help of the French navy, won a decisive victory at Yorktown in Virginia.5) The significance of the warThe American War of Independence was of great historical importance and influence. A new republic emerged, which marked a new beginning of American history. It told the world that a just cause would sooner or later win while the evil cause would certainly lose. The victory of the American people also greatly encouraged the people in the colonies ruled by the Spanish andpromoted the national liberation struggle of the other colonies in the world.5)The Constitutional ConventionBefore and during the Independent War, US had not been named yet, but near the end of the war, a committee was appointed to draw up a constitution which was to stipulate how US should be governed. It resulted in the Articles of the Confederation and in 1781 it was accepted by all the states. Thus US were officially founded.But the Articles of the Confederation gave too little power to the central government, so a series of attempts to organize a movement to outline and press reforms culminated in the Congress calling the Philadelphia Convention in 1787.After many heated debates and countless compromises, the delegates found a satisfactory solution. Congress should be made up of two houses, a House of Representatives and a Senate. The big states had more members in the House of Representatives than the small ones, but all states had the same number in the Senate. Finally, the Constitution took its shape and won its ratification in 1788.The appearance of the American Constitution was a great event in American history. It established the federal system which was the first in the world at that time, making the birth of US possible.3. Westward expansion era1) The new government and Louisiana PurchaseAfter the Constitution was ratified by the states, the nation began to organize her first Federal Government. As had been expected, Washington was elected the first President of US by a unanimous vote which has never happened again in this country.Washington’s Administration achieved much success. His vice president John Adams succeeded him in presidency. Adams was a member of the Federalist Party. However, the Federalists became divided after Adams sent a peace mission to France despite ongoing disputes with that nation. Thomas Jefferson, a Democratic-Republican, defeated Adams for the presidency in the 1800 election.The most glorious achievement of Jefferson as President was the Louisiana Purchase. The Louisiana Purchase, in 1803, gave western farmers use of the important Mississippi River waterway, removed the French presence from the western border of US, provided US farmers with vast expanses of land, and furthered American leaders’vision of creating a “Great Nation”. 2) The war against England (1812-1814)Britain was not reconciled to the loss of their 13 colonies. British warships were often placed outside American harbors to keep a watch on shipping that came and went. Congress, therefore, had to declare war against British in June, 1812.The war continued for about three years without decisive victory for either side. Then both sides agreed to negotiate a peace settlement and signed the Peace Treaty of Ghent on the Christmas Eve of 1814. The War of 1812 had been called the Second War of Independence, which not only greatly influenced the American history, but also promoted the development of economy. It was only after this war that US completely got rid of the British control and began a new period of rapid development from a semi-colonial economy to an independent and self-reliant capitalist economy.3) American expansion①The territorial expansionIn 1845, US annexed the Mexican territory of Texas after the US settlers there had first formed an “independent government” with Washington’s support. Further US provocations on the border resulted in the Mexican-US War (1846-1848). In consequence of the Mexican War, US added to itself a territory of approximately 2,446,000 square kilometers, embracing the present state of Texas, California, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, Colorado, and part of Wyoming.In the same year, US forced England to cede the Oregon region, which includes the present states of Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and part of Montana and Wyoming.In 1867, US purchased from Czarist Russia the territory of Alaska and the off-lying Aleutian Islands for $ 7.2 million. This territory is twice as large as the original 13 colonies.By the middle of 19th century, the national territory of US had reached over nine million sq km, about 10 times the size of the total area of the original 13 colonies.②The economic expansionAfter the War of Independence the American national economy was growing rapidly. Its industrial revolution began in 1807 with its textile industry. New equipment and technology were introduced from Europe, and modern industries were established. Its total value of the industrial production in 1860 was increased by about 10 times that of 1810.In the 1820s there came a flood of new immigrants from Europe to US because labor was needed with the rapid development of industry in America and most European countries were ina very bad state.③Economic antagonism between North and SouthIn the north, the capitalist economy developed rapidly and industrial production advanced at an amazing speed. The output value of manufacture increased almost three times from 1840 to 1869. Coal and iron production were greatly increased. Transportation was also improved. Many canals were dug and thousands of miles of railways were built. All this stimulated the further development of industry. By 1860, American industry had ranked fourth in the world.The South was agricultural and had a large number of plantations, which were making huge profits out of tobacco and cotton with slave labor. The South insisted that slavery be kept, and furthermore, that more states in the Union be turned into slave states. Meanwhile the South exported each year plenty of cotton to England and Europe and imported a large quantity of manufactured goods from abroad. So the southerners wished to have a low tariff, as a high tariff would raise the prices of imported goods. On the contrary, the North had a different view. The northern industrialists wanted a high tariff to protect the industries in the North.4. The American civil war1) Causes of the warBy 1860, there were nearly four million slaves residing in US, nearly eight times as many from 1790; within the same period, cotton production in US boomed from less than 1,000 tons to nearly one million tons per year. There were some slave rebellions, including by Gabriel Prosser (1800), Denmark Vesey (1822), and Nat Turner (1831), but they all failed and led totighter slave oversight in the South. White abolitionist John Brown tried and failed to free a group of black slaves in Harpers Ferry, Virginia and was therefore executed for his actions. Harriet Beecher Stowe, daughter of Minister Lyman Beecher, published her novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin in 1852 in response to the passage of the Fugitive Slave Act. The novel intended to express her views of the cruelty of slavery and nearly 300,000 copies were sold during its first year of publication. Numerous slaves also escaped their masters through the Underground Railroad, a term defining secret routes where abolitionists confidentially transported runaway slaves to “free state” territory; its most famous leader was Harriet Tubman.2) Progress of the warThe Civil War began when Confederate General Pierre Beauregard opened fire upon Fort Sumter, in the Confederate State of South Carolina. The war lasted four years from 1861 to 1865.In material resources, the North enjoyed a decided advantage. Strong as the North was, the South also had advantages, most of them military.There were two main arenas of war, the Eastern Arena and the Western Arena. The basic battleground for the Eastern Arena was Virginia. The Western Arena included the areas west to the Appalachian Range and the Mississippi River area.In order to change the situation and win the war, several measures were taken by Lincoln’s Administration in 1862: (1) in May 1862, Congress passed the Homestead Act; (2) on September 22, 1862, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation; (3) black slaves were allowed to serve in the Union Army from August 1862.3) The significance of the warThe Civil War is of great significance in American history, which preserved the Union and solved the agrarian problem.The Civil War, in fact, was a struggle of life and death between two social systems, between the progressive and the backward, between the one that could push history forward and the one that would drag history to the old times.The Civil War also extended its far-reaching influence to the European revolutions.5. The US imperialism and WWI1) Formation of US imperialism①IndustrializationThe period from the Civil War to the beginning of the 20th century was a period of rapid industrial growth and urban development. Towards the end of 19th century US had already become a highly developed capitalist country and reached the stage of imperialism.②Concentration of capitalThe rapid concentration of capital was also accelerated after the Civil War. The small and medium enterprises were swallowed up by the bigger ones. Big monopolies first appeared in the heavy industries.③Working-class movementA rising working-class movement accompanied the growth of monopoly capital. The first labor organization came into being in the 1870s. Strikes often took place in the industrial cities in those days.The Pennsylvania railway workers’ strike of 1877 was the first large-scale struggle of its kindin the American history. On May 1, 1886, hundreds of thousands of workers went on simultaneous strikes in Chicago, Washington, New York and other large cities. They fought for an eight-hour working day, higher wages and better working conditions. Two days later, the police opened fire on the strikers at Chicago’s Haymarket, inflicting many casualties.④Overseas expansionWith the emergence of industrial America came the emergence of imperial US and US as a world power. The growing industrial might of the nation was reflected clearly in the US mad policy of aggression and expansion abroad.●US-Spanish warThe US-Spanish War broke out in April, 1898, lasted for only 70 days and ended with US as the victor. A peace treaty was signed in December 1898 in Paris. As a result of the war, Spain was forced to cede her former colonies Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines to US; US agreed to pay 20 million dollars for them in an attempt to put a good face on its foreign expansion. Cuba remained a US “protectorate”for some years, while the Philippines were not granted its independence until after the end of WWI. US seized Hawaii from Spain after the US-Spanish War.●Theodore Roosevelt’s policyBy the early years of 20th century, Theodore Roosevelt who became President in 1901 carried out the aggressive policy in a most faithful and open manner. Wielding the Big Stick in the name of Monroe Doctrine, he carried out the policy in Latin America and brought most of the Caribbean countries under US control. During Theodore Roosevelt’s Administration, he got the control of Panama Canal. In Sino-American relations, Theodore Roosevelt pushed the so-called Open Door Policy which demanded that all the imperialist powers should enjoy equal chance in China as freely as other aggressors. In 1900, America joined the Eight-Power Alliance to suppress the anti-imperialist Boxers Movement of the Chinese people. They forced the Qing Government to sign another unequal treaty in 1901 and to pay a large sum of money by way of indemnity. America got from the spoils its dividend of the 24 million dollars. In 1906, US put down the Cuban uprising. All those showed that US was exercising a policy of domination.2)America in WWIWWI took place primarily in Europe between 1914 and 1918. It came as an inevitable explosion of the major contradictions racking the capitalist world. The war was waged between two groups of imperialist powers, Allies and the Central European Power. The Allies or the Entente consisted of England, France, Russia, US and other countries. The central European Powers consisted of Germany, Austria Hungary, and later Turkey and Bulgaria. The basic causes of the war lay in the political, economic and colonial rivalries of the great powers, stretching back into the late 19th century.①American diplomacy of neutralitySince the beginning of WWI in 1914, US, under President Woodrow Wilson, had maintained strict neutrality. Even in May 1915, when a German submarine sank the British ocean liner Lusitania, killing 128 US citizens out of total 1,200 dead, US, though in uproar, remained neutral. In 1916, Wilson was reelected after running largely on a platform of antiwar, pro-neutrality rhetoric.②America’s entrance into the warThere might be a number of factors which contributed to America’s entrance into the war.。
africa elephant
African elephantsElephants continue to roam across Africa, but these magnificent beasts remain under threat from poaching and habitat loss. 继续在非洲大象漫游，但这些华丽的野兽仍然受到威胁来自偷猎和栖息地丧失。
BackgroundAfrican Elephants continue to face serious threats across their range.Although poaching of elephants for their ivory has declined since the 1989 worldwide ivory ban, it remains a widespread problem in west and central Africa. Large quantities of African ivory are still finding their way to illegal markets in Africa and beyond.A more long-term threat to the species, however, is the reduction of habitat available to elephants in the face of expanding human populations.非洲大象仍然面临严重威胁，在他们的范围。
虽然大象的象牙偷猎1989年以来全球禁止象牙下降，但仍然是非洲西部和中部普遍的问题。
大量的非洲象牙仍然找到了他们的方式在非洲和其他地方的非法市场。
一个更长远的威胁的物种，但是，是栖息地提供给扩大人群面临大象减少。
Physical DescriptionTwo subspecies are recognized: the savanna (or bush) elephant (Loxodonta africana africana), and the forest elephant (Loxodonta africana cyclotis).Savanna elephants are larger than forest elephants, and their tusks curve outwards. In addition to being smaller, forest elephants are darker and their tusks are straighter and downward pointing. There are also differences in the size and shape of the skull and skeleton between the 2 subspecies.The trunk, an extension of the upper lip and nose, is used for communication and handling objects including food. African elephants have 2 opposing extensions at its end, in contrast to the Asian elephant which only has one.Tusks, which are large modified incisors that grow throughout an elephant's lifetime, occur in both males and females and are used in fights and for marking, feeding, and digging.The other notable feature of this species are their very large ears which allow them to radiate excess heat.SizeLength: 6 to 7.5mShoulder height: 3.3mWeight: 6 tonnesColourThe African elephant usually has a brownish-gray skin colour.Habitat & EcologyThe African forest elephant lives in central and western Africa's equatorial forests. The savanna elephant is found throughout the grassy plains and bushlands of the continent. Social StructureThe complex social structure of elephants is organized around a system of herds composed of related females and their calves.African elephant herds can form temporary aggregations, reaching over 1,000 individuals, mainly in East Africa. These associations occur during drought, human interference, or any change brought to the normal pattern of social life.In the savanna subspecies, each family unit usually contains about 10 individuals, although several family units may join together to form a 'clan' consisting of up to 70 members led by a female. Forest elephants live in smaller family units.When threatened, elephants will group around young calves and the matriarch, the leader of the group, may attack the foe. Young elephants stay with their mother for many years and are also cared for by other females in the group.Life CycleYoung elephants wean after 6 to 18 months, although they may continue nursing for over 6 years. Male elephants leave their natal group at puberty and tend to form much more fluid alliances with other males. This species lives up to around 70 years, with females mostly fertile between 25 and 45. Males need to reach 20 years of age in order to successfully compete for mating.BreedingUsually, a single calf is born every 2.5-9 years at the onset of the wet season, after a gestation period of 22 months.DietThe diet consists mainly of leaves and branches of bushes and trees, but they also eat grasses, fruit, and bark.两个亚种被确认：热带草原（或灌木）大象（Loxodonta africana africana），森林大象（Loxodonta africana cyclotis）。
国际经济学英文第七版克鲁格曼英文经济名词翻译
Key Terms of International EconomicsChapter3 Labor Productivity and Comparative Advantage Comparative advantage 比较优势Absolute advantage 绝对优势Opportunity cost 机会成本Production possibility frontier 生产可能性边界Unit labor requirement 单位产品劳动投入Relative price 相对价格Relative demand curve相对需求曲线Relative supply curve 相对供给曲线Relative wage 相对工资Relative quantity 相对产量Ricardian model 李嘉图模型Pauper labor argument 贫民劳动论Nontraded goods 非贸易商品Chapter 4 Resources and Trade: the Heckscher-Ohlin Model Abundant factor 丰裕要素Biased expansion of production 偏向性生产扩张Equalization of factor prices 要素价格均等化Factor abundance 要素丰裕度Factor intensity 要素密集度Scarce factor 稀缺要素Leontief paradox 里昂惕夫悖论land-intensive 土地密集型Labor-intensive劳动密集型the ratio of 2 factor prices 要素价格比Wage-rental ratio 工资-租金比Land-labor ratio ，the ratio of land to labor 土地劳动比Chapter 5 The standard Trade Model--------------------------精品文档，可以编辑修改，等待你的下载，管理，教育文档----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Biased growth 偏向性增长Export-biased growth 出口偏向性增长Immiserizing growth 贫困化增长Import-biased growth 进口偏向性增长Isovalue line等价值线Marginal propensity to spend边际消费倾向T erms of trade贸易条件Transfers of income转移支付Chapter 6 Economies of Scale, Imperfect Competition, and in ternational TradeDumping 倾销External economies of scale外部规模经济Imperfect competition 不完全竞争Interindustry trade 产业间贸易Intraindustry trade 产业内贸易Internal economies of scale内在规模经济Monopolistic competion垄断竞争Reciprocal dumping 相互倾销Increasing return 报酬递增Chapter 7 The Instruments of Trade policyad valorem tariff从价税Specific tariff从量税Consumer surplus消费者剩余Producer surplus生产者剩余Production distortion loss生产扭曲损失Consumption distortion loss消费扭曲损失Effective rate of protection有效保护率Efficiency loss效率损失Export restraint出口限制Export subsidy出口补贴Import quota进口配额--------------------------精品文档，可以编辑修改，等待你的下载，管理，教育文档----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Voluntary export restraint自愿出口限制Local content requirement国产化程度要求nontariff barriers非关税避垒Quota rent配额租金Chapter 8 National Income Accounting and the Balance of Payments The Balance of Payment AccountsCurrent accountFinancial accountCapital accountChapter 9 Exchange Rates and the Foreign Exchange Market:An Asset ApproachAppreciation升值Arbitrage套汇、套利Depreciation贬值Exchange rate汇率Forward exchange rate远期汇率Interest parity condition利率平价条件Rate of appreciation升值率Rate of depreciation贬值率Real rate of return实际收益率Spot exchange rate即期汇率Vehicle currency载体货币Foreign exchange外汇Chapter 10 Money, Interest Rates, and Exchange ratesMoney Supply 货币供给Money Demand 货币需求Short-Run Price Rigidity 短期价格粘性Long-run Price Flexibility 长期灵活价格permanent increase in the U.S. money supply 货币供给永久性增长overshooting 超调--------------------------精品文档，可以编辑修改，等待你的下载，管理，教育文档----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Chapter 11 Price Levels and the Exchange Rate in the Long Run Law of one price 一价定律Nominal exchange rate 名义汇率Nominal interest rate 名义利率Purchasing power parity 购买力平价Real appreciation实际升值Real depreciation 实际贬值Real exchange rate 实际汇率Relative PPP相对购买力平价Market rigidity市场刚性Price rigidity价格刚性Price stickiness价格粘性Chapter 12 Output and the Exchange Rate in the Short Run Aggregate demand 总需求Fiscal policy 财政政策J-curve J曲线Real exchange rate 实际汇率Real appreciation 实际升值Real depreciation 实际贬值Chapter 13 Fixed, Floating Exchange Rate and Policies Effects Sterilization冲销Sterilized foreign exchange intervention冲销性外汇干预Devaluation法定贬值Revaluation法定升值Clean float 清洁浮动Dirty float 肮脏浮动Capital flight 资本抽逃Chapter 14 The Theory of Optimum Currency Areas--------------------------精品文档，可以编辑修改，等待你的下载，管理，教育文档----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------optimum currency areas 最优货币区Monetary efficiency gain 货币效率收益Economic integration 经济一体化Floating exchange rate 浮动汇率Fixed exchange rate 固定汇率--------------------------精品文档，可以编辑修改，等待你的下载，管理，教育文档----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------。
第11课 易货贸易仍在使用外刊经贸知识选读,每课重要知识点,串讲,课文翻译
第11课易货贸易仍在使用The Comeback of International Barter国际易货贸易的回潮It is a primitive, inefficient and expensive way of doing business—but the massive debts of developing and the world’s oversupply of goods make it inescapable.它是一种原始、低效且昂贵的贸易方式，但发展中国家的巨额债务和全球过剩的供给，使它不可避免地存在着。
In 1983 the Saudi Arabian government decided to purchase ten Boeing 747-300s powered by 40 Rolls-Royce jet engines. But faced with declining revenues due to a worldwide surplus of oil, it was reluctant to pay $1 billion in cash. Instead, it offered crude oil. Neither the American aircraft manufacturer nor the British engine-maker wanted all that oil. But opportunities for such a big sale are rare. So the companies have arranged for an international financial institution to sell the Saudi crude on world markets. Boeing and Rolls-Royce will be paid in cash from the proceeds, and Saudi Arabia will get its aircraft without dipping into its currency reserves.1983 年，沙特阿拉伯政府决定购买10 架波音747-300 飞机，并且由40 架罗尔斯——罗伊斯公司的引擎提供动力。
2020年上海市嘉定区中考初三英语二模试卷(含听力)嘉定九年级英语试卷
嘉定区2019学年九年级第二次学业质量调研测试英语试题(满分150分，考试时间100分钟)考生注意：本卷有7大题，共94小题。
试题均采用连续编号，所有答案务必按照规定在答题纸上完成，做在试卷上不给分。
Part 1 Listening (第一部分听力)I. Listening Comprehension (听力理解) (共30分)A. Listen and choose the right picture (根据你听到的内容，选出相应的图片) (6分)A B C DE F G HB. Listen to the dialogue and choose the best answer to the question you hear (根据你所听到的对话和问题，选出最恰当的答案) (8分)7. A) One cup a day. B) Two cups a day.C) Three cups a day. D) Four cups a day.8. A) Cloudy. B) Rainy.C) Sunny. D) Windy.9. A) Wednesday. B) Tuesday.C) Thursday. D) Friday.10. A) Doctor and patient. B) Boss and secretary.C) Shop assistant and customer. D) Teacher and student.11. A) A size five and a half. B) A size six.C) A size seven and a half. D) A size seven.12. A) Swimming. B) Playing volleyball.C) Skating. D) Watching TV.13. A) 10 minutes. B) 20 minutes.C) 30 minutes. D) 40 minutes.14. A) It will cool down soon. B) It has been hot for a long time.C) The forecast is wrong. D) They usually have hot summers.C. Listen to the passage and tell whether the following statements are true or false (判断下列句子是否符合你所听到的短文内容，符合的用“T”表示，不符合的用“F”表示) (6分)15. Nowadays very few students travel and make money in other countries at the same time.16. Some companies can help you get a job and plan for your trip in another country.17. Disneyland in the United States is also a place you can work for money.18. As a student, you can only work for one month for your working holiday.19. You’d better bring a credit card with you to pay for extra things.20. It is necessary to make several copies of some important documents(证件).D. Listen to the passage and fill in the blanks (听对话，用所听到的单词完成下列内容，每空格限填一词) (10分)21. The reporter asks Lucy how she’s paying for her _______ _______.22. Lucy works at a hotel for about _______ _______ a week to earn some money.23. The money Lucy earns helps to pay for the meals _______ _______ and alsosomething for her daily life.24. Lucy doesn’t borrow money and _______ _______ goes to the movies for fun.25. To save money, Lucy usually buys some _______ _______ in second-hand shops.Part 2 Phonetics, Grammar and Vocabulary(第二部分语音、语法和词汇)II. Choose the best answer (选择最恰当的答案) (共20分)26. The forest was dark and silent during the night. Which of the following is correct for the underlinedpartA) / 'seɪlənt / B) /'saɪlənt / C) / 'saɪlɪənt / D) / 'sɪlɪənt /27. Which of the following underlined parts is different in pronunciation from othersA) All roads lead to Rome.B) Go straight ahead, and you’ll see the post office.C) I don’t think wealth is important.D) He had a pleasant trip in France two years ago.28. – Children’s Day is coming. Have you prepared something for your younger sister– Yes. I’lI give______ a beautiful doll.A) she B) hers C) herself D) her29. Tim apologized to his neighbor______ breaking his bonsai (盆景) when playing football.A) in B) for C) of D) as30. We can get ______ information on the Net with the rapid development of science and technology.A) a lot B) a great number of C) many D) huge amounts of31. The headmaster says part-time jobs enable university students ______ more working experience.A) get B) getting C) to get D) got32. Ben didn’t give up ______ the job was hard and tiring for him in the beginning.A) before B) although C) unless D) if33. – ______ do you go to the city’s public library, Susie– Once every two or three weeks.A) How often B) How long C) How far D) How soon34. The old couple felt very ______ after their children went abroad a few months ago.A) angrily B) happily C) luckily D) lonely35. The volunteer spoke as ______ as he could to make the visitors understand him.A) clearly B) more clearly C) the most clearly D) most clearly36. –Would you like to see the hit film called “The Wandering Earth” or go shopping this weekend–______ I prefer to surf the Internet at home.A) Either. B) Both. C) None. D) Neither.37. According to the traffic regulations in China, children under 12 ______ ride bicycles on the road.A) may not B) mustn’t C) couldn’t D) needn’t38. –When did the classroom have a power cut–This morning, while we ______ a physics lesson.A) have had B) are having C) were having D) will have39. –These plans are all wonderful. I haven’t decided which one to choose.–It’s OK. You ______ plenty of time to decide.A) will be given B) were given C) will give D) gave40. It is 4:30 . Ben and Chris ______ their project, so they are playing chess now.A) are finishing B) finished C) have finished D) will finish41. ______ amazing it is to see so many wild animals with my own eyes!A) What an B) What C) What a D) How42. You’d better use the GPS with you during the journey ______ you won’t get lost.A) so that B) as soon as C) as well as D) now that43. A fter the manager finished ________ the complaint letter, he wrote back to Mr. Clark immediately.A) read B) reads C) to read D) reading44. –We failed in the singing competition last Friday.– ______ Better times are waiting for you.A) Not at all B) Best wishes. C) It doesn’t matter. D) Good job.45. –We’ll study in different schools next term. Enjoy your time in your new school!–______ We can keep in touch with each other online at weekends.A) I’ll take your advice. B) What a pity!C) Congratulations! D) The same to you.Ⅲ. Complete the following passage with the words in the box. Each can only be used once（将下列单词填入空格。