钢结构英文文献1
高层建筑与钢结构外文文献翻译中英文
高层建筑与钢结构外文文献翻译(含：英文原文及中文译文)文献出处：Structural Engineer Journal of the Institution of Structural Engineer, 2014, 92, pp: 26-29.英文原文Talling building and Steel constructionCollins MarkAlthough there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general. Spectacular achievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings.The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel fraing. Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes. The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structural systems.Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit. Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions, ceilings. and other architectural details. In addition, excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because their perception of such motion. Structural systems of reinforcedconcrete, as well as steel,take full advantage of inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore require additional stiffening to limit the sway.In a steel structure, for example, the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building. Curve A in Fig .1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame. Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium.Systems in steel. Tall buildings in steel developed as a result of several types of structural innovations. The innovations have been applied to the construction of both office and apartment buildings.Frame with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior columns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses, a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used. A good example of this system is the First Wisconsin Bank Building(1974) in Milwaukee.Framed tube. The maximum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building, for both strength and stiffness,to resist wind load can beachieved only if all column element can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground. This particular structural system was probably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in Chicago. The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 110-story World Trade Center building in New YorkColumn-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with diagonal members interesting at the centre line of the columns and beams. This simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Centre in Chicago, using as much steel as is normally needed for a traditional 40-story building.Bundled tube. With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency. The 110-story Sears Roebuck Headquarters Building in Chicago has nine tube, bundled at the base of the building in three rows. Some of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of the building, demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural concept. The Sears tower, at a height of 1450 ft(442m), is th e world’s tallest building.Stressed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces (wind and earthquake) and the control of drift (lateral building movement ) in high-rise building. The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further. The development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the façade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing an efficient way of resisting lateral loads in high-rise buildings, and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor area.Because of the contribution of the stressed-skin façade, the framed members of the tube require less mass, and are thus lighter and less expensive. All the typical columns and spandrel beams are standard rolled shapes,minimizing the use and cost of special built-up members. The depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space, is minimized. The structural system has been used on the 54-story One Mellon Bank Center in Pittburgh.Systems in concrete. While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive chanllenge to structural steel systems for both office and apartment buildings.Framed tube. As discussed above, the first framed tube concept fortall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building. In this building ,exterior columns were spaced at 5.5ft (1.68m) centers, and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in . -thick (20-m) flat-plate concrete slabs.Tube in tube. Another system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area. The system (Fig .2), known as the tube-in-tube system , made it possible to design the world’s present tallest (714ft or 218m)lightweight concrete building ( the 52-story One Shell Plaza Building in Houston) for the unit price of a traditional shear wall structure of only 35 stories.Systems combining both concrete and steel have also been developed, an examle of which is the composite system developed by skidmore, Owings &Merril in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing, thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structural steel systems. The 52-story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system.Steel construction refers to a broad range of building construction in which steel plays the leading role. Most steel construction consists oflarge-scale buildings or engineering works, with the steel generally in the form of beams, girders, bars, plates, and other members shaped through the hot-rolled process. Despite the increased use of other materials, steel construction remained a major outlet for the steel industries of the U.S, U.K, U.S.S.R, Japan, West German, France, and other steel producers in the 1970s.Early history. The history of steel construction begins paradoxically several decades before the introduction of the Bessemer and the Siemens-Martin (openj-hearth) processes made it possible to produce steel in quantities sufficient for structure use. Many of problems of steel construction were studied earlier in connection with iron construction, which began with the Coalbrookdale Bridge, built in cast iron over the Severn River in England in 1777. This and subsequent iron bridge work, in addition to the construction of steam boilers and iron ship hulls , spurred the development of techniques for fabricating, designing, and jioning. The advantages of iron over masonry lay in the much smaller amounts of material required. The truss form, based on the resistance of the triangle to deformation, long used in timber, was translated effectively into iron, with cast iron being used for compression members-i.e, those bearing the weight of direct loading-and wrought iron being used for tension members-i.e, those bearing the pull of suspended loading.The technique for passing iron, heated to the plastic state, betweenrolls to form flat and rounded bars, was developed as early as 1800;by 1819 angle irons were rolled; and in 1849 the first I beams, 17.7 feet (5.4m) long , were fabricated as roof girders for a Paris railroad station.Two years later Joseph Paxton of England built the Crystal Palace for the London Exposition of 1851. He is said to have conceived the idea of cage construction-using relatively slender iron beams as a skeleton for the glass walls of a large, open structure. Resistance to wind forces in the Crystal palace was provided by diagonal iron rods. Two feature are particularly important in the history of metal construction; first, the use of latticed girder, which are small trusses, a form first developed in timber bridges and other structures and translated into metal by Paxton ; and second, the joining of wrought-iron tension members and cast-iron compression members by means of rivets inserted while hot.In 1853 the first metal floor beams were rolled for the Cooper Union Building in New York. In the light of the principal market demand for iron beams at the time, it is not surprising that the Cooper Union beams closely resembled railroad rails.The development of the Bessemer and Siemens-Martin processes in the 1850s and 1860s suddenly open the way to the use of steel for structural purpose. Stronger than iron in both tension and compression ,the newly available metal was seized on by imaginative engineers, notably by those involved in building the great number ofheavy railroad bridges then in demand in Britain, Europe, and the U.S.A notable example was the Eads Bridge, also known as the St. Louis Bridge, in St. Louis (1867-1874), in which tubular steel ribs were used to form arches with a span of more than 500ft (152.5m). In Britain, the Firth of Forth cantilever bridge (1883-90) employed tubular struts, some 12 ft (3.66m) in diameter and 350 ft (107m) long. Such bridges and other structures were important in leading to the development and enforcement of standards and codification of permissible design stresses. The lack of adequate theoretical knowledge, and even of an adequate basis for theoretical studies, limited the value of stress analysis during the early years of the 20th century,as iccasionally failures,such as that of a cantilever bridge in Quebec in 1907,revealed.But failures were rare in the metal-skeleton office buildings;the simplicity of their design proved highly practical even in the absence of sophisticated analysis techniques. Throughout the first third of the century, ordinary carbon steel, without any special alloy strengthening or hardening, was universally used.The possibilities inherent in metal construction for high-rise building was demonstrated to the world by the Paris Exposition of 1889.for which Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel, a leading French bridge engineer, erected an openwork metal tower 300m (984 ft) high. Not only was theheight-more than double that of the Great Pyramid-remarkable, but the speed of erection and low cost were even more so, a small crewcompleted the work in a few months.The first skyscrapers. Meantime, in the United States another important development was taking place. In 1884-85 Maj. William Le Baron Jenney, a Chicago engineer , had designed the Home Insurance Building, ten stories high, with a metal skeleton. Jenney’s beams were of Bessemer steel, though his columns were cast iron. Cast iron lintels supporting masonry over window openings were, in turn, supported on the cast iron columns. Soild masonry court and party walls provided lateral support against wind loading. Within a decade the same type of construction had been used in more than 30 office buildings in Chicago and New York. Steel played a larger and larger role in these , with riveted connections for beams and columns, sometimes strengthened for wind bracing by overlaying gusset plates at the junction of vertical and horizontal members. Light masonry curtain walls, supported at each floor level, replaced the old heavy masonry curtain walls, supported at each floor level , replaced the old heavy masonry.Though the new construction form was to remain centred almost entirely in America for several decade, its impact on the steel industry was worldwide. By the last years of the 19th century, the basic structural shapes-I beams up to 20 in. ( 0.508m) in depth and Z and T shapes of lesser proportions were readily available, to combine with plates of several widths and thicknesses to make efficient members of any requiredsize and strength. In 1885 the heaviest structural shape produced through hot-rolling weighed less than 100 pounds (45 kilograms) per foot; decade by decade this figure rose until in the 1960s it exceeded 700 pounds (320 kilograms) per foot.Coincident with the introduction of structural steel came the introduction of the Otis electric elevator in 1889. The demonstration of a safe passenger elevator, together with that of a safe and economical steel construction method, sent building heights soaring. In New York the 286-ft (87.2-m) Flatiron Building of 1902 was surpassed in 1904 by the 375-ft (115-m) Times Building ( renamed the Allied Chemical Building) , the 468-ft (143-m) City Investing Company Building in Wall Street, the 612-ft (187-m) Singer Building (1908), the 700-ft (214-m) Metropolitan Tower (1909) and, in 1913, the 780-ft (232-m) Woolworth Building.The rapid increase in height and the height-to-width ratio brought problems. To limit street congestion, building setback design was prescribed. On the technical side, the problem of lateral support was studied. A diagonal bracing system, such as that used in the Eiffel Tower, was not architecturally desirable in offices relying on sunlight for illumination. The answer was found in greater reliance on the bending resistance of certain individual beams and columns strategically designed into the skeletn frame, together with a high degree of rigidity sought at the junction of the beams and columns. With today’s modern interiorlighting systems, however, diagonal bracing against wind loads has returned; one notable example is the John Hancock Center in Chicago, where the external X-braces form a dramatic part of the structure’s façade.World War I brought an interruption to the boom in what had come to be called skyscrapers (the origin of the word is uncertain), but in the 1920s New York saw a resumption of the height race, culminating in the Empire State Building in the 1931. The Empire State’s 102 stories (1,250ft. [381m]) were to keep it established as the hightest building in the world for the next 40 years. Its speed of the erection demonstrated how thoroughly the new construction technique had been mastered. A depot across the bay at Bayonne, N.J., supplied the girders by lighter and truck on a schedule operated with millitary precision; nine derricks powerde by electric hoists lifted the girders to position; an industrial-railway setup moved steel and other material on each floor. Initial connections were made by bolting , closely followed by riveting, followed by masonry and finishing. The entire job was completed in one year and 45 days.The worldwide depression of the 1930s and World War II provided another interruption to steel construction development, but at the same time the introduction of welding to replace riveting provided an important advance.Joining of steel parts by metal are welding had been successfully achieved by the end of the 19th century and was used in emergency ship repairs during World War I, but its application to construction was limited until after World War II. Another advance in the same area had been the introduction of high-strength bolts to replace rivets in field connections.Since the close of World War II, research in Europe, the U.S., and Japan has greatly extended knowledge of the behavior of different types of structural steel under varying stresses, including those exceeding the yield point, making possible more refined and systematic analysis. This in turn has led to the adoption of more liberal design codes in most countries, more imaginative design made possible by so-called plastic design ?The introduction of the computer by short-cutting tedious paperwork, made further advances and savings possible.中文译文高层结构与钢结构作者：Collins Mark近年来,尽管一般的建筑结构设计取得了很大的进步,但是取得显著成绩的还要属超高层建筑结构设计。
钢结构的应用前景外文翻译
外文资料（英文）Steel system because of their own with the light weight, high strength, the construction of such advantages, and the reinforced concrete structure, the more "high, light," the development of three unique advantages. Along with the country's economic construction, the long concrete and masonry structure dominate the market situation is changing. Steel products in the large-span space structure, lightweight steel gantry structure, multi-storey and high-rise residential areas of increasing construction, Application areas are expanding. From the West-East Gas sent, the West-East power transmission and-north water diversion project, the Qinghai-Tibet Railway, the 2008 Olympic venues and facilities, residential steel, development of the western region construction practice, the development of a steel construction industry and the market momentum is emerging in our country.1： the steel market development trend of the past 20 years of reform and opening up and economic development, Steel has to create a system of highly favorable environment for development.（1） from the development of the main steel material foundation : Steel is the development of steel a key factor in development. To meet the needs of the construction market, steel varieties will toward complete standardization of materials direction. Domestic steel for construction steel, in terms of quantity, variety and quality have developed rapidly and hot-rolled H-beam, a color plate, Cold steel production increased significantly, the development of steel to create important conditions. Other steel-Steel, Coated Steel Plate and there has been a marked growth, product quality has been greatly improved. Refractory, weathering steel, hot-rolled thin number of H-beam steel has started a new project in the application, Steel to create the conditions for development.（2） from design, production, construction, professional level look : steel industry after years of development, Steel professional design quality in the practice of continually improving. A number of characteristics with the strength of professional institutes, research and design institutes continuously developed steel design software and new technologies. Currently, many domestic steel design software have been brought forth, they can adapt to light steel structure, the network structure, high-rise steel structures, Thin arched structure design needs. With computer technology in the engineering design of the universal application of steel structure design of the software is getting more sophisticated, To help designers complete structural analysis and design, construction mapping provides a great convenience. Steel manufacturers in the country blossom everywhere, and creating a number of strong leading enterprises. Annual output reaching 10 -- 20 million tons of size alone, more than 10 enterprises that the large domestic steel project mission, They fully equipped with the industry and international enterprises to compete on equal strength. At present, some foreign investment, joint ventures, private sector steel manufacturing enterprises in the fierce market competition winners. From the computer design, mapping, digital control, automated processing and manufacturing industries are in the lead, its products range from the traditional building structures, machinery and equipment, non-standard components, and turnkey facilitiesto the value of housing, Container products, port facilities directly to the end-user products. Steel industrialized mass production, the installation of a new steel structure engineering endless, and energy-efficient, waterproof, insulating, , and other advanced product set and integrated suite of applications, design and construction of integrated production will be raised the level of the construction industry.（3） the steel works from the view of the performance : the world's third 421-meter high Shanghai Jinmao Tower, is a leading international standard. height of 279 meters in Shenzhen SEG buildings, the span of 1,490 meters Runyang Yangtze River Bridge, span of 550 meters of the Lupu Bridge, the 345-meter-high transmission tower across the Yangtze River, and the Capital International Airport, nest national sports center, many of steel construction system of the important projects, Steel Buildings positive marks top heavy and large-span steel structure of space development.（4） from the domestic steel industry view : China has steel in housing construction light on the application of the industry as a revolution. With domestic industry to become China's new economic development and growth, lightweight steel residential housing industry will be the development of the country. And the housing industry is the prerequisite for dealing with the industrialization of matching new technologies, new materials and new systems. As the steel structure system easy to realize industrialization and standardization of production, and to go along with the wall material can be used in energy conservation, environmental protection of new materials. Therefore, the study of steel structures for residential package technology will greatly promote domestic industry's rapid development.（5） from the government sector can guide and support : government departments guidance and support, so that as a green steel products and development workers. Steel with the traditional concrete structure, compared with light weight, high strength, good seismic performance advantages. Suitable for live load accounted for a smaller proportion of the total load of the structure, and is more suitable for large-span space structure, tall structures and is suitable for the construction of the soft ground. Is also in line with environmental protection and conservation, intensive use of resources policy, The overall economic benefits to investors increasingly are recognized objective will be to promote the designers and developers they chose steel.2： the steel market outlook of the development trend of steel, China Steel Development has tremendous market potential and prospects for development.（1） since China began in 1996 steel output of over 100 million tons, ranking first in the world. 1998 commissioning of a series of rolling H-beam steel to create a sound material basis. Steel and other materials industries, the development of the steel industry to provide good quality, complete specifications for the material. According to the market demand, the next batch of 23 will be color plate production line, hot-rolled H-beam will also be an increase in production lines, large cold-formed unit will soon be launched. By that time China will produce more than 100 color plates million tons, Hot H-beam more than 100 million tons of cold and the large and medium-sized rectangular pipe and tube, in addition to the existing H-beamwelding, plate, Sheet steel and other construction, the steel industry can meet development needs. With steel production and quality continues to rise, their prices are gradually declining. Steel has been a corresponding cost of a more substantial reduction. And the steel structure supporting the use of thermal insulation, corrosion-resistant materials, fire resistant paint, various welding material and bolts, connectivity products and the technology of new materials will also continue to enhance innovation.（2） efficient and new welding technology of welding and cutting equipment and welding application development and application of materials, for the development of steel works to create a good technical condition. In ordinary steel, thin light steel structures, steel structures in tall buildings, the door frame of light steel structure, network structure, pressure plate structure, welding and the connecting bolt, steel concrete composite floor. CFST steel reinforced concrete structure and the structure of the design, construction, Statutes regulating acceptance of industry standards and has more than 20 of this issue. The steel structure norms, in order to constantly improve the system of steel lay the necessary technical foundation and basis.（3） At present, the portal frame light steel structure and pressure plate arch shell structure of cost per unit area, Similar single-storey steel and concrete structure approximately the same, or even lower; and light steel structure of the higher levels of commercialization, production and installation rate will reach each class 700 -- 1000 square meters, much faster than the reinforced concrete structure. In recent years, expansion of the market quickly. Tall steel structure of the composite price is higher than the reinforced concrete structure similar 4% -- 5%, but the seismic performance and Construction is fast, especially in high-rise buildings to be used. In November 1997 the Ministry of Construction issued the "China Building Technology Policy", made clear that development of steel construction, construction steel and construction steel construction technology specific requirements, China's long-term practice of "reasonable Steel" policy to "encourage Steel" policy. Steel will promote the popularization and application play a positive role.（4）the steel industry will see a number of characteristics with the strength of the professional design institutes, research institutes, output over 200,000 tons of large-scale steel factories, dozens of first-class technology and advanced equipment to the construction and installation enterprises。
与钢结构有关国外书籍
与钢结构有关国外书籍以下是与钢结构有关的一些国外书籍推荐：1. "Design of Steel Structures" by Edwin H. Gaylord, Jr., Charles N. Gaylord, and James E. Stallmeyer2. "Steel Structures: Design and Behavior" by Charles G. Salmon, John E. Johnson, Faris A. Malhas3. "Steel Design" by William T. Segui4. "Structural Steel Design" by Jack C. McCormac and Stephen F. Csernak5. "Steel Structures: Practical Design Studies" by Hassan Ilyas and Sambit Bhattacharya6. "Design of Welded Structures" by Omer W. Blodgett7. "Steel Structures: Analysis and Design for Vibrations and Earthquakes" by Karuna Moy Ghosh8. "Structural Steel Design to Eurocode 3 and AISC Specifications" by Claudio Bernuzzi and Silvio L. Celaschi9. "Designers' Guide to Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures" by Leroy Gardner and David A. Nethercot10. "Composite Structures of Steel and Concrete" by Roger P. Johnson and John F. McCarthy这些书籍涵盖了不同方面的钢结构设计和分析，从基础概念到高级应用都有涉及。
钢结构检验资料中英文
《low-alloy high-strength structural steel》(GB/T1591-94) 《低合金高强度结构钢》（GB/T1591－94）《Carbon Structural Steel》(GB/T700-1988)《碳素结构钢》（GB/T700－1988）< Carbon Steel Weld Rods>(GB/T5117-1995)《低合金钢焊条》（GB/T5117－1995）<Steel Wire used for Weld>(GB/T14957-1994) 《熔化焊用钢丝Steel Wires for melt weld》（GB/T14957JGJ81-2002《建筑钢结构焊接技术规程》<<Achitecture steel structure welding rule>>《钢结构焊缝外形尺寸》（GB10854－89）<<Steel structure welded seam physical dimension>>( GB10854-89)《钢结构工程施工质量验收规范》（GB50205－2001）<<Steel structure engineering construction quality acceptance rule>> GB50205-2001<< Steel structure high strength bolt connection design, construction and acceptance rule>> (JGJ82-91). <<钢结构高强度螺栓连接的设计.施工及验收规程>>GB8923<<涂装前钢材表面锈蚀等级和除锈等级>>Steel surface rusting grade and de-rusting grade before coating完工面漆：色泽均匀，无流挂、无漆雾、无污染。
钢结构的英文作文
钢结构的英文作文Steel structures are widely used in modern construction due to their strength and durability. They provide a strong framework for buildings, bridges, and other structures, and can withstand harsh weather conditions.The use of steel structures has revolutionized the construction industry, allowing for the creation of taller, more complex buildings. The versatility of steel allows for innovative and creative designs that would not be possible with traditional building materials.One of the key advantages of steel structures is their ability to be prefabricated off-site and then assembled on-site. This can significantly reduce construction time and costs, making steel structures a cost-effective option for many projects.Steel structures are also environmentally friendly, as they are often made from recycled materials and can berecycled at the end of their lifespan. This makes them a sustainable choice for construction projects.In addition to their strength and durability, steel structures also offer flexibility in terms of modifications and expansions. They can easily accommodate changes in design or function, making them a practical choice for buildings that may need to adapt to future needs.Overall, steel structures have become an integral part of modern construction, offering strength, durability, and versatility for a wide range of projects. Their use has transformed the way we build and has opened up new possibilities for architectural design and construction.。
高层建筑与钢结构外文翻译文献
高层建筑与钢结构外文翻译文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)Talling building and Steel constructionAlthough there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general. Spectacular archievements have been made in the design and construction ofultrahigh-rise buildings.The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel fraing.Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes.The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structual systems.Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit.Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions,ceilings.and other architectural details. Inaddition,excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because theirperception of such motion.Structural systems of reinforced concrete,as well as steel,take full advantage of inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore require additional stiffening to limit the sway.In a steel structure,for example,the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building.Curve A in Fig .1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame.Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium.Systems in steel. Tall buildings in steel developed as a result of several types of structural innovations. The innovations have been applied to the construction of both office and apartment buildings.Frame with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior columns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses,a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used. A good example of this system is the First Wisconsin Bank Building(1974) in Milwaukee.Framed tube. The maximum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building, for both strength and stiffness,to resist wind load can be achieved only if all column element can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground. This particular structural system was probably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in Chicago. The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 110-story World Trade Center building in New YorkColumn-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with diagonal members interesting at the centre line of the columns and beams. This simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Centre in Chicago, using as much steel as is normally needed for a traditional 40-story building.Bundled tube. With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency. The 110-story Sears Roebuck Headquarters Building in Chicago has nine tube, bundled at the base of the building in three rows. Some of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of the building, demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural concept. The Sears tower, at a height of 1450 ft(442m), is the world’s tallest building.Stressed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces (wind and earthquake) and the control of drift (lateral building movement ) in high-rise building. The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further. The development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the façade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing an efficient way of resisting lateral loads inhigh-rise buildings, and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor area.Because of the contribution of the stressed-skin façade, the framed members of the tube require less mass, and are thus lighter and less expensive. All the typical columns and spandrel beams are standard rolled shapes,minimizing the use and cost of special built-up members. The depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space, is minimized. The structural system has been used on the 54-story One Mellon Bank Center in Pittburgh.Systems in concrete. While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive chanllenge to structural steel systems for both office and apartment buildings.Framed tube. As discussed above, the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building. In this building ,exterior columns were spaced at 5.5ft (1.68m) centers, and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in .-thick (20-m) flat-plate concrete slabs.Tube in tube. Another system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing thecentral service area. The system (Fig .2), known as the tube-in-tube system , made it possible to design the world’s present tall est (714ft or 218m)lightweight concrete building ( the 52-story One Shell Plaza Building in Houston) for the unit price of a traditional shear wall structure of only 35 stories.Systems combining both concrete and steel have also been developed, an examle of which is the composite system developed by skidmore, Owings &Merril in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing, thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structural steel systems. The 52-story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system.Steel construction refers to a broad range of building construction in which steel plays the leading role. Most steel construction consists of large-scale buildings or engineering works, with the steel generally in the form of beams, girders, bars, plates, and other members shaped through the hot-rolled process. Despite the increased use of other materials, steel construction remained a major outlet for the steel industries of the U.S, U.K, U.S.S.R, Japan, West German, France, and other steel producers in the 1970s.Early history. The history of steel construction begins paradoxically several decades before the introduction of the Bessemer and the Siemens-Martin (openj-hearth) processes made it possible to produce steel in quantities sufficient for structure use. Many of problems of steel construction were studied earlier in connection with iron construction, which began with the Coalbrookdale Bridge, built in cast iron over the Severn River in England in 1777. This and subsequent iron bridge work, in addition to the construction of steam boilers and iron ship hulls , spurred the development of techniques for fabricating, designing, and jioning. The advantages of iron over masonry lay in the much smaller amounts of material required. The truss form, based on the resistance of the triangle to deformation, long used in timber, was translated effectively into iron, with cast iron being used for compression members-i.e, those bearing the weight of direct loading-and wrought iron being used for tension members-i.e, those bearing the pull of suspended loading.The technique for passing iron, heated to the plastic state, between rolls to form flat and rounded bars, was developed as early as 1800;by 1819 angle irons were rolled; and in 1849 the first I beams, 17.7 feet (5.4m) long , were fabricated as roof girders for a Paris railroad station.Two years later Joseph Paxton of England built the Crystal Palace for the London Exposition of 1851. He is said to have conceived the idea of cage construction-using relatively slender iron beams as a skeleton for the glass walls of a large, open structure. Resistance to wind forces in the Crystal palace was provided by diagonal iron rods. Two feature are particularly important in the history of metal construction; first, the use of latticed girder, which are small trusses, a form first developed in timber bridges and other structures and translated into metal by Paxton ; and second, the joining of wrought-iron tension members and cast-iron compression members by means of rivets inserted while hot.In 1853 the first metal floor beams were rolled for the Cooper Union Building in New York. In the light of the principal market demand for iron beams at the time, it is not surprising that the Cooper Union beams closely resembled railroad rails.The development of the Bessemer and Siemens-Martin processes in the 1850s and 1860s suddenly open the way to the use of steel for structural purpose. Stronger than iron in both tension and compression ,the newly available metal was seized on by imaginative engineers, notably by those involved in building the great number of heavy railroad bridges then in demand in Britain, Europe, and the U.S.A notable example was the Eads Bridge, also known as the St. Louis Bridge, in St. Louis (1867-1874), in which tubular steel ribs were used to form arches with a span of more than 500ft (152.5m). In Britain, the Firth of Forth cantilever bridge (1883-90) employed tubular struts, some 12 ft (3.66m) in diameter and 350 ft (107m) long. Such bridges and other structures were important in leading to the development and enforcement of standards and codification of permissible design stresses. The lack of adequate theoretical knowledge, and even of an adequate basis for theoretical studies, limited the value of stress analysis during the early years of the 20th century,as iccasionally failures,such as that of a cantilever bridge in Quebec in 1907,revealed.But failures were rare in the metal-skeleton office buildings;the simplicity of their design proved highly practical even in the absence of sophisticated analysis techniques. Throughout the first third of the century, ordinary carbon steel, without any special alloy strengthening or hardening, was universally used.The possibilities inherent in metal construction for high-rise building was demonstrated to the world by the Paris Exposition of 1889.for which Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel, a leading Frenchbridge engineer, erected an openwork metal tower 300m (984 ft) high. Not only was theheight-more than double that of the Great Pyramid-remarkable, but the speed of erection and low cost were even more so, a small crew completed the work in a few months.The first skyscrapers. Meantime, in the United States another important development was taking place. In 1884-85 Maj. William Le Baron Jenney, a Chicago engineer , had designed the Home Insurance Building, ten stories high, with a metal skeleton. Jenney’s beams were of Bessemer steel, though his columns were cast iron. Cast iron lintels supporting masonry over window openings were, in turn, supported on the cast iron columns. Soild masonry court and party walls provided lateral support against wind loading. Within a decade the same type of construction had been used in more than 30 office buildings in Chicago and New York. Steel played a larger and larger role in these , with riveted connections for beams and columns, sometimes strengthened for wind bracing by overlaying gusset plates at the junction of vertical and horizontal members. Light masonry curtain walls, supported at each floor level, replaced the old heavy masonry curtain walls, supported at each floor level , replaced the old heavy masonry.Though the new construction form was to remain centred almost entirely in America for several decade, its impact on the steel industry was worldwide. By the last years of the 19th century, the basic structural shapes-I beams up to 20 in. ( 0.508m) in depth and Z and T shapes of lesser proportions were readily available, to combine with plates of several widths and thicknesses to make efficient members of any required size and strength. In 1885 the heaviest structural shape produced through hot-rolling weighed less than 100 pounds (45 kilograms) per foot; decade by decade this figure rose until in the 1960s it exceeded 700 pounds (320 kilograms) per foot.Coincident with the introduction of structural steel came the introduction of the Otis electric elevator in 1889. The demonstration of a safe passenger elevator, together with that of a safe and economical steel construction method, sent building heights soaring. In New York the 286-ft (87.2-m) Flatiron Building of 1902 was surpassed in 1904 by the 375-ft (115-m) Times Building ( renamed the Allied Chemical Building) , the 468-ft (143-m) City Investing Company Building in Wall Street, the 612-ft (187-m) Singer Building (1908), the 700-ft (214-m) Metropolitan Tower (1909) and, in 1913, the 780-ft (232-m) Woolworth Building.The rapid increase in height and the height-to-width ratio brought problems. To limit street congestion, building setback design was prescribed. On the technical side, the problem of lateralsupport was studied. A diagonal bracing system, such as that used in the Eiffel Tower, was not architecturally desirable in offices relying on sunlight for illumination. The answer was found in greater reliance on the bending resistance of certain individual beams and columns strategically designed into the skeletn frame, together with a high degree of rigidity sought at the junction of the beams and columns. With today’s modern interior lighting systems, however, diagonal bracing against wind loads has returned; one notable example is the John Hancock Center in Chicago, where the external X-braces form a dramatic part of the structure’s façade.World War I brought an interruption to the boom in what had come to be called skyscrapers (the origin of the word is uncertain), but in the 1920s New York saw a resumption of the height race, culminating in the Emp ire State Building in the 1931. The Empire State’s 102 stories(1,250ft. [381m]) were to keep it established as the hightest building in the world for the next 40 years. Its speed of the erection demonstrated how thoroughly the new construction technique had been mastered. A depot across the bay at Bayonne, N.J., supplied the girders by lighter and truck on a schedule operated with millitary precision; nine derricks powerde by electric hoists lifted the girders to position; an industrial-railway setup moved steel and other material on each floor. Initial connections were made by bolting , closely followed by riveting, followed by masonry and finishing. The entire job was completed in one year and 45 days.The worldwide depression of the 1930s and World War II provided another interruption to steel construction development, but at the same time the introduction of welding to replace riveting provided an important advance.Joining of steel parts by metal are welding had been successfully achieved by the end of the 19th century and was used in emergency ship repairs during World War I, but its application to construction was limited until after World War II. Another advance in the same area had been the introduction of high-strength bolts to replace rivets in field connections.Since the close of World War II, research in Europe, the U.S., and Japan has greatly extended knowledge of the behavior of different types of structural steel under varying stresses, including those exceeding the yield point, making possible more refined and systematic analysis. This in turn has led to the adoption of more liberal design codes in most countries, more imaginative design made possible by so-called plastic design ?The introduction of the computer by short-cutting tedious paperwork, made further advances and savings possible.高层结构与钢结构近年来，尽管一般的建筑结构设计取得了很大的进步，但是取得显著成绩的还要属超高层建筑结构设计。
结构稳定论文之钢结构设计(英文版)
Graduate Course Work Steel Structure Stability DesignAbstractSteel structure has advantages of light weight, high strength and high degree of industryali zation, which has been widely used in the construction engineering. We often hear this the accident case caused by its instability and failure of structure of casualties and property losses, and the cause of the failure is usually caused by structure design flaws. This paper says the experiences in the design of stability of steel structure through the summary of the stability of steel structure design of the concept, principle, analysis method and combination with engineering practice.Key words:steel structure; stability design; detail structureSteel Structure Stability DesignStructurally stable systems were introduced by Aleksandr Andronov and Lev Pontryagin in 1937 under the name "systèmes grossières", or rough systems. They announced a characterization of rough systems in the plane, the Andronov–Pontryagin criterion. In this case, structurally stable systems are typical, they form an open dense set in the space of all systems endowed with appropriate topology. In higher dimensions, this is no longer true, indicating that typical dynamics can be very complex (cf strange attractor). An important class of structurally stable systems in arbitrary dimensions is given by Anosov diffeomorphisms and flows.In mathematics, structural stability is a fundamental property of a dynamical system which means that the qualitative behavior of the trajectories is unaffected by C1-small perturbations. Examples of such qualitative properties are numbers of fixed points and periodic orbits (but not their periods). Unlike Lyapunov stability, which considers perturbations of initial conditions for a fixed system, structural stability deals with perturbations of the system itself. Variants of this notion apply to systems of ordinary differential equations, vector fields on smooth manifolds and flows generated by them, and diffeomorphisms.The stability is one of the content which needs to be addressed in the design of steel structure engineering. Three are more engineering accident case due to the steel structure instability in the real life. For example,the stadium, in the city of Hartford 92 m by 110 m to the plane of space truss structure, suddenly fell on the ground in 1978. The reason is the compressive bar buckling instability;13.2 m by 18.0 m steel truss, in 1988,lack of stability of the web member collapsed in construction process in China;On January 3, 2010 in the afternoon, 38 m steel structure bridge in Kunming New across suddenly collapsed, killing seven people, 8 people seriously injured, 26 people slightly injured.The reason is that the bridge steel structure supporting system is out of stability, suddenly a bridge collapsing down to 8 m tall. We can see from the above case, the usual cause of instability and failure of steel structure is the unreasonable structural design, structural design defects.To fundamentally prevent such accidents, stability of steel structure design is the key.Structural stability of the system provides a justification for applying the qualitative theory of dynamical systems to analysis of concrete physical systems. The idea of such qualitative analysisgoes back to the work of Henri Poincaré on the three-body problem in celestial mechanics. Around the same time, Aleksandr Lyapunov rigorously investigated stability of small perturbations of an individual system. In practice, the evolution law of the system (i.e. the differential equations) is never known exactly, due to the presence of various small interactions. It is, therefore, crucial to know that basic features of the dynamics are the same for any small perturbation of the "model" system, whose evolution is governed by a certain known physical law. Qualitative analysis was further developed by George Birkhoff in the 1920s, but was first formalized with introduction of the concept of rough system by Andronov and Pontryagin in 1937. This was immediately applied to analysis of physical systems with oscillations by Andronov, Witt, and Khaikin. The term "structural stability" is due to Solomon Lefschetz, who oversaw translation of their monograph into English. Ideas of structural stability were taken up by Stephen Smale and his school in the 1960s in the context of hyperbolic dynamics. Earlier, Marston Morse and Hassler Whitney initiated and René Thom developed a parallel theory of stability for differentiable maps, which forms a key part of singularity theory. Thom envisaged applications of this theory to biological systems. Both Smale and Thom worked in direct contact with Maurício Peixoto, who developed Peixoto's theorem in the late 1950's.When Smale started to develop the theory of hyperbolic dynamical systems, he hoped that structurally stable systems would be "typical". This would have been consistent with the situation in low dimensions: dimension two for flows and dimension one for diffeomorphisms. However, he soon found examples of vector fields on higher-dimensional manifolds that cannot be made structurally stable by an arbitrarily small perturbation (such examples have been later constructed on manifolds of dimension three). This means that in higher dimensions, structurally stable systems are not dense. In addition, a structurally stable system may have transversal homoclinic trajectories of hyperbolic saddle closed orbits and infinitely many periodic orbits, even though the phase space is compact. The closest higher-dimensional analogue of structurally stable systems considered by Andronov and Pontryagin is given by the Morse–Smale systems.Structure theory of stability study was conducted on the mathematical model of the ideal, and the actual structure is not as ideal as mathematical model, in fact ,we need to consider the influence of various factors. For example ,for the compressive rods, load could not have absolute alignment section center; There will always be some initial bending bar itself, the so-called"geometric defects"; Material itself inevitably has some kind of "defect", such as the discreteness of yield stress and bar manufacturing methods caused by the residual stress, etc. So, in addition to the modulus of elasticity and geometry size of bar, all the above-mentioned factors affecting the bearing capacity of the push rod in different degrees, in the structure design of this influence often should be considered. Usually will be based on the ideal mathematical model to study the stability of the theory is called buckling theory, based on the actual bar study consider the various factors related to the stability of the stability of the ultimate bearing capacity theory called the theory ofcrushing.Practical bar, component or structure damage occurred during use or as the loading test of the buckling load is called crushing load and ultimate bearing capacity. For simplicity, commonly used buckling load. About geometric defects, according to a large number of experimental results, it is generally believed to assume a meniscus curve and its vector degrees for the rod length of 1/1000. About tissue defects, in the national standard formula is not the same, allow the buckling stress curve given by the very different also, some problems remain to be further research.1.Steel structure stability design concept1.1.The difference between intensity and stabilityThe intensity refers to that the structure or a single component maximum stress (or internal force)caused by load in stable equilibrium state is more than the ultimate strength of building materials, so it is a question of the stress. The ultimate strength value is different according to the characteristics of the material varies. for steel ,it is the yield point. The research of stability is mainly is to find the external load and structure unstable equilibrium between internal resistance. That is to say, deformation began to rapid growth and we should try to avoid the structure entering the state, so it is a question of deformation. For example, for an axial compression columns, in the condition column instability, the lateral deflection of the column add a lot of additional bending moment, thus the fracture load of pillars can be far less than its axial compression strength. At this point, the instability is the main reason of the pillar fracture .1.2.The classification of the steel structure instability1)The stability problem with the equilibrium bifurcation(Branch point instability).2)The axial compression buckling of the perfect straight rod and tablet compression bucklingall belong to this category.3)The stability of the equilibrium bifurcation problem(Extreme value point instability).4)The ability of the loss of stability of eccentric compression member made of constructionsteel in plastic development to a certain degree , fall into this category.5)Jumping instability6)Jumping instability is a kind of different from the above two types of stability problem. Itis a jump to another stable equilibrium state after loss of stability balance.2.The principle of steel structure stability design2.1.For the steel structure arrangement, the whole system and the stability of the part requirements must be considered ,and most of the current steel structure is designed according to plane system, such as truss and frame. The overall layout of structure can guarantee that the flat structure does not appear out-of-plane instability,such as increasing the necessary supporting artifacts, etc. A planar structures of plane stability calculation is consistent with the structure arrangement.2.2.Structure calculation diagram should be consistent with a diagram of a practical calculation method is based on. When designing a single layer or multilayer frame structure, we usually do not make analysis of the framework stability but the frame column stability calculation. When we use this method to calculate the column frame column stability , the length factor should be concluded through the framework of the overall stability analysis which results in the equivalent between frame column stability calculation and stability calculation. For a single layer or multilayer framework, the column length coefficient of computation presented by Specification for design of steel structures (GB50017-2003) base on five basic assumptions. Including:all the pillars in the framework is the loss of stability at the same time, that is ,the critical load of the column reach at the same time. According to this assumes, each column stability parameters of the frame and bar stability calculation method, is based on some simplified assumptions or typical.Designers need to make sure that the design of structure must be in accordance with these assumptions.2.3.The detail structure design of steel structure and the stable calculation of component should be consistent. The guarantee that the steel structure detail structure design and component conforms to the stability of the calculation is a problem that needs high attention in the design of steel structure.Bending moment tonon-transmission bending moment node connection should be assigned to their enough rigidity and the flexibility.Truss node should minimize the rods' bias.But, when it comes to stability, a structure often have different in strength or special consideration. But requirement above in solving the beam overall stability is not enough.Bearing need to stop beam around the longitudinal axis to reverse,meanwhile allowing the beam in the in-plane rotation and free warp beam end section to conform to the stability analysis of boundary conditions. 3.The analysis method of the steel structure stabilitySteel structure stability analysis is directed at the outer loads under conditions of the deformation of structure.The deformation should be relative to unstability deformation of the structure or buckling. Deformation between load and structure is nonlinear relationship , which belongs to nonlinear geometric stability calculation and uses a second order analysis method. Stability calculated, both buckling load and ultimate load, can be regarded as the calculation of the stability bearing capacity of the structure or component.In the elastic stability theory, the calculation method of critical force can be mainly divided into two kinds of static method and energy method.3.1.Static methodStatic method, both buckling load and ultimate load, can be regarded as the calculation of the stability bearing capacity of the structure or component. Follow the basic assumptions in establishing balance differential equation:1)Components such as cross section is a straight rod.2)Pressure function is always along the original axis component3)Material is in accordance with hooke's law, namely the linear relationship between thestress and strain.4)Component accords with flat section assumption, namely the component deformation infront of the flat cross-section is still flat section after deformation.5)Component of the bending deformation is small ant the curvature can be approximatelyrepresented by the second derivative of the deflection function.Based on the above assumptions, we can balance differential equation,substitude into the corresponding boundary conditions and solve both ends hinged the critical load of axial compression component .3.2.Energy methodEnergy method is an approximate method for solving stability bearing capacity, through the principle of conservation of energy and potential energy in principle to solve the critical load values.1)The principle of conservation of energy to solve the critical loadWhen conservative system is in equilibrium state, the strain energy storaged in the structure is equal to the work that the external force do, namely, the principle of conservation of energy. As the critical state of energy relations:ΔU =ΔWΔU—The increment of strain energyΔW—The increment of work forceBalance differential equation can be established by the principle of conservation of energy.2)The principle of potential energy in value to solve the critical load valueThe principle of potential energy in value refers to: For the structure by external force, when there are small displacement but the total potential energy remains unchanged,that is, the total potential energy with in value, the structure is in a state of balance. The expression is:dΠ=dU-dW =0dU—The change of the structure strain energy caused by virtual displacement , it is always positive;dW—The work the external force do on the virtual displacement;3.3.Power dynamics methodMany parts of the qualitative theory of differential equations and dynamical systems deal with asymptotic properties of solutions and the trajectories—what happens with the system after a long period of time. The simplest kind of behavior is exhibited by equilibrium points, or fixed points, and by periodic orbits. If a particular orbit is well understood, it is natural to ask next whether asmall change in the initial condition will lead to similar behavior. Stability theory addresses the following questions: will a nearby orbit indefinitely stay close to a given orbit? will it converge to the given orbit (this is a stronger property)? In the former case, the orbit is called stable and in the latter case, asymptotically stable, or attracting. Stability means that the trajectories do not change too much under small perturbations. The opposite situation, where a nearby orbit is getting repelled from the given orbit, is also of interest. In general, perturbing the initial state in some directions results in the trajectory asymptotically approaching the given one and in other directions to the trajectory getting away from it. There may also be directions for which the behavior of the perturbed orbit is more complicated (neither converging nor escaping completely), and then stability theory does not give sufficient information about the dynamics.One of the key ideas in stability theory is that the qualitative behavior of an orbit under perturbations can be analyzed using the linearization of the system near the orbit. In particular, at each equilibrium of a smooth dynamical system with an n-dimensional phase space, there is a certain n×n matrix A whose eigenvalues characterize the behavior of the nearby points (Hartman-Grobman theorem). More precisely, if all eigenvalues are negative real numbers or complex numbers with negative real parts then the point is a stable attracting fixed point, and the nearby points converge to it at an exponential rate, cf Lyapunov stability and exponential stability. If none of the eigenvalues is purely imaginary (or zero) then the attracting and repelling directions are related to the eigenspaces of the matrix A with eigenvalues whose real part is negative and, respectively, positive. Analogous statements are known for perturbations of more complicated orbits.For the structure system in balance,if making it vibrate by applying small interference vibration,the structure of the deformation and vibration acceleration is relation to the structure load. When the load is less than the limit load of a stable value, the acceleration and deformation is in the opposite direction, so the interference is removed, the sports tend to be static and the structure of the equilibrium state is stable; When the load is greater than the ultimate load of stability, the acceleration and deformation is in the same direction, even to remove interference, movement are still divergent, therefore the structure of the equilibrium state is unstable. The critical state load is the buckling load of the structure,which can be made of the conditions that the structure vibrationfrequency is zero solution.At present, a lot of steel structure design with the aid of computer software for structural steel structure stress calculation, structure and component within the plane of strength and the overall stability calculation program automatically, can be counted on the structure and component of the out-of-plane strength and stability calculation, designers need to do another analysis, calculation and design. At this time the entire structure can be in the form of elevation is decomposed into a number of different layout structure, under different levels of load, the structure strength and stability calculation.local stability after buckling strength of the beam, it can be set up to the beam transverse or longitudinal stiffener, in order to solve the problem, the local stability of the beam stiffening rib according to Specification for Design of Steel Structures (GB50017-2003) ; Finite element analysis for a web after buckling strength calculation according to specification for design of steel structures (GB50017-2003) 4, 4 provisions. Axial compression member and a local bending component has two ways: one is the control board free overhanging flange width and thickness ratio of; The second is to control web computing the ratio of the height and thickness. For circular tube section compression member, should control the ratio of outer diameter and wall thickness and stiffener according to specification for design of steel structures (GB50017-2003), 5 4 rule.4.ConclusionSteel structure has advantages of light weight, high strength and high degree of industrialization and has been widely used in the construction engineering.I believe that through to strengthen the overall stability and local stability of the structure and the design of out-of-plane stability, we could overcome structure design flaws and its application field will be more and more widely.referencesGB50017-2003,Design Code for Steel Structures[S]Chen Shaofan, Steel structure design principle [M]. Beijing: China building industry press, 2004 Kalman R.E. & Bertram J.F: Control System Analysis and Design via the Second Method of Lyapunov, J. Basic Engrg vol.88 1960 pp.371; 394LaSalle J.P. & Lefschetz S: Stability by Lyapunov's Second Method with Applications, New York 1961 (Academic)Smith M.J. and Wisten M.B., A continuous day-to-day traffic assignment model and the existence of a continuous dynamic user equilibrium , Annals of Operations Research, V olume 60, 1995 Arnold, V. I. (1988). Geometric methods in the theory of differential equations. Grundlehren der Mathematischen Wissenschaften, 250. Springer-Verlag, New York. ISBN 0-387-96649-8 Structural stability at Scholarpedia, curated by Charles Pugh and Maurício Matos Peixoto.9。
《钢结构(中英文)》2020年总目次
‘钢结构(中英文)“2020年总目次Total Contents of Steel Construction(Chinese&English)in2020题㊀目Title 作㊀者Author期-页No.-Page题㊀目Title作㊀者Author期-页No.-Page综述ReviewResearch Progress on Cold-Formed Steel Structural Framing㊀Xuhong Zhou1-1冷弯型钢结构研究进展周绪红Application of Steel-Concrete Composite Structure in Ocean Engineering Jianguo Nie1-20钢-混凝土组合结构在海洋工程中的应用研究㊀聂建国Historical and Technological Developments of Steel Bridgesin Japan A Review Yozo Fujino,et al1-34日本钢桥的历史和技术发展综述藤野陽三,等Review of the Promotion and Application of Steel Structuresin Construction Yinquan Yu,et al1-59钢结构建筑的推广与应用综述郁银泉,等开合屋盖结构与技术标准的新进展范㊀重,等2-29 New Progress in Retractable Roof Structures and Technical Standards Zhong Fan,et alSteel Modular Construction and Its Applicability to the Building Industry in China㊀Tharaka Gunawardena,et al2-66钢结构模块化施工及其在中国建筑业中的应用㊀Tharaka Gunawardena,et al高强钢材钢结构抗震研究进展综述尹㊀飞,等3-1 Overview of Research Progress for Seismic Behavior of HighStrength Steel Structures Fei Yin,et al双钢板混凝土组合结构抗冲击性能的研究进展㊀赵唯以,等 3-26Research Advances of Impact Resistance of Steel Concrete Composite Structures Weiyi Zhao,et al输电塔风致响应数值模拟研究进展吕洪坤,等4-1 Progress in Numerical Simulation Study of Wind Induced Response of Transmission Towers Hongkun Lyu,et al高强结构钢连接研究进展李国强6-1 Progress of Research on High-Strength Structural Steel Connections Guoqiang LiRecent Development and Engineering Practice of Spatial Structures in China Suduo Xue7-1中国空间结构的近期发展与工程实践薛素铎Seismic Isolation and Vibration Reduction System of Large-Span Spatial Structures A Review㊀Qinghua Han,et al7-17大跨空间结构隔震减振体系研究综述韩庆华,等科研Research Experimental Investigation on Damage Identification of Cable-Stayed Arch-Truss Structures Using Modal Parameters㊀Bin Zeng,et al1-70张弦拱桁架结构基于模态参数的损伤识别试验㊀曾㊀滨,等Model Test Research on Seismic Performance of the Long-Span Steel Structure C1of Beijing Daxing International Airport Terminal Ailin Zhang,et al2-1北京大兴国际机场航站楼大跨度钢结构C1区抗震性能模型试验研究张爱林,等直接分析法在连续倒塌中的应用丁智霞,等2-13 The Application of Direct Analysis Method in Progressive Collapse Zhixia Ding,et al轴心受压杆件的弯扭屈曲王立军3-37 Torsion and Flexure Buckling of Centrally Loaded Members㊀Lijun Wang钢吊车梁稳定设计的合理方法童根树3-59 Rational Design of Crane Runway Girders Genshu TongT形钢管混凝土截面在双向弯矩和轴力联合作用下的相互作用曲线童根树,等4-11 Interaction Curves for Concrete-Filled T-Shaped Multi-Celled Steel Tube Sections Under Combined Biaxial Bending and Axial Force Genshu Tong,et al波纹腹板组合梁抗火性能参数分析周焕廷,等4-19 Parametric Analysis for Fire Resistance of Composite Steel-Concrete Beams with Corrugated Webs Accounting㊀Huanting Zhou,et al阿基米德铺砌柱面互承构型的可行性判定㊀陆飞云,等4-28 Feasibility Determination of Reciprocal Configurations on Cylindrical Surface from Archimedean Pavings㊀Feiyun Lu,et al冷弯薄壁G形截面柱轴压承载力研究向㊀弋,等5-1 Axial Load Capacity of Cold-Formed Steel G-Section Columns Yi Xiang,et al直立锁边金属屋面系统风吸破坏机理研究㊀张士翔,等5-10 Investigation on Failure Mechanism of the Standing Seam Metal Roof System Shixiang Zhang,et al钢-混凝土组合扁梁受弯性能理论分析与试验㊀龚㊀超,等6-41ⅠTheoretical Analysis and Experimental Study on Bending Behavior of Steel-Concrete Composite Flat 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You,et al杭州奥体中心综合训练馆钢结构施工关键技术㊀何㊀伟,等10-15Key Technology of Steel Structure Construction of Comprehensive Training Hall of Hangzhou Olympic Sports Center㊀Wei He,et al大跨度马鞍形单层正交索网结构定长索施工设计与安装技术张晋勋,等10-22 Construction Design and Installation Technology of Fixed Length Cable for Large Span Saddle Shaped Single Layer Orthogonal Cable Net Structure Jinxun Zhang,et al钢结构热点探析Hot Spot Analysis of Steel Structures雨篷被雪压塌,你知道积雪漂移吗?侯㊀杰,等4-50泉州酒店坍塌的可能原因是什么?潘继文,等5-50翼缘和腹板宽厚比等级不一致,如何考虑截面塑性发展系数?邹安宇,等6-65单边连接单角钢的两个折减系数要同时考虑吗?㊀邹安宇7-62拉条怎样才能同时约束檩条上㊁下翼缘?邹安宇8-57多跑楼梯,荷载要乘以放大系数?邹安宇,等9-52顶层局部框架要算刚度比吗?邹安宇10-51何时计算双向地震作用?邹安宇12-58新闻㊃亮点㊃人物News㊃Highlights㊃Personages让大地不惧震动|我国著名结构工程专家:周绪红院士㊀杨颖芳6-67Make the Earth Not Fear Vibrations|Chinaᶄs Famous Structural Engineering Expert:Academician Xuhong Zhou㊀Yingfang YangⅢ。
钢结构抗震中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文:Application of ACM Brace Retrofitting Countermeasure to Steel Structure AbstractAn advanced seismic retrofitting work for steel building structure with a doubtful seismic performance using ACM (Advanced Composite Material) bracing method, which consists of CFRP (Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic) rod and steel sleeve, was proposed in this paper. In order to save a lot of residents’ lives against a large-damaged earthquake, the retrofitting work using ACM bracing method to steel story building structure built by an old earthquake resistant design code was conducted. ACM bracing method was more economically and quickly applied to steel two-story building structures in comparison with the steel K -shaped bracing method used as before. This kind of retrofitting countermeasure will lead to an extreme decrease in earthquake damages for the existing old steel building structures built by some old earthquake resistant design codes.1. IntroductionIt is well known in Japan that a lot of reinforced concrete story buildings built by some old earthquake resistant design codes before 1981 were destroyed in the 1995 Hyogoken NanbuEarthquake. Therefore, Japanese Government has adopted several significant politics concerning this issue since 1995 in order to reduce a lot of earthquake damages for RC and steel story building structures (referred to as S building) built before 1981 as quickly as possible. As some seismic retrofitting policies adopted by Japanese Government had been not carried out smoothly, Japanese Government has been demanding a numerical target to quickly improve a seismic retrofitting ratio for all buildings by many local self-governments in Japan. This numerical target of seismic retrofitting ratio including RC and S buildings as well as wooden houses is 90% until 2017.In general, a seismic retrofitting work for RC and S building structure using a typical steel brace requires not only a large amount of cost but also the residents' removal or temporary evacuation. It is more desirable and convenient for a lot of RC and S building owners that the seismic retrofitting work is conducted as quickly and economically as possible. It is therefore very important for structural engineer to propose a new retrofitting technique instead of X and K shape steel braces. At the present time, a seismic resistant performance of RC or S building structure is judged from a seismic index of structure, Is, evaluated by some criteria established by the Japan building disaster prevention association (Housing Bureau in the Ministry of Land, Transport and Tourism in Japan 2001; Japanese Structural Engineer Association 2006). The number of steel brace required for the seismic retrofitting work of RC and S building structures can be decided to satisfy a given seismic judgment index value, Iso.The author has already proposed a seismic retrofitting countermeasure for RC building structure using an advanced composite material (referred to as ACM) bracing method (Takatani 2008 and Takatani 2011), which consists of a carbon fiber reinforced plastic (referred to as CFRP) material, steel sleeves and anchors, in order to save a lot of residents’ lives against a large-damaged earthquake. It is well known that CFRP material has several advantages of strong and light-weight feature, good durability, and wide applicability in comparison with the steel material. In this paper, ACM bracing method is applied for the seismic retrofitting work of S two-story building structure instead of steel bracing method.2.Seismic Retrofitting Work using ACM BracingHeretofore, the steel bracing method has been used for the seismic retrofitting work of RC and S building structures in Japan. The steel brace as shown in Figure 1 (a) is used on the outside of RC building, and is usually done in the inside of structure. While, Figure 1(b) shows ACM brace installed on the outside of structure. It is more desirable and very important for a lot of RC building structure owners that an earthquake resistant reinforcement work for RC building structure can be conducted as quickly and economically as possible ,and also can be done without residents’ removal or temporary evacuation. The seismic retrofitting work conducted on the outside of RC building structure shown in Figure 1 may be more convenient for both the residents in RC buildings and their owners. It is, therefore, very important for structural engineer to propose a new seismic retrofitting technique instead of the steel brace technique under conditions with low cost and short construction period.(a)Steel brace (b) ACM braceFigure 1. Sketch for seismic retrofitting works using steel brace and ACM brace ACM bracing method was proposed in order to aim at both low cost and short construction period in comparison with the steel bracing method. ACM bracing method consists of CFRP rod and CFRP sheet, steel sleeve, and steel anchor. Figure 2 shows ACM brace rod including CFRP rod and steel sleeve for ACM bracing method. The length 600mm of steel sleeve was decided from CFRP rod pull-out experiments from steel circular cylinder sleeve, and also can bear about 500 kN pull-out force. While, CFRP rods with various diameters are shown in Figure 3, and the material properties for CFRP rod is indicated in Table 1. The diameter of CFRP rod used for ACM bracing method is 10mm, and its tensile strength is 169.5 kN. Accordingly, three CFRP rods with 10mm diameter can bear about 500kN pull-out force. An advanced Epoxy resin developed by Konishi Co. Ltd. was employed for bonding between CFRP rods and steel cylinder sleeve (Horii 2007).Figure 4 indicates steel anchors embedded in RC column, and the anchor diameter and length were decided from pull-out experiment under 500 kN shear force. Figure 5 shows steel cylinder sleeve and nuts for the ACM bracing, whose pull-out bearing capacity is about 500 kN Hisabe (2007). Also, the CFRP rod of the ACM bracing is shown in Figure 6, and the length of the CFRP rod is 500m required for ACM bracing method applied to RC 3 -story building structure. Figure 7 indicates a CFRP sheet used to make a reinforcement of RC column against tensile force due to earthquake motions.Figure 2. ACM brace using CFRP rodFigure 3. CFRP rod (Intended Type, Mitsubishi Plastics Co. Ltd.)Figure 4. Anchors for ACM brace Figure 5. Steel sleeves for ACM braceFigure 6.CFRP rod (VΦ10mm,5@100m) Figure 7. CFRP sheet for ACM brace RC column surface around an anchor was pasted and covered with four CFRP sheet layers with different directions taking into consideration a tensile force direction.Figure 8. Elevation view of RC building with the ACM braceFigure 8 illustrates two typical elevations for the seismic retrofitting work using ACM bracing method. As the anchor embedment point in Plan A shown in Figure 8 (a) is located at the intersection area of RC column and beam where many reinforcing steel bars in RC column and beam gather around, it may be not so easy for a boring workman to make an anchor hole for ACM bracing method without cutting the reinforcing steel bars in this intersection area. Therefore, PlanB shown in Figure 8 (b) was proposed instead of Plan A, and the anchor embedment point avoidsthe intersection area of RC column and beam. In addition, it is found that the static deformation ofRC building structure in Plan B is smaller than that in Plan A through the structural analyses for both Plan A and B. This is because that the rigid part around the intersection area of RC column and beam is usually assumed on the structural analysis. Conforming to custom on structural analysis, this rigid part around the intersection area is defined by the width of RC column or beam (Aoyama 1988).Figure 9 indicates RC 3-story structure retrofitted by ACM braces (Takatani 2008 and Takatani 2011). After the installation of ACM brace, the steel anchor and sleeve were treated witha tarnish preventive. After this work, the steel cover was fixed on RC column surface as shown in Figure 9. After covering work of ACM brace, the final painting work was conducted and the covering box was made waterproof.Figure 9. Completion of ACM braces3.Application of ACM Brace to Steel StructureThe seismic retrofitting work using ACM bracing method was conducted for S two-story structure shown in Figure 5. Figure 5 shows the floor plan and the elevation view of this S structure. The number of ACM brace is decided by the seismic index of structure, Is, evaluated by some criteria established by the Japan building disaster prevention association in 2001 (Housing Bureau in the Ministry of Land, Transport and Tourism in Japan 2001). The seismic index of structure, Is, must satisfy a given seismic judgment index value, Iso, of the seismic index of structure. In this case, the seismic judgment index value, Iso, is 0.7.Figure 10. Floor plan and elevation viewTable 2 shows the seismic index of structure, Is, of the S building structure. It can be seen from Table 2 that the seismic index value of structure, Is, of the first floor in X direction is less than the seismic judgment index value, Iso =0.7, and the seismic index values of structure, Is, in Y directionare more than Iso =0.7. According to the seismic index values of structure, Is es are located on the east side and the west one of this S structure.Next, the construction process of this ACM bracing method is described. Figure 11 shows steel anchor fixed on steel column, and the anchor size was decided from pull-out experiment under 500kN shear force. Figure 12 indicates steel cylinder sleeves for ACM brace, whose pull-out bearing capacity is about 500kN and length is 600mm.Figure 11. Anchors for ACM braceFigure 12. Steel sleeves for ACM braceFigure 12 shows a bracket fixed on steel column, and the steel column before ACM brace installation work is indicated in Figure 14. Figure 15 illustrates polishing work on the surface of steel column by a grinder before welding work of bracket. The welding work of bracket by a welder is shown in Figure 16. Figure 17 and 18 show a bracket fixed on steel column by the welding work. Figure 19 indicates steel anchor fixed on a bracket by the welding work.Figure 13. Steel bracket for ACM braceFigure 15. Polishing work on steel column before welding work of steel bracketFigure 16. Welding work of steel bracket and a welder Figure 17. Completion of welding work of steel bracketFigure 18. Bracket after welding work Figure 19. Steel anchor after welding workFigure 20. CFRP rod cutting work Figure 21. Steel sleeve with three CFRP rodsFigure 22. Steel sleeves before Epoxy resin Figure 23. Epoxy resin injection work into steel Injection sleevesFigure 20 indicates a cutting work of CRFP rod by a saw, and three CFRP rods are installed into each steel sleeve as shown in Figure 21. Figure 22 indicates steel sleeves before Epoxy resin injection work, and Epoxy resin injection work into steel sleeve is shown in Figure 23. Figure24shows steel sleeves after Epoxy resin injection work.Figure 25 indicates tightening work of sleeve-nut with a large screwdriver at the steel anchor. Both ends of ACM brace rod were fixed by four sleeve-nuts as shown in Figure 26 so that the tensile force of 10kN acts in the ACM brace. The shock absorbing rubber shown in Figure 27, which was newly developed by SRI Hybrid Co. Ltd., was used between the fixed anchor and the sleeve-nut.Figure 24. Steel sleeves after Epoxy Figure 25.Tighten work of steel-nut resin injection work with a screwdriverFigure 26. Completion of tightening 27. Rubber ring for shock absorbingdouble Figure steel sleeve nutsFigure 28. Steel sleeve and bracket Figure29. Steel sleeve and bracket afterafter anti-rust painting finishing painting workFigure 30. Completion of ACM brace installationAfter the installation of ACM brace, the steel anchor and sleeve are treated with a tarnish preventive as shown in Figure 28 and 29. Photo 30 indicates the installation completion view of ACM brace fixed on S structure. It is found from this photo that ACM bracing method has a scenic view from the outside of the retrofitted structure because there is not much things to obstruct the view from the inside of the structure.4.Concluding RemarksIn this paper, an advanced seismic retrofitting work for RC and S story building structures built by some old earthquake resistant design codes before 1981 was reported st a large-damaged earthquake. ACM bracing method consists of CFRP rod, steel sleeve, and steel anchor. This ACM bracing method was applied to S two- story building structure in 2010. Materials in the seismic retrofitting work using ACM bracing method and the construction process of ACM brace were described in this paper.The summary obtained in this paper is as follows.(1) ACM brace retrofitting work has several construction advantages such as short construction period and low cost in comparison with the steel bracing method. Namely, ACM bracing method has a high cost performance.(2)Although the installation work of steel braces requires a large construction machine of a crane-currying truck, the installation of ACM brace is not needed any large construction machine and also is effectively conducted under a safe operation.(3) The construction work of ACM brace retrofitting countermeasure does not require a professional engineer or an expert.This ACM bracing method may support a seismic retrofitting politics in the region where has a slightly delay in the seismic countermeasures, and can be a driving force to increase the safety of structures against a large earthquake and changes to a strong region against natural disasters. This kind of seismic retrofitting work for RC and S story building structures will lead to a decrease of earthquake damages in many countries.译文:ACM支撑加固措施在钢结构中的应用摘要一种先进的钢结构抗震改造方法在一片质疑种被提出，该方案采用了AMC（一种先进复合材料）支撑方法。
钢结构中英文(个人整理版)
钢结构中英文对照从施工规范及相关文件资料整理Leo-QQ-778468076材料钢板steel plate钢管steel plate垫板padding plate垫块backfilling地脚螺栓anchor bolt预埋螺栓embedded bolt螺母nut垫圈washer铆钉rivet螺丝钉screw高强螺栓high-strength bolt大六角头高强螺栓big hexagonal high-strength bolt型钢section steel，shaped steel自攻螺钉tapping screw波形屋面瓦wave roof tile钢丝网steel-wire mesh防腐材料anticorrosive material防火涂料fireproof paint防锈漆anticorrosive paint底漆primer面漆nominated painting构件零件part部件component构件element钢柱steel column钢柱脚steel column base钢支座steel support实腹式钢柱solid-web steel column带牛腿钢柱the steel column with bracket主梁main beam次梁secondary beam檩条purlin吊车梁crane girder系杆tie beam系梁tie beam屋架roof truss坡口groove屋盖roof system屋面板roof board，roof slab，roof plate天窗架skylight truss拱形屋架arch-shaped roof truss三角形屋架triangle roof truss梯形屋架trapezoid roof truss中拼单位intermediate assembled structure空间刚度单元space rigid unit环境温度ambient temperature预拼装test assembling连接connection螺栓连接钢构bolted steel structure摩擦型高强螺栓连接high-strength bolted friction-type connection 不焊透对接焊接partial penetrated butt weld焊透对接焊接penetrated butt weld焊钉（栓钉）焊接stud welding数据及单位抗震设计earthquake-resistant design层高storey height净高net height计算长度effective length计算高度effective height计算跨度effective span净跨net span净重net weight吨ton千克kilogram面积area立方的cubic平方（正方形的，矩形的）square容积capacity米meter厘米centimeter毫米millimeter微米micrometer工具及机械焊机welding machine自动焊机automatic welding machine自动埋弧焊机submerged arc automatic welding machine手动电弧焊机manual arc welding machine二氧化碳埋弧焊机CO2（carbon dioxide）shield arc welding machine 电渣焊机electro-slag welding machine焊条electrode锤子hummer力矩扳手torque spanner，torque wrench螺丝钳clamp电钻electric drill钻机driller冲击钻（电锤）electric hammer手动摇臂钻manually operated whipping driller磁力钻magnetic driller铣床milling machine碘钨灯iodine tungsten lamp安全照明灯safety flare空压机air compressor钢丝绳steel cable吊车crane（150t）履带式吊车（150t）crawler crane吊钩crane hook液压校直机hydraulic calibrator经纬仪theodolite水平仪（水准仪）gradienter，level安全防护安全网safety net安全帽helmet安全带safety belt劳保鞋hard shoes护目镜goggles防护罩shield安全手套safety gloves防护手套protective gloves绝缘工作服insulating coverall耐火工作服fire-resistance coverall耐酸工作服acid-proof working suit耳塞earplug焊接过程及焊接质量和其他除锈车间blasting workshop焊接weld焊缝welding joint焊缝质量等级quality grade of weld横向焊缝transverse weld对接焊缝butt weld缺陷defect变形deformation凹坑pit麻面pock mark夹渣slag inclusion，slag joint咬边undercut焊缝中未熔焊点non-welded welding裂缝leakage，crack气孔air hole表面瑕疵surface defect不正确焊接尺寸incorrect welding size返工rework外观质量appearance quality检测方法和试验焊缝无损检测non-destructive inspection of weld非破损检测non-destructive test射线检测ray test磁粉检测magnetic particle testing超声波检测extra-sound test放大检测法magnetic test色彩检测法color test放大镜（扩大20倍）magnifier （within 20 times magnification）破坏试验damage test物理和化学成分physical and chemical properties机械性能试验mechanical character test拉伸试验extension test弯曲试验bending test冲击试验colliding test金相测试metelloge test高强螺栓连接副set of high-strength bolt抗滑移系数slip merged of faying surface质量焊接标准welding standard误差tolerance尺寸偏差dimensional轴线grid line标高elevation，levelAA垂直度degree of gravity vertical for AA，verticalityBB 平整度degree of plainness for BB水平度level水平位置position不合格点non-compliance不合格项non-conformance相关对话句子1，These drawings are well done and complied with the requirement of the specification.这些图制作得非常好且符合规范要求。
钢结构设计外文翻译参考文献
钢结构设计外文翻译参考文献In the United States。
XXX (ASD)。
Plastic Design (PD)。
and Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)。
In ASD。
stress ns are based on first-order elastic analysis。
XXX。
In PD。
first-order plastic hinge analysis is used in structural analysis。
XXX progressive collapse effects are not included in PD。
they are XXX LRFD。
first-order XXX。
and the XXX。
All three design methods require independent checks。
including K factor ns。
In this paper。
XXX structural system and its components are related。
but the current LRFD n of the American Institute of Steel n (AISC) separates them。
In practical ns。
the XXX in the effective length factor。
This is described in the excerpt from the Technical Memorandum on Social Science Research。
Volume 5.Although the maximum internal forces of the structure and the maximum internal forces of the components are interdependent (but not necessarily coexisting)。
钢结构桥梁中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Recent Research and Design Developments in Steel and Composite Steel-concrete Structures in USAThe paper will conclude with a look toward the future of structural steel research.1. Research on steel bridgesThe American Association of State Transportation and Highway Officials (AASTHO) is the authority that promulgates design standards for bridges in the US. In 1994 it has issued a new design specification which is a Limit States Design standard that is based on the principles of reliability theory. A great deal of work went into the development of this code in the past decade, especially on calibration and on the probabilistic evaluation of the previous specification. The code is now being implemented in the design office, together with the introduction of the SystemeInternationale units. Many questions remain open about the new method of design, and there are many new projects that deal with the reliability studies of the bridge as a system. One such current project is a study to develop probabilistic models, load factors, and rational load-combination rules for the combined effects of live-load and wind; live-load and earthquake; live-load, wind and ship collision; and ship collision, wind, and scour. There are also many field measurements of bridge behavior, using modern tools of inspection and monitoring such as acoustic emission techniques and other means of non-destructive evaluation. Such fieldwork necessitates parallel studies in the laboratory, and the evolution of ever more sophisticated high-technology data transmission methods.America has an aging steel bridge population and many problems arise from fatigue and corrosion. Fatigue studies on full-scale components of the Williamsburg Bridge in New York have recently been completed at Lehigh University. A probabilistic AASTHO bridge evaluation regulation has been in effect since 1989, and it is employed to assess the future useful life of structures using rational methods that include field observation and measurement together with probabilistic analysis. Such an activity also fosters additional research because many issues are still unresolved. One such area is the study of the shakedown of shear connectors in composite bridges. This work has been recently completed at the University of Missouri.In addition to fatigue and corrosion, the major danger to bridges is the possibility of earthquake induced damage. This also has spawned many research projects on the repair and retrofit of steel superstructures and the supporting concrete piers. Many bridges in the country are being strengthened for earthquake resistance. One area that is receiving much research attention is the strengthening of concrete piers by "jacketing" them by sheets of high-performance reinforced plastic.The previously described research deals mainly with the behavior of existing structures and the design of new bridges. However, there is also a vigorous activity on novel bridge systems. This research is centered on the application of high-performance steels for the design of innovative plate and box-girder bridges, such as corrugated webs, combinations of open and closed shapes, and longer spansfor truss bridges. It should be mentioned here that, in addition to work on steel bridges, there is also very active research going on in the study of the behavior of prestressed concrete girders made from very high strength concrete. The performance and design of smaller bridges using pultruded high-performance plastic composite members is also being studied extensively at present. New continuous bridge systems with steel concrete composite segments in both the positive moment and the negative moment regions are being considered. Several researchers have developed strong capabilities to model the three-dimensional non-linear behavior of individual plate girders, and many studies are being performed on the buckling and post-buckling characteristics of such panion experimental studies are also made,especially on members built from high-performance steels. A full-scale bridge of such steel has been designed, and will soon be constructed and then tested under traffic loading. Research efforts are also underway on the study of the fatigue of large expansion joint elements and on the fatigue of highway sign structures.The final subject to be mentioned is the resurgence of studies of composite steel concrete horizontally curved steel girder bridges. A just completed project at the University of Minnesota monitored the stresses and the deflections in a skewed and curved bridge during all phases of construction, starting from the fabrication yard to the completed bridge.~ Excellent correlation was found to exist between the measured stresses and deformations and the calculated values. The stresses and deflections during construction were found to be relatively small, that is, the construction process did not cause severe trauma to the system. The bridge has now been tested under service loading, using fully loaded gravel trucks, for two years, and it will continue to be studied for further years to measure changes in performance under service over time. A major testing project is being conducted at the Federal Highway Administration laboratory in Washington, DC, where a half-scale curved composite girder bridge is currently being tested to determine its limit states. The test-bridge was designed to act as its own test-frame, where various portions can be replaced after testing. Multiple flexure tests, shear tests, and tests under combined bending and shear, are thus performed with realistic end-conditions and restraints. The experiments arealso modeled by finite element analysis to check conformance between reality and prediction. Finally design standards will be evolved from the knowledge gained. This last project is the largest bridge research project in the USA at the present time.From the discussion above it can be seen that even though there is no large expansion of the nation's highway and railroad system, there is extensive work going on in bridge research. The major challenge facing both the researcher and the transportation engineer is the maintenance of a healthy but aging system, seeing to its gradual replacement while keeping it safe and serviceable.2. Research on steel members and framesThere are many research studies on the strength and behavior of steel building structures. The most important of these have to do with the behavior and design of steel structures under severe seismic events. This topic will be discussed later in this paper. The most significant trends of the non-seismic research are the following: "Advanced" methods of structural analysis and design are actively studied at many Universities, notably at Cornell, Purdue, Stanford, and Georgia Tech Universities. Such analysis methods are meant to determine the load-deformation behavior of frames up to and beyond failure, including inelastic behavior, force redistribution, plastic hinge formation, second-order effects and frame instability. When these methods are fully operational, the structure will not have to undergo a member check, because the finite element analysis of the frame automatically performs this job. In addition to the research on the best approaches to do this advanced analysis, there are also many studies on simplifications that can be easily utilized in the design office while still maintaining the advantages of a more complex analysis. The advanced analysis method is well developed for in-plane behavior, but much work is yet to be done on the cases where bi-axial bending or lateraltorsional buckling must be considered. Some successes have been achieved, but the research is far from complete.Another aspect of the frame behavior work is the study of the frames with semirigid joints. The American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) has published design methods for office use. Current research is concentrating on the behavior ofsuch structures under seismic loading. It appears that it is possible to use such frames in some seismic situations, that is, frames under about 8 to 10 stories in height under moderate earthquake loads. The future of structures with semi-rigid frames looks very promising, mainly because of the efforts of researchers such as Leon at Georgia Tech University, and many others.Research on member behavior is concerned with studying the buckling and post buckling behavior of compact angle and wide-flange beam members by advanced commercial finite element programs. Such research is going back to examine the assumptions made in the 1950s and 1960s when the plastic design compactness and bracing requirements were first formulated on a semi-empirical basis. The non-linear finite element computations permit the "re-testing" of the old experiments and the performing of new computer experiments to study new types of members and new types of steels. White of Georgia Tech is one of the pioneers in this work. Some current research at the US military Academy and at the University of Minnesota by Earls is discussed later in this report. The significance of this type of research is that the phenomena of extreme yielding and distortion can be efficiently examined in parameter studies performed on the computer. The computer results can be verified with old experiments, or a small number of new experiments. These studies show a good prospect fornew insights into old problems that heretofore were never fully solved.3. Research on cold-formed steel structuresNext to seismic work, the most active part of research in the US is on cold-formed steel structures. The reason for this is that the supporting industry is expanding, especially in the area of individual family dwellings. As the cost of wood goes up, steel framed houses become more and more economical. The intellectual problems of thin-walled structures buckling in multiple modes under very large deformations have attracted some of the best minds in stability research. As a consequence, many new problems have been solved: complex member stiffening systems, stability and bracing of C and Z beams, composite slabs, perforated columns, standing-seam roof systems, bracing and stability of beams with very complicatedshapes, cold-formed members with steels of high yield stress-to-tensile strength ratio, and many other interesting applications. The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) has issued a new expanded standard in 1996 that brought many of these research results into the hands of the designer.4. Research on steel-concrete composite structuresAlmost all structural steel bridges and buildings in the US are built with composite beams or girders. In contrast, very few columns are built as composite members. The area of composite Column research is very active presently to fill up the gap of technical information on the behavior of such members. The subject of steel tubes filled with high-strength concrete is especially active. One of the aims of research performed by Hajjar at the University of Minnesota is to develop a fundamental understanding of the various interacting phenomena that occur in concrete-filled columns and beam-columns under monotonic and cyclic load. The other aim is to obtain a basic understanding of the behavior of connections of wide-flange beams to concrete filled tubes.Other major research work concerns the behavior and design of built-up composite wide-flange bridge girders under both positive and negative bending. This work is performed by Frank at the University of Texas at Austin and by White of Georgia Tech, and it involves extensive studies of the buckling and post-buckling of thin stiffened webs. Already mentioned is the examination of the shakedown of composite bridges. The question to be answered is whether a composite bridge girder loses composite action under repeated cycles of loads which are greater than the elastic limit load and less than the plastic mechanism load. A new study has been initiated at the University of Minnesota on the interaction between a semi-rigid steel frame system and a concrete shear wall connected by stud shear connectors.5. Research on connectionsConnection research continues to interest researchers because of the great variety of joint types. The majority of the connection work is currently related to the seismic problems that will be discussed in the next section of this paper. The most interest in non-seismic connections is the characterization of the monotonic moment-rotationbehavior of various types of semi-rigid joints.6. Research on structures and connections subject to seismic forcesThe most compelling driving force for the present structural steel research effort in the US was the January 17, 1994 earthquake in Northridge, California, North of Los Angeles. The major problem for steel structures was the extensive failure of prequalified welded rigid joints by brittle fracture. In over 150 buildings of one to 26 stories high there were over a thousand fractured joints. The buildings did not collapse, nor did they show any external signs of distress, and there were no human injuries or deaths. A typical joint is shown in Fig. 2.2.1.In this connection the flanges of the beams are welded to the flanges of the column by full-penetration butt welds. The webs are bolted to the beams and welded to the columns. The characteristic features of this type of connection are the backing bars at the bottom of the beam flange, and the cope-holes left open to facilitate the field welding of the beam flanges. Fractures occurred in the welds, in the beam flanges, and/or in the column flanges, sometimes penetrating into the webs.Once the problem was discovered several large research projects were initiated at various university laboratories, such as The University of California at San Diego, the University of Washington in Seattle, the University of Texas at Austin, Lehigh University at Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, and at other places. The US Government under the leadership of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) instituted a major national research effort. The needed work was deemed so extensivethat no single research agency could hope to cope with it. Consequently three California groups formed a consortium which manages the work:(1) Structural Engineering Association of California.(2) Applied Technology Council.(3) California Universities for Research in Earthquake Engineering.The first letters in the name of each agency were combined to form the acronym SAC, which is the name of the joint venture that manages the research. We shall read much from this agency as the results of the massive amounts of research performed under its aegis are being published in the next few years.The goals of the program are to develop reliable, practical and cost-effective guidelines for the identification and inspection of at-risk steel moment frame buildings, the repair or upgrading of damaged buildings, the design of new construction, and the rehabilitation of undamaged buildings.~ As can be seen, the scope far exceeds the narrow look at the connections only. The first phase of the research was completed at the end of 1996, and its main aim was to arrive at interim guidelines so that design work could proceed. It consisted of the following components:~ A state-of-the-art assessment of knowledge on steel connections.~ A survey of building damage.~ The evaluation of ground motion.~ Detailed building analyses and case studies.~ A preliminary experimental program.~ Professional training and quality assurance programs.~ Publishing of the Interim Design Guidelines.A number of reports were issued in this first phase of the work. A partial list of these is appended at the end of this paper.During the first phase of the SAC project a series of full-scale connection tests under static and, occasionally, dynamic cyclic tests were performed. Tests were of pre-Northridge-type connections (that is, connections as they existed at the time of the earthquake), of repaired and upgraded details, and of new recommendedconnection details. A schematic view of the testing program is illustrated in Fig.2.2.2 Some recommended strategies for new design are schematically shown in Fig. 2.2.3.Fig. 2.2.3 some recommended improvements in the interim guidelinesThe following possible causes, and their combinations, were found to have contributed to tile connection failures:~ Inadequate workmanship in the field welds.~ Insufficient notch-toughness of the weld metal.~ Stress raisers caused by the backing bars.~ Lack of complete fusion near the backing bar.~ Weld bead sizes were too big.~ Slag inclusion in the welds.While many of the failures can be directly attributed to the welding and thematerial of the joints, there are more serious questions relative to the structural system that had evolved over the years mainly based on economic considerations.' The structural system used relatively few rigid-frames of heavy members that were designed to absorb the seismic forces for large parts of the structure. These few lateral-force resistant frames provide insufficient redundancy. More rigid-frames with smaller members could have provided a tougher and more ductile structural system. There is a question of size effect: Test results from joints of smaller members were extrapolated to joints with larger members without adequate test verification. The effect of a large initial pulse may have triggered dynamic forces that could have caused brittle fracture in joints with fracture critical details and materials. Furthermore, the yield stress of the beams was about 30% to 40% larger than the minimum specified values assumed in design, and so the connection failed before the beams, which were supposed to form plastic hinges.As can be seen, there are many possible reasons for this massive failure rate, and there is blame to go around for everyone. No doubt, the discussion about why and how the joints failed will go on for many more years. The structural system just did not measure up to demands that were more severe than expected. What should be kept in mind, however, is that no structure collapsed or caused even superficial nonstructural damage, and no person was injured or killed. In the strictest sense the structure sacrificed itself so that no physical harm was done to its users. The economic harm, of course, was enormous.7. Future directions of structural steel research and conclusionThe future holds many challenges for structural steel research. The ongoing work necessitated by the two recent earthquakes that most affected conventional design methods, namely, the Northridge earthquake in the US and the Kobe earthquake in Japan, will continue well into the first decade of the next Century. It is very likely that future disasters of this type will bring yet other problems to the steel research community. There is a profound change in the philosophy of design for disasters: We can no longer be content with saving lives only, but we must also design structures which will not be so damaged as to require extensive repairs.Another major challenge will be the emergence of many new materials such as high-performance concrete and plastic composite structures. Steel structures will continually have to face the problem of having to demonstrate viability in the marketplace. This can only be accomplished by more innovative research. Furthermore, the new comprehensive limit-states design codes which are being implemented worldwide, need research to back up the assumptions used in the theories.Specifically, the following list highlights some of the needed research in steel structures:Systems reliability tools have been developed to a high degree of sophistication. These tools should be applied to the studies of bridge and building structures to define the optimal locations of monitoring instruments, to assess the condition and the remaining life of structures, and to intelligently design economic repair and retrofit operations.New developments in instrumentation, data transfer and large-scale computation will enable researchers to know more about the response of structures under severe actions, so that a better understanding of "real-life" behavior can be achieved.The state of knowledge about the strength of structures is well above the knowledge about serviceability and durability. Research is needed on detecting and preventing damage in service and from deterioration.The areas of fatigue and fracture mechanics on the one hand, and the fields of structural stability on the other hand, should converge into a more Unified conceptual entity.The problems resulting from the combination of inelastic stability and low-cycle fatigue in connections subject to severe cyclic loads due to seismic action will need to be solved.The performance of members, connections and connectors (e.g., shear connectors) under severe cyclic and dynamic loading requires extensive new research, including shakedown behavior.The list could go on, but one should never be too dogmatic about the future ofsuch a highly creative activity as research. Nature, society and economics will provide sufficient challenges for the future generation of structural engineers.近期美国在钢结构和钢筋混凝土结构研究和设计方面的发展这篇文章将总结对钢结构的研究展望.1.钢结构桥梁的研究美国国家运输和公路官员协会(AASTH0)是为美国桥梁发布设计标准的权威。
关于钢结构的英文作文
关于钢结构的英文作文英文：Steel structure is a popular choice for building construction due to its many advantages. Firstly, it is durable and can withstand harsh weather conditions and natural disasters such as earthquakes and hurricanes. This is because steel is a strong and flexible material that can absorb shock and resist deformation. Secondly, steel structures are easy to assemble and disassemble, making them ideal for temporary or mobile buildings such as exhibition halls or warehouses. Thirdly, steel is a sustainable material that can be recycled and reused, reducing waste and environmental impact.In addition, steel structures offer design flexibility and can be customized to meet specific requirements. For example, the shape and size of the structure can be adjusted to fit the available space and the intended use of the building. Moreover, steel structures can be combinedwith other materials such as glass, wood or concrete to create a unique and aesthetically pleasing design.However, there are also some challenges associated with steel structure construction. One of the main challenges is corrosion, which can weaken the structure over time. This can be prevented by applying protective coatings or using stainless steel. Another challenge is the cost, as steel structures can be more expensive than traditional building materials such as wood or brick. However, the long-term benefits of durability and sustainability may outweigh the initial cost.Overall, steel structure construction offers many advantages and is a viable option for building projects of various sizes and purposes.中文：钢结构是建筑施工中一个受欢迎的选择，因为它有许多优点。
应用钢结构设计外文翻译
Applied Structural Steel Design (4th Edition)by George F. Spiegel and George F. Limbrunner9-2Open Web Steel Joists, K-SeriesThe design of the K-Series joist chord is based on a steel minimum yield strength of 50,000 psi. The design of the web members may be based on a steel minimum yield strength of 36,000 psi or 50,000 psi.An example of the standard designation for K-Series joists is 22K7. The depth of this joist is 22 in. K represents the series, and the number 7 denotes the relative size of the chords of the joist. Chord sizes are designated by the numbers 3 through 12, the size increasing with increasing number. The chord and web members may vary in shape and makeup from manufacturer to manufacturer, but the design and the capacity of the joists must conform to the SJI specifications and to the standardized load tables. The K-Series standard load table and the economy table (which is used for selection) are applicable where the joists are installed up to a maximum slope of 2 in. per foot.The use of open web steel joists in any given application must be based on SJI requirements as furnished in its standard specifications. These requirements for the K-Series joists are summarized as follows:In construction that uses joists, bridging and bridging anchors are required for the primary purpose of furnishing lateral stability for the joists, particularly during the construction phase. The bridging spans between and perpendicular to the steel joists.It is required that one end of all joists be attached to their supports before allowing the weight of an erector on the joists. When bolted connections are used, the bolts must be snug tightened. All bridging must be completely installed and the joists permanently fastened into place before the application of any construction loads. Even under the weight of an erector, the joists may exhibit some degree of lateral instability until the bridging is installed. The bridging also serves the purpose of holding the steel joists in position as shown on the plans. The minimum number of rows of bridging is a function of the joist chord size and span length. A table is furnished in the standard specifications that establishes the required number of rows of bridging. Spacing of bridging rows should be approximately equal. Two permissible types of bridging may be observed in Figure 9-2. Horizontal bridging (Figure 9-2a) consists of two continuous horizontal steel members, one attached to the top chord and the other attached to the bottom chord by means of welding or mechanical fasteners. The attachment must be capable of resisting a horizontal force of not less than 700 lb. If the bridging member is a round bar, the diameter must be at least 2 in. The maximum slenderness ratia4V/rj~of-the bridging member cannot exceed 300, where k is the distance between bridging attachments and r is the least radius of gyration of the bridging member. The bridging member shall be designed for a compressive force of 0.24 times the area of the top chord. Diagonal bridging (Figure 9-2b) consists of cross-bracing with a maximum B/r of 200, with Z and r as defined previously. Where the cross-bracing members connect at their intersection, E is the distance between the intersection attachment and chord attachment. The ends of all bridginglines terminating at walls or beams must be properly anchored. A typical detail may be observed in Figure 9-2b.FIGURE 9-2 Typical bridging.Joist extensions are frequently used with K-Series joists to support a variety of over-hang conditions. Two types are shown in Figure 9-3c and d. The first is the Top Chord Extension (S Type), which has only the top chord angles extended. The second is the Extended End (R Type), in which the standard 2 and 1/2-in. end bearing depth is maintained over the entire length of the extension. The R Ty pe (reinforced) involves reinforcing the top chord. The S Type (simple) is more economical and should be specified whenever possible.Load tables for K-Series Top Chord Extension and Extended finds axe furnished by the SJI. Specific designs and load tables, however, are generally furnished by the various joist manufacturers and can be used to advantage.Ceiling extensions (Figure 9-3b) in the form of an extended bottom chord element or a loose unit, whichever is standard with the joist manufacturer, are frequently used to support ceilings that are to be attached directly to the bottom of the joists. They are not furnished for the support of suspended ceilings.FIGURE 9-3 Typical joist detailsWhen joists are used in conjunction with a corrugated metal deck and concrete slab, the cast-in-place slab should not be less than 2 in. thick.The typical standard K-Series joist is designed for a simple span subjected to uniformly distributed load for its full span length, resulting in a linear shear distribution (maximum at the supports and zero at midspan) and a parabolic moment distribution (zero at the supports and maximum at midspan). The KCS joist is a new type of K-Series joist developed to overcome some of the limitations of the standard K-Series joist. The KCS joist may be used for special design applications requiring a joist capable of supporting nonuniform loads, concentrated loads, or combinations thereof in addition to or independent of the normal uniform load.The KCS joists are designed in accordance with the SJI Standard Specifications for K-Series joists and range in depth from 10 in. to 30 in. Load tables furnished by the SJI provide the shear and moment capacity of each joist. The designer must calculate the maximum moment and shear imposed and then select the appropriate KCS joist.9-3Floor VibrationsEven when the structural design of the steel joists is accomplished in accordance with design specifications, a floor system may be susceptible to undesirable vibrations. This phenomenon isseparate and different from strength and has to do mainly with the psychological and physiologicalresponse of humans to motion. Large open floor areas without floor-to-ceiling partitions may be subject to such undesirable vibrations.The ASDS Commentary recommends a minimum depth-to-span ratio of 1/20 for a steel beam supporting a large open floor area free of partitions. In addition, the SJI requires a minimum depth-to-span ratio of 1/24 for steel joists, although a generally accepted practice for steel joist roofs and floors is to use a minimum depth-to-span ratio of 1/20. Even if these recommendations and requirements are satisfied, a vibration analysis should be made, particularly when a floor system is composed of steel joists that support a thin-concrete slab placed on steel metal deck. References 2 and 3 contain relatively brief and sufficiently accurate methods that can be used to determine (1) whether disturbing vibrations will be present in a floor system and (2) possible design solutions for the problem. Reference 4 contains insight on vibrations in steel framed floors.应用钢结构设计（第4版）by George F. Spiegel and George F. Limbrunner9-2空腹钢搁栅，K系列K系列搁栅弦的设计是基于钢弦的最小屈服强度为50000psi。
钢结构的英文作文
钢结构的英文作文下载温馨提示:该文档是我店铺精心编制而成，希望大家下载以后，能够帮助大家解决实际的问题。
文档下载后可定制随意修改，请根据实际需要进行相应的调整和使用，谢谢!并且，本店铺为大家提供各种各样类型的实用资料，如教育随笔、日记赏析、句子摘抄、古诗大全、经典美文、话题作文、工作总结、词语解析、文案摘录、其他资料等等，如想了解不同资料格式和写法，敬请关注!Download tips: This document is carefully compiled by theeditor. I hope that after you download them,they can help yousolve practical problems. The document can be customized andmodified after downloading,please adjust and use it according toactual needs, thank you!In addition, our shop provides you with various types ofpractical materials,such as educational essays, diaryappreciation,sentence excerpts,ancient poems,classic articles,topic composition,work summary,word parsing,copyexcerpts,other materials and so on,want to know different data formats andwriting methods,please pay attention!Steel structures are really strong. They can hold up a lot of weight and are very durable.Using steel in construction is a great choice. It's easy to work with and can be shaped into different forms.Steel is also resistant to fire and other disasters. It provides a high level of safety.Many modern buildings use steel structures. They look really cool and give a unique appearance.The strength of steel allows for more creative designs in architecture. It's amazing what can be done with it.。
钢结构建造的特点英文作文
Characteristics of Steel Structure ConstructionSteel structure construction has revolutionized modern architecture with its distinct features that offer flexibility, strength, and sustainability. From towering skyscrapers to expansive industrial complexes, steel structures have become synonymous with efficiency and innovation in the construction industry.Strength and DurabilityOne of the hallmark features of steel structure construction is its exceptional strength-to-weight ratio. Steel’s inherent properties allow for the creation of robust frameworks capable of supporting heavy loads over long spans without compromising structural integrity. This strength is particularly advantageous in seismic zones where buildings must withstand significant lateral forces. Design Flexibility and AdaptabilitySteel structures offer unparalleled design flexibility, enabling architects and engineers to create striking and complex shapes that would be challenging with traditional building materials. This adaptability allows for large open spaces, minimal column interference, and innovative architectural forms that define modern urban landscapes.Construction EfficiencyThe prefabrication and assembly of steel components off-site streamline the construction process, reducing on-site labor requirements and accelerating project timelines. This efficiency not only minimizes construction costs but also enhances safety by minimizing exposure to on-site hazards and adverse weather conditions.Environmental SustainabilitySteel is a highly sustainable building material due to its recyclability and efficient use of resources. Recycled steel retains its structural integrity, reducing the demand for raw materials and lowering carbon emissions associated with manufacturing new steel products. Additionally, steel structures can be dismantled and repurposed, further extending their lifecycle and minimizing construction waste.Cost-effectivenessWhile initial costs may be higher than traditional building materials, the long-term benefits of steel structure construction often outweigh these expenses. Reduced maintenance requirements, extended durability, and faster construction times translate into significant cost savings over the lifespan of the building.ConclusionIn conclusion, steel structure construction stands as a testament to innovation in the architectural and engineering fields, offering unparalleled strength, design flexibility, and sustainability. As urbanization and the demand for efficient, resilient buildings continue to grow, steel structures will play a pivotal role in shaping the skylines of cities worldwide, embodying both the artistry and practicality of modern construction techniques.。
钢结构的性能中英版
Properties of Structure Steel钢结构的性能Stell is one of the most widely used structural materials . The advantages of structural steel are discussed in the following paragraphs.钢是一种最广泛使用的结构材料.下面我们就讨论下钢结构的优点.High Strength The high strength of steel per unit of weight means that structure weights will be small. This fact is of great importance for long-span bridges, tall buildings, and structures having poor foundation conditions.高强度钢材每单位重量的高强度意味着结构的重量将是小的。
这个事实对大跨的桥梁、高层建筑以及有着薄弱地基条件的结构具有重要意义。
Uniformity The properties of steel do not change appreciably with time as do those of reinforced concrete structure.一致性钢材的性能随时间的变化不明显，正如钢筋混凝土结构的性能也随时间变化不明显。
Elasticity Steel behaves closer to design assumptions than most materials because it follows Hooke’s law up to fairly high stresses. The moments of inertia of a steel structure can be definitely calculated while the value obtained for a reinforced concrete structure are rather indefinite.弹性比起大多数材料，钢材的运行更接近于设计的假定，因为它直到相当高的应力仍然遵循虎克定理。
钢结构施工外文翻译
Steel Structure Construction SchemeⅠ.A brief account of steel structure workThere will be 6 8t bridge traveling cranes in production hall, welding H-section steel column and beam, structural main material is Q345B, cold bending sheet steel Z-purlin, wall and roof cladding are double-skin pressed steel sheet and thermal insulation wool.Ⅱ.Characteristic of steel structure workThe single span of the work is 18m, the height of steel column is large, single frame plane external rigidity is very small, so the key point of safety technical control is to guarantee the stability outside the structural plane.Take out 6 steel columns from grid line 9~14 in the production building, instead of 52.5m space truss as trimmer beam to support the upper structure and crane load, the installation of the space truss is a difficulty point of this work.Ⅲ.Fabrication of steel structural membersTechnical preparations prior fabrication1. Study and check the design working drawing before fabrication, make shop drawing and get approval from designer then prepare material for fabrication.2. Make a plan and program for fabrication as per the type, quantity and material of the structural members.3. Write construction techniques and technical measures, and the equipment regular examine and maintain plan, keep the machinery in good condition.Material requirements:1. Select and confirm the material for the project.2. All kinds of material should be with quality guarantee and ex-factory certificate. If there is any doubt, sampling examination should be taken according to relevant national standard, only when passed the examination material in batches can be used.3. Rust degree of steel surface should conform to the present national standard <rust and rust removal degree before painting>.4. Jointing material (welding rod, solder, flux), high strength bolt, and coating( under coat and top coating) should be with ex-factory quality certificate and conform to the design and national standard.5. If the skin of welding rod is peeled off or the core is rust, welding flux is wetting and agglomerating or melting, the high strength bolt is rust/damaged or taken from different batches, these materials are strictly prohibited.6. Anti-corrosion paint should conform to the design and relevant standard, and with quality certificate and operation instruction.Equipment and tool preparation1. Check and maintain the fabricating equipment in advance.2. The fabricating tools and measuring instrument should be with certain accuracy, and be examined and marked by the measurement testing department regularly.3. Welder should bearing the qualification certificate, and do the work within the scope stipulated in certificate. If the welding work stopped more than 6 months, the welder should be re-examined and passed the examination.Key points of steel structural member fabricationⅣ. Steel structure installation methodPreparations prior to installationAs per the requirement of steel structure installation, before installation work started, it is need to check and clear the site, insure the access for hoisting is smooth and firm, and construction power is ready, the following works are also need to do simultaneously:1. Survey the horizontal level and axial deviation of the all groups of embedded bolts, make records for the handing over with the civil work team in writing.2. The since the quantity of structural members is large and has a great variety, it must be numbered and confirmed to avoid mis-placed.3. Make necessary inspection and acceptance jointly with the employer and supervisor before installation.Transportation and storage of structural members1. Transport structural members by appropriate vehicle as per the geometric dimension and unit weight, make necessary soft mat and binding during transportation.2. While loading/unloading and moving the structural members, it must be handled gently. Insert spacer while necessary to avoid damage the painting.3. Someone must be put in charge of transportation and storage.Structure hosting and installation method1. Consideration about installation of steel structureThe type the structure in this project is a standard portal-framed structure with moving crane beam, external rigidity of a single frame is small, the sequence of mobilization of structure is start from grid line 1, first install steel frame at grid line 1~2, bracing to column and roof installed and adjusted simultaneously to form a stable space system, then moved to grid line 29. Steel column to be hoisted and installed through Singe-Crane-Rotating-method, the steel beam to be hoisted through Two-Crane-Lifting-method after assembled on the ground. Truss trimmer to be assembled with bolts on the ground and hoisted through Two-Crane-Lifting-method. Space between crane beam and roof purlin is 3.5m, it is enough for minimum hosting space, and can be done after the structure installed or alternated in.2. Hoisting and installation and adjustment of steel columnSteel column to be hoisted through Rotating Method.Someone must be in charge of hoisting and installation, safety, quality and technology to be talked over in details before hoisting.For the efficient hosting, while piling the columns, put the binding point/column footing center/base center at a same arc.While the column is being hoisted slowly 20cm above the floor, stop hoisting for a while to check the sling and crane, open the swing brake, then put the column down at 40~100 mm to the installation plane, align to the datum line, direct the crane descend, insert the column to the anchor bolt and fixed temporarily, tie the column at two direction to stable the column structure.After initial adjustment of the column, only when the vertical deviation controlled within 20mm then can remove the hook of crane, check the verticality with theodlite, any deviation to be adjusted immediately, while adjustment is being done, observe the bottom and level control block to avoid horizontal level deviation.Vertical adjustment of the column, fix two theodlites to the longitudinal and transverse axis, first aim at the column bottom wing or center line then move upward to the column top, if the center line drifted off the line of sight, to adjust the tie rope or support, make the column to be vertical through prying. Usually to erect a row of columns first then to do adjustment. At that time, two theodlites can be placed at one side of longitudinal and transverse axis, deviation to the centerline not more than 3m. while hoisting roof truss or installing vertical members, the steel column must be re-check and adjusted.2. Hoisting and installation of steel beam3. After the steel beam turned over and positioned, trial hoist must be done repeatedly and bond again , while trial hoist is being carried out it must be lifted slowly, the best state is that uniform force at each point and the beam will not deformed, then to hoist and rotate to the designed position, pull the controlling rope buckled on the beam in advance by hand on the ground, rotating to the position, fix the column and beam connecting hole with high strength bolt. Since the first hoisted beam length is 46m, 5 guy ropes should be tied, while fixing it, check the verticality with pendant. The second and the after beams to be fixed temporarily by the roof purlin and tie beam..4. Re-check the column while hoisting the beam, normally use the chain block and steel wire rope, the rope to be removed till the beam installed. The steel beam ridge line must be controlled. Make the deviation between the truss and the column ends center line be equal, so that all the roof truss to be at a same center line.The connection of the high density boltMaterial1. The bolt, nut and washers will be accompanied with the quality pass certificate of which is complied with the national standard and the specification.2. The bolt, nut and washers should be in uniform. The thread should not be worn-out. It should be in clean and dry state and be kept in the storage according to the specification.Preparation to the bolt before installation1. Check each part of the installation is in right position and make sure that the installation is comply with t he “Regulation for check and acceptance to the quality of steel structure work” code no. GB50205-20012. Check the main material with the hole is correct in diameter and the size. Make sure that the smooth is met the specified requirement. If there is thread on the main material, we immediately remove it.3. We shall familiar with the installation construction drawing and program schedule and make full preparation to the work spanner and the other related equipment.4. Preparation to the measuring toolsThe workmanship1. The connection to the steel plate must be straight, the side and hole should contain no thorn to make sure the surface is closely attached. If there is the bending, we shall make necessary adjustment and avoid the damage to the fraction surface.2. Before fixing, we shall clean dirty oil and paint on the hole side.3. Before installation, we shall use temporary bolt to fix in position, the number will be more than one third of the total number for the connected bolt. The method is pre adjust the steel hole and put the temporary bolt inside and then use the nut to screw it. There will be two temporary bolts in each point. Not allowed to use the high density bolt to be served as the temporary bolt. After one section is completed, then to check it and confirmed then to carry out the work with the high density bolt.4. While install the high density bolt, we shall make sure that the central position is check and no mistake and then procedure the work of the high density bolt (This project adopt the double nut screw tight). The washer will be put on one side of the nut and be sure not in opposite direction. If the bolt cannot be through the hole freely, we shall use the knife to adjust the hole and then procedure the work. It should not use the force to go through the hole so as to avoid the damage to the thread. Clean the thorn after adjusting the hole.5. The tight for high density bolt: This work will be in two stage, the first stage is called preliminary tight, the tight force is about 50%-60% of the designed pre-pull force. The second stage is called the final tight. The tight force will reach the designed pull force. The deviation will be less than ±10%. The pre-pull force will be determined according to the designed specification. During the work, the spanner force formula will be Tc=k*Pc*d k=0.11~0.15 Pc(designed pre-pull force) d=the diameter of the bolt.6. Check the turn space spanner mark record and the bolt construction record. If there is any questioning, we shall check the preliminary tight record.Quality standard1. The high density bolt’s type, specification and the technical condition should be comply with the designed specification and the related standard. We must carry out the test to determine the turn space coefficient and recheck bolt pre-pull force and check the quality pass certificate and the test report.2. The connection surface for the bolt in friction coefficient will be complied with the designed requirement and the related specification. On its surface, there should be no rust, thorn, welding remaining, dirty oil and paint, etc.3. The high density bolt must be tight in two stage, the quality of the preliminary and final tight should be complied with the construction regulation and the related specification.4. The high density bolt will be put through in the same direction and the thread rings should less than 2 rings.5. The friction surface between shall complied with the designer and the regulation for steel structure check and acceptance requirement.Items to be taken in consideration during the installation for high density boltQuality control1. The surface with rust, dirty oil, thorn and welding remaining should be cleaned.2. After treating the friction surface should be reached the anti slide coefficient requirement. The use of the high density bolt and the nut, washers should be uniform and be used at the same time not allowed to exchange.3. Treat the part’s friction surface. While installation, there will be no dirty oil and soil, etc4. While installation the part, the friction surface should keep dry and avoid to work in rain.5. Before installation, we shall check and recheck the connected steel plate and make necessary adjustment to the bending.6. While installation, we shall not use the hammer to hit the bolt to avoid the thorn of the bolt be damaged.7. We shall check and measure the spanner timely to the preliminary and the final tight of the high density bolt. We shall make sure the precise and do the necessary record. The tight work will be carried on in right procedure.Major safety technical measures1. To use the flexible spanner the size will fit the nut. While work high above the ground, we shall use the fixed spanner. If we are using the flexible spanner, we shall be tied with safety belt.2. While assemble the steel part to connect the bolt, we shall avoid to use the hand intesting the screw hole. The hand will be on the side of the steel plate.Ⅴ.The roof panel installation methodThe installation of the color steel sheet composed of the detailed part design, production sequence, transport and installation, etc. Every part of the work and the method is the key link to the project’s completion, sa fety, and quality. The installation work will be carried out after the steel structure work has been completed with the formality of the check and accept certificate.Detailed part design workThis part of the detailed design plays a key role to the installation. We shall magnify every connection point on the original drawing so as to instruct the work and workmanship procedure. The followings are the main content for the detailed design:1. The roof coverage arrangement2. The connect point enlarge drawing (include the treatment to gutter, the joint, facial and flush)3. Detailed part design flowProject →construction joint design→edit drawing→check→audit→sent→issue Preparation for the color steel sheet installation1. Before the installation of the color steel sheet, we shall check the size between the structure parts, the level and the quality. If there is any bending on steel structure parts, we shall carry out the adjustment work immediately.2. Before the installation of the color steel sheet, we shall check those already installed cool bend thin plate part of which should not be heavy loaded or welded.3. Before the installation of the color steel sheet, we shall make sure that the pull pole or the press pole are tight and the purlin are in right position. The twisted angle for prulin should less than 3°.4. Before the installation of color steel sheet, we shall check all the cool bended structure whether the parts are treated with the rust protected, fire protected, convenient for inspection, brush, paint, avoid water collected and sealed the end of the steel structure part.5. The temporary stack for color steel sheet should be arranged according to the general construction layout to put in position. We shall prepare a solid compacted, flat area with good drainage system and convenient transportation for color steel sheet and temperature reserve cotton. We shall also make sure that the area will have the measures to be covered with plastic clothe to protect the rain water.6. We shall make sure that the installation tools, equipment, protect items, connect parts, prop and the accessories to the color steel sheet are fully prepared. All these will be tested and qualified. These items will be in storage with a full time person to lookafter.7. We shall make sure that the staff will be fully understand the technical, quality, safety of the work before undertaking the roof installation work. We shall make them fully understand the construction drawings, work method, safety operation, quality requirement. We shall recheck the axis for the installation parts, the level, etc.The installation method of Color plate1. The installation of roof panel started from the gable. Survey and set a datum positioning line at the lower end of roof in advance to guarantee the accuracy of installation, then install in order.2. Check the roof panel in lengths (normally ten panels) during installation, to check the straightness of the two end of the panel and the parallelism to avoid that it will be inclined or fan-shaped. Necessary adjustment to be done during installation, micro-adjustment to be done one by one to meet the requirement of quality.3. Joint of roof panel in length direction will be over-lapped on the bracing members, lapping length is 250mm.4. Reliable sealant to be done to lap at the length direction of the roof panel, silicone or weather strip to be filled at two ends, 15mm apart from the panel end. Bottom panel over-lapping length is 80~100mm, sealant might not be done at over-lap.5. Leave 50mm gap between two panels at ridge, it is preferable to bent the panel upward at 80” to form a flashing. The pressed steel panel to be projected 120mm at gutter, bent downward at 10” to form a drip.6. Over-lap of flashing board not less than 100mm, with enough width and rolled edge, spacing of joints not more than 50mm. Sealant to be done to over-lap for water-tightness.7. At roof ridge and interface between upper and lower span, flashing and roof panel to be jointed by over-lap, lap not less 200mm, insert waterproof closure in lap.Ⅵ. Wall panel installation1. Wall panel to be installed prior to roof eaves gutter with special purpose hoisting and clamping apparatus.2. The first wall panel to be installed as per the gable outside corner line, use theodlite and or pendant to fix the datum line.3. Screw to be fixed to the top and bottom end of the wall panel for temporary positioning, when a group (about 10) of panels laid and adjusted, fasten the screw to the wall purlin.4. Mark the position of screw between wall panel and purlin, it should be even to the purlin and be uniformly arranged.5. Install the panel to be over-lapped in length direct from bottom to top, the over-lapto be arranged at the position wall purlin, inter panel over-lapping length is 80－100mm, outer panel over-lapping length is 120mm, sealant might not be needed at over-lap.6. Inspection to be done by rooms for wall panel, use theodlite or hang the pendant at column center line to survey the verticality.7. Gable panels to be cut at different length as per the roof pitch, then to install it. Add end closure to gable eave flashing if necessary.8. Gable flashing to be done started from eave up to the ridge after the roof and wall panel installed. Outside corner panel to be down from bottom to top, rivet to be used for the joints to wall panel, spacing as per the technical requirement.9. Door and window flashing started from top to the two sides, use wall purlin or door/window frame for fixing. If it is to be connected to the pressed plate, use rivet for joint. Flashing at opening on wall, it’s top to be installed inside the wall panel, bottom outside the wall panel. To fix the wall panel and flashing to the wall purlin with self-tapping screw.10. Joints between flashings to be sealed with silicone, and if wrong screw hole opened on the wall, it must be filled.Ⅶ. Fireproofing coatingPreparations1. To fulfill the high requirement of appearance, and the coating must be fireproofing as per the design, so the top coating to be done with non-air spray-on method.2. The fireproof coating should be with ex-factory quality certificate and ex-factory certificate.3. Before fireproofing coating done, the surface of structural members should be free from rust and dust. Apply complementary anti-rust undercoat to the exposed area on the installed structural members and joints.4. Check the receiving surface before coating, to see whether it is free from rust, oil, and dust etc. Make sure the material , machinery and scaffolding are ready.Working process chatReceiving surface clearin g→apply under coat→drying→repeat as per product requirement→filler→grinding→spray fireproof coating 4 layers (metal gloss)Technological operation main points1. To get good adhesion, thickness of dry film of the first layer of coating should be not more than 200μm, after 24 hours apply next layer, the after layers thickness not more than 300μm to fulfill the requirement of fireproofing limit.2. Spraying distance to be controlled within 300~380mm, spraying range 30~50cm for large object, 10~30cm for small object, normally it is 30cm.3. Angle between spray nozzle and the object surface is 30°~80°，spray gun running speed is 0.1~1.0m/minPoints for attention1. On present market, there are varied kinds of fireproof coating, applying method is basically the same, but the thickness should refer to the product direction and testing report issued by govenment firefighting department.2. Environment requirement for coating: the air temperature should be above 3℃, coating should not be done outdoor if it rains, condensation of surface or air humidity exceed 85%.3. After last layer of undercoat finished, scraping the surface, and then followed by 4 layers of spraying coating.4. While coating be done on the ground, leave the mark of number of the structural members. Considering spoil and damage may occur, leave certain thickness for touch-up coating high above the ground to match the color.Acceptance standard of quality1. There should be no mistake, misses, peeling and rusting. The coating should be uniform no obvious riveling, runs, air bubbles etc.2. The second layer of fireproof coating must be applied only when the first layer get dried completely, otherwise it will be riveling, peeling. It’s thickness to be tested and accepted as per the product direction and testing result issued by qualified firefighting department.3. Cover the coating which is not filmed when it rain, cover the painted structural members or any other part which might be spoiled with PVC membrane.Ⅷ. Safety guarantee measuresSafety working measures1. All constructer must be abide strictly by national safety rules and regulations, make self-protection conscientiously.2. All constructer must be trained and educated with professional safety knowledge, and go to working bearing the certificate.3. Appoint full time safety supervisor to the site. Appoint full time safety administrator to each working team to form a effective safety network..4. Arrange different safety measures to different works, make records, organize inspections.Safety points for attention at construction site1. Firmly carry out national stipulation of <Safety technique operation rules of building and installation>2. Strengthening site construction management, constructing road to be level, smooth, and hardened, material and structural members to be piled and stored stably and in order.3. No smoking on site, in workshop and temporary warehouse, equip with firefighting device.4. Provide safety protection cover and ground protection to electrical equipment, someone must be put in charge of machine operation, each machine to be installed with a electric shock protector.5. Provide sufficient protective glasses, mask and safety shoes to staff on site.6. All material and structural piled and stored stably and in order in proper place. Structural members must be fixed while piling and assembling, no walking ahead to the moving members.7. Pry up object with hands, it is prohibited to ride on the crower and carry the crower under arms. Do not overexert oneself while using crower work high above the ground.8. Check the spring board, scaffolding, swinging scaffold, scaling ladder, rope and safety netting etc prior to work high above the ground.9. No one allowed to go into the hoisting site, do not stand under the crane cantilever. The hoisting director can not stand ahead to the heavy object to be hoisted. Running stably while hoisting, the hook can be removed only when the hoisted members in position and fixed temporarily or connected reliably.10. When the wind speed reaches 10m/s, part of hoisting work should be stopped, when it reaches 15m/s, all the work must be stopped. No welding outdoor in rain. Check the structural members after rain and wind make sure the blinding and support be firm, slip-resistance work need to be done.11. Clear the site after each shift, keep the road smooth, cut off the power after work, check the working site after work make sure no fire dangerous.Safety of construction electricity1. Make temporary construction electricity organization design or electricity safety technical measures and fireproof measures.2. Establish safety electricity system. Select experienced professional electrician to the site.3. Construction electricity is to be arranged as per the construction electricity scheme. One equipment provided with one gear, and connected with reliable ground protection.4. If the construction site and outside line share with one power supply system, theelectrical equipment must be protected with ground connection or zero circuit, but should be all the same , part ground protection part zero circuit is prohibited.5. Ground connecter can not use aluminium conductor, vertical ground connecter prefer steel angle, steel tube or round steel but not screw-threaded steel.6. Distribution box and switch box preferably to be made of steel plate or good quality insulated material, thickness of steel plate not less than 1.5mm.Spacing between the fixed distribution and switch box bottom should within 1.3m to 1.5m; Spacing for portable boxes within 0.6 m to 1.5m. All these boxes to be protected free from rain and dust, inlet and outlet for conducting wire should be at the bottom of the boxes.7. One equipment use one switch box, a switch box can not be shared by two or more equipment (including socket), main distribution box and switch box must be equipped with electric leakage protective device, rated leakage action time should be reasonably disposed.8. All the distribution and switch box should be marked with name and usage, sign of branch., someone must to be put in charge of the work, provide lock to it, inspect and maintain once a month. Use qualified fuse.9. All the electrical equipment and its device, safety, protection, use and maintain must be accord with the requirement of JGJ46—88<Construction site temporary electricity safety technical rules>. Bold safety sign and operation rules board to be provided.10. Daily safety inspection is to be taken on site for electric line and equipment. Any problem is to be settled down by certain person within the fixed time.ⅨQuality guarantee measuresFabrication quality guarantee measures1. Organize a internal full time inspection team to carry out regular and irregular inspection or spot checks.2. Operating workers to be educated and trained by the full time inspection team before work.3. Inspect each process by 3 steps: initial inspection, self inspection and specialized inspection, only when it passed the specialized inspection then next procedure can be proceed.4. Strictly check on the raw material, take necessary test. Material which has not been tested must not be used in advance.5. Welding flaw detection , tensile strength and skid resistance coef. test is to be taken as per relative stipulations.6. Arrange reasonable schedule for fabrication work, fix the time for each process and link, chase and feedback and adjust it promptly.。
钢结构英语及翻译
中文翻译
过去十年中，二阶或高等分析的概念在各种国内设计规范中被描述，例如结构钢建筑负载和抗性因子设计规格( 1986 ) 和澳大利亚标准 ( AS4100 1990 ) 。不同于线性分析用规范中的元设计方程来执行构件强度反不稳定性和二阶效应的检查，二阶分析自动地包括这些非线性条件的效果。结果是应力允许二阶P-δ和P-△效应，可被自动地计算并与屈服应力或设计强度相比较，以便在分析中不再需要因几何形状的巨变而扩大力矩的经验方法，结果更方便、精确。此外，二阶与高等分析--包括更精确的构件力-力矩计算的各种线性和非线性条件，并提供更有效和更精确的结构强度、稳定性和适用性估计方法，可望被工程师广泛接受，提供一个有效的分析法是可行的。"综合设计和分析进展"针对使用复杂的二阶分析去实施规范需要的应用钢框架设计。一不完整性和它的方向，线性和非线性模型之间的一致性因为需要对每构件几个元件作二阶分析，和沿构件的负载。建议的方法包括这些条款以便它能直接用于实现高等分析要求的设计和应用钢框架。
In the past decade, the concept of a second-order or an advanced analysis has been described in various national design codes of practice such as the Load and Resistance Factor Design Specifi- cation for Structural Steel Buildings ( 1986 ) and the Australia standards ( AS4100 1990 ) . Unlike the 1inear analysis where checking of member strength against instability and second-order effect is carried out by the element design formulas in the codes, the second-order analysis automatically includes the effects of these nonlinear terms. As aresult of this, stress, allowing for the second- order P-δand P-△ effects,can be automatically computed and compared with the factored yield stress, or the design strength, in the analysis so that the empirical approach to amplify the moment due to a large change of geometry becomes unnecessary, resulting in much convenience and accuracy. In addition, the second-order and advanced analysis--including various linear and nonlinear terms for a more accurate computation of member forces and moments-provides a much more effective and accurate means of assessing the strength, stability, and serviceability of a structure and is expected to be widely accepted by the engineer, provided that an effective and robust analysis method is available This "integrated design and analysis approach "is aimed at using a sophisticated second-order analysis to design practical steel frames fulfilling the design code requirements. A literature survey shows that typical second-order analysis methods ignore many important characteristics and requirements for practical design, including the member initial imperfection and its direction, consistency between the linear and the nonlinear models due to the need to use several elements per member for a second-order analysis, and loads along members. The proposed method includes these terms so that it can be used to directly design real and practical steel frames fulfilling the advanced analysis requirement.
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RESEARCH PAPERFatigue strength improvement of steel structures by high-frequency mechanical impact:proposed procedures and quality assurance guidelinesGary Marquis &Zuheir BarsoumReceived:18March 2013/Accepted:29May 2013/Published online:16June 2013#International Institute of Welding 2013Abstract High-frequency mechanical impact (HFMI)has emerged as a reliable,effective,and user-friendly method for post-weld fatigue strength improvement technique for welded structures.During the past decade,46documents on HFMI technology for fatigue improvements have been presented within Commission XIII of the International Institute of Welding (IIW).This paper presents an overview of the lessons learned concerning appropriate HFMI procedures and quality assurance measures.Due to differences in HFMI tools and the wide variety of potential applications,certain details of proper treatment procedures and quantitative quality control measures are presented generally.Specific details should be documented in an HFMI procedure specification for each structure being treated.It is hoped that this guideline will provide a stimulus to researchers working in the field to test and constructively criticize the proposals made with the goal of developing inter-national guidelines relevant to a variety of HFMI technologies and applicable to many industrial sectors.A companion docu-ment presents a fatigue design proposal for HFMI treatment of welded steel structures.The proposal is considered to apply to steel structures of plate thicknesses of 5to 50mm and for yield strengths ranging from 235to 960MPa.Stress assessment may be based on nominal stress,structural hot spot stress,or effec-tive notch stress.Keywords High-frequency mechanical impact (HFMI).Weld toe improvement .Fatigue improvement .Quality control1IntroductionIn 2007,Commission XIII:Fatigue of Welded Components and Structures approved the best practice recommendations concerning post-weld treatment methods for steel and alu-minum structures [1].This recommendation covers four commonly applied post-weld treatment methods:burr grind-ing,tungsten inert gas (TIG)remelting (i.e.,TIG dressing),hammer peening,and needle peening.Burr grinding and TIG remelting are generally classified as geometry improvement techniques for which the primary aim is to eliminate weld toe flaws and to reduce local stress concentration by achieving a smooth transition between the plate and the weld face.Ham-mer peening and needle peening are classified as residual stress modification techniques which eliminate the high ten-sile residual stress in the weld toe region and induce com-pressive residual stresses at the weld toe.These methods also result in a reduced stress concentration at the weld toe.The guidelines also give practical information on how to imple-ment the four improvement technologies,namely good work practices,training,safety,and quality assurance.The improvement techniques described in these recommen-dations are intended to be used both for increasing the fatigue strength of new structures and for the repair or upgrade of existing structures.It has consistently been emphasized that,especially with respect to new structures,weld improvement techniques should never be implemented to compensate for poor design or bad fabrication practices.Instead,improvement measures should be implemented as a means of providing additional strength after other measures have been taken.Doc.IIW-2395,recommended for publication by Commission XIII “Fatigue of Welded Components and Structures.”G.Marquis (*)Department of Applied Mechanics,Aalto University,Espoo,Finlande-mail:gary.marquis@aalto.fiG.Marquis :Z.BarsoumDivision of Lightweight Structures,KTH-Royal Institute of Technology,Stockholm,SwedenWeld World (2014)58:19–28DOI 10.1007/s40194-013-0077-8Simultaneous with the development of the 2007recom-mendations,an increasing number of presentations within Commission XIII focused on high-frequency mechanical impact (HFMI)as a means of improving the fatigue strength of welded structures.From 2002to 2012,46IIW Commis-sion XIII documents reporting HFMI technology or experi-mental studies involving HFMI-based fatigue strength im-provement were presented.HFMI has emerged as a reliable,effective,and user-friendly method for post-weld fatigue strength improvement technique for welded structures.This paper represents an attempt to summarize and synthe-size the knowledge gained both within the IIWand presented in the open international literature concerning quality assurance of HFMI-treated welds.It covers procedure-related and quality assurance-related items such as relevant equipment,proper application procedures,material requirements,safety,training requirements for operators and inspectors,quality controlmeasures,and documentation.All HFMI devices have unique features,and the type of structure being treated (and especially the material grade and welding procedures)will greatly influ-ence the optimal treatment procedures.For this reason,the current document is intended to provide only general guidance especially with respect to operator training,procedures,and inspection.Specific operator training is provided by the tool manufacturers.Specific treatment procedures and requirements can normally be developed in cooperation with the HFMI device manufacturer.It is not the intention of this paper to compare HFMI tools or their efficiency.The goal is only to give an overview of topics which must be considered when preparing an HFMI procedure specification.A companion document [2]presents a fatigue design pro-posal for HFMI treatment of welded steel structures.The design proposal is considered to apply to steel structures of plate thicknesses between 5and 50mm and for yield strengths ranging from 235to 960MPa.Stress assessment may be based on nominal stress,structural hot spot stress,or effective notch stress using stress analysis procedures as defined by the IIW Commission XIII.The design proposal includes a pro-posal for the effect of material strength and a proposal for high R ratio and variable amplitude loading.Several topics for future study with respect to HFMI are given.2High-frequency mechanical impact 2.1BackgroundThe innovation of improving the fatigue strength of welded structures by locally modifying the residual stress state usingas-weldedafter HFMIHFMIAW Fig.1Typical weld toe profile in the as-welded condition and follow-ing HFMI treatment [13,14]Photo courtesy of Applied Ultrasonics.Photo courtesy of Integrity Testing Laboratory (ITL) and Structural Integrity Technologies Inc. (SINTEC)Photo courtesy of Pfeifer Seil-undHebetechnik GmbHPhoto courtesy of PITEC GmbHbc dFig.2Examples of HFMI devices available worldwide.a ultrasonic impact treatment,b ultrasonic peening,c high-frequency impact treatment,and d pneumatic impact treatment (PIT)ultrasonic technology is attributed to scientists and engineers working in the former Soviet Union [3,4].In the past decade,there has been a steady increase in the number of HFMI peening equipment manufacturers and service providers.In 2010,Commission XIII of the IIW introduced the term HFMI as a generic term to describe several related technologies.Alternate power sources are employed,for example,ultrasonic piezoelectric elements,ultrasonic magnetostrictive elements,or compressed air.In all cases,however,the working principal is identical:cylindrical indenters are accelerated against a component or structure with high frequency (>90Hz).The impacted material is highly plastically deformed causing changes in the material microstructure and the local geometry as well as the residual stress state in the region of impact.Various names have been used in literature to describe the devices:ultrasonic impact treatment [5],ultrasonic peeningPhoto courtesy of Integrity Testing Laboratory (ITL) and Structural Integrity Technologies Inc. (SINTEC)a bFig.3a Examples of indenter sizes and configurations and b a double radius indenter developed by the Northern Scientific and Technical Company,Russia for Esonix UIT [18]weld metalHAZweld metalbase metaldefectbase metaldefectdefectshiny defect-free HFMI grooveabcFig.4a Potential introduction of a crack-like defect due to HFMI treatment of a weld with a steep angle or with too large of an indenter and b resulting grooves for a properly treated weld toe (left )and animproperly treated one (right );c micrographs of the induced crack-like defects due toimproper HFMI treatment [18][6],ultrasonic peening treatment[7][8],high-frequency impact treatment[9],pneumatic impact treatment[10],and ultrasonic needle peening[11,12].Figure1shows typical weld profiles in the as-welded condition and following HFMI treatment.In comparison to hammer peening,the operation is considered to be more user-friendly and the spacing between alternate impacts on the work piece is very small resulting in a finer surface finish.2.2EquipmentAs previously mentioned,numerous new HFMI devices have been developed during the past10years,and the number continues to increase.Figure2shows some of the HFMI devices that are in use worldwide.A recent round robin exercise[15]and literature survey[16,17]have iden-tified several HFMI tools which,when properly used,pro-vide the degree of improvement noted in the proposed fa-tigue design guideline for HFMI-treated welded joints[2]. Similar devices can be assigned to this group if they have the same operating principal and are objectively tested and are shown to have the same reliable and beneficial effect on the fatigue strength of welds as in the proposed guideline.Ultrasonic devices consist of a power unit and tool.These normally require compressed air or circulating water to con-trol the temperature of the tool.Other devices known to the authors are pneumatic.The indenters are high-strength steel cylinders,and manufacturers have customized the effective-ness of their own tools by using indenters with different diameters,tip geometries,or multiple indenter configura-tions.Indenters are consumable items which from time to time require replacement or refurbishment.Figure3shows several examples of indenter sizes and configurations which are available.3Procedures3.1Operator trainingWhen delivering new equipment,tool manufacturers normal-ly provide1–2days of operator training.As new applications arise,tool manufactures can provide specialized training or customized procedure specifications.In some cases,HFMI treatment of structures with curvilinear weld toes,e.g.,weld toes in trusses fabricated from circular hollow sections,has proven to be very demanding and will require more expertise than for treating long straight welds or short weld corners.Because HFMI is normally specified as a fatigue strength improvement technology for new structures or during repair and retrofitting operations,it is always essential to consult fatigue experts to ensure that all critical regions in a structure are identified and properly treated.Most fatigue-loaded struc-tures will normally have only a limited number of locations that are critical from a fatigue point of view.Proper identifica-tion of these regions is also important to avoid extra costs and treatment of regions which are not fatigue critical.Additional-ly,the possibility of a failure starting at some other location must always be considered.For instance,if the failure origin is merely shifted from the weld toe to the root,there may be no significant improvement in fatigue life.Some additionalTable1Sample treatment procedure parameters for two HFMI toolsParameter HFMI toolHigh-frequency Impact treatment(HiFIT)[21]Ultrasonic Impact Treatment(UIT)[22,23]Power source Pneumatic Ultrasonic magnetostrictiveNumber of indenters11–4Angle of the axis of the indenters with respect to the plate surface,ϕ(see Fig.5)60°to80°30°to60°[22]40°to80°[23]Angle of the axis of the indenterswith respect to the direction oftravel,ψ(see Fig.5)70°to90°90°(all pins should contact the weld toe)Working speed3to5mm/s5to10mm/s[22]5to25mm/s[23]Other The self-weight of the tool is sufficient[22,23]Minimum of5passes[23]travel speedFig.5Orientation of the HFMI tool with respect to the weld beingtreatedcomments on this topic may be found in the companion fatigue design proposal for HFMI-treated welded joints [2].In the case of multipass welds,it is also needed to treat also the interpass weld toes [19].3.2Weld preparationThe weld cap and adjacent parent material shall be fully de-slagged and wire-brushed or ground to remove all traces of oxide,scale,spatter,and other foreign material.HFMI treat-ment of a convex weld profile or of a weld with a large weld angle can cause the plastically deformed metal to fold over the original weld toe and leave a crack-like lap feature that resembles a cold lap.The weld bead profile should meet the acceptance limits for the weld profile quality level B in ISO 5817[20].This requirement does not imply that the weld must fulfill all quality level B criteria in ISO 5817.However,weld profile-related quality criteria in ISO 5817need to be evaluated.These include undercuts (imperfection 1.7),ex-cessive overfill (imperfection 1.19),excessive concavity (imperfection 1.10)and overlaps (imperfection 1.13).If the weld profile does not comply with these acceptance limits,light grinding before treatment may be desired.It should be noted,however,that HFMI treatment is most effective when the weld toe region itself is treated.Thus,grinding operations which make it difficult for the HFMI operator to distinguish the exact location of the weld toe should be avoided.De-cisions on the need for weld grinding and the proper grinding procedure should be agreed on with an experienced HFMI operator.The need for a proper weld profile before HFMI is illus-trated in Fig.4a which illustrates the formation of a crack-like defect due to improper contact between the indenter and theweld toe.Surface inspection of such a defect reveals a dark crack-like line in the middle of the otherwise smooth and shiny HFMI groove as seen in Fig.4b .Figure 4c shows section micrographs of these defects.The resulting fatigue performance of a welded joint with such defects may actually be less than that of the original as-welded joint.The same type of flaw has been observed in welds with adequate profiles but with improper indenter selection or too severe treatment,i.e.,too many passes over the same region.For specific applica-tions,it may be needed to consult with the HFMI tool manu-facturer in order to select the proper treatment procedures and optimal indenter configuration to avoid crack-like defects.3.3Safety aspectsNoise and vibration from HFMI is significantly less than for more traditional peening equipment.HFMI treatment can be a noisy operation,and it is essential that the operator and others working in the vicinity should use ear protection.Normal protective clothing for working in a fabrication shop is ade-quate but it should include approved eye protection.Vibration from HFMI equipment is usually low enough so that contin-uous operation is permitted without restriction during a nor-mal 8-h work shift.If the vibration of the specific HFMI tool has not been determined,it may be needed to limit the amount of time per day for performing HFMI treatment.Equipment-specific safety issues are provided by the tool manufacturers.3.4Weld toe treatmentSpecific weld toe treatment procedures will vary greatly from application to application and depending on the tool being used.Thus,only general topics can be covered.Table 1weld metalbase metalFig.6The HFMI groove in a shows a thin crack-like defect which reduces or eliminates the effectiveness of the HFMI treatment [21].b shows a defect-free groove but with an individual indenter strike still visible,indicating the need for additional passes [27]Fig.7a Proper profile of an HFMI groove which has no sharp or crack-like features and b an improper HFMI groove profile which shows thepresence of a crack-like feature due to plastic deformation of the materialprovides example procedure parameters for two HFMI tools with alternate power sources and indenter configurations (see also Fig.5).Excessive treatment of a weld toe should be avoided.The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)have developed sample procedures [23]based on research performed at Lehigh University,USA [24,25].3.5Other treatment conditionsHeat treatment and hot-dip galvanizing should not be performed after HFMI.HFMI introduces beneficial compressive residual stresses which may be reduced or eliminated by these opera-tions.The fatigue strength of an HFMI-treated component which is then treated by hot-dip galvanizing may have improved strength with respect to a hot-dip galvanized component without HFMI.In such a case,the fatigue design proposal for HFMI treatment of welded steel structures [2]cannot be used and fatigue strength should be determined by fatigue testing.Static local stresses near a weld toe are the result of both welding residual stresses and dead loads on a structure.If the tensile residual stresses following welding are close to theyield strength of the material (as is normally assumed),the addition of a dead load will cause local yielding but will not result in increased maximum local stresses.HFMI treatment following the application of the dead load will produce compressive residual stresses in the critical weld toe region.On the other hand,if HFMI treatment is performed before the dead loads are applied,the compressive residual stresses following treatment may be partially counteracted by the local tensile stresses due to the dead load.Thus,if significant dead loads are present on the structure during normal usage,it is recommended that the dead loads are applied prior to treatment,i.e.,erect the structure with the welds untreated and then perform the treatment on-site [26].4Quality controlVisual inspection of the HFMI groove following treatment consists of both qualitative and quantitative measures of the treated area.4.1Qualitative measuresVisual inspection following treatment includes an evaluation of the quality of the groove and the groove depth.The resulting groove must be smooth along all defined welds.A smooth and shiny groove without lines is one characteris-tic of a properly treated weld toe (see Fig.4b ).No thin line representing an original fusion line should be visible in the groove.A thin crack-like line such as that shown in Fig.6a is an indication that the weld fusion line has not been treated as previously described in section 3.2.Dye penetrant or simple magnification with a ×3to×10magnifying glass with proper surface illumination (minimum 350lx)will be helpful in assessing the quality of the HFMI groove.Figure 6b shows an HFMI groove which is not smooth and showsindicationsFig.8The HFMI indentation depth following treatment should be 0.2–0.6mm while the resulting width is typically 2–5mmgapFig.9Depth inspection using simple gauges [21].The gap between the base plate and the gauge in the right-hand picture indicates that 0.2mm has not been achievedof individual indenter strikes.Additional passes of the tool would be required to obtain a smooth finish.The HFMI groove must be continuous with no breaks.If the treatment cannot be performed without interruption,e.g.,long welds or around corners,it is recommended that the operation be restarted at least 10mm behind the stop posi-tion.No indications of undercut or porosity in the HFMI area can be visible.Similar qualitative measures have been spec-ified by AASHTO [23,26].HFMI produces significant local cold-forming of the ma-terial near the weld fusion line.If the indenters are directed excessively in one specific location,the resulting plastic displacement of the metal can result in a crack-like featureat the side of the HFMI groove as shown in Fig.7.Failures of this type have been occasionally observed but not studied systematically [28].The crack-like feature should be re-moved by light grinding and the weld toe should be retreated.4.2Quantitative measuresThe depth of the groove is an excellent indicator of the extent of HFMI treatment [29].Depending on the yield strength of the steel and the size of the indenters,typically the optimum HFMI groove will be 0.2–0.6mm in depth and the width will be 3–6mm,see Fig.8[23,26,30,31].However,it should be noted that no single groove dimension is optimal in all situations.AFig.10An example of a HFMI-PS (LETSGlobal —Ultrasonic Peening Procedure Specification)developed for each weld in a structures as a quality assurance measure [19]welded structure with relatively deep undercuts at the weld toe of which requires light grinding of the weld toe before HFMI will necessarily have deeper grooves following HFMI.Also, HFMI grooves in high-strength steel structures will typically be shallower and narrower than grooves in low-strength steel. Groove depth can be checked relatively easily by using simple depth gauges such as is shown in Fig.9.Calipers can be used to measure the width of the groove.The center of the HFMI groove should correspond to the fusion line of the weld.The portion of the HFMI groove in the weld metal must be between 25and75%of the total HFMI groove width[30].In large,complex welded structures,welding heat input will not always be constant along a long weld.For this reason, material hardness at the weld toe may vary and the HFMI treatment may need to be systematically adapted.HFMI groove dimension checks will be needed at regular intervals.4.3DocumentationAn HFMI procedure specification(HFMI-PS)similar to a welding procedure specification should be prepared for the HFMI treatment.The HFMI-PS includes information concerning the component being treated;base and filler material;HFMI equipment type and power settings;number,size and shape of the indenters to be used;special inspection requirements includ-ing HFMI groove dimension,etc.Lopez Martinez and Haagensen have developed an HFMI-PS template which is prepared for each weld in a structure[19],see Fig.10.4.4CalibrationAll of the available HFMI devices have variable power settings which can be adjusted depending on the material being treated and the indenter configuration.As a quality assurance measure,the intensity should be recorded in the HFMI-PS.In some cases,HFMI tool calibration is accom-plished during treatment of a welded joint by ensuring that the resulting HFMI groove dimensions for a specified power setting and treatment time are consistent with predetermined limits.For its own tools,PITEC and other companies have developed a simple test for measuring the intensity of HFMI treatment[32].The concept is similar to that used in the well-known Almen strip test which is common for measuring the intensity of shot peening and blasting operations.The simple equipment used for this test is shown in Fig.11.Residual stress-free flat strips(200mm×20mm×4mm)of S355J2 steel are held in a special fixture.HFMI is applied to the strip via the longitudinal slots.Four to five passes with an HFMI tool with a predefined power setting are applied.Curvature of the strip,which is related to the resulting residual stress,is measured by means of a dial gauge.5DiscussionA great deal of experimental evidence has demonstrated that HFMI can significantly improve the fatigue strength of welded structures.Rarely,but on occasion,test results have been presented which indicate that the HFMI treatment pro-cedure has not been fully understood and/or implemented incorrectly.While HFMI can be considered as environmen-tally friendly,safe,and relatively easy to apply,operators must still exercise safe work practices and understand the equipment and the nature of the post-weld operation which is being imparted to a welded structure.Longitudinal stotsFixtureSteel strip Dial gaugeFig.11Equipment needed to perform the Almen test-type calibration procedure developed by PITEC[32]This paper presents an overview of the lessons learned concerning appropriate HFMI procedures and quality assur-ance measures as discussed primarily with the IIW.Due to differences in the HFMI tools and the wide variety of poten-tial applications,certain details of proper treatment proce-dures and quantitative quality control measures are presented generally.For example,the HFMI groove depth,which is considered to be an important quantitative quality assurance measure,can optimally vary from0.2mm to as much as 0.6mm depending on the steel being treated and the geom-etry of the indenter(s).Travel speed,the number of passes needed to obtain optimal treatment,and the angle of the axis of the indenters with respect to the plate surface(see Fig.5) will also vary significantly depending on the tool being used. Specific details of the treatment process and inspection re-quirements for a structure or component should be docu-mented in an HFMI procedure specification.Qualitative inspection requirements including the shiny appearance of the HFMI groove,the lack of any crack-like lines in the groove,the position of the groove with respect to the original weld fusion line,and the continuity of the HFMI groove are applicable to all tool types and for all welds.Weld preparation prior to HFMI treatment and safety items can also be considered to be universally applicable.It is hoped that this guideline will provide a stimulus to researchers working in the field to test and constructively criticize the proposals made with the goal of developing an international guideline relevant to a variety of HFMI tech-nologies and applicable for many industrial sectors.There are a number of questions which cannot yet be reliably answered nor included into guidelines.These remain as areas for further research studies.For example,what type of repair procedures can be recommended if a crack-like defect(see Fig.6a)still exists after five HFMI passes?When do crack-like defects such as those shown in Fig.7become significant and how should these be removed?Is it possible to develop a catalog of suitable treatment processes for common HFMI devices and typical construction situations? The influence of fabrication processes following HFMI treat-ment also need to be better quantified.For example,if weld repair is required,at what distance from the weld repair does HFMI treatment remain unaffected.What is the quantitative influence of galvanizing on HFMI-treated structures?In refurbishment situations,what is the precise role of the service load history prior to HFMI treatment?6ConclusionsA proposal for procedures and quality assurance for HFMI-treated welded joints in steel has been presented.It was developed based on discussions,presentations,and experi-mental evidence published within Commission XIII of the IIW.The proposal has been reviewed by several HFMI tool manufacturers and has been compared to other available technical documents.The proposal includes brief descrip-tions of HFMI equipment,operator training,weld prepara-tion,safety aspects,treatment procedures,qualitative and quantitative quality control measures,procedure documen-tation,and equipment.Certain details of the precise treat-ment procedures and quantitative quality control measures can vary greatly depending on the specific welded structure being treated.A companion document presents a fatigue design proposal for HFMI treatment of welded steel struc-tures.The proposal is considered to apply to steel structures of plate thicknesses from5to50mm and for yield strengths ranging from235to960MPa.Stress assessment may be based on nominal stress,structural hot spot stress,or effec-tive notch stress.Acknowledgments Support for this work has been partially provided by the LIGHT research program of the Finnish Metals and Engineering Competence Cluster,the Finnish Funding Agency for Technology and Innovation,and the European Union’s Research Fund for Coal and Steel Research Programme under grant agreement no RFSR-CT-2010-00032:“Improving the fatigue life of high strength steel welded struc-tures by post weld treatments and specific filler material.”Cooperation with HFMI companies Pfeifer Seil-und Hebetechnik GmbH,Germany; Structural Integrity Technologies Inc.,Canada;LETS Global AB,Swe-den,Applied Ultrasonics,the Netherlands;and PITEC GmbH,Germa-ny are acknowledged.References1.Haagensen PJ,Maddox SJ(2012)IIW recommendations on postweld fatigue life improvement of steel and aluminium structures.Woodhead Publishing Ltd.,Cambridge2.Marquis GB,Mikkola E,Yildirim HC,Barsoum Z(2013)Fatiguestrength improvement of steel structures by HFMI:proposed fa-tigue assessment guidelines.International Institute of Welding, Paris,IIW Document XIII-2452r1-133.Statnikov ES,Shevtsov UM,Kulikov VF(1977)Ultrasonic impacttool for welds strengthening and reduction of residual stresses.Publ Sci Works:Metall SEVMASH,USSR92:27–28(in Russian)4.Kudryavtsev YF,Trufyakov VI,Mikheev PP,Statnikov EF,Burenko AG,Dobykina EK(1994)Increasing the fatigue strength of welded joints in cyclic compression.International Institute of Welding,Paris,Document XIII-1596-945.Applied Ultrasonics.In:/.6.Integrity Testing Laboratory Inc.In:/.7.Lets Global.In:/.8.Huo L,Wang D,Zhang Y(2005)Investigation of the fatiguebehaviour of the welded joints treated by TIG dressing and ultra-sonic peening under variable-amplitude load.Int J Fatigue27:95–1019.Pfeifer.In:http://www.pfeifer.de/.10.Pitec.In:/.11.Sonats.In:/.12.Bousseau M,Millot T(2006)Fatigue life improvement of weldedstructures by UNP compared to TIG dressing.International Insti-tute of Welding,Paris,Document XIII-2125-06。