暖通外文文献翻译详解
暖通专业外文翻译
用冰箱冷冻食物时物主遇到的另一个问题是需要大量时间把食物冻成固体状。
这就是在包装设备中装置瞬间冷冻器的目的。
这种瞬间冷冻器让非常冷的空气迅速冷冻食品，可能会省略食品的冷冻时间，如图45-1。
这在家用冰箱中是不可能达到的。
一些有强制排风蒸发器的冰柜可能会有一个速冻架在风扇排放出，最冷的空气就在这里面，如图45-2。
空气的流速和温度将会大大地促进冷冻过程。
这并不能和商业性的瞬间冷冻器相比较。
速冻机在家用冰箱中会被用作保存一小部分的食物，这个系统的容积很小。
许多人可能会购买半只或四分之一只被屠宰好且包装好的牛排曾试图把它整个放入冰箱冷藏起来，这就会出现问题。
食物冷冻的很慢，将会在食物的细胞中产生冰的晶体，如图45-3，这可能会刺破食物中的细胞。
你可能会注意到商店中的冷冻肉排和家中的冷冻肉排味道不一样，这种不同是从冷冻肉排开始的。
当你解冻肉排时可能会注意到血水的痕迹，这正是细胞破裂造成的，如图45-4。
你在开车把肉排带回家的途中，肉排的温度可能会达到70℉或者更高，然后在冷冻前把它放在温度低于32℉的冰箱中。
最好的冷冻方法是用把食物放在冰箱中最冷的地方若干小时的办法，让它的温度尽可能低于32℉，然后再把它放在冰箱中冷藏的位置。
这个地方可能是在速冻格里，或是在冷凝盘上，如图45-5。
45-2冰柜和冰箱现实中，冰箱通常是由金属薄板外壁和金属或塑料材质内壁构成。
有时候冰箱外壁可能会被涂上流行的图案，更匹配厨房用具的格调。
冰箱可能是立式的（冰箱）或是卧式的（冰柜），如图45-6。
立式的冰箱，冰箱门为了方便可能是左右开启的。
卧式的冰箱，冰柜门是一个可以拉起的盖子，如图45-7。
冰箱的储藏空间小，常被用在家庭厨房小的地方。
他可能不像冰柜一样效率高，因为冰箱门随时打开，开门时冷空气从冰箱底部流走，如图45-8。
这并不能让食物温度改变太多，刚好使空气温度变冷。
湿气随空气进入并聚集在盘管上。
开冰箱门时应尽量开的最小。
当冰柜门打开时，冷空气就呆在里面，如图45-9。
建筑环境与设备工程(暖通)毕业设计外文翻译
南京工程学院Nanjing Institute Of Technology毕业设计英文资料翻译The Translation Of The English Material Of Graduation Design学生姓名：学号： 000000000Name: Number: 000000000班级：K暖通091Class: K-Nuantong 091所在学院：康尼学院College:Kangni College专业：建筑环境与设备工程Profession: Building Environment and Equipment Engineering指导教师：Tutor:2013年02月25日英文：Thermal comfort in the future - Excellence andexpectationP. Ole Fanger and Jørn ToftumInternational Centre for Indoor Environment andEnergy Technical University of DenmarkAbstractThis paper predicts some trends foreseen in the new century as regards the indoor environment and thermal comfort. One trend discussed is the search for excellence, upgrading present standards that aim merely at an “acceptable” condition with a substantial number of dissatisfied. An important element in this connection is individual thermal control. A second trend is to acknowledge that elevated air temperature and humidity have a strong negative impact on perceived air quality and ventilation requirements. Future thermal comfort and IAQ standards should include these relationships as a basis for design. The PMV model has been validated in the field in buildings with HVAC systems that were situated in cold, temperate and warm climates and were studied during both summer and winter. In non-air-conditioned buildings in warm climates occupants may sense the warmth as being less severe than the PMV predicts, due to low expectations. An extension of the PMV model that includes an expectancy factor is proposed for use in non-air-conditioned buildings in warm climates. The extended PMV model agrees well with field studies in non-air-conditioned buildings of three continents.Keywords: PMV, Thermal sensation, Individual control, Air quality, AdaptationA Search for ExcellencePresent thermal comfort standards (CEN ISO 7730, ASHRAE 55) acknowledge that there are considerable individual differences between people’s thermal sensation and their discomfort caused by local effects, i.e. by air movement. In a collective indoor climate, the standards prescribe a compromise that allows for a significant number of people feeling too warm or too cool. They also allow for air velocities that will be felt as a draught by a substantial percentage of the occupants.In the future this will in many cases be considered as insufficient. There will be a demand for systems that allow all persons in a space to feel comfortable. The obvious way to achieve this is to move from the collective climate to the individually controlled local climate. In offices, individual thermal control of each workplace will be common. The system should allow for individual control of the general thermal sensation without causing any draught or other local discomfort.A search for excellence involves providing all persons in a space with the means to feel thermally comfortable without compromise. Thermal Comfort and IAQ Present standards treat thermal comfort and indoor air quality separately, indicating that they are independent of each other. Recent research documents that this is not true . The air temperature and humidity combined in the enthalpy have a strong impact on perceived air quality, and perceived air quality determines the required ventilation in ventilation standards. Research has shown that dry and cool air is perceived as being fresh and pleasant while the same composition of air at an elevated temperature and humidity is perceived as stale and stuffy. During inhalation it is the convective and evaporative cooling of the mucous membrane in the nose that is essential for the fresh and pleasant sensation. Warm and humid air is perceived as being stale and stuffy due to the lack of nasal cooling. This may be interpreted as a local warm discomfort in the nasal cavity. The PMV model is the basis for existing thermal comfort standards. It is quite flexible and allows for the determination of a wide range of air temperatures and humidities that result in thermal neutrality for the body as a whole. But the inhaled air would be perceived as being very different within this wide range of air temperatures and humidities. An example: light clothing and an elevated air velocity or cooled ceiling, an air temperature of 28ºC and a relative humidity of 60% may givePMV=0, but the air quality would be perceived as stale and stuffy. A simultaneous request for high perceived air quality would require an air temperature of 20-22ºC and a modest air humidity. Moderate air temperature and humidity decrease also SBS symptoms and the ventilation requirement, thus saving energy during the heating season. And even with air-conditioning it may be beneficial and save energy during the cooling season. PMV model and the adaptive modelThe PMV model is based on extensive American and European experiments involving over a thousand subjects exposed to well-controlled environments. The studies showed that the thermal sensation is closely related to the thermal load on the effector mechanisms of the human thermoregulatory system. The PMV model predicts the thermal sensation as a function of activity, clothing and the four classical thermal environmental parameters. The advantage of this is that it is a flexible tool that includes all the major variables influencing thermal sensation. It quantifies the absolute and relative impact of these six factors and can therefore be used in indoor environments with widely differing HVAC systems as well as for different activities and different clothing habits. The PMV model has been validated in climate chamber studies in Asia as well as in the field, most recently in ASHRAE’s worldwide research in buildings with HVAC systems that were situated in cold, temperate and warm climates and were studied during both summer and winter. The PMV is developed for steady-state conditions but it has been shown to apply with good approximation at the relatively slow fluctuations of the environmental parameters typically occurring indoors. Immediately after an upward step-wise change of temperature, the PMV model predicts well the thermal sensation, while it takes around 20 min at temperature down-steps .Field studies in warm climates in buildings without air-conditioning have shown, however, that the PMV model predicts a warmer thermal sensation than the occupants actually feel. For such non-air-conditioned buildings an adaptive model has been proposed. This model is a regression equation that relates the neutral temperature indoors to the monthly average temperature outdoors. The only variable is thus the average outdoor temperature, which at its highest may have an indirect impact on the human heat balance. An obvious weakness of the adaptive model is that it does not include human clothing or activity or the four classical thermal parameters that have a well-known impact on the human heat balance and therefore on the thermal sensation. Although the adaptive model predicts the thermal sensation quite well for non-air-conditioned buildings of the 1900’s located in warm parts of the world, the question remains as to how well it would suit buildings of new types in the future where the occupants have a different clothing behaviour and a different activity pattern.Why then does the PMV model seem to overestimate the sensation of warmth in non-air-conditioned buildings in warm climates? There is general agreement that physiological acclimatization does not play a role. One suggested explanation is that openable windows in naturally ventilated buildings should provide a higher level of personal control than in air-conditioned buildings. We do not believe that this is true in warm climates. Although an openable window sometimes may provide some control of air temperature and air movement, this applies only to the persons who work close to a window. What happens to persons in the office who work far away from the window? We believe that in warm climates air-conditioning with proper thermostatic control in each space provides a better perceived control than openable windows. Another factor suggested as an explanation to the difference is theexpectations of the occupants. We think this is the right factor to explain why the PMV overestimates the thermalsensation of occupants in non-air-conditioned buildings in warm climates. These occupants are typically people who have been living in warm environments indoors and outdoors, maybe even through generations. They may believe that it is their “destiny” to live in environments where they feel warmer than neutral. This may be expressed by an expectancy factor, e. The factor e may vary between 1 and 0.5. It is 1 for air-conditioned buildings. For non-air-conditioned buildings, the expectancy factor is assumed to depend on the duration of the warm weather over the year and whether such buildings can be compared with many others in the region that are air-conditioned. If the weather is warm all year or most of the year and there are no or few other air-conditionedbuildings, e may be 0.5, while it may be 0.7 if there are many other buildings with air-conditioning. For non-air-conditioned buildings in regions where the weather is warm only during the summer and no or few buildings have air-conditioning, the expectancy factor may be 0.7 to 0.8, while it may be 0.8 to 0.9 where there are many air-conditioned buildings. In regions with only brief periods of warm weather during the summer, the expectancy factor may be 0.9 to 1. Table 1 proposes a first rough estimation of ranges for the expectancy factor corresponding to high, moderate and low degrees of expectation.Table 1. Expectancy factors for non-air-conditioned buildings in warm climates.A second factor that contributes to the difference between the PMV and actual thermal sensation in non-air-conditioned buildings is the estimated activity. In many field studies in offices, the metabolic rate is estimated on the basis of a questionnaire identifying the percentage of time the person was sedentary, standing, or walking. This mechanistic approach does not acknowledge the fact that people, when feeling warm, unconsciously tend to slow down their activity. They adapt to the warm environment by decreasing their metabolic rate. The lower pace in warm environments should be acknowledged by inserting a reduced metabolic rate when calculating the PMV.To examine these hypotheses further, data were downloaded from the database of thermal comfort field experiments. Only quality class II data obtained in non-air-conditioned buildings during the summer period in warm climates were used in the analysis. Data from four cities (Bangkok, Brisbane, Athens, and Singapore) were included, representing a total of more than 3200 sets of observations . The data from these four cities with warm climates were also used for the development of the adaptive model.For each set of observations, recorded metabolic rates were reduced by 6.7% for every scale unit of PMV above neutral, i.e. a PMV of 1.5 corresponded to a reduction in the metabolic rate of 10%. Next, the PMV was recalculated with reduced metabolic rates using ASHRAE’s thermal comfort tool . The resulting PMV values were then adjusted for expectation by multiplication with expectancy factors estimated to be 0.9 for Brisbane, 0.7 for Athens and Singapore and 0.6 for Bangkok. As an average for each building included in the field studies, Figure 1 and Table 2 compare the observed thermal sensation with predictions using the new extended PMV model for warm climates.Comparison of observed mean thermal sensation with predictions made using the new extension of the PMV model for non-air-conditioned buildings in warm climates. The lines are based on linear regression analysis weighted according to the number of responses obtained in each building.Table 2. Non-air-conditioned buildings in warm climates.Comparison of observed thermal sensation votes and predictions made using the new extension of the PMV model.The new extension of the PMV model for non-air-conditioned buildings in warm climates predicts the actual votes well. The extension combines the best of the PMV and the adaptive model. It acknowledges the importance of expectations already accounted for by the adaptive model, while maintaining the PMV model’s classical thermal parameters that have direct impact on the human heat balance. It should also be noted that the new PMV extension predicts a higher upper temperature limit when the expectancy factor is low. People with low expectations are ready to accept a warmer indoor environment. This agrees well with the observations behind the adaptive model.Further analysis would be useful to refine the extension of the PMV model, and additional studies in non-air-conditioned buildings in warm climates in different parts of the world would be useful to further clarify expectation and acceptability among occupants. It would also be useful to study the impact of warm office environments on work pace and metabolic rate.ConclusionsThe PMV model has been validated in the field in buildings with HVAC systems, situated in cold, temperate and warm climates and studied during both summer and winter. In non-air-conditioned buildings in warm climates, occupants may perceive the warmth as being less severe than the PMV predicts, due to low expectations. An extension of the PMV model that includes an expectancy factor is proposed for use in non-air-conditioned buildings in warm climates.The extended PMV model agrees well with field studies in non-air-conditioned buildings in warm climates of three continents.Thermal comfort and air quality in a building should be considered simultaneously. A high perceived air quality requires moderate air temperature and humidity. AcknowledgementFinancial support for this study from the Danish Technical research Council is gratefully acknowledged. ReferencesAndersson, L.O., Frisk, P., Löfstedt, B., Wyon, D.P., (1975), Human responses to dry, humidified and intermittently humidified air in large office buildings. Swedish Building Research Document Series, D11/75.ASHRAE 55-1992: Thermal environmental conditions for human occupancy. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers, Inc.Baker, N. and Standeven, M. (1995), A Behavioural Approach to Thermal Comfort Assessment in Naturally Ventilated Buildings. Proceedings from CIBSE National Conference, pp 76-84.Brager G.S., de Dear R.J. (1998), Thermal adaptation in the built environment: a literature review. Energy and Buildings, 27, pp 83-96.Cena, K.M. (1998), Field study of occupant comfort and office thermal environments in a hot-arid climate. (Eds. Cena, K. and de Dear, R.). Final report, ASHRAE 921-RP, ASHRAE Inc., Atlanta.de Dear, R., Fountain, M., Popovic, S., Watkins, S., Brager, G., Arens, E., Benton, C., (1993a), A field study of occupant comfort and office thermal environments in a hot humid climate. Final report, ASHRAE 702 RP, ASHRAE Inc., Atlanta.de Dear, R., Ring, J.W., Fanger, P.O. (1993b), Thermal sensations resulting from sudden ambient temperature changes. Indoor Air, 3, pp 181-192.de Dear, R. J., Leow, K. G. and Foo, S.C. (1991), Thermal comfort in the humid tropics: Field experiments in air-conditioned and naturally ventilated buildings in Singapore. International Journal of Biometeorology, vol. 34, pp 259-265.de Dear, R.J. (1998), A global databaseof thermal comfort field experiments. ASHRAE Transactions, 104(1b), pp 1141-1152.de Dear, R.J. and Auliciems, A. (1985), Validation of the Predicted Mean Vote model of thermal comfort in six Australian field studies. ASHRAE Transactions, 91(2), pp 452- 468.de Dear, R.J., Brager G.S. (1998), Developing an adaptive model of thermal comfort and preference. ASHRAE Transactions, 104(1a), pp 145-167.de Dear, R.J., Leow, K.G., and Ameen, A. (1991), Thermal comfort in the humid tropics - Part I: Climate chamber experiments on temperature preferences in Singapore. ASHRAE Transactions 97(1), pp 874-879.Donini, G., Molina, J., Martello, C., Ho Ching Lai, D., Ho Lai, K., Yu Chang, C., La Flamme, M., Nguyen, V.H., Haghihat, F. (1996), Field study of occupant comfort and office thermal environments in a cold climate. Final report, ASHRAE 821 RP, ASHRAE Inc., Atlanta.Fang, L., Clausen, G., Fanger, P.O. (1999), Impact of temperature and humidity on chemical and sensory emissions from building materials. Indoor Air, 9, pp 193-201.Fanger, P.O. (1970), Thermal comfort. Danish Technical Press, Copenhagen, Denmark.Fouintain, M.E. and Huizenga, C. (1997), A thermal sensation prediction tool for use by the profession. ASHRAE Transactions, 103(2), pp 130-136.Humphreys, M.A. (1978), Outdoor temperatures and comfort indoors. Building Research and Practice, 6(2), pp 92-105.Krogstad, A.L., Swanbeck, G., Barregård, L., et al. (1991), Besvär vid kontorsarbete med olika temperaturer i arbetslokalen - en prospektiv undersökning (A prospective study of indoor climate problems at differenttemperatures in offices), Volvo Truck Corp., Göteborg, Sweden.Tanabe, S., Kimura, K., Hara, T. (1987), Thermal comfort requirements during the summer season in Japan. ASHRAE Transactions, 93(1), pp 564-577.Toftum, J., Jørgensen, A.S., Fanger, P.O. (1998), Upper limits for air humidity for preventing warm respiratory discomfort. Energy and Buildings, 28(3), pp 15-23.中文：未来的热舒适性——优越性和期望值Fanger和Jørn Toftum国际室内环境中心和丹麦能源科技大学摘要本文预测了一些在新世纪中可以预见的热舒适性以及室内环境的发展趋势。
毕业论文外文翻译--析暖通空调系统在建筑中的节能问题(适用于毕业论
外文翻译ANALYSIS OF HVAC SYSTEM ENERGYCONSERVATIONIN BUILDINGSABSTRACTE conomic development and people's increasing demand for energy, but the nature of the energy is not inexhaustible. Environment and energy issues become increasingly acute, if no measures are taken, then the energy will limit the rapid economic development of the question.With the improvement of living standard, building energy consumption in the proportion of total energy consumption is increasing. In developed countries, building energy consumption accounts for 40% of total energy consumption of the community, while the country despite the low level of socio-economic development, but the building energy consumption has nearly 30% of total energy consumption, and still rising. Therefore, in western countries or in China, building energy consumption is affecting the socio-economic status of the overall development of the question. In building energy consumption, the energy consumption for HVAC systems has accounted for 30% of building energy consumption -50%, with the extensive application of HVAC, energy consumption for HVAC systems will further increase Great. HVAC systems are often coupled with high-quality electric energy, and our power and relatively tight in some areas, lack of energy supply and demand which is bound to lead to further intensification of contradictions. Therefore, energy-saving heating, higher professional requirements is inevitable across the board.KEYWORDS:energy-saving，HVAC1. Energy saving design measures should be takenRapid changes in science and technology today, area HVAC new technologies emerge, we can achieve a variety of ways of energy saving HVAC systems.1.1 Starting from the design, selecting, designing HVAC systems, so that the efficient state of the economy running.Design is a leading engineering, system design will directly affect its performance. The building load calculation is an important part of the design, a common problem is that the current design of short duration, many designers to save time, wrong use of the design manual for the design or preliminary design estimates of cold, heat load with the unit construction area of cold, heat load index, direct construction design stage as hot and cold load to determine the basis, often making the total load is too large, resulting in heating equipment, air conditioning is too large, higher initial investment, operating costs, increased energy consumption.1.2 using the new energy-saving air-conditioning and heating comfort and healthy mannerAffect human thermal comfort environment of many parameters, different environmental parameters can get the same effect of thermal comfort, but for different heat and moisture parameters of the environment of its energy consumption air conditioning system is not the same.1.3 Actual situation of a reasonable choice of cold and heat sources, seek to achieve diversification of cold and heat sourceWith the extensive application of HVAC systems on non-renewable energy consumption also rose sharply, while the broken part of the ecological environment are becoming increasingly intensified. How to choose a reasonable heating sources, has caused widespread concern of all parties.1.4 to enhance the use of hot and cold recycling of the work, to achieve maximum energyHVAC systems to improve energy efficiency is one of the ways to achieve energy-saving air-conditioning. Heat recovery system installed mainly through energy recovery, with the air from wind energy to deal with new, fresh air can reducethe energy required for processing, reducing the load, to save energy. In the choice of heat recovery, the should be integrated with the local climate Tiao Jian, Jing Ji situation, Gong Cheng actual situation of harmful exhaust gases of the situation in a variety of factors Deng integrated to determine the Xuanyong suitable heat recovery, so as to achieve Hua Jiao Shao's investment, recovery of more heat (cold) the amount of purpose.1.5 focus on development of renewable energy, and actively promoting new energyAs the air-conditioning systems used in high-grade, non-renewable energy resources and environmental problems caused by the increasingly prominent, have to develop some reasonable and effective renewable energy to ease the current tensions. To heat (cold) and solar and other renewable resources used in air conditioning and refrigeration, has certain advantages, but also clean and pollution-free. Ground Source Heat Pump is a use of shallow and deep earth energy, including soil, groundwater, surface water, seawater, sewage, etc. as a cold source in winter and summer heat is not only heating but also a new central air-conditioning system cooling.2. Saving design problemsAchieve energy-saving HVAC systems, now has a lot of mature conditions, but in practical applications there are some problems：2.1 The issue of public awareness of energy conservationThe past is not enough public understanding of energy, and on the air conditioning is also very one-sided view. For a comfort of air conditioning system or heating system, should the human body has a very good comfort. But the prevailing view now is: the colder the better air-conditioning, heating the more heat the better. This is obviously we seek the comfort of air conditioning is contrary to the view. In fact, this not only greatly increase the energy consumption of air conditioning heating, indoor and outdoor temperature and because of the increase, but also to the human body's adaptability to different environmental decline, lowering the body immunity. Therefore, we need to improve advocacy efforts to change public to the traditional understanding of air conditioning and heating, vigorous publicity andpromotion in accordance with building standards and the cold heat energy metering devices to collect tolls, raise public consciousness of energy.2.2 The design concept of the problemReasonable energy-saving design is a prerequisite. At present, some designers due to inadequate attention to design empirical value when applied blindly, resulting in the increase of the initial investment, energy consumption surprising, therefore recommended that the government functions and the energy-saving review body, to increase the monitoring of the HVAC air-conditioning energy saving efforts enhance staff awareness of energy conservation design, so that energy conservation is implemented.2.3 The promotion of new technologies issueNew technology in the HVAC system for energy conservation provides a new direction. Such as ground source heat pump systems, solar cooling and heating system, not only to achieve efficient use of renewable energy, and can bring significant economic benefits, is worth promoting. However, as with any new technology, these new technologies are often high in cost, and the geographical conditions of use have certain limitations, and technically there are still many areas for improvement to improve. Therefore, new energy-efficient technologies, we should be according to local conditions, sum up experience, and actively promote.3. ConclusionHVAC systems saving energy in the building occupies a very important position, should attract enough attention to the designer. Designers should be from a design point of view fully into account the high and strict compliance with energy standards energy saving ideas to run through all aspects of the construction sector. Energy-saving technologies and renewable energy recycling, the Government and other relevant departments should support and vigorously promoted. And the design, construction, supervision, quality supervision, municipal administration and other departments should cooperate closely and pay close attention to implementing a cold, heat metering devices to collect tolls, so people really get benefit from energy efficient building, energy-saving construction and non-heating energy efficientbuilding can not have the same charge standard. At the same time to raise public awareness of energy conservation, and vigorously promote the development of new energy-saving technologies to achieve sustainable development of society.References[1] "residential design standard" DBJ14-037-2006.[2] "Public Buildings Energy Efficiency Design Standards" DBJ14-036-2006.[3] "Technical Specification for radiant heating" JGJ142-2004.析暖通空调系统在建筑中的节能问题摘要经济的发展使人们对能源的需求不断增加,但是自然界的能源并不是取之不尽,用之不竭的。
暖通英文翻译
暖通Heating ventilation and air conditioning空调平面图air handling layoutMU1~3新风系统图MU1~3 make-up air system diagramAHU-1净化空调系统图Air purification & air handling system diagram, AHU-1空调通风平剖面图ventilation & air conditioning plan/section吊顶空调平剖面图air condition ceiling plan section吊顶通风和采暖，空调用水管平面图ventilation and heating piping plan above ceiling室内采暖空调平面图room heating and air condition plan吊顶一下净化空调平面图air purification & air conditioning above ceiling拉丝区＋14米送风平面图air supply plan at level of +14.00, drawing areaS-1,2 送风系统图S-1,2 air supply system diagram室内回风口平面图indoor air return grill plan洁净室回风平面图air return grill plan in clean rooms空调用冷热水管平面图A.C water piping plan空调供热流程图A.C heating supply system diagram屋顶排风平面图roof exhaust plan排风系统图roof exhaust system送风系统图air supply system diagramAHU-1 水系统图AHU-1 water piping system diagram净化空调系统控制原理图air purification & air conditioning system control priciple diagram AHU-15 变风量空调系统图AHU-15 VAV system diagram冷冻水，冷却水管道系统图CHW and CW piping system diagram热水采暖系统图hot water heating system diagram空调机房平面图air handling room plan最冷月或最热月平均温度temperature coldest month or hottest month (mean) 年，月，平均温度，最高，最低temperature, yearly, monthly, mean, highest, lowest 最高或最低绝对温度absolute temperature, highest or lowest湿球温度wet bulb temperature干球温度dry bulb temperature采暖区region with heating provision不采暖区region without heating provision采暖室外计算温度calculating outdoor temperature for heating通风冬季室外计算温度calculating outdoor temperature for ventilation winter 绝对大气压absolute atmospheric pressure蒸发量volume of vaporization相对湿度relative humidity采暖heating热媒heating medium供暖管道heating system供暖总管heating pipe集中供暖central heating供暖总站central heating plant单管供暖系统one-pipe heating system单管循环系统one-pipe circuit system单管上行下给供暖系统one-pipe drop heating system单管热水供暖系统one-pipe hot water heating system单管强制循环系统one-pipe forced system蒸汽供暖steam heating供应方式means of supply蒸汽压力steam pressure蒸汽密度vapor density蒸汽压力势vapor pressure potential供汽装置steam supply installation蒸汽系统vapor system降压站reduction station蒸汽容量steam capacity蒸汽消耗量steam consumption蒸汽盘管供暖steam coil heated蒸汽盘管steam coil供热盘管heating coil散热盘管panel coil排蒸汽管steam discharge pipe蒸汽回管steam discharge pipe冷凝水管condensing pipe冷凝回水管condensing return pipe 蒸汽散热器steam radiator隔汽具，汽层vapor barrier蒸汽分离器steam separator蒸汽调整阀steam regulating蒸汽减压阀steam reducing valve 蒸汽暖风机steam unit ventilator供暖蒸汽锅炉steam-heating boiler 电热供暖electrical heater电热器electrical heater管式电热器tubular electrical heater 电热辐射器electrical radiator电热对流器electrical convector热风供暖warm air-heating热风器hot air generator热风烘干hot air drying强制对流加热器forced convection heater空气加热器air heater热风管道warm-air heating压力供气forced air supply压力环流forced circulation辐射式供热系统embedded panel system双管供热系统double pipe heating 上分式双管系统double pipe dropping system顶棚板面供暖ceiling panel heating顶棚供暖盘ceiling coil片式供暖盘finned type heating coil 散热器radiator墙挂式散热器wall radiator单柱散热器one column radiator板式散热器plate radiator圆翼形散热器circular wing radiator 长翼形散热器long wing radiator蜂窝式散热器honeycomb radiator暖气管柱column of radiator单个散热器unit radiator闭式散热器closed radiator悬挂式单个散热器suspended type unit radiator管式加热器tubular heater波纹式散热片corrugated radiator换热器heat exchange散热器翘板fin of radiator散热器阻气板radiator air baffle散热器外罩enclosure of radiators散热器阀radiator valve穿墙管wall pipe穿墙套管wall sleeve导热性thermal conductivity导热系数thermal coefficient of conduction供热面heating surface散热面heat delivery surface热气消耗heat consumption热对流thermal convection热消耗heat dissipation热扩散thermal convection热膨胀thermal diffusivity热效率thermal efficiency热效应heat effect。
(完整)暖通空调专业外文翻译
英文文献Air Conditioning SystemsAir conditioning has rapidly grown over the past 50 years， from a luxury to a standard system included in most residential and commercial buildings。
In 1970， 36％of residences in the U。
S。
were either fully air conditioned or utilized a room air conditioner for cooling (Blue， et al。
, 1979）。
By 1997， this number had more than doubled to 77%， and that year also marked the first time that over half （50.9%) of residences in the U。
S。
had central air conditioners （Census Bureau， 1999）。
An estimated 83％ of all newhomes constructed in 1998 had central air conditioners （Census Bureau， 1999）。
Air conditioning has also grown rapidly in commercial buildings。
From 1970 to 1995, the percentage of commercial buildings with air conditioning increased from 54 to 73% (Jackson and Johnson, 1978， and DOE， 1998）.Air conditioning in buildings is usually accomplished with the use of mechanical or heat-activated equipment. In most applications, the air conditioner must provide both cooling and dehumidification to maintain comfort in the building。
暖通空调英文参考文献(精选124个最新)
随着现代社会建筑业和经济的发展，空调已成为人们生活中不可缺少的部分，已遍布社会的各个领域，对空调质量的要求也越来越高。
暖通空调技术发展迅速，取得了较好的社会反响，下面是搜索整理的暖通空调英文参考文献，欢迎借鉴参考。
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(仅供参考)暖通英文文献
Air Conditioning SystemsAir conditioning has rapidly grown over the past 50 years, from a luxury to a standard system included in most residential and commercial buildings. In 1970, 36% of residences in the U.S. were either fully air conditioned or utilized a room air conditioner for cooling (Blue, et al., 1979). By 1997, this number had more than doubled to 77%, and that year also marked the first time that over half (50.9%) of residences in the U.S. had central air conditioners (Census Bureau, 1999). An estimated 83% of all newhomes constructed in 1998 had central air conditioners (Census Bureau, 1999). Air conditioning has also grown rapidly in commercial buildings. From 1970 to 1995, the percentage of commercial buildings with air conditioning increased from 54 to 73% (Jackson and Johnson, 1978, and DOE, 1998).Air conditioning in buildings is usually accomplished with the use of mechanical or heat-activated equipment. In most applications, the air conditioner must provide both cooling and dehumidification to maintain comfort in the building. Air conditioning systems are also used in other applications, such as automobiles, trucks, aircraft, ships, and industrial facilities. However, the description of equipment in this chapter is limited to those commonly used in commercial and residential buildings.Commercial buildings range from large high-rise office buildings to the corner convenience store. Because of the range in size and types of buildings in the commercial sector, there is a wide varietyof equipment applied in these buildings. For larger buildings, the air conditioning equipment is part of a total system design that includes items such as a piping system, air distribution system, and cooling tower. Proper design of these systems requires a qualified engineer. The residential building sector is dominatedby single family homes and low-rise apartments/condominiums. The cooling equipment applied in these buildings comes in standard “packages” that are often both sized and installed by the air conditioning contractor.The chapter starts with a general discussion of the vapor compression refrigeration cycle then moves to refrigerants and their selection, followed by packaged Chilled Water Systems。
暖通空调专业外文翻译 --空调系统
英文文献Air Conditioning SystemsAir conditioning has rapidly grown over the past 50 years, from a luxury to a standard system included in most residential and commercial buildings. In 1970, 36% of residences in the U.S. were either fully air conditioned or utilized a room air conditioner for cooling (Blue, et al., 1979). By 1997, this number had more than doubled to 77%, and that year also marked the first time that over half (50.9%) of residences in the U.S. had central air conditioners (Census Bureau, 1999). An estimated 83% of all newhomes constructed in 1998 had central air conditioners (Census Bureau, 1999). Air conditioning has also grown rapidly in commercial buildings. From 1970 to 1995, the percentage of commercial buildings with air conditioning increased from 54 to 73% (Jackson and Johnson, 1978, and DOE, 1998).Air conditioning in buildings is usually accomplished with the use of mechanical or heat-activated equipment. In most applications, the air conditioner must provide both cooling and dehumidification to maintain comfort in the building. Air conditioning systems are also used in other applications, such as automobiles, trucks, aircraft, ships, and industrial facilities. However, the description of equipment in this chapter is limited to those commonly used in commercial and residential buildings.Commercial buildings range from large high-rise office buildings to the corner convenience store. Because of the range in size and types of buildings in the commercial sector, there is a wide variety of equipment applied in these buildings. For larger buildings, the air conditioning equipment is part of a total system design that includes items such as a piping system, air distribution system, and cooling tower. Proper design of these systems requires a qualified engineer. The residential building sector is dominatedby single family homes and low-rise apartments/condominiums. The cooling equipment applied in these buildings comes in standard “packages” that are often both sized and installed by the air conditioning contractor.The chapter starts with a general discussion of the vapor compression refrigeration cycle then moves to refrigerants and their selection, followed by packaged Chilled Water Systems。
外文文献及翻译：空调节能技术的研究
外文文献及翻译：空调节能技术的研究中文4160字英文原文How Air Conditionersenergy conservation technologyresearch1. IntroductionsThe energy conservation may say is the building character automatic control system starting point and the home to return to. It is well known, in the intelligent construction, HV AC (heating, ventilates and air conditioning) the system consumes to have to occupy the building consumption total energy enormous partial proportions, approximately about 50% ~60%. Specially cold: East the unit, the cooling tower, the circulating water pump and the air conditioning unit, the new atmosphere unit, all are consumes energy the big household. Therefore really has essential develops one effective air-conditioning system energy conservation method, especially uses is in improves in the existing building air-conditioning system automation the aspect.DDC (Directdigitalcontr01) the direct of numerical control, is a structure simple operation easy control device, it may borrow by the connection switches over the equipment to make the systems control along with the load change, like the air conditioning cold water circulatory system, the air conditioning box frequency conversion automatic amount of wind adjustment and the cooling tower radiation ventilator frequency conversion holds controls and so on, may let an air-conditioning system more effective revolution, like this, not only brings the very big economic efficiency for the estate management, moreover also may cause the system to move under a better operating mode,thus lengthens the equipment the service life as well as achieved provides goal of the comfortable air conditioning environment and the energy conservation.The general building commonly used air-conditioning system has CA V, V A V, VWV and so on, respectively has differently holds controls the way, all may use DDC to control.1）decides the amount of wind system (ConstantAirV olume, is called CAV).Decides certainly the amount of wind system the amount of wind which blows out for the air conditioner certainly, provides coldly (is warm) the gas which the air conditioning region needs. When air conditioning region load variation, then changes the blast temperature to deal with in the room to shoulder, and achieves themaintenance indoor temperature to the comfortable area request. The commonly used central air-conditioning system is AHU (air conditioner) and the cooling water pipe system (the FCU system). These two generally decides the amount of wind (CA V) to supply the air conditioning area, in order to deal with in the room the partial loads change, decides the amount of wind system in AHU to change warm by the air conditioner blows of processes, controls in the general FCU system by cold water valve ON/OFF adjusts the blast temperature.2）changes the amount of wind system (V A V)Changes the amount of wind system (VarlableAirV olume, is called V A V) is the air conditioner (AHU or FCU) may move changes the amount of wind. The commonly used central air-conditioning system is AHU (air conditioner) and the cooling water pipe system FCU system. These two generally decides the amount of wind (CA V) to supply the air conditioning area, inorder to deal with in the room the partial loads change, decides the amount of wind system in AHU to change warm by the air conditioner blows of processes, controls in the general FCU system by cold water valve ON/OFF adjusts the blast temperature. However these two has wasted the massive energy on the blast system. Because in long-term low load time the air feeder also carries out the entire amount of wind revolution to consume the electricity, this not only is not easy to maintain in the stable room humidity the condition, also wastes the massive blasts revolution energy. Changes the amount of wind system is aims at the blast system to consume the electricity shortcoming the energy conservation countermeasure.3）changes the current capacity system (VWV)So-called changes the current capacity system (VariableWaterV olume, is called VWV), is enhances the heat source machine by the certain water temperature supply air conditioner the efficiency, but changes by the special water pump delivers the water volume, while convenient achieves saves the effect which the water pump uses electricity. Changes the water volume system to depend on the water pump to the water pump system energy conservation efficiency the control mode and the VWV use proportion but different, whether there is the general VWV control mode section speed change (SP) and the bidirectional valve control mode. Above three kind of air-conditioning system is the present building air conditioning most often the system which designs. The central air conditioning control also is the pipeline, the fitting, the valve body or the valve centralism hypothesis control fluid provides the airconditioning. Therefore effectively combines the central air conditioning control namely to be able the active control toconsume energy, the design conforms with the energy conservation the air-conditioning system.In recent years, the our country majority of areas, in particular southeast the coastal area summer the air conditioning energy consumption suddenly was rising, the air conditioning uses electricity the tendency which increases sharply to cause the electrical network power supply to be intense. Statistics have indicated, our country every year the burning hot season air conditioning consumed the electricity to occupy 1/3 in recent years which the entire society uses electricity, the massive electrical energies swallow by the industry and the civil construction air conditioning, in particular large-scale construction central air-conditioning system, like each kind of commercial construction (office, market, hospital, hotel and so on) central air conditioning because its space big, person current capacity many, operation time long, management complex characteristic, causes the movement energy consumption to be quite high, the commercial construction air conditioning energy consumption nearly occupies its total energy consumption 50%. The central air conditioning design capacity is according to the biggest load computation, but in a major part building year only has several dozensdays time central air conditioning to be at the biggest load condition. The central air conditioning cold load throughout is in during the dynamic change, like every day sooner or later, each season in turn, every year samsara, the environment and the humanities condition, real-time will be affecting the central air conditioning cold load. General, it also gives the general energy conservation control domain the worker brought enormously has displayed the talent the space.The power load gap increases, the electric power supplytense aspect with difficulty obtains in recent years relaxes. Therefore, energy conservation in particular electricity saving, not only has the significant social significance moreover to have the urgent practical significance. Positively studies the development promotion green environmental protection new air conditioning technology and the equipment, the suppression air conditioning energy consumption increases, has become the building warmly to pass air conditioning domain urgent and the popular research topic. The dependence technology innovation, the system innovation, the energy conservation falls consumes, enhances the energy use efficiency, guaranteed are least in the "energy consumption, in the environmental pollution smallest" foundation, realizes the"energy conservation first, structure many Yuan, environment friendly" energy developmental strategy.In our telecommunication production, air conditioning energy conservation supervisory work weaker, the energy waste phenomenon is serious, therefore strengthens air conditioning the maintenance management and the technological transformations, may achieve the energy conservation the goal.2. Air conditioning energy conservation system research survey1) Through the load control, achieves the energy conservation goal. (a) The burning hot season new atmosphere load occupies the entire cold load 25-40%, reduces the new atmosphere load, reduces the new atmosphere energy consumption, the choice smallest essential new amount of wind, also can achieve the goal. But the new amount of wind smallest supply on the one hand the country had the standard, moreover the new amount of wind insufficient will affect the air quality, willendanger the human body health. (b) Outside the optimized construction the surrounding protection structure energy conservation design, uses the heat preservation thermal insulation material technology, reduces the air conditioning load, the realization construction energy conservation, but simultaneously also causes the building cost rise, the promotion to receive the certain limit.2) gathers can the air conditioning. Gathers coldly through the ice, avoids the daytime to use electricity the peak, at night stores up the air conditioning freezing water refrigeration, daytime does not start the air conditioning main engine only to use the aqueous system to circulate. This method itself certainly does not conserve energy the province electricity, but optimized the electrical network power supply, to already implemented the time sharing electrovalence the area, played "to economize does not conserve energy" the role, had the area promotion significance.3) water source heat pump. Is opposite says to the air and the soil, the water is the most ideal spatial transfer cold heat source, the water source heat pump also therefore has the environmental protection, is highly effective, the energy conservation and so on the multitudinous merit, but our country water source heat pump engineering research is not very mature, compares with some developed countries also has the certain disparity. At the same time, the water source heat pump although has very many merits, but receives the geology, the environment, the policy and so on the limit quite is also big, this caused the water source heat pump to be restricted in an our country more widespread application.4) In the central air-conditioning system individuallyconsumes energy the equipment energy conservation transformation. (a) Air blower and water pump general frequency changer velocity modulation energy conservation, this is at present uses more technologies. This method simple practical, electricity saving effect obvious, but product and so on water pump, air blower is the system auxiliary engine partially, occupies the overall system energy consumption approximately is 40%, therefore the excavation space is limited. (b) The refrigeration main engine, the refrigeration unit's power consumption holds the very big share in the air-conditioning system, saves this part of consuming energy is the entire air-conditioning system economy movement key. At present generally all uses reduces the indoor temperature standard, enhances the cold water temperature and so on the measure realization refrigeration main engine energy conservation.Above several methods deficiency has only considered the partial energy conservation, but had not considered from the overall system overall situation.5) the dynamic load track energy conservation control system take the entire central air-conditioning system as a body, unceasingly changes the condition according to the air conditioning area load, through changes in the main engine and the circulatory system various parameters movement change situation, the lock following load change, realizes in meets the load need under the premise the prompt quota supplies cold quantity, namely achieves "according to must supply", basically achieved "does not lag, are not many for, many gives" the goal. This method not only compared with the permanent current capacity water pump gentle breeze machine has realized the auxiliary engine largest scale energy conservation, moreover optimized the main engine movement operating mode, mightachieve the overall system conserved energy 15-35%. This is this topic research key point.3. Dynamic loads tracks energy conservation control planThe traditional central air-conditioning system adjustment plan is: Uses the permanent current capacity pattern or the heat sink side permanent current capacity but the load side changes the current capacity pattern, the system must shoulder is according to the biggest load, the worst meteorological condition and the worst use working conditions designs, when actual moves 50% above time, the system must shoulder all below 50%, the existence has the enormous energy dissipation. Also when shoulders Q when the change, the traditional system movement parameter simply cannot achieve the synchronized adjustment, the lag adjustment methodbesides passively increase the unloading through the main engine, nearly no other controls method.This research topic will abandon the former control plan, will recognize, the servo-control system theory, the intelligence control system theory take the model as the foundation, will unify with the central air conditioning main engine refrigeration technology and the cold intermediary circulatory system control, take the frequency conversion technology as the assistance method, the realization central air conditioning entire system whole coordination movement and the overall performance optimization. This research is the air conditioning energy conservation new idea, has represented the energy conservation technology recent development tendency.1) circulatory system energy conservation: By the system angle, through to the terminal load parameter, the central air conditioning main engine, the auxiliary engine movementoperating mode change, the gathering temperature, the pressure and so on the many kinds of coefficient of variation, then through the load move computation, the change system freezing water current capacity, the cooling water current capacity and the cooling tower air blower amount of wind adapts the air conditioning load change, simultaneously causes the main engine movement operating mode throughout to be in optimized in the best operating point. Generally when full load pumping machine needs the full speed movement, has not conserved energy the space, but uses the redundant technology and the frequency conversion technology unifies, the proportioning pump and the variable displacement pump coordinate,it is the truths.T o freezes the aqueous system to use the best output energy control. When the ambient temperature, the air conditioning terminal load changes, Optimized the main engine movement pattern each group freezing water for the backwater temperature, the temperature difference, the differential pressure and the current capacity also along with it change, these parameters which the flowmeter, the differential-pressure pickup and the temperature sensor examines delivers to the intelligent controller, the real-time data and the system historyperformance data which the controller basis gathers, the real-time idea figures out the refrigeration quantity which the terminal air conditioning load needs, as well as each group freezing water for the backwater temperature, the temperature difference, the differential pressure and the current capacity best value, and to this adjusts various frequency changers output frequency, the control freezes the water pump the rotational speed, Changes its current capacity to cause the freezing aqueous system for the backwater temperature, the temperaturedifference, the differential pressure and the current capacity movement the optimum value which produces in the controller.Because the freezing aqueous system has used the output energy dynamic control, the realization air conditioning host frozen intermediary current capacity follows the terminal load the demand supply, causes the air-conditioning system in each kind of load situation, all can both guarantee terminal user's comfortableness, and maximum limit has saved the system energy consumption.The cooling water system uses the best hot transfer efficiency control. The cooling water and the cooling tower air blower system uses the best transfer efficiency control. When the ambient temperature, the air conditioning terminal load changes, central air conditioning main engine load factor along with it change, main engine condenser best hot transformation temperature also along with it change. The intelligent controller basis gathers the real-time data and the system history performance data, calculates the main engine condenser the best hot transformation temperature (inflection point temperature) and the cooling water is best, the inlet temperature, and by this adjustment cooling water pump and the cooling tower air blower frequency changer output frequency, the control cooling water pump and the cooling tower air blower rotational speed, the dynamic adjustment cooling water current capacity and the cooling tower air blower amount of wind, causes the cooling water to enter, the outlet temperature approaches the optimum value which the intelligent controller produces, thus guaranteed the central air conditioning main engine is at under the best transfer efficiency condition to move as necessary.Because the cooling water system uses the best transfer efficiency control, had guaranteed the central air conditioningmain engine in the full load and in the partial load situation, is at the best active status, throughout maintains the best energy use factor (namely the COP value), thus reduced the air conditioning main engine energy consumption, simultaneously because the cooling water pump and the cooling tower air blower frequently in are lower than under the fixed load to move, also maximum limit saved the cooling water pump and the cooling tower air blower energy consumption.2) Auxiliary engine energy conservation: Each kind pumps the kind (freezing to pump, cold water pump, air blower and so on) the movement energy conservation. Use has the space vector control the frequency conversion velocity modulation way, changes the proportioning pump the variable displacement pump. Auxiliary engine energy conservation many to 40% .3) optimizes the auxiliary engine movement pattern: Generally when full load pumping machine needs the full speed movement, has not conserved energy the space, but uses the redundant technology and the frequency conversion technology unifies, the proportioning pump and the variable displacement pump coordinate, the optimized movement pattern, may cause the auxiliary engine unit to synthesize the energy conservation.4) multi- parameters non-linearity control: This system for multi- parameters, when changes, the nonlinear system, take the computer as the control method, designs a set to have from seeks the stable security control system which the superior auto-adapted intelligent control, the function consummates.This central air conditioning dynamic load track energy conservation control system, with the central air-conditioning system necessary use, may realize the central air-conditioning system highly effective energy conservation, the effect isremarkable. After the theoretical calculation, compares with the permanent current capacity central air-conditioning system, whole year the average electricity saving rate may reach 20%-30%. This project technology content is high, is the collection warmly passes the air conditioning technology, the refrigeration technology, the intelligent control theory and the computer control technology is a body central air conditioning highly effective energy conservation system.4. forecasts equipment system invests the market, if every year has will surpass 200 sets of products completely to install is bigger than 50,000 m2 in the floor space in the commercial construction central air conditioning engine room, it saves the electric quantity to be equal to every year newly built 50,000 kW power plant, decrease the peak will use electricity to the summer electrical network also plays certainly alleviates the role, truly will realize the society sustainable coordinated development.空调节能技术的研究1．引言节能可以说是楼字自动控制系统的出发点和归宿。
土建专业外文翻译---浅谈建筑环境与暖通空调能耗
Shallow talk the building environment an air condition to can consume with thewarmSummary:The research constructs environment, understanding a warm an air condition to carry output reason and influencing factor, can be more and reasonably put forward solve problem of method.Keyword:Constructing a warm of environment an air condition can consumeShallow talk the building environment an air condition to can consume with the warmThe energy provided motive for the development of the economy, but because of various reason, the development of the energy is a usually behind in economy of development.In the last few years, the growth rate maintenance of citizen's total output value of China are in about 10%, but the growth rate of the energy only have 3% ～s 4%.Such situation's requesting us has to economize on energy.The comparison that constructs the energy depletion in the society always the ability consume compares greatly, the building of the flourishing nations' use can have to the whole country generally and always can consume of 30% ～s 40%;China adopts the town population of the warm area although only 13.6% that have national population, adopt warm use an ability but have a whole country and always can consume of 9.6%.Construct the economy energy is the basic trend of the building development, is also a new growth of[with] the contemporary building science technique to order.The necessity of the modern building constitutes a part of warm, the air condition realm has already received the influence of this kind of trend as well, warm the economy energy within air condition system is cause a warm the attention of the air condition worker, and aims at different of the adopt of energy characteristics and the dissimilarity building of the nation,region is warm,well ventilated,the air condition request develop a related economy energy technique.The research constructs environment, understanding a warm an air condition to carry output reason and influencing factor, can be more and reasonably put forward solve problem of method.Warm the air condition can consume of constituteFor creating comfortable indoor air condition environment, have to consume a great deal of energy.Warm the air condition can consume is the building can consume medium of big door, reside to statistics a warm an air condition in the flourishing nation and can consume to have 65% that building can consume, canning consume to share by building always can consume of 356% calculation, warm the air condition can consume to share and always can consume of the comparison is up to 22.75% unexpectedly, be showed from this the building economy energy work of point should be warm the economy energy of the air condition.The air condition can consume to constitute and can see from the warm:Warm the air condition system can consume main the decision is cold in the air condition,hot the burden really certainly installs with the reasonable of the air condition system, the decoration of the air condition system and the choice of the air-condition take the air condition burden as basis of.So warm air condition economy energy of the key is the air condition the external world to carry to carry and inner part really settle, and warm air condition economy energy the work should also begin from this aspect, reasonable decoration building of position, the exactitude chooses the shape and material etc.s of the outside wall,door,window,roof, reducing air condition burden as far as possible.The influence of the indoor environmentWarm the target of the air condition is for people to provide comfortable life and produce indoor hot environment。
暖通空调系统专业外文翻译
暖通空调系统专业外文翻译英文文献Air Conditioning SystemsAir conditioning has rapidly grown over the past 50 years from a luxury to a standard system included in most residential and commercial buildings In 1970 36 of residences in the US were either fully air conditioned or utilized a room air conditioner for cooling Blue et al 1979 By 1997 this number had more than doubled to 77 and that year also marked the first time that over half 509 of residences in the US had central air conditioners Census Bureau 1999 An estimated 83 of all new homes constructed in 1998 had central air conditioners Census Bureau 1999 Air conditioning has also grown rapidly in commercial buildings From 1970 to 1995 the percentage of commercial buildings with air conditioning increased from 54 to 73 Jackson and Johnson 1978 and DOE 1998Air conditioning in buildings is usually accomplished with the use of mechanical or heat-activated equipment In most applications the air conditioner must provide both cooling and dehumidification to maintain comfort in the building Air conditioning systems are also used in other applications such as automobiles trucks aircraft ships and industrialfacilities However the description of equipment in this chapter is limited to those commonly used in commercial and residential buildings Commercial buildings range from large high-rise office buildings to the corner convenience store Because of the range in size and types of buildings in the commercial sector there is a wide variety of equipment applied in these buildings For larger buildings the air conditioning equipment is part of a total system design that includes items such as a piping system air distribution system and cooling tower Proper design of these systems requires a qualified engineer The residential building sector is dominatedby single family homes and low-rise apartmentscondominiums The cooling equipment applied in these buildings comes in standard packages that are often both sized and installed by the air conditioning contractor The chapter starts with a general discussion of the vapor compression refrigeration cycle then moves to refrigerants and their selection followed by packaged Chilled Water Systems11 Vapor Compression CycleEven though there is a large range in sizes and variety of air conditioning systems used in buildings most systems utilize the vapor compression cycle to produce the desired cooling and dehumidification This cycle is also used for refrigerating and freezing foods and for automotive air conditioning The first patent on a mechanically drivenrefrigeration system was issued to Jacob Perkins in 1834 in London and the first viable commercial system was produced in 1857 by James Harrison and DE SiebeBesides vapor compression there are two less common methods used to produce cooling in buildings the absorption cycle and evaporative cooling These are described later in the chapter With the vapor compression cycle a working fluid which is called the refrigerant evaporates and condenses at suitable pressures for practical equipment designsThe four basic components in every vapor compression refrigeration system are the compressor condenser expansion device and evaporator The compressor raises the pressure of the refrigerant vapor so that the refrigerant saturation temperature is slightly above the temperature of the cooling medium used in the condenser The type of compressor used depends on the application of the system Large electric chillers typically use a centrifugal compressor while small residential equipment uses a reciprocating or scroll compressorThe condenser is a heat exchanger used to reject heat from the refrigerant to a cooling medium The refrigerant enters the condenser and usually leaves as a subcooled liquid Typical cooling mediums used in condensers are air and water Most residential-sized equipment uses air as the cooling medium in the condenser while many larger chillers use water After leaving the condenser the liquid refrigerant expands to a lowerpressure in the expansion valveThe expansion valve can be a passive device such as a capillary tube or short tube orifice or an active device such as a thermal expansion valve or electronic expansion valve The purpose of the valve is toregulate the flow of refrigerant to the evaporator so that the refrigerant is superheated when it reaches the suction of the compressor At the exit of the expansion valve the refrigerant is at a temperature below that of the medium air or water to be cooled The refrigerant travels through a heat exchanger called the evaporator It absorbs energy from the air or water circulated through the evaporator If air is circulated through the evaporator the system is called a direct expansion system If water is circulated through the evaporator it is called a chiller In either case the refrigerant does not make direct contact with the air or water in the evaporatorThe refrigerant is converted from a low quality two-phase fluid to a superheated vapor under normal operating conditions in the evaporator The vapor formed must be removed by the compressor at a sufficient rate to maintain the low pressure in the evaporator and keep the cycle operating All mechanical cooling results in the production of heat energy that must be rejected through the condenser In many instances this heat energy is rejected to the environment directly to the air in the condenser or indirectly to water where it is rejected in a cooling tower With someapplications it is possible to utilize this waste heat energy to provide simultaneous heating to the building Recovery of this waste heat at temperatures up to 65°C 150°F can be used to reduce costs for space heatingCapacities of air conditioning are often expressed in either tons or kilowatts kW of cooling The ton is a unit of measure related to the ability of an ice plant to freeze one short ton 907 kg of ice in 24 hr Its value is 351 kW 12000 Btuhr The kW of thermal cooling capacity produced by the air conditioner must not be confused with the amount of electrical power also expressed in kW required to produce the cooling effect21 Refrigerants Use and SelectionUp until the mid-1980s refrigerant selection was not an issue in most building air conditioning applications because there were no regulations on the use of refrigerants Many of the refrigerants historically used for building air conditioning applications have been chlorofluorocarbons CFCs and hydrochlorofluorocarbons HCFCs Most of these refrigerants are nontoxic and nonflammable However recent US federal regulations EPA 1993a EPA 1993b and international agreements UNEP 1987 have placed restrictions on the production and use of CFCs and HCFCs Hydrofluorocarbons HFCs are now being used in some applications where CFCs and HCFCs were used Having an understanding of refrigerants can helpa building owner or engineer make a more informed decision about the best choice of refrigerants for specific applications This section discusses the different refrigerants used in or proposed for building air conditioning applications and the regulations affecting their use The American Society of Heating Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers ASHRAE has a standard numbering systemfor identifying refrigerants ASHRAE 1992 Many popular CFC HCFC and HFC refrigerants are in the methane and ethane series of refrigerants They are called halocarbons or halogenated hydrocarbons because of the presence of halogen elements such as fluorine or chlorine King 1986 Zeotropes and azeotropes are mixtures of two or more different refrigerants A zeotropic mixture changes saturation temperatures as it evaporates or condenses at constant pressure The phenomena is called temperature glide At atmospheric pressure R-407C has a boiling bubble point of –44°C –47°F and a condensation dew point of –37°C –35°F which gives it a temperature glide of 7°C 12°F An azeotropic mixture behaves like a single component refrigerant in that the saturation temperature does not change appreciably as it evaporates or condenses at constant pressure R-410A has a small enough temperature glide less than 55°C 10°F that it is considered a near-azeotropic refrigerant mixture ASHRAE groups refrigerants by their toxicity and flammability ASHRAE 1994 Group A1 is nonflammable and least toxic while Group B3 isflammable and most toxic Toxicity is based on the upper safety limit for airborne exposure to the refrigerant If the refrigerant is nontoxic in quantities less than 400 parts per million it is a Class A refrigerant If exposure to less than 400 parts per million is toxic then the substance is given the B designation The numerical designations refer to the flammability of the refrigerant The last column of Table com shows the toxicity and flammability rating of common refrigerantsRefrigerant 22 is an HCFC is used in many of the same applications and is still the refrigerant of choice in many reciprocating and screw chillers as well as small commercial and residential packaged equipment It operates at a much higher pressure than either R-11 or R-12 Restrictions on the production of HCFCs will start in 2004 In 2010 R-22 cannot be used in new air conditioning equipment R-22 cannot be produced after 2020 EPA 1993bR-407C and R-410A are both mixtures of HFCs Both are considered replacements for R-22 R-407C is expected to be a drop-in replacement refrigerant for R-22 Its evaporating and condensing pressures for air conditioning applications are close to those of R-22 Table com However replacement of R-22 with R-407C should be done only after consulting with the equipment manufacturer At a minimum the lubricant and expansion device will need to be replaced The first residential-sized air conditioning equipment using R-410A was introduced in the US in 1998 Systems usingR-410A operate at approximately 50 higher pressure than R-22 Table com thus R-410A cannot be used as a drop-in refrigerant for R-22 R-410A systems utilize compressors expansion valves and heat exchangers designed specifically for use with that refrigerantAmmonia is widely used in industrial refrigeration applications and in ammonia water absorption chillers It is moderately flammable and has a class B toxicity rating but has had limited applications in commercial buildings unless the chiller plant can be isolated from the building being cooled Toth 1994 Stoecker 1994 As a refrigerant ammonia has many desirable qualities It has a high specific heat and high thermal conductivity Its enthalpy of vaporization is typically 6 to 8 times higher than that of the commonly used halocarbons and it provides higher heat transfer compared to halocarbons It can be used in both reciprocating and centrifugal compressorsResearch is underway to investigate the use of natural refrigerants such as carbon dioxide R-744 and hydrocarbons in air conditioning and refrigeration systems Bullock 1997 and Kramer 1991 Carbon dioxide operates at much higher pressures than conventional HCFCs or HFCs and requires operation above the critical point in typical air conditioning applications Hydrocarbon refrigerants often thought of as too hazardous because of flammability can be used in conventional compressors and have been used in industrial applications R-290 propane has operatingpressures close to R-22 and has been proposed as a replacement for R-22 Kramer 1991 Currently there are no commercial systems sold in the US for building operations that use either carbon dioxide or flammable refrigerants31 Chilled Water SystemsChilled water systems were used in less than 4 of commercial buildings in the US in 1995 However because chillers are usually installed in larger buildings chillers cooled over 28 of the US commercial building floor space that same year DOE 1998 Five types of chillers are commonly applied to commercial buildings reciprocating screw scroll centrifugal and absorption The first four utilize the vapor compression cycle to produce chilled water They differ primarily in the type of compressor used Absorption chillers utilize thermal energy typically steam or combustion source in an absorption cycle with either an ammonia-water or water-lithium bromide solution to produce chilled water32 Overall SystemAn estimated 86 of chillers are applied in multiple chiller arrangements like that shown in the figure Bitondo and Tozzi 1999 In chilled water systems return water from the building is circulated through each chiller evaporator where it is cooled to an acceptable temperature typically 4 to 7°C 39 to 45°F The chilled water is then distributed to water-to-air heat exchangers spread throughout the facility In theseheat exchangers air is cooled and dehumidified by the cold water During the process the chilled water increases in temperature and must be returned to the chiller sThe chillers are water-cooled chillers Water is circulated through the condenser of each chiller where it absorbs heat energy rejected from the high pressure refrigerant The water is then pumped to a cooling tower where the water is cooled through an evaporation process Cooling towers are described in a later section Chillers can also be air cooled In this configuration the condenserwould be a refrigerant-to-air heat exchanger with air absorbing the heat energy rejected by the high pressure refrigerantChillers nominally range in capacities from 30 to 18000 kW 8 to 5100 ton Most chillers sold in the US are electric and utilize vapor compression refrigeration to produce chilled water Compressors for these systems are either reciprocating screw scroll or centrifugal in design A small number of centrifugal chillers are sold that use either an internal combustion engine or steam drive instead of an electric motor to drive the compressorThe type of chiller used in a building depends on the application For large office buildings or in chiller plants serving multiple buildings centrifugal compressors are often used In applications under 1000 kW 280 tons cooling capacities reciprocating or screw chillers may be moreappropriate In smaller applications below 100 kW 30 tons reciprocating or scroll chillers are typically used33 Vapor Compression ChillersThe nominal capacity ranges for the four types of electrically driven vapor compression chillers Each chiller derives its name from the type of compressor used in the chiller The systems range in capacities from the smallest scroll 30 kW 8 tons to the largest centrifugal 18000 kW 5000 tons Chillers can utilize either an HCFC R-22 and R-123 or HFC R-134a refrigerant The steady state efficiency of chillers is often stated as a ratio of the power input in kW to the chilling capacity in tons A capacity rating of one ton is equal to 352 kW or 12000 btuh With this measure of efficiency the smaller number is better centrifugal chillers are the most efficient whereas reciprocating chillers have the worst efficiency of the four types The efficiency numbers provided in the table are the steady state full-load efficiency determined in accordance to ASHRAE Standard 30 ASHRAE 1995 These efficiency numbers do not include the auxiliary equipment such as pumps and cooling tower fans that can add from 006 to 031 kWton to the numbers shownChillers run at part load capacity most of the time Only during the highest thermal loads in the building will a chiller operate near its rated capacity As a consequence it is important to know how the efficiency of the chiller varies with part load capacity a representative data for theefficiency in kWton as a function of percentage full load capacity for a reciprocating screw and scroll chiller plus a centrifugal chiller with inlet vane control and one with variable frequency drive VFD for the compressor The reciprocating chiller increases in efficiency as it operates at a smaller percentage of full load In contrast the efficiency of a centrifugal with inlet vane control is relatively constant until theload falls to about 60 of its rated capacity and its kWton increases to almost twice its fully loaded valueIn 1998 the Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute ARI developed a new standard that incorporates into their ratings part load performance of chillers ARI 1998c Part load efficiency is expressed by a single number called the integrated part load value IPLV The IPLV takes data similar to that in Figure com and weights it at the 25 50 75 and 100 loads to produce a single integrated efficiency number The weighting factors at these loads are 012 045 042 and 001 respectively The equation to determine IPLV isMost of the IPLV is determined by the efficiency at the 50 and 75 part load values Manufacturers will provide on request IPLVs as well as part load efficienciesThe four compressors used in vapor compression chillers are each briefly described below While centrifugal and screw compressors are primarily used in chiller applications reciprocating and scrollcompressors are also used in smaller unitary packaged air conditioners and heat pumps34 Reciprocating CompressorsThe reciprocating compressor is a positive displacement compressor On the intake stroke of the piston a fixed amount of gas is pulled into the cylinder On the compression stroke the gas is compressed until the discharge valve opens The quantity of gas compressed on each stroke is equal to the displacement of the cylinder Compressors used in chillers have multiple cylinders depending on the capacity of the compressor Reciprocating compressors use refrigerants with low specific volumes and relatively high pressures Most reciprocating chillers used in building applications currently employ R-22Modern high-speed reciprocating compressors are generally limited to a pressure ratio of approximately nine The reciprocating compressor is basically a constant-volume variable-head machine It handles various discharge pressures with relatively small changes in inlet-volume flow rate as shown by the heavy line labeled 16 cylinders Condenser operation in many chillers is related to ambient conditions for example through cooling towers so that on cooler days the condenser pressure can be reduced When the air conditioning load is lowered less refrigerant circulation is required The resulting load characteristic is represented by the solid line that runs from the upper right to lower leftThe compressor must be capable of matching the pressure and flow requirements imposed by the system The reciprocating compressor matches the imposed discharge pressure at any level up to its limiting pressure ratio Varying capacity requirements can be met by providing devices that unloadindividual or multiple cylinders This unloading is accomplished by blocking the suction or discharge valves that open either manually or automatically Capacity can also be controlled through the use of variable speed or multi-speed motors When capacity control is implemented on a compressor other factors at part-load conditions need to considered such as a effect on compressor vibration and sound when unloaders are used b the need for good oil return because of lower refrigerant velocities and c proper functioning of expansion devices at the lower capacities With most reciprocating compressors oil is pumped into the refrigeration system from the compressor during normal operation Systems must be designed carefully to return oil to the compressor crankcase to provide for continuous lubrication and also to avoid contaminating heat-exchanger surfacesReciprocating compressors usually are arranged to start unloaded so that normal torque motors are adequate for starting When gas engines are used for reciprocating compressor drives careful matching of the torque requirements of the compressor and engine must be considered35 Screw CompressorsScrew compressors first introduced in 1958 Thevenot 1979 are positive displacement compressors They are available in the capacity ranges that overlap with reciprocating compressors and small centrifugal compressors Both twin-screw and single-screw compressors are used in chillers The twin-screw compressor is also called the helical rotary compressor A cutaway of a twin-screw compressor design There are two main rotors screws One is designated male and the other female The compression process is accomplished by reducing the volume of the refrigerant with the rotary motion of screws At the low pressure side of the compressor a void is created when the rotors begin to unmesh Low pressure gas is drawn into the void between the rotors As the rotors continue to turn the gas is progressively compressed as it moves toward the discharge port Once reaching a predetermined volume ratio the discharge port is uncovered and the gas is discharged into the high pressure side of the system At a rotation speed of 3600 rpm a screw compressor has over 14000 discharges per minute ASHRAE 1996 Fixed suction and discharge ports are used with screw compressors instead of valves as used in reciprocating compressors These set the built-in volume ratio the ratio of the volume of fluid space in the meshing rotors at the beginning of the compression process to the volume in the rotors as the discharge port is first exposed Associated with thebuilt-in volume ratio is a pressure ratio that depends on the properties of the refrigerant being compressed Screw compressors have the capability to operate at pressure ratios of above 201 ASHRAE 1996 Peak efficiency is obtained if the discharge pressure imposed by the system matches the pressure developed by the rotors when the discharge port is exposed If the interlobe pressure in the screws is greater or less than discharge pressure energy losses occur but no harm is done to the compressor Capacity modulation is accomplished by slide valves that provide a variable suction bypass or delayed suction port closing reducing the volume of refrigerant compressed Continuously variable capacity control is most common but stepped capacity control is offered in some manufacturers machines Variable discharge porting is available on some machines to allow control of the built-in volume ratio during operation Oil is used in screw compressors to seal the extensive clearance spaces between the rotors to cool the machines to provide lubrication and to serve as hydraulic fluid for the capacity controls An oil separator is required for the compressor discharge flow to remove the oil from the high-pressure refrigerant so that performance of system heat exchangers will not be penalized and the oil can be returned for reinjection in the compressorScrew compressors can be direct driven at two-pole motor speeds 50 or 60 Hz Their rotary motion makes these machines smooth running andquiet Reliability is high when the machines are applied properly Screw compressors are compact so they can be changed out readily for replacement or maintenance The efficiency of the best screw compressors matches or exceeds that of the best reciprocating compressors at full load High isentropic and volumetric efficiencies can be achieved with screw compressors because there are no suction or discharge valves and small clearance volumes Screw compressors for building applications generally use either R-134a or R-22中文译文空调系统过去 50 年以来空调得到了快速的发展从曾经的奢侈品发展到可应用于大多数住宅和商业建筑的比较标准的系统在 1970 年的美国 36 的住宅不是全空气调节就是利用一个房间空调器冷却到1997年这一数字达到了 77在那年作的第一次市场调查表明在美国有超过一半的住宅安装了中央空调人口普查局1999 在1998年83的新建住宅安装了中央空调人口普查局 1999 中央空调在商业建筑物中也得到了快速的发展从 1970年到1995年有空调的商业建筑物的百分比从54增加到 73 杰克森和詹森1978建筑物中的空气调节通常是利用机械设备或热交换设备完成在大多数应用中建筑物中的空调器为维持舒适要求必须既能制冷又能除湿空调系统也用于其他的场所例如汽车卡车飞机船和工业设备然而在本章中仅说明空调在商业和住宅建筑中的应用商业的建筑物从比较大的多层的办公大楼到街角的便利商店占地面积和类型差别很大因此应用于这类建筑的设备类型比较多样对于比较大型的建筑物空调设备设计是总系统设计的一部分这部分包括如下项目例如一个管道系统设计空气分配系统设计和冷却塔设计等这些系统的正确设计需要一个有资质的工程师才能完成居住的建筑物即研究对象被划分成单独的家庭或共有式公寓应用于这些建筑物的冷却设备通常都是标准化组装的由空调厂家进行设计尺寸和安装本章节首先对蒸汽压缩制冷循环作一个概述接着介绍制冷剂及制冷剂的选择最后介绍冷水机组11 蒸汽压缩循环虽然空调系统应用在建筑物中有较大的尺寸和多样性大多数的系统利用蒸汽压缩循环来制取需要的冷量和除湿这个循环也用于制冷和冰冻食物和汽车的空调在1834年一个名叫帕金斯的人在伦敦获得了机械制冷系统的第一专利权在1857年詹姆士和赛博生产出第一个有活力的商业系统除了蒸汽压缩循环之外有两种不常用的制冷方法在建筑物中被应用吸收式循环和蒸发式冷却这些将在后面的章节中讲到对于蒸汽压缩制冷循环有一种叫制冷剂的工作液体它能在适当的工艺设备设计压力下蒸发和冷凝每个蒸汽压缩制冷系统中都有四大部件它们是压缩机冷凝器节流装置和蒸发器压缩机提升制冷剂的蒸汽压力以便使制冷剂的饱和温度微高于在冷凝器中冷却介质温度使用的压缩机类型和系统的设备有关比较大的电冷却设备使用一个离心式的压缩机而小的住宅设备使用的是一种往复或漩涡式压缩机冷凝器是一个热交换器用于将制冷剂的热量传递到冷却介质中制冷剂进入冷凝器变成过冷液体用于冷凝器中的典型冷却介质是空气和水大多数住宅建筑的冷凝器中使用空气作为冷却介质而大型系统的冷凝器中采用水作为冷却介质液体制冷剂在离开冷凝器之后在膨胀阀中节流到一个更低的压力膨胀阀是一个节流的装置例如毛细管或有孔的短管或一个活动的装置例如热力膨胀阀或电子膨胀阀膨胀阀的作用是到蒸发器中分流制冷剂以便当它到压缩物吸入口的时候制冷剂处于过热状态在膨胀阀的出口制冷剂的温度在介质空气或水的温度以下之后制冷剂经过一个热交换器叫做蒸发器它吸收通过蒸发器的空气或水的热量如果空气经过蒸发器在流通该系统叫做一个直接膨胀式系统如果水经过蒸发器在流通它叫做冷却设备在任何情况下在蒸发器中的制冷剂不直接和空气或水接触在蒸发器中制冷剂从一个低品位的两相液体转换成在正常的工艺条件下过热的蒸汽蒸汽的形成要以一定的足够速度被压缩机排出以维持在蒸发器中低压和保持循环进行所有在生产中的机械冷却产生的热量必须经过冷凝器散发在许多例子中在冷凝器中这个热能被直接散发到环境的空气中或间接地散发到一个冷却塔的水中在一些应用中利用这些废热向建筑物提供热量是可能的回收这些最高温度为65℃ 150°F 的废热可以减少建筑物中采暖的费用空调的制冷能力常用冷吨或千瓦千瓦来表示冷吨是一个度量单位它与制冰厂在 24小时内使1吨 907 公斤的水结冰的能力有关其值是351千瓦12000 Btuhr 空调的冷却能力不要和产生冷量所需的电能相互混淆21 制冷剂的使用和选择直到20世纪80年代中叶制冷剂的选择在大多数的建筑物空调设备中不是一个问题因为在制冷剂的使用上还没有统一的的标准在以前用于建筑物空调设备的大多数制冷剂是氟氯碳化物和氟氯碳氢化物且大多数的制冷剂是无毒的和不可燃的然而最近的美国联邦的标准环保署 1993a环保署 1993b 和国际的协议 UNEP1987 已经限制了氟氯碳化物和氟氯碳氢化物的制造和使用现在氟氯碳化物和氟氯碳氢化物在一些场合依然被使用对制冷剂的理解能帮助建筑物拥有者或者工程师更好的了解关于为特定的设备下如何选择制冷剂这里将讨论不同制冷剂的使用并给出影响它们使用的建筑空调设备和标准美国社会的供暖制冷和空调工程师学会 ASHRAE 有一个标准的限制系统表 com 用来区分制冷剂许多流行的氟氯碳化物氟氯碳氢化物和氟碳化物的制冷剂是在甲烷和乙烷的制冷剂系列中因为卤素元素的存在他们被叫作碳化卤或卤化的碳化氢例如氟或氯Zeotropes 和azeotropes 是混合二种或更多不同的制冷剂一种zeotropic混合物能改变饱和温度在它在不变的压力蒸发或冷凝这种现象被称温度的移动在大气压力下R-407 C的沸点沸腾是–44 °C – 47° F 和一个凝结点露点是–37°C –35°F 产生了7°C的温度移动 12°F 一个azeotropic 混合物的性能像单独成份制冷剂那样它在不变的压力下蒸发或冷凝它们的饱和温度不会有少许变化R-410有微小的足够温度滑动少于55 C10°F 可以认为接近azeotropic混合制冷剂ASHRAE组制冷剂 com 根据它们的毒性和易燃性 ASHRAE1994 划分的A1组合是不燃烧的和最没有毒的而B3组是易燃的和最有毒的以空气为媒介的制冷剂最高安全限制是毒性如果制冷剂在少于每百万分之400是无毒的它是一个A级制冷剂如果对泄露少于每百万分之400是有毒的那么该物质被称B级制冷剂这几个级别表示制冷剂的易燃性表 com 的最后一栏列出了常用的制冷剂的毒性和易燃的等级因为他们是无毒的和不燃烧的所以在A1组中制冷剂通常作为理想的制冷剂能基本满足舒适性空调的需求在A1中的制冷剂通常用在建筑空调设备方面的包括 R-11R-12R-22R-134a和R-410AR-11R-12R-123和R-134a是普遍用在离心式的冷却设备的制冷剂R-11氟氯碳化物和R-123 HCFC 都有低压高容积特性是用在离心式压缩机上的理想制冷剂在对氟氯碳化物的制造的禁令颁布之前R-11和R-12已经是冷却设备的首选制冷剂在已存在的系统维护中现在这两种制冷剂的使用已经被限制现在R-123 和 R-134a都广泛的用在新的冷却设备中R-123拥有的效率优势在 R-134a之上表 com 然而R-123有 B1安全等级这就意谓它有一个比较低的毒性而胜于R-134a如果一个使用R-123冷却设备在一栋建筑物中被用当使用这些或任何其他有毒的或易燃的制冷剂时候标准 15 ASHRAE1992 提供安全预防的指导方针制冷剂22 属于HCFC在多数的相同设备中被用也是在多数往复和螺旋式冷却设备和小型商业和住宅的集中式设备中的首选制冷剂它可以在一个更高的压力下运行这一点要优于R-11或R-12中的任何一个从2004开始HCFCs的制造将会受到限制在2010年R-22不能在新的空调设备中被使用 2020年之后R-22不允许生产环保署1993bR-407C和R-410A是 HFCs的两种混合物两者都是R-22的替代品R-407C预期将很快地替换R-22在空调设备中它的蒸发和冷凝压力接近R-22 com 然而用R-407C来替换R-22应该在和设备制造者商议之后才能进行至少润滑油和膨胀装置将需要更换在1998年第一个使用R-410A的空调设备的住宅在美国出现使用R-410A的系统运作中压力大约比R-22高50 表 com 因此R-410A不能够用于当作速冻制冷剂来替代 R-22R-410A系统利用特定的压缩机膨胀阀和热交换器来利用该制冷剂氨广泛地被在工业的冷却设备和氨水吸收式制冷中用它具有可燃性并且分毒性等级为B因此在商业建筑物中使用受到限制除非冷却设备的制造工厂独立于被冷却的建筑物之外作为制冷剂氨有许多良好的品质例如它有较高的比热和高的导热率它的蒸发焓通常比那普遍使用的卤化碳高6到8倍而且氨和卤化碳比较来看它能提供更高的热交换量而且它能用在往复式和离心式压缩机中天然制冷剂的使用例如二氧化碳 R-744 和碳化氢在空调和制冷系统中的使用正在研究之中二氧化碳能在高于传统的HCFCs或HFCs的压力下工作和在超过临界点的典型的空调设备中工作人们通常认为碳化氢制冷剂易燃且比较危险但它在传统的压缩机中和有的工业设备中都可以被使用R-290 丙烷都有接近R-22的工作压力并被推荐来替代R-22 Kramer 1991 目前在美国没有用二氧化碳或可燃的制冷剂的商业系统用于建筑部门31冷水机组1995年在美国冷水机组应用在至少4％的商用建筑中而且由于制冷机组通常安装在较大的建筑中在同一年里制冷机组冷却了多于28％的商用建筑的地板空间DOE1998在商用建筑中普遍采用五种型式的制冷机往复式螺杆式旋涡式离心式和吸收式前四种利用蒸汽压缩式循环来制得冷冻水它们的不同主要在于使用的压缩机种类的不同吸收式制冷机在吸收循环中利用热能典型的是来自蒸汽或燃料燃烧并利用氨－水或水－锂溴化物制得冷冻水32总的系统大约86％的制冷机和表所示的一样用在多台制冷机系统中Bitondo和Tozzi1999在冷冻水系统中建筑物的回水通过每个蒸发器循环流动在蒸发器中回水被冷却到合意的温度典型的为4～7℃－39～45℉然后冷冻水通过各设备传送到水－空气换热器在换热器中空气被冷冻水冷却和加湿在这个过程中冷水的温度升高然后必须回送到蒸发器中制冷机组是冷水机组水通过每个机组的冷凝器循环在冷凝器中水吸收了来自高压制冷剂的热量接着水用水泵打到冷却塔中水通过蒸发而降温冷却塔将在后一部分讲述冷凝器也可以是空冷式的在这种循环中冷凝器应是制冷剂－空气热交换器空气吸收来自高压制冷剂的热量制冷机组名义制冷量为30～18000kw8～5100tons在美国出售的大部分制冷机组是用电的利用蒸汽压缩制冷循环来制得冷冻水在设计中这种系统所使用的压缩机也有往复式螺杆式旋涡式和离心式一小部分的离心式制冷机利用内燃机或蒸汽机代替电来启动压缩机在建筑中所使用的制冷机组类型根据应用场所来确定对于大的办公室建筑或制冷机组需服务于多个建筑时通常使用离心式压缩机在所需制冷量小于1000kw280tons时使用往复式或螺杆式制冷机组较合适在小的应用场合若低于100kw30tons时使用往复式或旋涡式制冷机组33蒸汽压缩式制冷机四种电启动的蒸汽压缩式制冷机组的名义制冷量范围每种制冷机以所使用的压缩机类型来命名各种系统的制冷能力范围从最小的旋涡式30kw8tons到最大的离心式18000kw5000tons制冷机可使用HCFCsR22R123或HFCsR－134a制冷剂制冷机的效率通常用输入功用kw表示与制冷量用tons表示的比值表示1tons 的制冷量等于352kw或1200btu／h用这种方法衡量效率其数值越小越好离心式制冷机的效率最高而往复式是这四种类型中效率最低的表中所提供的效率是根据ASHRAE Standard30ASHRAE1995在稳定状态下测得满负荷时的效率这些效率中不包括辅助设备的能耗比如泵冷却塔的风机而这些设备可以增加006～。
暖通空调专业 毕业设计外文翻译3
外文翻译（1）Refrigeration System Performance using Liquid-Suction Heat ExchangersS. A. Klein, D. T. Reindl, and K. BroWnellCollege of EngineeringUniversity of Wisconsin - MadisonAbstractHeat transfer devices are provided in many refrigeration systems to e xchange energy betWeen the cool gaseous refrigerant leaving the evaporator and Warm liquid refrigerant exiting the condenser. These liquid-suction or suction-line heat exchangers can, in some cases, yield improved system performance While in other cases they degrade system performance. Although previous researchers have investigated performance of liquid-suction heat exchangers, this study can be distinguished from the previous studies in three Ways. First, this paper identifies a neW dimensionless group to correlate performance impacts attributable to liquid-suction heat exchangers. Second, the paper extends previous analyses to include neW refrigerants. Third, the analysis includes the impact of pressure drops through the liquid-suction heat exchanger on system performance. It is shoWn that reliance on simplified analysis techniques can lead to inaccurate conclusions regarding the impact of liquid-suction heat exchangers on refrigeration system performance. From detailed analyses, it can be concluded that liquid-suction heat exchangers that have a minimal pressure loss on the loW pressure side are useful for systems using R507A, R134a, R12, R404A, R290, R407C, R600, and R410A. The liquid-suction heat exchanger is detrimental to system performance in systems using R22, R32, and R717.IntroductionLiquid-suction heat exchangers are commonly installed in refrigeration systems With the intent of ensuring proper system operation and increasing system performance.Specifically, ASHRAE(1998) states that liquid-suction heat exchangers are effective in:1) increasing the system performance2) subcooling liquid refrigerant to prevent flash gas formation at inlets to expansion devices3) fully evaporating any residual liquid that may remain in the liquid-suction prior to reaching the compressor(s)Figure 1 illustrates a simple direct-expansion vapor compression refrigeration system utilizing a liquid-suction heat exchanger. In this configuration, high temperature liquid leaving the heat rejection device (an evaporative con denser in this case) is subcooled prior to being throttled to the evaporator pressure by an expansion device such as a thermostatic expansion valve. The sink for subcoolingthe liquid is loW temperature refrigerant vapor leaving the evaporator. Thus, the liquid-suction heat exchanger is an indirect liquid-to-vapor heat transfer device. The vapor-side of the heat exchanger (betWeen the evaporator outlet and the compressor suction) is often configured to serve as an accumulator thereby further minimizing the risk of liquid refrigerant carrying-over to the compressor suction. In cases Where the evaporator alloWs liquid carry-over, the accumulator portion of the heat exchanger Will trap and, over time, vaporize the liquid carryover by absorbing heat during the process of subcooling high-side liquid.BackgroundStoecker and Walukas (1981) focused on the influence of liquid-suction heat exchangers in both single temperature evaporator and dual temperature evaporator systems utilizing refrigerant mixtures. Their analysis indicated that liquid-suction heat exchangers yielded greater performance improvements When nonazeotropic mixtures Were used compared With systems utilizing single component refrigerants or azeoptropic mixtures. McLinden (1990) used the principle of corresponding states to evaluate the anticipated effects of neW refrigerants. He shoWed that the performance of a system using a liquid-suction heat exchanger increases as the ideal gas specific heat (related to the molecular complexity of the refrigerant) increases. Domanski and Didion (1993) evaluated the performance of nine alternatives to R22 including the impact of liquid-suction heat exchangers. Domanski et al. (1994) later extended the analysis by evaluating the influence of liquid-suction heat exchangers installed in vapor compression refrigeration systems considering 29 different refrigerants in a theoretical analysis. Bivens et al. (1994) evaluated a proposed mixture to substitute for R22 in air conditioners and heat pumps. Their analysis indicated a 6-7% improvement for the alternative refrigerant system When system modifications included a liquid-suction heat exchanger and counterfloW system heat exchangers (evaporator and condenser). Bittle et al. (1995a) conducted an experimental evaluation of a liquid-suction heat exchanger applied in a domestic refrigerator using R152a. The authors compared the system performance With that of a traditional R12-based system. Bittle et al. (1995b) also compared the ASHRAE method for predicting capillary tube performance (including the effects of liquid-suction heat exchangers) With experimental data. Predicted capillary tube mass floW rates Were Within 10% of predicted values and subcooling levels Were Within 1.7 C (3F) of actual measurements.This paper analyzes the liquid-suction heat exchanger to quantify its impact on system capacity and performance (expressed in terms of a system coefficient of performance, COP). The influence of liquid-suction heat exchanger size over a range of operating conditions (evaporating and condensing) is illustrated and quantified using a number of alternative refrigerants. Refrigerants included in the present analysis are R507A, R404A, R600, R290,R134a, R407C, R410A, R12, R22, R32, and R717. This paper extends the results presented in previous studies in that it considers neW refrigerants, it specifically considers the effects of the pressure drops,and it presents general relations for estimating the effect of liquid-suction heat exchangers for any refrigerant.Heat Exchanger EffectivenessThe ability of a liquid-suction heat exchanger to transfer energy from the Warm liquid to the cool vapor at steady-state conditions is dependent on the size and configuration of the heat transfer device. The liquid-suction heat exchanger performance, expressed in terms of an effectiveness, is a parameter in the analysis. The effectiveness of the liquid-suction heat exchanger is defined in equation (1):Where the numeric subscripted temperature (T) values correspond to locations depicted in Figure 1. The effectiveness is the ratio of the actual to maximum possible heat transfer rates. It is related to the surface area of the heat exchanger. A zero surface area represents a system Without a liquid-suction heat exchanger Whereas a system having an infinite heat exchanger area corresponds to an effectiveness of unity.The liquid-suction heat exchanger effects the performance of a refrigeration system by in fluencing both the high and loW pressure sides of a system. Figure 2 shoWs the key state points for a vapor compression cycle utilizing an idealized liquid-suction heat exchanger on a pressure-enthalpy diagram. The enthalpy of the refrigerant leaving the condenser (state 3) is decreased prior to entering the expansion device (state 4) by rejecting energy to the vapor refrigerant leaving the evaporator (state 1) prior to entering the compressor (state 2). Pressure losses are not shoWn. The cooling of the condensate that occurs on the high pressure side serves to increase the refrigeration capacity and reduce the likelihood of liquid refrigerant flashing prior to reaching the expansion device. On the loW pressure side, the liquid-suction heat exchanger increases the temperature of the vapor entering the compressor and reduces the refrigerant pressure, both of Which increase the specific volume of the refr igerant and thereby decrease the mass floW rate and capacity. A major benefit of the liquid-suction heat exchanger is that it reduces the possibility of liquid carry-over from the evaporator Which could harm the compressor. Liquid carryover can be readily caused by a number of factors that may include Wide fluctuations in evaporator load and poorly maintained expansiondevices (especially problematic for thermostatic expansion valves used in ammonia service).（翻译）冷却系统利用流体吸热交换器克来因教授,布兰顿教授, , 布朗教授威斯康辛州的大学–麦迪逊摘录加热装置在许多冷却系统中被用到，用以制冷时遗留在蒸发器中的冷却气体和离开冷凝器发热流体之间的能量的热交换.这些流体吸收或吸收热交换器,在一些情形中，他们降低了系统性能, 然而系统的某些地方却得到了改善. 虽然以前研究员已经调查了流体吸热交换器的性能, 但是这项研究可能从早先研究的三种方式被加以区别. 首先，这份研究开辟了一个无限的崭新的与流体吸热交换器有关联的群体.其次，这份研究拓宽了早先的分析包括新型制冷剂。
“冷却塔”外文文献及译文_secret
本科毕业设计外文文献及译文文献、资料题目：Cooling Towers文献、资料来源：HVAC Equipment and Systems 文献、资料发表（出版）日期：院（部）：专业：班级：姓名：学号：指导教师：翻译日期：外文资料Cooling TowersIf a chiller is used to provide chilled water for building air conditioning, then the heat energy that is absorbed through that process must be rejected. The two most common ways to reject thermal energy from the vapor compression process are either directly to the air or through a cooling tower. In a cooling tower, water is recirculated and evaporatively cooled through direct contact heat transfer with the ambient air. This cooled water can then be used to absorb and reject the thermal energy from the condenser of the chiller. The most common cooling tower used for HVAC applications is the mechanical draft cooling tower (Figure 4.2.13). The mechanical draft tower uses one or more fans to force air through the tower, a heat transfer media or fill that brings the recirculated water into contact with the air, a water basin (sump) to collect the recirculated water, and a water distribution system to ensure even dispersal of the water into the tower fill.Figure 4.2.14 shows the relationship between the recirculating water and air as they interact in a counterflow cooling tower. The evaporative cooling process involves simultaneous heat and mass transfer as the water comes into contact with the atmospheric air. Ideally, the water distribution system causes the water to splash or atomize into smaller droplets, increasing the surface area of water available for heat transfer. The approach to the wet-bulb is a commonly used indicator of tower size and performance. It is defined as the temperature difference between the cooling water leaving the tower and the wet-bulb of the air entering the tower. Theoretically, the water being recirculated in a tower could reach the wetbulb temperature, but this does not occur in actual tower operations.FIGURE 4.2.14 Air/water temperature relationship in a counterflow cooling tower.The range for a chiller/tower combination is determined by the condenser thermal load and the cooling water flow rate, not by the capacity of the cooling tower. The range is defined as the temperature difference between the water entering the cooling tower and that leaving. The driver of tower performance is the ambient wet-bulb temperature. The lower the average wet-bulb temperature, the “easier” it is for the tower to attain the desired range, typically 6°C (10°F) for HVAC applications. Thus, in a hot, dry climate towers can be sized smaller than those in a hot and humid area for a given heat load.Cooling towers are widely used because they allow designers to avoid some common problems with rejection of heat from different processes. The primary advantage of the mechanical draft cooling tower is its ability to cool water to within 3–6°C (5–10°F) of the ambient wet-bulb temperature. This means more efficient operation of the connected chilling equipment because of improved (lower) head pressure operation which is a result of the lower condensing water temperatures supplied from the tower.Cooling Tower DesignsThe ASHRAE Systems and Equipment Handbook (1996) describes over 10 types of cooling tower designs.Three basic cooling tower designs are used for most common HVAC applications. Based upon air and water flow direction and location of the fans, these towers can be classified as counterflow induced draft, crossflow induced draft, and counterflow forced draft.One component common to all cooling towers is the heat transfer packing material, or fill, installed below the water distribution system and in the air path. The two most common fills are splash and film.Splash fill tends to maximize the surface area of water available for heat transfer by forcing water to break apart into smaller droplets and remain entrained in the air stream for a longer time. Successive layers of staggered splash bars are arranged through which the water is directed. Film fill achieves this effect byforcing water to flow in thin layers over densely packed fill sheets that are arranged for vertical flow. Towers using film type fill are usually more compact for a given thermal load, an advantage if space for the tower site is limited. Splash fill is not as sensitive to air or water distribution problems and performs better where water quality is so poor that excessive deposits in the fill material are a problem.Counterflow Induced DraftAir in a counterflow induced draft cooling tower is drawn through the tower by a fan or fans located at the top of the tower. The air enters the tower at louvers in the base and then comes into contact with water that is distributed from basins at the top of the tower. Thus, the relative directions are counter (down for the water, up for the air) in this configuration. This arrangement is shown in Figure 4.2.15. In this configuration, the temperature of the water decreases as it falls down through the counterflowing air, and the air is heated and humidified. Droplets of water that might have been entrained in the air stream are caught at the drift eliminators and returned to the sump. Air and some carryover droplets are ejected through the fans and out the top of the tower. The water that has been cooled collects in the sump and is pumped back to the condenser.FIGURE 4.2.15 Counterflow induced draft cooling tower.Counterflow towers generally have better performance than crossflow types because of the even air distribution through the tower fill material. These towers also eject air at higher velocities which reduces problems with exhaust air recirculation into the tower. However, these towers are also somewhat taller than crossflow types and thus require more condenser pump head.Crossflow Induced DraftAs in the counterflow cooling tower, the fan in the crossflow tower is located at the top of the unit (Figure 4.2.16). Air enters the tower at side or end louvers and moves horizontally through the tower fill. Water is distributed from the top of the tower where it is directed into the fill and is cooled by direct contact heat transfer with the air in crossflow (air horizontal and water down). Water collected in the sump is pumped back to the chiller condenser. The increasedairflow possible with the crossflow tower allows these towers to have a much lower overall height. This results in lower pump head required on the condenser water pump compared to the counterflow tower. The reduced height also increases the possibility of recirculating the exhaust air from the top of the tower back into the side or end air intakes which can reduce the tower’s effectiveness.Counterflow Forced DraftCounterflow forced draft cooling towers have the fan mounted at or near the bottom of the unit near the air intakes (Figure 4.2.17). As in the other towers, water is distributed down through the tower and its fill, and through direct contact with atmospheric air it is cooled. Thermal operation of this tower is similar to the counterflow induced draft cooling tower. Fan vibration is not as severe for this arrangement compared to induced draft towers. There is also some additional evaporative cooling benefit because the fan discharges air directly across the sump which further cools the water.There are some disadvantages to this tower. First, the air distribution through the fill is uneven, which reduces tower effectiveness. Second, there is risk of exhaust air recirculation because of the high suction velocity at the fan inlets, which can reduce tower effectiveness. These towers find applications in smalland medium-sized systems. MaterialsCooling towers operate in a continuously wet condition that requires construction materials to meet challenging criteria. Besides the wet conditions, recirculating water could have a high concentration of mineral salts due to the evaporation process. Cooling tower manufacturers build their units from a combination of materials that provide the best combination of corrosion resistance and cost. Wood is a traditional material used in cooling tower construction. Redwood or fir are often used and are usually pressure treated with preservative chemicals. Chemicals such as chromated copper arsenate or acid copper chromate help prevent decay due to fungi or destruction by termites.FIGURE 4.2.16 Crossflow induced draft cooling tower.FIGURE 4.2.17 Counterflow forced draft cooling tower.Galvanized steel is commonly used for small- to mid-sized cooling tower structures. Hardware is usually made of brass or bronze. Critical components, such as drive shafts, hardware mounting points, etc., may be made from 302 or 304 stainless steel. Cast iron can be found in base castings, motor housings, and fan hubs. Metals coated with plastics are finding application for special components.Many manufacturers make extensive use of fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) in their structure, pipe, fan blades, casing, inlet louvers, and connection components. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is used for fill media, drift eliminators, and louvers. Fill bars and flow orifices are commonly injection molded from polypropylene and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). Concrete is normally used for the water basin or sump of field erected towers. Tiles or masonry are used in specialty towers when aesthetics are important.PerformanceRejection of the heat load produced at the chilling equipment is the primary goal of a cooling tower system. This heat rejection can be accomplished with an optimized system that minimizes the total compressor power requirements of the chiller and the tower loads such as the fans and condenser pumps. Several criteria must be determined before the designer can complete a thorough cooling tower analysis, including selection of tower range, water-to-air ratio, approach, fill type and configuration, and water distribution system. Table 4.2.6 lists some of the common design criteria and normally accepted ranges for cooling towers.Most common HVAC applications requiring a cooling tower will use an “off the shelf” unit from a cooling tower manufacturer. Manufacturer representatives are usually well informed about their products and their proper application. After the project design process has produced the information called for in Table 4.2.6, it is time to contact one or more cooling tower representatives and seek their input on correct tower selection.Control Scheme with ChillersMost cooling towers are subject to large changes in load and ambient wet-bulb temperature during normal operations. For a typical cooling tower, the tower fan energy consumption is approximately 10% of the electric power used by the chiller compressor. The condenser pumps are about 2–5% of the compressor power. Controlling the capacity of a tower to supply adequately cooled water to the condenser while minimizing energy use is a desirable operational scheme. Probably the most common control scheme employed for towers serving an HVAC load is to maintain a fixed leaving water temperature, usually 27°C (80°F). Fan cycling is a common method to achieve this cooling tower control strategy and is applicable to multiunit and multicell tower installations. However, this control method does not minimize total energy consumed by the chiller/cooling tower system components.Lowering the cond ensing water temperature increases a chiller’s efficiency. As long as the evaporator temperature is constant, a reduced condenser temperature will yield a lower pressure difference between the evaporator and condenser and reduce the load on the compressor. However, it is important to recognize that the efficiency improvements initially gained through lower condenser temperatures are limited. Improved chiller efficiency may be offset by increased tower fan and pumping costs. Maintaining a constant approach at some minimum temperature isdesirable as long as the condensing temperature does not fall below the chiller manufacturer’s recommendations.Since most modern towers use two- or three-speed fans, a near optimal control scheme can be developed as follows (Braun and Diderrich, 1990):• Tower fans should be sequenced to maintain a constant approach during part load operation to minimize chiller/cooling tower energy use.• The product of range and condensing water flow rate, or the heat energy rejected, sh ould be used to determine the sequencing of the tower fans.• Develop a simple relationship between tower capacity and tower fan sequencing.De Saulles and Pearson (1997) found that savings for a setpoint control versus the near optimal control for a cooling tower were very similar. Their control scheme called for the tower to produce water at the lowest setpoint possible, but not less than the chiller manufacturer would allow, and to compare that operation to the savings obtained using near optimal control as described above. They found that the level of savings that could be achieved was dependent on the load profile and the method of optimization. Their simulations showed 2.5 to 6.5% energy savings for the single setpoint method while the near optimal control yielded savings of 3 to 8%. Use of variable speed fans would increase the savings only in most tower installations. It is more economical to operate multiple cooling tower fans at the same speed than to operate one at maximum before starting the next fan. Variable speed fans should be used when possible in cooling towers.The system designer should ensure that any newly installed cooling tower is tested according to ASME Standard PTC 23 (ASME 1986) or CTI Standard ATC-105. These field tests ensure that the tower is performing as designed and can meet the heat rejection requirements for the connected chiller or refrigeration load.Selection CriteriaThe criteria listed in Table 4.2.6 are usually known a priori by the designer. If not known explicitly, then commonly accepted values can be used. These criteria are used to determine the tower capacity needed to reject the heat load at design conditions. Other considerations besides the tower’s capacity include economics, servicing, environmental considerations, and aesthetics. Many of these factors are interrelated, but, if possible, they should all be evaluated whenselecting a particular tower design.Because economics is an important part of the selection process, two methods are commonly used —life-cycle costing and payback analysis. These procedures compare equipment on the basis of owning, operation, and maintenance costs. Other criteria can also affect final selection of a cooling tower design: building codes, structural considerations, serviceability, availability of qualified service personnel, and operational flexibility for changing loads. In addition, noise from towers can become a sensitive environmental issue. If local building code sound limits are an issue, sound attenuators at the air intakes and the tower fan exit should be considered. Aesthetics can be a problem with modern architectural buildings or on sites with limited land space. Several tower manufacturers can erect custom units that can completely mask the cooling tower and its operation.Applications[1]Unlike chillers, pumps, and air handlers, the cooling tower must be installed in an open space with careful consideration of factors that might cause recirculation (recapture of a portion of warm and humid exhaust air by the same tower) or restrict air flow. A poor tower siting situation might lead to recirculation, a problem not restricted to wet cooling towers. Similar recirculation can occur with air-cooled condensing equipment as well. With cooling tower recirculation, performance is adversely affected by the increase in entering wet-bulb temperature. The primary causes of recirculation are poor siting of the tower adjacent to structures, inadequate exhaust air velocity, or insufficient separation between the exhaust and intake of the tower.Multiple tower installations are susceptible to interference — when the exhaust air from one tower is drawn into a tower located downwind. Symptoms similar to the recirculation phenomenon then plague the downwind tower. For recirculation, interference, or physically blocking air-flow to the tower the result is larger approach and range which contribute to higher condensing pressure at the chiller. Both recirculation and interference can be avoided through careful planning and layout.Another important consideration when siting a cooling tower installation is the effect of[1]节选自James B. Bradford et al. “HVAC Equipment and Systems”.Handbook of Heating, Ventilation, and Air-Conditioning.Ed. Jan F. Kreider.Boca Raton, CRC Press LLC. 2001fogging, or plume, and carryover. Fogging occurs during cooler weather when moist warm air ejected from the tower comes into contact with the cold ambient air, condenses, and forms fog. Fog from cooling towers can limit visibility and can be an architectural nuisance. Carryover is when small droplets of entrained water in the air stream are not caught by the drift eliminators and are ejected in the exhaust air stream. These droplets then precipitate out from the exhaust air and fall to the ground like a light mist or rain (in extreme cases). Carryover or drift contains minerals and chemicals from the water treatment in the tower and can cause staining or discoloration of the surfaces it settles upon. To mitigate problems with fog or carryover, as with recirculation, the designer should consider nearby traffic patterns, parking areas, prevailing wind direction, large glass areas, or other architectural considerations.Operation and MaintenanceWinter OperationIf chillers or refrigeration equipment are being used in cold weather, freeze protection should be considered to avoid formation of ice on or in the cooling tower. Capacity control is one method that can be used to control water temperature in the tower and its components. Electric immersion heaters are usually installed in the tower sump to provide additional freeze protection. Since icing of the air intakes can be especially detrimental to tower performance, the fans can be reversed to de-ice these areas. If the fans are operating in extremely cold weather, ice can accumulate on the leading edges of the fan blades, which can cause serious imbalance in the fan system. Instrumentation to detect out-of-limits vibration or eccentricity in rotational loads should be installed. As with any operational equipment, frequent visual inspections during extreme weather are recommended.Water TreatmentThe water circulating in a cooling tower must be at an adequate quality level to help maintain tower effectiveness and prevent maintenance problems from occurring. Impurities and dissolved solids are concentrated in tower water because of the continuous evaporation process as the water is circulated through the tower. Dirt, dust, and gases can also find their way into the tower water and either become entrained in the circulating water or settle into the tower sump. To reduce the concentration of these contaminants, a percentage of the circulating water is drained or blown-down. In smaller evaporatively cooled systems, this process is called a bleed-off and iscontinuous. Blow-down is usually 0.8 to 1.2% of the total water circulation rate and helps to maintain reduced impurity concentrations and to control scale formation. If the tower is served with very poor water quality, additional chemical treatments might be needed to inhibit corrosion, control biological growth, and limit the collection of silt. If the tower installation presents continuing water quality problems, a water treatment specialist should be consulted. LegionellosisLegionellosis has been connected with evaporative condensers, cooling towers, and other building hydronic components. Researchers have found that well-maintained towers with good water quality control were not usually associated with contamination by Legionella pneumophila bacteria. In a position paper concerning Legionellosis, the Cooling Tower Institute (CTI, 1996) stated that cooling towers are prone to colonization by Legionella and have the potential to create and distribute aerosol droplets. Optimum growth of the bacteria was found to be at about 37°C (99°F) which is an easily attained temperature in a cooling tower.The CTI proposed recommendations regarding cooling tower design and operation to minimize the presence of Legionella. They do not recommend frequent or routine testing for Legionella pneumophila bacteria because there is difficulty interpreting test results. A clean tower can quickly be reinfected, and a contaminated tower does not mean an outbreak of the disease will occur.MaintenanceThe cooling tower manufacturer usually provides operating and maintenance (O&M) manuals with a new tower installation. These manuals should include a complete list of all parts used and replaceable in the tower and also details on the routine maintenance required for the cooling tower. At a minimum, the following should also be included as part of the maintenance program for a cooling tower installation.• Periodic inspection of the entire unit to ensure it i s in good repair.• Complete periodic draining and cleaning of all wetted surfaces in the tower. This gives the opportunity to remove accumulations of dirt, slime, scale, and areas where algae or bacteria might develop.• Periodic water treatment for biolo gical and corrosion control.• Continuous documentation on operation and maintenance of the tower. This develops thebaseline for future O&M decisions and is very important for a proper maintenance policy.4.2.4 Packaged EquipmentCentral HVAC systems are not always the best application for a particular cooling or heating load. Initial costs for central systems are usually much higher than unitary or packaged systems. There may also be physical constraints on the size of the mechanical components that can be installed in the building. Unitary or packaged systems come factory assembled and provide only cooling or combined heating and cooling. These systems are manufactured in a variety of configurations that allow the designer to meet almost any application. Cabinet or skid-mounted for easy installation, typical units generally consist of an evaporator, blower, compressor, condenser, and, if a combined system, a heating section. The capacities of the units ranges from approximately 5 kW to 460 kW (1.5 to 130 tons). Typical unitary systems are single-packaged units (window units, rooftop units), split-system packaged units, heat pump systems, and water source heat pump systems. Unitary systems do not last as long (only 8 to 15 years) as central HVAC equipment and are often less efficient.Unitary systems find application in buildings up to eight stories in height, but they are more generally used in one-, two-, or three-story buildings that have smaller cooling loads. They are most often used for retail spaces, small office buildings, and classrooms. Unitary equipment isavailable only in preestablished capacity increments with set performance characteristics, such as total L/s (cfm) delivered by the unit’s air handler. Some designers combine central HVAC systems with packaged equipment used on perimeter building zones. This composite can solve humidity and space temperature requirements better than packaged units alone. This also works well in buildings where it is impractical for packaged units to serve interior spaces.Table 4.2.7 lists some of the advantages and disadvantages of packaged and unitary HVAC equipment.Table 4.2.8 lists energy efficiency ratings (EERs) for typical electric air- and water-cooled split and single package units with capacity greater than 19 kW (65,000 Btuh).Typically, commercial buildings use unitary systems with cooling capacities greater than 18 kW (5 tons). In some cases, however, due to space requirements, physical limitations, or small additions, residential-sized unitary systems are used. If a unitary system is 10 years or older, energy savings can be achieved by replacing unitary systems with properly sized, energy-efficient models.a Electric air- and water-cooled split system and single package units with capacity over 19 kW(65,000 Btuh) are covered here.b EER, or energy efficiency ratio, is the cooling capacity in kW (Btu/h) of the unit divided by its electrical input (in watts) at standard (ARI) conditions of 35°C (95°F) for air-cooled equipment, and 29°C (85°F) entering water for water-cooled models.c Based on ARI 210/240 test procedure.d SEER (seasonal energy efficiency ratio) is the total cooling output kW (Btu) provided by the unitduring its normal annual usage period for cooling divided by the total energy input (inWh)during the same period.e Split system and single package units with total capacity under 19 kW (65,000 Btuh) are covered here. This analysis excludes window units and packaged terminal units.FIGURE 4.2.18 Comparison between TXV and short-tube orifice systems capacity for a range of charging conditions and 95°F (35°C) outdoor temperature. (From Rodriquez et al., 1996).As with any HVAC equipment, proper maintenance and operation will ensure optimum performance and life for a system. Split-system air conditioners and heat pumps are the most common units applied in residential and small commercial applications. These units are typically shipped to the construction site as separate components; after the condenser (outdoor unit) and the evaporator (indoor unit) are mounted, the refrigerant piping is connected between them. The air conditioning technician must ensure that the unit is properly charged with refrigerant and check for proper operation. If the system is under- or overcharged, performance can be adversely affected. Rodriquez et al. (1996) found that performance of an air conditioning system equipped with a short tube orifice was affected by improper charge (Figure 4.2.18).The plot in Figure 4.2.18 clearly shows that for a 20% under-charge in refrigerant, a unit with a short tube orifice suffers a 30% decrease in cooling capacity. This same study also investigated the effects of return-air leakage. A common problem with new installations is improper sealing of duct connections at the diffusers and grills as well as around the return-air plenum. Leakage amounts as low as 5% in the return air ducts resulted in capacity and efficiency reductions of almost 20% for high humidity climates. These reductions dropped to about 7% forlow humidity climates. The results of the charging and leakage studies suggest the need for the installation contractor, maintenance contractor, and system owner to ensure the proper installation of the air conditioning system.FIGURE 4.2.19 Rooftop packaged heating and air conditioning unit. (Adapted from Carrier Corporation). Packaged UnitsPackaged units are complete HVAC units that are usually mounted on the exterior of a structure (roof or wall) freeing up valuable indoor floor space (Figure 4.2.19). They can also be installed on a concrete housekeeping pad at ground level. Because they are self-contained, complete manufactured units, installation costs are usually lower than for a site-built HVAC system.Single-package units consist of a blower section, filter bank, evaporator coil, at least one compressor (larger units may have more than one), and an air-cooled condensing section. Units may also come equipped with a heating section. Heating is accomplished using either natural gas or electricity. Heat pump systems can be used in situations where electricity is the only source of energy. Unitary heat pumps are restricted in size to no more than 70 kW (20 tons).As packaged units age and deteriorate, their efficiency often decreases while the need for maintenance increases. Upgrading existing packaged units to high-efficiency models will result in substantial longterm energy savings. In the last 10 to 15 years, manufacturers have made significant improvements in the efficiency of packaged units. The efficiency of energy transfer at both the evaporator and condenser coils has been improved, high-efficiency motors are now standard, and blower and compressor designs have improved in high-efficiency packaged units.。
暖通设计,美国标准中文翻译版
单户住宅热泵单一家庭住宅的热泵通常是整体式系统;也就是说，他们使用单一整体式单元系统或分离式系统（如图2所示）。
大部分市售热泵（特别是在北美）是电动空气源系统。
补充热量一般是在室外温度低时或在除霜的时候。
在大多数情况下，补充或备用的热由用户的电加热器来提供。
电阻炉。
热泵可以根据热的来源、分散介质以及使用的燃料类型来分类。
最常用的热泵设备类型是：空气-空气和水-空气。
空气-水和水-水也是会使用的。
与热泵设备相比，热泵系统通常用空气源或地源来描述。
冷却产生的热一般可被认为是加热所需要的热源。
空气源系统的使用环境空气作为热源/汇安装的成本最低，从而最常用。
地源系统通常使用水-空气热泵从地面通过地下水或埋地换热器提取热量。
地源（地热）系统。
以地下水为热源/汇（从个别井或从社区水井提供的一个实例来分析）要比以周围空气作热源/汇有下列优点：（1）热泵的能力于环境空气温度无直接关系，减少了辅助加热的要求（2）没有除霜周期。
（3）尽管额定功率的运行条件与空气源的不相同，但是在制冷和供热方面的季节性效率还是较高的。
（4）高峰采暖能耗是通常较低其他两个类型的系统是地面耦合和地表水的耦合系统。
地面耦合系统拥有同样的优势，但由于地表水温度与随空气中的温度波动而变化，地表水耦合系统可能无法提供其他地源系统相同的好处。
这两种系统类型通过埋地或水下的热交换器中的循环盐水或水，来传输热量。
直接膨胀地源系统（蒸发器埋在地下）很少被使用。
在当地条件允许的地方，水源系统有时用地表水（如湖泊或河流）或市政水（自来水）来获取热量。
对于地下水系统，必须考虑水的供应、水的质量和水的处理。
Caneta Research (1995) 、Kavanaugh 和Rafferty (1997)提供了有关这些问题的详细信息。
在Caneta Researc上，地面耦合系统的二次冷却剂被进行了讨论(21章ASHRAE手册基础)埋地换热器的安置可能是水平的或垂直的，垂直包括多个浅井和单格深井。
暖通空调专业 毕业设计外文翻译5
英文翻译Chilled Water Systems[1]Chilled water systems were used in less than 4% of commercial buildings in the U.S. in 1995. However, because chillers are usually installed in larger buildings, chillers cooled over 28% of the U.S. commercial building floor space that same year (DOE, 1998). Five types of chillers are commonly applied to commercial buildings: reciprocating, screw, scroll, centrifugal, and absorption. The first four utilize the vapor compression cycle to produce chilled water. They differ primarily in the type of compressor used. Absorption chillers utilize thermal energy (typically steam or combustion source) in an absorption cycle with either an ammonia-water or water-lithium bromide solution to produce chilled water.Overall SystemFigure 4.2.2 shows a simple representation of a dual chiller application with all the major auxiliary equipment. An estimated 86% of chillers are applied in multiple chiller arrangements like that shown in the figure (Bitondo and Tozzi, 1999). In chilled water systems, return water from the building is circulated through each chiller evaporator where it is cooled to an acceptable temperature (typically 4 to 7°C) (39 to 45°F). The chilled water is then distributed to water-to-air heat exchangers spread throughout the facility. In these heat exchangers, air is cooled and dehumidified by the cold water. During the process, the chilled water increases in temperature and must be returned to the chiller(s).The chillers shown in Figure 4.2.2 are water-cooled chillers. Water is circulated through the condenser of each chiller where it absorbs heat energy rejected from the high pressure refrigerant. The water is then pumped to a cooling tower where the water is cooled through an evaporation process. Cooling towers are described in a later section. Chillers can also be air cooled. In this configuration, the condenserwould be a refrigerant-to-air heat exchanger with air absorbing the heat energy rejected by the high pressure refrigerant.Chillers nominally range in capacities from 30 to 18,000 kW (8 to 5100 ton). Most chillers sold in the U.S. are electric and utilize vapor compression refrigeration to produce chilled water. Compressors for these systems are either reciprocating, screw, scroll, or centrifugal in design. A small number of centrifugal chillers are sold that use either an internal combustion engine or steam drive instead of an electric motor to drive the compressor.[1]节选自James B. Bradford et al. “HVAC Equipment and Systems”.Handbook of Heating, Ventilation, and Air-Conditioning.Ed. Jan F. Kreider.Boca Raton, CRC Press LLC. 2001FIGURE 4.2.2 A dual chiller application with major auxiliary systems (courtesy of Carrier Corporation).The type of chiller used in a building depends on the application. For large office buildings or in chiller plants serving multiple buildings, centrifugal compressors are often used. In applications under 1000 kW (280 tons) cooling capacities, reciprocating or screw chillers may be more appropriate. In smaller applications, below 100 kW (30 tons), reciprocating or scroll chillers are typically used.Vapor Compression ChillersTable 4.2.5 shows the nominal capacity ranges for the four types of electrically driven vapor compression chillers. Each chiller derives its name from the type of compressor used in the chiller. The systems range in capacities from the smallest scroll (30 kW; 8 tons) to the largest centrifugal (18,000 kW; 5000 tons).Chillers can utilize either an HCFC (R-22 andR-123) or HFC (R-134a) refrigerant. The steady state efficiency of chillers is often stated as a ratio of the power input (in kW) to the chilling capacity (in tons). A capacity rating of one ton is equal to 3.52 kW or 12,000 btu/h. With this measure of efficiency, the smaller number is better. As seen in Table 4.2.5, centrifugal chillers are the most efficient; whereas, reciprocating chillers have the worst efficiency of the four types. The efficiency numbers provided in the table are the steady state full-load efficiency determined in accordance to ASHRAE Standard 30 (ASHRAE, 1995). These efficiency numbers do not include the auxiliary equipment, such as pumps and cooling tower fans that can add from 0.06 to 0.31 kW/ton to the numbers shown (Smit et al., 1996).Chillers run at part load capacity most of the time. Only during the highest thermal loadsin the building will a chiller operate near its rated capacity. As a consequence, it is important to know how the efficiency of the chiller varies with part load capacity. Figure 4.2.3 shows a representative data for the efficiency (in kW/ton) as a function of percentage full load capacity for a reciprocating, screw, and scroll chiller plus a centrifugal chiller with inlet vane control and one with variable frequency drive (VFD) for the compressor. The reciprocating chiller increases in efficiency as it operates at a smaller percentage of full load. In contrast, the efficiency of a centrifugal with inlet vane control is relatively constant until theload falls to about 60% of its rated capacity and its kW/ton increases to almost twice its fully loaded value.FIGURE 4.2.3 Chiller efficiency as a function of percentage of full load capacity.In 1998, the Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute (ARI) developed a new standard that incorporates into their ratings part load performance of chillers (ARI 1998c). Part load efficiency is expressed by a single number called the integrated part load value (IPLV). The IPLV takes data similar to that in Figure 4.2.3 and weights it at the 25%, 50%,75%, and 100% loads to produce a single integrated efficiency number. The weighting factors at these loads are 0.12, 0.45, 0.42, and 0.01, respectively. The equation to determine IPLV is:Most of the IPLV is determined by the efficiency at the 50% and 75% part load values. Manufacturers will provide, on request, IPLVs as well as part load efficiencies such as those shown in Figure 4.2.3.FIGURE 4.2.4 Volume-pressure relationships for a reciprocating compressor.The four compressors used in vapor compression chillers are each briefly described below. While centrifugal and screw compressors are primarily used in chiller applications, reciprocating and scroll compressors are also used in smaller unitary packaged air conditioners and heat pumps.Reciprocating CompressorsThe reciprocating compressor is a positive displacement compressor. On the intake stroke of the piston, a fixed amount of gas is pulled into the cylinder. On the compressionstroke, the gas is compressed until the discharge valve opens. The quantity of gas compressed on each stroke is equal to the displacement of the cylinder. Compressors used in chillers have multiple cylinders, depending on the capacity of the compressor. Reciprocating compressors use refrigerants with low specific volumes and relatively high pressures. Most reciprocating chillers used in building applications currently employ R-22.Modern high-speed reciprocating compressors are generally limited to a pressure ratio of approximately nine. The reciprocating compressor is basically a constant-volumevariable-head machine. It handles variousdischarge pressures with relatively small changes in inlet-volume flow rate as shown by the heavy line (labeled 16 cylinders) in Figure 4.2.4. Condenser operation in many chillers is related to ambient conditions, for example, through cooling towers, so that on cooler days the condenser pressure can be reduced. When the air conditioning load is lowered, less refrigerant circulation is required. The resulting load characteristic is represented by the solid line that runs from the upper right to lower left of Figure 4.2.4.The compressor must be capable of matching the pressure and flow requirements imposed by the system. The reciprocating compressor matches the imposed discharge pressure at any level up to its limiting pressure ratio. Varying capacity requirements can be met by providing devices that unloadindividual or multiple cylinders. This unloading is accomplished by blocking the suction or discharge valves that open either manually or automatically. Capacity can also be controlled through the use of variable speed or multi-speed motors. When capacity control is implemented on a compressor, other factors at part-load conditions need to considered, such as (a) effect on compressor vibration and sound when unloaders are used, (b) the need for good oil return because of lower refrigerant velocities, and (c) proper functioning of expansion devices at the lower capacities.With most reciprocating compressors, oil is pumped into the refrigeration system from the compressor during normal operation. Systems must be designed carefully to return oil to the compressor crankcase to provide for continuous lubrication and also to avoid contaminating heat-exchanger surfaces.Reciprocating compressors usually are arranged to start unloaded so that normal torque motors are adequate for starting. When gas engines are used for reciprocating compressor drives, careful matching of the torque requirements of the compressor and engine must be considered.FIGURE 4.2.5 Illustration of a twin-screw compressor design (courtesy of CarrierCorporation).Screw CompressorsScrew compressors, first introduced in 1958 (Thevenot, 1979), are positive displacement compressors. They are available in the capacity ranges that overlap with reciprocating compressors and small centrifugal compressors. Both twin-screw and single-screw compressors are used in chillers. The twin-screw compressor is also called the helical rotary compressor. Figure 4.2.5 shows a cutaway of a twin-screw compressor design. There are two main rotors (screws). One is designated male (4 in the figure) and the other female (6 in the figure).The compression process is accomplished by reducing the volume of the refrigerant with the rotary motion of screws. At the low pressure side of the compressor, a void is created when the rotors begin to unmesh. Low pressure gas is drawn into the void between the rotors. As the rotors continue to turn, the gas is progressively compressed as it moves toward the discharge port. Once reaching a predetermined volume ratio, the discharge port is uncovered and the gas is discharged into the high pressure side of the system. At a rotation speed of 3600 rpm, a screw compressor has over 14,000 discharges per minute (ASHRAE, 1996).Fixed suction and discharge ports are used with screw compressors instead of valves, as used in reciprocating compressors. These set the built-in volume ratio — the ratio of the volume of fluid space in the meshing rotors at the beginning of the compression process to the volume in the rotors as the discharge port is first exposed. Associated with the built-in volume ratio is a pressure ratio that depends on the properties of the refrigerant being compressed. Screw compressors have the capability to operate at pressure ratios of above 20:1 (ASHRAE, 1996). Peak efficiency is obtained if the discharge pressure imposed by the system matchesthe pressure developed by the rotors when the discharge port is exposed. If the interlobe pressure in the screws is greater or less than discharge pressure, energy losses occur but no harm is done to the compressor.Capacity modulation is accomplished by slide valves that provide a variable suction bypass or delayed suction port closing, reducing the volume of refrigerant compressed. Continuously variable capacity control is most common, but stepped capacity control is offered in some manufacturers’ machines. Variable discharge porting is available on some machines to allow control of the built-in volume ratio during operation.Oil is used in screw compressors to seal the extensive clearance spaces between the rotors, to cool the machines, to provide lubrication, and to serve as hydraulic fluid for the capacity controls. An oil separator is required for the compressor discharge flow to remove the oil from the high-pressure refrigerant so that performance of system heat exchangers will not be penalized and the oil can be returned for reinjection in the compressor.Screw compressors can be direct driven at two-pole motor speeds (50 or 60 Hz). Their rotary motion makes these machines smooth running and quiet. Reliability is high when the machines are applied properly. Screw compressors are compact so they can be changed out readily for replacement or maintenance. The efficiency of the best screw compressors matches or exceeds that of the best reciprocating compressors at full load. High isentropic and volumetric efficiencies can be achieved with screw compressors because there are no suction or discharge valves and small clearance volumes. Screw compressors for building applications generally use either R-134a or R-22.译文冷水机组1995年，在美国，冷水机组应用在至少4％的商用建筑中。
外文翻译--针对提高舒适性和最小化的能源利用率的暖通空调控制策略(有word版)
针对提高舒适性和最小化的能源利用率的暖通空调控制策略马修斯 E.H. *,1，博塔C.P. 1，阿恩特D.C.1,马兰A.机械工程部商业研究中心Potchefstroom大学，邮政信箱2156，南非斯凯岛0043摘要:良好的供暖、通风和空调(HVAC)控制系统保证了舒适度。
它通常也是提高空调建筑能源效用的最有效途径。
在这篇文章中，比勒陀利亚大学用新的控制策略带来的舒适性的增强和节能潜力确定了人类科学建筑。
一个新的软件工具，快速控制，被用于完成复杂和充分综合的建筑、暖通空调和控制模拟。
调查研究了不同的控制策略，包括空气旁路，重置控制，后退控制，提高了启动—停止时间，节热器控制和二氧化碳控制。
这种模拟模式相对于用来确保准确性和改进模拟的真实性首先被验证。
这在确保舒适性和预测暖通空调节能百分之六十上是可行的。
它是在为期九个月的投资回报中得到的结果。
准备输入数据花费大约两天时间，同时建立模拟模型额外花费一天时间。
对于完全集成建筑的典型运行时间，暖通空调系统和控制模拟在一台英特尔奔腾133兆赫兹的个人电脑上大约每天花费90秒。
关键词:暖通空调系统综合动态仿真分析能源改进研究节能潜力1.介绍在全球范围内能源消耗对于政策制定者而言成为一个重要的话题。
主要原因在于世界能源需求在未来30年内期望的巨大增加导致环境压力的进一步拉紧[1]。
除了全球的关注度增加外，能源消耗的逐渐扩大使得节能成为建筑所有者唯一的选择。
更多的能量利用有效的建筑因此不仅可以为所有者得到财政奖励，而且能够减少温室气体的产生。
研究显示，在南非，所有能够利用的市政电能，大约百分之二十被用在商业和办公建筑[2]。
进一步研究表明，空调对此现象的百分之五十负主要责任。
很明显，空调节能对整个消耗主体而言具有相当大影响。
在追求节能的同时，维持可接受的室内空气品质是一个约束，需认真考虑[4]。
室内空气品质是主要问题，由于不适合的等级会导致居民的不舒适感，这反过来会影响生产力。
暖通英文翻译
暖通英文翻译暖通Heating ventilation and air conditioning空调平面图air handling layoutMU1~3新风系统图MU1~3 make-up air system diagramAHU-1净化空调系统图Air purification & air handling system diagram, AHU-1 空调通风平剖面图ventilation & air conditioning plan/section吊顶空调平剖面图air condition ceiling plan section吊顶通风和采暖，空调用水管平面图ventilation and heating piping plan above ceiling室内采暖空调平面图room heating and air condition plan吊顶一下净化空调平面图air purification & air conditioning above ceiling拉丝区＋14米送风平面图air supply plan at level of +14.00, drawing areaS-1,2 送风系统图S-1,2 air supply system diagram室内回风口平面图indoor air return grill plan洁净室回风平面图air return grill plan in clean rooms空调用冷热水管平面图A.C water piping plan空调供热流程图A.C heating supply system diagram屋顶排风平面图roof exhaust plan排风系统图roof exhaust system送风系统图air supply system diagramAHU-1 水系统图AHU-1 water piping system diagram净化空调系统控制原理图air purification & air conditioning system control priciple diagram AHU-15 变风量空调系统图AHU-15 VAV system diagram冷冻水，冷却水管道系统图CHW and CW piping system diagram热水采暖系统图hot water heating system diagram空调机房平面图air handling room plan最冷月或最热月平均温度temperature coldest month or hottest month (mean) 年，月，平均温度，最高，最低temperature, yearly, monthly, mean, highest, lowest 最高或最低绝对温度absolute temperature, highest or lowest湿球温度wet bulb temperature干球温度dry bulb temperature采暖区region with heating provision不采暖区region without heating provision采暖室外计算温度calculating outdoor temperature for heating通风冬季室外计算温度calculating outdoor temperature for ventilation winter 绝对大气压absolute atmospheric pressure蒸发量volume of vaporization相对湿度relative humidity采暖heating热媒heating medium供暖管道heating system供暖总管heating pipe集中供暖central heating供暖总站central heating plant单管供暖系统one-pipe heating system单管循环系统one-pipe circuit system单管上行下给供暖系统one-pipe drop heating system单管热水供暖系统one-pipe hot water heating system单管强制循环系统one-pipe forced system蒸汽供暖steam heating供应方式means of supply蒸汽压力steam pressure蒸汽密度vapor density蒸汽压力势vapor pressure potential供汽装置steam supply installation蒸汽系统vapor system降压站reduction station蒸汽容量steam capacity蒸汽消耗量steam consumption蒸汽盘管供暖steam coil heated蒸汽盘管steam coil供热盘管heating coil散热盘管panel coil排蒸汽管steam discharge pipe蒸汽回管steam discharge pipe冷凝水管condensing pipe冷凝回水管condensing return pipe 蒸汽散热器steam radiator 隔汽具，汽层vapor barrier蒸汽分离器steam separator蒸汽调整阀steam regulating蒸汽减压阀steam reducing valve 蒸汽暖风机steam unit ventilator供暖蒸汽锅炉steam-heating boiler 电热供暖electrical heater 电热器electrical heater管式电热器tubular electrical heater 电热辐射器electrical radiator电热对流器electrical convector热风供暖warm air-heating热风器hot air generator热风烘干hot air drying强制对流加热器forced convection heater空气加热器air heater热风管道warm-air heating压力供气forced air supply压力环流forced circulation辐射式供热系统embedded panel system双管供热系统double pipe heating 上分式双管系统double pipe dropping system顶棚板面供暖ceiling panel heating顶棚供暖盘ceiling coil片式供暖盘finned type heating coil 散热器radiator墙挂式散热器wall radiator单柱散热器one column radiator板式散热器plate radiator圆翼形散热器circular wing radiator 长翼形散热器long wing radiator蜂窝式散热器honeycomb radiator暖气管柱column of radiator单个散热器unit radiator闭式散热器closed radiator悬挂式单个散热器suspended type unit radiator管式加热器tubular heater波纹式散热片corrugated radiator换热器heat exchange散热器翘板fin of radiator散热器阻气板radiator air baffle散热器外罩enclosure of radiators散热器阀radiator valve穿墙管wall pipe穿墙套管wall sleeve导热性thermal conductivity导热系数thermal coefficient of conduction 供热面heating surface散热面heat delivery surface热气消耗heat consumption热对流thermal convection热消耗heat dissipation热扩散thermal convection热膨胀thermal diffusivity热效率thermal efficiency热效应heat effect。
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毕业设计（论文）附件
外文文献翻译
学号：姓名：
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原文标题：New solid desiccant solar air conditioning unit in Tunisia: Design and simulation study
2016年6月1日
突尼斯的新型固体除湿空调机组的设计与仿 真
研究 1
Zied Guidara , Mounir Elleuch , Habib Ben Bacha
a, b, *
机械力学实验室系统（lasem ）土木工程系，法克斯大学工程学院，B.P W 3038 斯法克斯，突尼斯
工程学院，机械工程系，沙尔曼本阿卜杜勒阿齐兹大学，B.P. 655，沙乌地阿拉伯
亮点
本文中介绍了一种新型固体除湿空调装置的设计，以及其运作的三种模式的发展。
并在热和质量平衡的基础上进行建模研究，模拟研究了机组的运作。
摘要
就环境保护以及节能方面而言，太阳能空调机组的运用在除湿机组中是一个很有发 展前景的解决方案。
本文中介绍的是一种新的固体除湿空调机组在突尼斯的办公空间模 拟运作。
因此，每个组件的数学模型的建立都主要是基于热和质量平衡。
三种功能的模 型分别模拟了三种不同的气候：比塞大相对冷湿比较大的气候、雷马达燥热的气候以及 杰尔巴处于中间的气候。
研究结果表明，每种功能模型中，空调机组所处理后的空气都 可以确保办公室环境能满足人体的舒适度要求。
关键词：空调；冷却除湿；太阳能；数学模拟
1 引言
目前空调已经成为了办公空间里一种重要的必需品。
然而传统的空调机组存在许多 环境污染的问题。
此外，传统的机组需要大量电力，这些电力往往通过消耗大量的石油 资源，而石油资源目前是一种很宝贵的能源这是由石油资源，此外，其还会产生排放越 来越多的二氧化碳。
并且常规的空调机组中空气的除湿是通过露点温度下的冷却操作实 现的，从而导致其所处理后的空气非常冷，这也就使冷空气在空调中需要再次加热以达 到设计温度（即存在冷热抵消），这是一个能量消耗的过程；并且在某些情况下，它不能 确保能达到用户温度和湿度的设计标准。
因此，考虑到地球上石油资源缺乏的现状以及环境污染问题，许多国家鼓励大家在 空调系统中使用可再生能源。
在突尼斯，能源部门面临着的许多问题从本质上来说都是碳氢化合物储量的枯竭以 及人们消费水平的增长，传统的电动空调由另一种节能型空调所替代已成为一种必然。
所以在我国既要限制空调对电能的需求量，又要满足人们对空调的需求已经成为我国空 调研究的主要目标。
这些目标应在不破坏国际环境保护约定的前提下实现，事实上，这
1
本文出自 Applied Thermal Engineering, Zied Guidara, Mounir Elleuch,Habib Ben Bacha
1
a a
些约定主 氧层和温室 效应的破坏。
要用于常规空调中，其目的是减少二氧化碳排放，避免使用有害气体对臭
为了解决上述的这些问题，许多研究者已经进行了调查，特别是对太阳能空调机组 的设计与运营研究，本文中所用到的符号的含义如表 1-1 所示。
表 1-1 符号命名
字母 名称 含义
字母 名称
含义 A 吸湿盘气流截面积(m ) w 水
A 1,2 贮槽线圈的面积(m ) V 气流速度(m/s) A l at 吸湿轮通道的侧面积(m ) v
流速(m/s)
A d 吸湿干燥剂轮通道截面(m ) W 干燥剂中含水量(kg/kg)
C p C c 比热(J/(kg.K))
x 吸收器的比热(J/(kg.℃)) Y 轴向距离(m) 相对湿度(%)
C f f H h 水的比热(J/(kg.℃))
温度(℃)
焓(kJ/kg(干空气)）
吸收器与水之间的对流换热系数((W/(m .℃)) 光学系数 吸收器吸收系数 玻璃透射系数 水-空气热交换器效率
h w h 除湿器和空气之间的传热系数((W/(m .K)) 效率
h m 除湿器和空气之间的质量传递系数(kg/(m .s))
密度(kg/m ) I 太阳辐射照度(W/m )
空气比湿度(kg/kg)
L wh 吸湿盘的长度(m) P 空气在干燥剂涂层中的比湿度 L ab 吸收器的长度(m)
P 除湿涂层中空气的相对湿度
L M 每单位面积的水的质量流量(kg/m )
a 储存罐中的水的质量(kg) acc 空气 积累 M c 吸收器的质量(kg) atm 大气 M f 水的质量(kg)
c 寒冷
m f m’ P 太阳能集热器生产的水的质量流量(kg/s)
catu 质量流量(kg/s)
cv 压力(Pa) d 冷空气的利用
对流
干燥剂 Q a d 吸附热(J/kg)
Ech 空气-空气热交换器
S T T a T c T f T s T f2/1 T 11,2 t 平板式太阳集热器的面积(m )
h 温度(℃) hatc 环境空气温度(℃) Hum 冷凝温度(℃) in 水温(℃)
out 储存罐中的水温度(K) p 供给侧的入口/出口水温 (K) t 分布面上的入口/出口水温 (K) tc 时间(s)
tca 热 热空气冷却
加湿器 入口 出口 干燥剂涂层 利用 冷却 利用冷空气 U 1,2 储存罐中的线圈的总传热系数(W/(m .K))
tu 使用 uha 再热空气
u 用 U ’ 吸收器/外部环境的传热系数
ws
饱和状态
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3 2 2 2 2
在这种情况下，就环境保护以及节约能源方面而言，固体干燥剂空调是一个不错的
解决方案。
事实上，干燥剂空调机组不使用对环境有害的制冷剂。
此外，除湿处理潜热
是有
利的，它有易于利用再生低品位的能源，如太阳能。
近年来，标准干燥剂机组主要应用于建筑或工厂使用的标准组件的空调应用中。
这
些组件包括用于空气除湿的转轮、由于冷却送风以及加热回风的热交换器、进行湿化处
理的加湿器、使用蒸发冷却使回风接近饱和线的加湿器、一个产生热空气以用于干燥剂
再生的太阳能集热器系统。
此外，H.M.亨宁等人提出了结合两个冷却盘管的干燥剂循环。
因此，空气在其露点
温度下通过第一个冷却盘管进行预冷却，从而保证了对预冷却的空气进行预除湿的处理。
此外，空气被冷却到最终所需的温度之前，先通过第二个冷却盘管，之后再进入空调空间。
然而，如果一个压缩机用于提供冷水，则该机组将会更加复杂与昂贵。
不仅如此，也有可能由于阻力过大，使机组回流到前面的机组中的风险。
另一方面，如果一个吸收器或吸附器是用来生产冷水的，该机组也会将更复杂，更昂贵。
K.F.Fong等人提出了一种太阳能混合式空调系统，与传统的除湿系统相比，本系统
中多了三个主要部分。
首先是吸附机，二是辐射吊顶，第三是辅助加热器。
因此，冷水
是由吸附机产生的，空气冷却操作是由辐射吊顶完成的的。
关于辅助加热器，当太阳能
集热量不够时，其作为一个热量补充装置，从而保证系统的正常运行。
在本研究工作中，一个新的太阳能空调机组的设计被提出：用干燥剂材料对空气进
行除湿除湿，利用太阳能集热器产生热水，供用户使用，加湿器的加湿和组合式换热器
加湿器在没有利用没有吸附技术或传统的制冷机的情况下使空气冷却。
此外，主要基于
热和质量平衡的建模方法被提出。
因此，模拟研究的功能就是根据特定的气象数据，在
考虑使人体感到舒适的空调的温度和湿度的条件下，了解它的特性，这对人体舒适度而
言是非常重要的。
本文的其余部分的介绍内容如下：第2 节专门介绍太阳能空调机组的设计和运作；
第3 节，提出了一种太阳能空调装置的建模研究方法；第4 节中，具体介绍了模拟研究
的方法及结果；最后，第5节介绍了这篇论文的主要结论。
2 太阳能空调装置的设计与运行
2.1 机组的设计
太阳能空调装置的各部分设计如图2-1所示，相比较一个标准的机组，这里有4个增
加的组成部分：两加湿器h1、h4和两个热交换器E4、E1。
事实上，h1和E1保证了环境
空气的预冷却工作，而h4和E4最后进行除湿后的空气的辅助冷却工作。
其相当于一个组合式的换热-加湿器，其作用是确保空气冷却而不使用吸附技术或传统的制冷机。
因此，
空气在进入空调传统的干燥剂循环之前使用来自空调区域的回风进行预冷和预除湿，然
而，再生温度高需要100℃左右，从而保证除湿转轮再生过程。
图2-1太阳能空调机组的设计
2.2 机组运作的说明
太阳能空调机组的三种主要的运作模式是进行区分的。
对于第一种模式，处理空气
时没有预冷的环节，但在最后用加湿器进行加湿冷却；而对于第二模式，处理后的空气最初先进行预冷却，之后再用加湿器进行加湿冷却；关于第三模式，处理后的空气先进
行预冷却，以后的冷却通过与冷空气的换热来进行冷却，而不经过加湿器H2。
2.2.1 太阳能空调机组的第一种运作模式
在这种情况下，阀门C4 打开，但是阀门C1、C2以及C3 关闭，（如图2-1 所示）。
注意阀门C1、C2、C3 和C4通过点信号的命令进行打开或者关闭，图2-1给出了该模式的运行周期。
在这种情况下，空气不用进行预冷，而是通过吸湿轮直接进行减湿冷却（从2～3的过程），所以1点与2的温度和湿度相似，因为空气/空气热交换器ECH1中没有热量的交换。
翻译原文。