语言学概论期末复习(男神版)

语言学概论Chapter 1Invitations to Linguistics1.What is languageSenses of language in Webster’s New World Dictionary (our book, p.2) “Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for humancommunication. “(Wardaugh)2.Design features of language语言设计特征1. arbitrariness (任意性)2. duality (双重性)3. Creativity (创造性) or productivity4. displacement (移位性)5. interchangeability (互换性)6. specialization (专业化)7. cultural transmission （文化传承）3.Functions of Language(语言功能)Jakobson’s view: (情感功能) （指代功能) (诗学功能)（寒暄功能） (元语言) (意动功能) Halliday’s view: 1.ideational function (概念功能) 2.Interpersonal function（人际功能） 3.Textual function（语篇功能）Functions on the book: (告知性的) Function(人际功能) (行事功能)Function Communion（寒暄功能） Function(娱乐功能) Function(元语言功能)4．What Is Linguistics• Linguistics is the scientific study of language or the science of language.•1) Exhaustiveness（穷尽性）2) Consistency（贯通性） 3) Economy（经济性） 4) Objectivity（客观性）vs. performance言语能力 vs. 言语行为•N oam Chomsky in his Aspects of the Theory of Syntax.•C ompetence refers to a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.•P erformance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.Chapter 2Speech sounds1.Consonants and vowelsDistinction between consonants and vowels: theobstruction （阻塞） of airstream2.Minimal pairs and minimal sets（最小对立体）① When two words are identical in every way except for acontrast in one sound segment occurring in the sameposition in the string, the two words are called a minimalpair 最小对立体.: pit and bit junk and chunkban and bin bet and bat②A minimal pair should follow three conditions: 1) they aredifferent in meaning; 2) they differ only in one soundsegment; 3) the different sounds occur in the sameposition in the strings.Chapter 3From morpheme to phrase1.Root & affixRoot 词根: morpheme which is the basic part of a word.（Occur on its own、may be joined to otherroots、or take affixes (manly, coldness) orcombining forms (biochemistry)2 It is that part of the word left when all the affixes areremoved.3．All words contain a root morphemeAffix词缀: letter or sound, or group of letters or sounds(=amorpheme), which is added to a word, andwhich changes the meaning or function of theword.（Prefix前缀,Suffix后缀，infix中缀：feet，geese）2. inflectional affix 曲折词缀 and derivational affix 派生词缀Chapter 5Meaning1.The Referential Theory(所指理论)①The theory of meaning which relates the meaning ofa word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is knownas the referential theory.②Reference 所指 refers to the relationship between aword and the object it denotes in the physical world, .denotation 外延 in philosophy.③Is a very popular theory (semantic triangle by Ogdenand Richards in Meaning of Meaning )④Problems with this theory：Not every word has areference 所指.2. Sense relations 意义关系Sense may be defined as the semantic relations between one word and another, or more generally between one linguistic unit and another.*distinctions between sense and reference:The distinction between sense and reference iscomparable to that between connotation and denotation in philosophy①The former refers to the abstract properties of anentity, while the latter refers to the concrete entitieshaving these properties.②Every word has a sense, but not every word has areference.③Reference in its wider sense would be the relationshipbetween a word or phrase and an entity in the externalworld.④So sense is intra-linguistic and reference is extra- l linguistic3.3 kinds of sense relations:Synonymy （同义关系）Semantic relation of sameness or similarity in meaning oftwo or more linguistic expressions. （absolute synonyms 绝对同义词、relative synonyms 相对同义词、Stylistic synonyms 文体同义词、Emotive synonyms 情感同义词、Collocational synonyms：搭配同义词）Antonymy （反义关系）·Relation of semantic opposition.·three main sub-types： 1）Gradable antonymy （等级反义关系）：They are gradable; the denial of one is notnecessarily the assertion of the other. There is anintermediate ground between the two.（hot\coldwarm\cool tall\short big\small ）2Complementary antonymy（互补反义关系）The members of a pair in this type arecomplementary to each other. There is no intermediateground between the two.（alive\dead odd\evensingle\married male\female pass\fail hit\miss ）3Converse antonymy（相反反义关系）The members of a pair in this type show the reversalof a relationship between two entities. They are alsoknown as relational opposites. There are always twoentities involved. One presupposes the other.（buy\sell give\receive husband\wifeteacher\student above\below before\after）Hyponymy（上下义关系）A relationship between two words, in which the meaning of one of the words includes the meaning of the other word.Sometimes a superordinate may be a superordinate to itself.A superordinate may be missing sometimes. （red green yellow）Hyponyms may also be missing.（uncle rice）ponential analysis (成分分析)Componential analysis: (in semantics) an approach to the study of meaning which analyses a word into a set of meaningcomponents or semantic features.Usually, componential analysis is applied to a group of related words which may differ from one another only by oneor two components.Semantic features 语义特征or semantic components are the basic unit of meaning in a word. The meanings of wordsmay be described as a combination of semantic features.5. An integrated theory（整体理论）The idea that the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they arecombined is usually known as the principle ofcompositionality(复合性原则）a dictionarya semantic theorya set of projection rules 投射规则The dictionary provides the grammatical classification andsemantic information of words.The projection rules are responsible for combining the meaningsof words together.Chapter 6Language and cognitionis cognitionTwo definitions about cognition:①I n psychology it refers to the mental processes of anindividual with particular relation to the view that arguesthat the mind has internal states (beliefs, desires, andintentions) and can be understood in terms of informationprocessing.②M ental process or faculty of knowing, including aspectssuch as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgement.2.What is psycholinguistics（心理语言学）Definition：is the study of psychological aspects of languages; it usually studies the psychological states and mentalactivity associated with the use of language.6 subjects of research within psycholinguistics:Acquisition(语言习得) Comprehension(语言理解) Language and thoughtProduction(语言产出) Disorders（语言无序性） Neurocognition3.What is Cognitive LinguisticsDefinition: is a newly established approach to the study oflanguage.Chapter 7Language, culture and Societynguage and Culture①What is culture :Culture, in a broad sense,means the total way of life of apeople, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects,institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes thelife of the human community.In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specificpractice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found infolk culture, enterprise culture or food culture etc.②The relationship between language and cultureA language not only expresses facts, ideas, or events whichrepresent similar world knowledge by its people, but alsoreflects the people’s attitudes, beliefs, world outlooks etc. Ina word, language expresses cultural reality.2.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (萨丕尔-沃尔夫假设)Sa pir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.This hypothesis primarily suggests that our language will mould our view of the world.But few people would tend to accept the original for this theory. Thus, two versions, strong version and weak version have been developed.the strong version: the language patterns determine people’sthinking and behavior.the weak version: the former influences the latter.nguage and society①Definition of sociolinguistics(社会语言学):Sociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.②The relatedness between language and society：1) While language is principally used to communicatemeaning, it is also used to establish and maintain socialrelationships.2) Users of the same language in a sense all speakdifferently. The kind of language each of them chooses touse is in part determined by his social background.3) To some extent, language, especially the structure of itslexicon, reflects both the physical and the socialenvironments of a society4) Judgments concerning the correctness and purity oflinguistic varieties are social rather than linguistic.4.Halliday’s register theory:Definition of register（语域）: The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.Field of discourse（语场）refers to what is going on: to the area of operation of the language.Tenor of discourse（语旨）refers “to whom the speaker is communicating”Mode of discourse（语式）mainly refers to the means of communication.Chapter 8Language in use1.What is Pragmaticsthe study of language in use.2.Speech act theory1)The first major theory in the study of language in use,which originated with the Oxford philosopher John Langshaw Austin: How to Do Things with Words2)Speech act: an utterance(表达) as a functional unit incommunication. In speech act theory, utterances have two kinds of meaning:a.propositional meaning 命题意义(also known aslocutionary meaning发话意义)b. illocutionary meaning行事意义(also known asillocutionary force行事语力).A speech act is a sentence or utterance which has bothpropositional meaning and illocutionary force.3) 2 types of sentences:Performatives（施为句；行事话语）: an utterancewhich performs an actConstative（表述句；述事话语）: an utterance whichasserts something that is either trueor false.*It has even been suggested that there is no realdifference between constative and implicit performatives.All sentences can be used to do things.theory of the illocutionary act(行事行为理论)T hree different types of act involved in or caused by the utterance of a sentence:L ocutionary act（发话行为）is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood.I llocutionary act （行事行为）is using a sentence to perform a function，related to the speaker’s i ntention.P erlocutionary act（取效行为）is the result or effects that are produced by means of saying something.4.Categories of speech acts by Searle1. Representative（阐述类）:stating or describing, sayingwhat the speaker believes to be true . I swear…)2. Directives（指令类）: trying to get the hearer to dosomething..Your money or your life.)3. Commissives（承诺类）:committing the speaker himself tosome future course of action. . I promise..)4. Expressive（表情类）:expressing feelings or attitudetowards an existing state. Thank you…)5. Declarations（宣告类）: bring about immediate changes bysaying something.. you are fired...)theory of conversational implicature 会话含义理论The second major theory in the study of language in use proposed by Herbert Paul Grice: Logic and Conversation.1)Definition: Conversational implicature is a type of meaning,which is deduced on the basis of theconventional meaning of words togetherwith the context, under the guidance of theCP and its maxims2)Characteristics of implicature:calculability（可计算性）cancellability/ defeasibility（可删除性/可取消性）Non-detachability（非可分离性）Non-conventionality（非规约性）1. The cooperative principle合作原则: The co-operationbetween speakers in using the conversational maxims iscalled the cooperative principle.maxim对话准则: an unwritten rule about conversationwhich people know and which influences the form ofconversational exchangesGrice introduced 4 categories of maxims:a. the maxim of Quantityb. the maxim of Qualityc. the maxim of Relationd. the maxim of Manne rdevelopments1) Relevance theory 关联理论Definition:Every act of ostensive communicationcommunicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.（每一个明示交际行为都传递一种假设：该行为本身具备最适宜关联）2)the Q- and R-principleThese two principle was proposed by Laurence Horn①The Q-principle is intended to invoke the first maximof Grice’s Quantity, and the R-principle the Relation maxim,but the new principles are more extensive than the Griceanmaxims.②Horn reduces all the Gricean maxims to twoprinciples: the Q- and R-principleA. The Q-principle (hearer- based):Make your contribution sufficientSay as much as you canB. The R-principle (speaker-based):Make your contribution necessarySay no more than you mustIn other words, the Q-principle is concerned with the content.The R- principle, on the other hand, is concerned with the form.Chapter 11Linguistic and Foreign Language Teaching1.Definition:SLA: Second language acquisition 二语习得CPH :Critical Period Hypothesis 关键期假设UG：Universal Grammar 普遍语法LAD：Language Acquisition Device 语言习得基质IL：Interlanguage 中介语CA：Contrastive Analysis对比分析EA: Error Analysis 错误分析2．Universal Grammar 普遍语法Universal grammar holds that there are certain basic structural rules that govern language that all humans know without having to learn them.3. Input and language learningLanguage Acquisition Device 语言习得基质·Krashen’s Input Hypothesis1）There were two independent means or routes of second language learning: acquisition and learning.Acquisition is a process similar to the way childrenacquire their first language.Learning as another route is a conscious learning ofthe second language knowledge by learning the rulesand talking about the rules.2）Krashen put forward that learners advance their language learning gradually by receiving“comprehensible input”. He defined comprehensibleinput as “i+1”: “i” represents learners’ current state ofknowledge, the next stage is i+1.4.Inter language (IL,中介语):Definition: is defined as an abstract system of learners’target language system, it has now been widely used torefer to the linguistic expressions learners produce(especially the wrong or not idiomatic ones) or learnerlanguage.analysis and error analysis 对比分析与错误分析Contrastive analysis (CA) is a way of comparing languages inorder to determine potential errors for the ultimate purposeof isolating what needs to be learned and what does notneed to be learned in a second language learning situation.The goal is to predict what areas will be easy to learn andwhat areas will be difficult to learn.Error analysis (EA)involves, first independently orobjectively, describing the learner’s interlanguage (that is,their version of the target language and the target languageitself), then a comparison of the two is followed to locate mismatches.Two main sorts of errors: interlingual errors 语际错误 intralingual errors 语内错误.。