自考英语语言学Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics
chapter9psycholinguistics
Chapter 9 ： PsycholinguisticsI.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1.The linguistic ability of human beings depends primarily on the structure of the vocal cords.2.Human beings are the only organisms in which one particular part of the lefthalf of the brain is larger than the corresponding part of the right half.3.The case of Phineas Gage suggests that if our language ability is located in the brain, it is clear that it is not situated right at the front.4.In general, the right side of the brain controls voluntary movements of, and responds to signals from, the left side of the body, whereas the left side controls voluntarymovements of, and responds to signals from, the right side of the body.5.L a nguage functions are believed t o b e lateralized p rimarily in the left hemisphereof the brain.6.The language we speak determines the way we perceive the world a nd t hereforethe nature of thought.7.Human beings can not think without language, just as they can not speak without thinking.8.If a language lacks a word, its speakers will not be able to grasp its concept.9.Generally speaking, left hemisphere is responsible for language and speech, analytic reasoning, associative thought, etc., while the right hemisphere is responsible for perception of nonlinguistic sounds, holistic reasoning, recognition of musical melodies, etc.nguage by no means determines the ways we perceive the objective world, but by its c onvenience, availability, and habitual use, does influence the perceptions of humanbeing.II.Fill in each of the blanks below with one word which begins with the letter given:11.P is the study of language in relation to the mind.12.The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the cerebral c , which is the decision-making organ of the body.13.The brain is divided into two roughly symmetrical halves, called h , one onthe right and one on the l eft.14.The localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular side of thebrain is called l .15.Brain lateralization is g programmed, but takes time to develop.16.In addition to the m_____________area which is responsible for physical articulation of utterances, three areas of the left hemisphere are vital to language, namely, Broca's area,Wernicke's area and the angular gyrus.17.The relationship between the name and the meaning of a word is quitea .18.When language and t hought are identical or closely parallel to e ach other, we m ayregard thought as s speech and speech as o thought.19.Because languages differ in many ways, Whorf believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, relative to their linguistic background.This notion is called linguistic r .20.The basic essentials of the first language are acquired in the short period fromabout age two to puberty, which is called the c period for first language acquisition.21.The strong version of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis has two aspects: linguistic d_______ and linguistic relativism.III.There are four choices following e ach statement. Mark the choicethat can bestcomplete the statement:22.Human linguistic ability largely depends on the structure and dynamics of.A. human brainB. human vocal cordsC. human memoryD. human23.Psychologists, neurologists and lingui sts have concluded that, in addition to themotor area which is responsible for physical articulation of utterances, three areas of the leftbrain are vital to language, namely, .A.Broca's area, Wernicke's area and t he angular gyrusB.Broca's area, Wernicke's area and c erebral cortexC.Broca's area, Wernicke's area and n euronsD.Broca's area, Wernicke's area and E xner's area24.The ____ age for the acquisition of the first language coincides with the period o brain lateralization.A. youngestB. flexibleC. optimumD. relevant25.Linguistic is the brain's neurological specialization for language.A. fossilizationB. performanceC. competenceD. lateralization26.Our linguistic ability is a gift of the species' gene p rogram.A. chemicalB. physicalC. scientificD. biological27.s hows that if our language ability is located in the brain, it is clear that it isnot situated right at the front of the brain.A.The case of GenieB. The case of Phineas GageC. The componential analysisD. The contrastive analysis28.The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called.A. the neuronsB. nerve pathwaysC. cerebral cortex d. sensory organs29.A c c ording t o l ateralization theory, which of the following i s not the primary functionof the left hemisphere of the brain?A. analytic reasoningB. temporal orderingC. associative thoughtD.visual and spatial skills30.is commonly held to be an evolutionary precondition of the development of superior intelligence as well as a precondition of language acquisition.A. LateralizationB. MaturationC. Brain separationD. Memory capacity31.The dichotic listening research shows that the left hemisphere is not superior f or processing all sounds, but only for those that are in nature.A. non-linguisticB. musicalC. linguisticD. natural32.is responsible for physical articulation of utterances.A. The motor areaB. Broca's areaC. Wernicke's areaD. The angular gyrusnguage disorder resulting from a damage toin the brain reveals word-finding difficulties and problems with syntax.A. the m otor areaB. Broca's areaC. Wernicke's areaD. the angular g yrus34.In 1874, the young German physician Carl Wernicke published his discovery in a paper which contributed to the hypothesis that .A.there was only one language area in the left brainB.there was no language area in the left brainC.there was one language area in the right brainD.there was more than one language area in the left brain.35.is the language center primarily responsible for converting a visual stimulus into an auditory form and vice versa.A. The motor areaB. Broca's areaC. Wernicke's areaD. The angular gyrus36.The neurobiologist Eric Lenneberg is a major proponent of the idea that .A.there is a distinction between acquisition and learningB.there is a critical period for language acquisitionnguage influences thinkingD.there is interrelationship between language and thinking37.The case of Genie s hows that .nguage can not be acquired at all after the critical period.B.Cerebral plasticity after puberty is still high enough to for a successful mastery of a new language.C.the language faculty of an average human degenerates after the critical periodD.the language learning should be done as early as possible.IV Explain the following terms:38.psycholinguistics 39. brain lateralization40. dichotic listening 41. Broca's area42. angular gyms 43. cerebral plasticity44. linguistic determinism 45. sub vocal speech46. cerebral cortex 47. linguistic lateralization48. right ear advantage 49. critical period hypothesis50. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 51. linguistic relativism52. overt thought 53. intrapersonal communication54.interpersonal communicationV. Answer thefollowingquestions:55.What are the biological foundations of language?56.What are the major mental functions under the control of each hemisphere?57.What can we do by means of dichotic listening tests?58.What is the safe conclusion from Genie's case?59.How are language and thought related to each other?Chapter 9 PsycholinguisticsI.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. F2.T3.T4.T5.T6. F7.F8.F9.T 10.TII.II. Fill in each of the blanks below with one word which begins with the letter given:11. Psycholinguistics 12. cortex 13. hemispheres 14. lateralization15. genetically 16. Motor 17. arbitrary 18. sub-vocal, overt 19.relativism20. critical 21. determinismIII.There arefour choices following e ach statement. Mark the choice that can bestcomplete the statement:22.A 23.A 24.C 25.D 26.D 27.B 28.C 29.D 30.A31.C 32. A 33. B 34. D 35. D 36. B 37. CIV Explain the following t erms:38.Psycholinguistics: Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind.39.brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive and perceptual functions ina particular hemisphere of the brain is called brain lateralization.40.dichotic listening: a research technique which has been used to study how the brain controls h earing and language, with which subjects wear earphones and simultaneously receive different sounds in the right and left ear, and are then asked to repeat what they hear. Dichotic listening research makes use of the generally established fact that anything experienced on the right-hand side of the body is processed in the left hemisphere of thebrain, andvice versa. A basic assumption, thus, would bethat a signal coming in the right earwill go to the left hemisphere and a signal coming in the left ear will go to the right hemisphere.41.Broca's area : It refers to the frontal lobe in the left cerebral hemisphere, whichis vital to language. This area is discovered by Paul Broca, a French surgeon and anatomist.42.angular gyms:The angular gyrus lies behind Wernicke's area.The angular g i syrus the language center responsible for converting a visual stimulus into an auditory form a ndvice versa. This area is crucial for the matching of a spoken form with a perceived object, forthe naming of objects, and for the comprehension of written language , all of which require connections between visual and speech regions.43.cerebral plasticity: According to L enneberg, p rior to the end o f the critical period, both hemispheres are involved to s ome extent in language and o ne c an take o ver if the otheris damaged. This neurological flexibility is called cerebral plasticity .44.linguistic determinism: a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf, which states that the way people view the world is determined bythe structure of their native language.45.subvocal speech: a term used to refer to thought when thought and language areidentical or closely parallel to each other.46.cerebral cortex : the outside surface of the brain which receives messages fromall thesensory organs and where human cognitive abilities reside.47.linguistic lateralization: It refers the brain's neurological specialization for language.48.right ear advantage: The speech signals presented i n the right ear goes directly to theleft brain, while the speech signals in the left ear must first go to the right hemisphere, from where it is transferred to the left side of the brain for processing. Since the speech signals inthe left ear takes a non-direct route and a longer time before processing than a linguisticsignal received through the right ear, linguistic stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right ear. This phenomenon is called the right ear advantage.49.critical period hypothesis: The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one' slife e xtendingfrom ab o ut age t wo t o p uberty, during which the h uman brain is most ready toacquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly, and without explicit instruction.50.S apir-Whorf hypothesis: a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf which states that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language.51.linguistic relativism: Whorf believed t hat speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion of linguistic relativism .52.overt thought: When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, wemay reg ard s peech as "overt thought.”53.intrapersonal communication: It means that language users use language to facilitates thinking, speech behavior and action for the individual.54.i nterpersonal communication: It means language users use language to convey information, thoughts and feelings fromone person to another, or to control each other' sbehavior.V. Answer thefollowingquestions:55.What are the biological foundations of language?Of all organisms, human beings are the only spontaneous creators and users of highly sophisticated languages that permit the communication of a wide range of knowledge and ideas. Evidently, our linguistic ability does not depend primarily on the structure of our vocalcords, for other mammals also h ave vocal cords. Human linguistic ability largely depends,instead, on the structure and dynamics of the human brain. As far as is currently known, human beings are the only organisms in which one particular part of the left half of the brainis larger than the corresponding part of the right half. This has led to the belief that human language is b iologically, or moreexactly, neurologically, based.56.What are the major mental functions under the control of each hemisphere?Psychological research suggests that both hemispheres perform important mental functions and they differ only in the manner in which they treat incoming stimuli. For example, the right hemisphere processes stimuli more holistically and the left hemi spheremore analytically.Brain lateralization for major mental functions under the control of each hemisphere isgiven as follows:(1)Left hemisphere Right hemispherelanguage and speech perception of nonlinguistic s oundsanalytic reasoning holistic reasoningtemporal ordering visual and spatial skillsreading and writing recognition of p atternscalculation recognition of musical melodiesassociative thoughtBecause each cerebral hemisphere has unique functional superiority, it is accurate to think of the hemispheres as complementarily specialized .57.What can we do by means of dichotic listening tests?Dichotic listening research makes use of the generally established fact that anything experienced on the right-hand side of the body is processed in the left hemisphere of thebrain, andvice versa. A basic assumption, thus, would bethat a signal coming in the right ear will go to the left hemisphere and a signal coming in the left ear will go to the right hemisphere. By means of dichotic listening tests, we can analyze the characteristics of incoming stimuli processed by the individual hemispheres.Dichotic listening test canshow that the left hemisphere is not superior for processing allsounds, but only for those that are linguistic in nature, thus providing evidence in support ofthe view that the left side of the brain is specialized for language and that it is where language centers reside.58.What is the safe conclusion from Genie's case?A safe conclusion from Genie' s case is that the language faculty of an average humandegenerates after the critical period and consequently, most linguistic skills cannot develop.59.How are language and thought related to each other?Language and thought may be viewed as two independent circles overlapping in some parts, where language and thought are consistent with each other and one never occurs without theother. When language and t hought are identical or closely parallel to each other,we may regard thought as "subvocal speech”,and speech as "overt thought. In such a case,speaking and thinking take place simultaneously.。
英语 语言学 名词解释
名词解释nguage: language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2.Design features of language(语言的区别性特征) :i.Arbitrariness:the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to theirmeaning=language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a word(e.g.pen) and the object it refers to .ii.Duality:the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level. By duality we mean that language system has two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meanings.指拥有两层结构的这种特性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分。
指语言是声音和意义双重结构组成的系统。
举例：Sounds > syllables > words > phrases > clauses > sentences> texts/discoursesiii.Productivity： Language can be used to create new meanings because of its duality .语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number with sentences）iv.Displacement：Human languages enable their users to symbolize something which are not present at the moment of communication.v.Cultural transmission: language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct.3.Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It is a scientific study because it is based on thesystematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.4.Psycholinguistics: It is the study of how language is acquired, understood and produced.ngue:F. de Saussure. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all themembers of a speech community.语言指语言系统的整体，这个整体相对是比较稳定的。
英语语言学概论第九章笔记
英语语言学概论第九章笔记Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics 心理语言学1.The biological foundations of language 语言的生理基础a)The case of Phineas Gage 盖奇案例One afternoon in September 1848, a tragedy happed to Gage. A huge metal rod had gone through the front part of Gage’s brain, but his langua ge abilities were unaffected.The point of this amazing case is that, if our language ability is located in the brain, it is clear that it is not situated right at the front.1848年9月的一个下午，有一名叫菲尼亚斯.盖奇的美国人身上发生了一场悲剧。
一根大铁杆穿过了盖奇的大脑的前部，但他的语言能力却未受影响。
这一令人惊异的案例的意义在于，如果我们的语言能力位于大脑中，很显然不在其头部。
b)The human brain 人的大脑The human brain is the most complicated organ of the body. Lying under the skull, the human brain contains an average of ten billion nerve cells called neurons.人的大脑是人体最复杂的器官，它位于头盖骨下，平均包含有一百亿个神经细胞，即神经元。
The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the cerebral cortex. The cortex is the decision-making organ of the body, receiving messages from all the sensory organs and initiating all voluntary action. Many of the cognitive abilities that distinguish humans from other mammals, such as sophisticated reasoning, linguistic skills, and musical ability, are believed to reside in the cortex.大脑最主要的部分是它的外表面，这一外表面称为大脑皮层。
自考英语本科 《现代语言学》 复习大纲
C h a p t e r1I n t r o d u c t i o n绪论what is linguistics?定义 definitionLinguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language.语言学的研究范畴 the scope of linguisticsa. The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.把语言作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。
b. The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch oflinguistics called phonetics.语音学How speech sounds are produced and classified.c. how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning. phonology音位学/ 音系学交际中语音的组合规律及传达意义的方式d. The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to form words has constituted the branchof study called morphology.形态学how morphemes are combined to form words.这些符号通过排列组合而成构成语词，对于这种排列组合方式的研究构成了语言学研究的另一个分支，如对形态学的研究。
Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics
Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics1.Define or explain the following terms:1)PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind，with focus on the process of language production, comprehension and acquisition.2)Cerebral cortexThe outside surface of the brain，it is the decision-making organ of the body, receiving messages from all the sensory organs and it is where human cognitive abilities reside.3)Brain lateralizationThe localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain4)Linguistic lateralizationHemispheric specialization or dominance for language5)Dichotic listeningA research technique which has been used to study how the brain controls hearing and language, with which subjects wear earphones and simultaneously receive different sounds in the right and left ear, and are then asked to repeat what they hear.6)The critical periodAn early period of one’s life extending to the age of puberty, during which the human brain is most ready to acquire language naturally and effortlessly, a period that coincides with the period of brain lateralization for language functions.7)Te Sapir-Whorf hypothesisThe hypothesis refers to the theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf, which states that the language we speak determines the way we perceive the world and therefore the nature of thought. Whorf illustrated his view based in part on a number of differences that he observed among languages. For example, there are different words for snow in the Eskimo language. Proponents of the hypothesis believe that the English and Eskimo speakers perceive snow in different ways.8)Intrapersonal communicationIntrapersonal communication refers to the process of using language within the individual to facilitate thinking, speech behavior and action. For example, a word can be used as a stimulus for evoking and manipulating a concept.9)Subvocal speechA term used to refer to thought when thought and language are identical or closely parallel to each other.10）Right ear advantageThis phenomenon is know as the right ear advantage.11）Linguistic determinismWhorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. That is, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism.12）Linguistic relativismWhorf also believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background.2.In what cortical regions are speech and language thought to be localized?In what have come to be known as Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area and angular gyrus, all located in the left hemisphere of the brain.3.Describe one research technique that has provided linguists with information about the localization of speech and language in the brain.A research technique known as the “dichotic listening” has been used to study how the brain controls hearing and language. When performing a dichotic listening task, subjects wear earphones and simultaneously receive different sounds in the right and left ear, and are asked to repeat what they hear. Dichotic listening research makes use of the generally established fact that anything experienced on the right-hand side of the body is processed in the left hemisphere of the brain, and vice versa. During dichotic listening experiments, subjects reported hearing the language spoken to their right ears prior to the language spoken to their left ears. The results provide empirical support for the belief that the left hemisphere of the brain is dominant for language and speech.4.Many left-handed people have their language centers in the right hemisphere of the brain. What type of result would we expect to obtain from such people on a dichotic listening task?Since the left-handed subjects have language centers resident in their right hemisphere of the brain, they would hear the auditory signal given to the left ear first. This is because it takes a shorter time for the signal to go directly from the left ear to the right side of the brain than it does for the signal spoken to the right ear to travel first to the left hemisphere and then onto the right hemisphere for processing.5.Describe the processes of language perception, comprehension and production （What pattern does the brain activity follow?）From the perspective of psycholinguistic analysis, language use in terms of perception, comprehension and production follows a certain pattern which involves the coordination of various language. For example, when we speak, words are drawn from Wernicke’s area and transferred to Broca’s area, which determines the details of their form and pronunciation. The appropriate instructions are then sent to the motor area which controls the vocal tract to physically articulate the words. When we hear something and try to comprehend it, the stimulus from the auditory cortex is transmitted to Wernicke’s area, where it is then interpreted. When we perceive a visual image, a message is sent to the angular gyurs, where it is converted into a visual pattern6.When asked to read a list of words, some aphasic patients substitute other words for those printed on the list. Often the substituted words are similar or related to the printed words, as it shown by the data given below. What does the data reveal about how words are likely to be stored in the brain?Printed Words Words Uttered by Aphasicsabroad overseascanary parrotdecide decisionliberty freedomremember memoryportray portraitshort smallspeak discussiontall longEvidently, what is actually stored in the brain is meaning instead of form, and categorical information, instead of discrete information.7.Provide evidence for the view that there is a critical period for language acquisition.The critical period for language acquisition coincides with the time during which the brain’s hemispheric lateralization for language and other cognitive skills take place. It is believed that the end of the critical period corresponds to the completion of this lateralization process. Evidence in support of the critical period hypothesis comes from the fact that children acquiring their first language beyond the critical age are hardly successful such as the case of “Genie.”Aphasic studies also seem to support the critical period hypothesis; it is reported that preadolescent children suffering damage to the left hemisphere are able to transfer their language centers to the right hemisphere and reacquire the lost linguistic skills. Further supporting evidence comes from studies in the field of second language acquisition; adults experience much greater difficulty in learning a second or foreign language, in contrast to young children, who are known to be excellent second language learners.8.According to the strong version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, language determines speaker s’perceptions and patterns their way of life. How in your view does language relate to thought and culture?Language does not so much determine the way the speaker perceives the world as it functions as a means by which information can be stored and retrieved, by which a culture transmits its belief, values and norms, and by which the speaker interacts with other members of the culture.9.What can we do by means of dichotic listening tests?By means of dichotic listening tests, we can analyze the characteristics of incoming stimuli processed by the individual hemispheres.Result shows that stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right ear, also the left hemisphere is not superior for processing all sounds (such as blowing wind, rushing water) but only for those that are linguistic in nature, thus providing evidence in support of the view that the left side of the brain is specialized for language and that it is where language centers reside.10.What is the safe conclusion from Genie’s case?A safe conclusion from Genie’s case is that the language faculty of an average human degenerate after the critical period and consequently, most linguistic skills cannot develop.11.How are language and thought related to each other?Language by no means determines the ways we perceive the objective world, but by its convenience, availability, and habitual use, does influence the perceptions, memory tasks, and other verbal and nonverbal behavior of human beings.。
语言学教程期末考试笔记整理
1. sociolinguistics: as an interdisciplinary study of language use, attempts to show therelationship between language and society. We try to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context and understand sociological things of society by linguistic phenomenon in speaking community.2. pragmatics: is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly therelationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used.Pragmatics includes the study of3. Psycholinguistics can be defined as the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition oflanguage in any medium (spoken or written). It is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures.4. Cognitive psycholinguistics: Cognitive psycholinguistics is concerned above all with makinginferences about the content of the human mind.5.illocutionary act: it is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed insaying something.municative competence: refers to what a learners knows about how a language is used inparticular situations for effective and appropriate communication, which include knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary, knowledge of rules of speaking, knowledge of how to use and respond to different types of speech acts and social conventions, and knowledge of how to use language appropriately.7.interlanguage: is often understood as a language system between the target language and thelearner’s native language. It is imperfect with the target language.8. Context of situation(1) The relevant features of the participants: persons, personalities:a. The verbal action of the participantsb. The non-verbal action of the participants(2) The relevant objects(3) The effects of the verbal action9. Speech community: Speech community refers to a group of people who form a community,e.g. a village, a region, a nation, and who have at least one speech variety in common.10. Gender difference: Gender difference is the difference in a speech between men and women.11. Linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity: Linguistic determinism is one of the twopoints in S-W hypothesis, i.e. language determines thought. Linguistic relativity is the other point: there is no limit to the structural diversity of languages.12. What is a speech act?A speech act is an utterance as a functional unit in communication. In speech act theory,utterances have two kinds of meaning.Propositional meaning (locutionary meaning): This is the basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by the particular words and structures which the utterance contains.Illocutionary meaning (illocutionary force): This is the effect the utterance or written text has on the reader or listener. E.g. in I’m thirsty, the propositional meaning is what the utterance says about the speaker’s physical state. The illocutionary force is the effect the speaker wants the utterance to have on the listener. It may be intended as request for something to drink. A speech act is a sentence or utterance which has both propositional meaning and illocutionaryforce.A speech act which is performed indirectly is sometimes known as an indirect speech act, such as the speech act of the requesting above. Indirect speech acts are often felt to be more polite ways of performing certain kinds of speech act, such as requests and refusals.13. What the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests is like this: our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express our unique ways of understanding the world. Following this argument, two important points could be captured in the theory. On the one hand, language may determine our thinking patterns; on the other hand, similarity between language is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be. For this reason, this hypothesis has alternatively been referred to as linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity. This hypothesis has two versions: a strong and a weak version. The strong version of the theory refers to the claim the original hypothesis suggests, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns. The weak version, however, is a modified type of its original theory, suggesting that there is a correlation between language, culture, and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorical.14. Locutionary act: A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of speech acts between three different types of acts involved in or caused by the utterance of a sentence.A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood. Illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform a function. Perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the results or effects that are produced by means of saying something.15. Cooperative principle refers to the “co-operation”between speakers in using the maxims during the conversation. There are four conversational maxims:(1) The maxim of quantity:a. Make your contribution as informative as required.b. Don’t make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality: Try to make your contribution one that is true.a. Don’t say what you believe to be false.b. Don’t say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relation: Say things that are relevant.(4) The maxim of manner: Be perspicuous.a. Avoid obscurity of expression.b. Avoid ambiguity.c. Be brief.d. Be orderly.16. Conversational implicature: The use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation is called conversational implicature.17. Error: Error is the grammatically incorrect form.Mistake: Mistake appears when the language is correct grammatically but improper in a communicational context.18. Input Hypothesis was offered by Krashen. It refers to learner acquire language as a result ofcomprehending input addressed to them. “i+1”principle is most famous.The Input hypothesis is a theory proposed by Krashen (1985) to deal with the relationship between language input and learner s’ acquiring language. According to thishypothesis, learners acquire a language as a result of comprehending input addressed tothem. Krashen brought forward the concept of “i + 1” principle, i.e. the language thatlearners are exposed to should be just far enough beyond their current competence thatthey can understand most of it but still be challenged to make progress. Input shouldneither be so far beyond their reach that they are overwhelmed, nor so close to theircurrent stage that they are not challenged at all.19. Interlanguage is a language system between the target language and the learner’s nativelanguage. It formed when the learner attempts to learn a new language, and it has features of both the first language and the second language but is neither.20. Error: Error is the grammatically incorrect form.21. Mistake: Mistake appears when the language is correct grammatically but improper in acommunicational context.22. Error analysis: Error analysis is the study and analysis of error and is confined to thelanguage learner.。
现代语言学_自考本科00830
Chapter 1——1
Some important distinctions in linguistics
Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.
Competence and performance
He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.
Chapter 1——2
What is language?
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Sapir uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition. Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution. Chomsky’s definition is quite different, it focus on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.
psycholinguistics心理语言学 ppt课件
Definition of computational linguistics and functions
of corpus in linguistic studies;
psycholinguistics心理语言学
2
psycholinguistics
Psycholinguistics studies the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written). Its subjects are adults and children as well as aphasics, people with speech disorders.
psycholinguistics心理语言学
11
Types of schemata
Schemata are categorized into three types: linguistic schemata, formal schemata and content schemata.
Linguistic schemata are about learners‘ linguistic knowledge.
LAD: posited by Chomsky and is present in the minds of children by which a grammar of their native language is internalized.
psycholinguistics心理语言学
8
Language comprehension
Language and culture, and the causes leading to difficulties in cross-culture communication;
语言学名词解释Chapter1-3
35. Lexical words: refer to substance, actions and quality 36.Closed-class words: words that cannot be extended by the creation of additional members. 37.Open-class words: words can be extended. 38.Morpheme ：the smallest meaning-bearing（有意义的）unit 39.Free morphemes: morphemes which may constitute words by themselves 40.Bound morphemes: morphemes which can not be used by themselves, but must be combined with 41.Inflectional morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes which manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories 42.Derivational morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes , added to existing forms to create new words. 43.stem: is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. 44.Root: the base form of a word 45.affix: naturally bound 46.Allomorph: A morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. 47.Inflection 屈折词: the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes 48.Derivation 派生词: the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots or words. pounding 复合词: a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit. 50.Blending 混合词: a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words. 51.Abbreviation 缩 写 词 : a shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form. 52. Acronym 首字母缩略词: a word created by combining the initial letters of a number of words. 53.Back-formation: a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word. 54.Borrowing: the taking over of words from other languages 55.Coinage (invention): the invention of a new word 56.Meaning shift: a process in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related meaning. 57.
Linguistics 胡壮麟语言学教程 语言学复习资料
Chapter oneIntroduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness 任意性Productivity 多产性（创造性）Duality 双重性Displacement 移位性Cultural transmission 文化传递5.语言能力Competence （抽象）Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performance （具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。
7.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. A diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.8.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.9.语言langue （抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.言语parole （具体）The realization of langue in actual use.11.规定性PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for correct behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.12.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点1. Language is not an isolated phenom enon, it’s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。
[说明]英语语言学名词解释
![[说明]英语语言学名词解释](https://img.taocdn.com/s3/m/bad07a20ef06eff9aef8941ea76e58fafab0457c.png)
现代语言学一绪论1 Linguisitics : Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics.For example,vowels and consonants3 Phonology : The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone.4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher.5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.”6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal m eans different things.7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context.8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language.9 Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind iscalled psycholinguistics.二音系学1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t.4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value.5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable ispronounced with great force than the other or others.9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a supra-segmental feature.10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English{$isbest}三形态学1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are form ed.2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.3 derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.4 morpheme: Morpheme is the smallest m eaningful unit of language.5 free morpheme: Free morpheme are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselces or in combination with other morphemes.6 bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.7 root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.8 affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.9 prefix: Prefix occur at the beginning of a word.10 suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.11 derivation: Derivation affixes are added to an existing form to creat a word. Derivation can be viewed as the adding of affixes to stem to form nes words.12 compounding: Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometim es m ore than two words to creat new words.{$isbest}四句法学1 linguistic competence: Ch omsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2 sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.3 transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. Theoperation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.4 D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure.5 Move а : Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules,i,e. the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called Move а{$isbest}五语义学1 semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.2 sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized.3 reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4 synonymy : Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. W ords that are close in meaning are called synonymy.5 polysemy : Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more thanone meaning.A word having more than one m eaning is called a polysem ic word.6 antonymy : Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. W ords that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.7 homonymy :Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.8 hyponymy : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.9 componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze wprd meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists.10 grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality,i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of asentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.11 semantic meaning : The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.12 predication : In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication. The predication is the abstraction of the m eaning of a sentence.{$isbest}六语用学1 pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a languageuse sentences to effect successful communication.2 context: The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.3 utterance meaning: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4 locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexion and phonology.5 illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; It is the act performed in saying something.6 perlocutionary act:A illocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something: it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.{$isbest}七历史语言学1 historical linguistics: Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change.2 apocope: Another well-documented sound loss is the deletion of a word-final vowel segement, a phenomenon called apocope.3 epenthesis: A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis.4 metathesis: Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as metathesis.5 compounding: Compounding is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.6 derivation: Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots.7 blending: Blending is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.8 back-formation: Back-formation is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word.9 semantic broadening: Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation..10 semantic narrowing: Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning ofa word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier m eaning.11 semantic shift: Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquire a new, som etim es related, m eaning.12 protolanguage: It refers to a family of a language.A protolanguage is the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist.The proto form can be reconstructed by identifying and comparing similar linguistic forms with similar meanings across related languages.13 sound shift: It refers to the systematic modification of a series of phonem es.{$isbest}八社会语言学1 sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social context.2 speech community: A speech community is thus defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language.3 speech variety: Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.4 language planning: One way out of the communication dilemma is language standardization known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling system, across regional boundaries.5 idiolect: Such a personal dialect is refered to as idiolect.6 standard language: The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system,used by the mass media.7 nonstandard language: Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or vernacular, languages.8 lingua franca: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.9 pidgin: A pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of other languages as a m edium of communication.10 Creole: A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established asa native language in some speech communication.11 diglossia: Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech communication, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.12 bilingualism: Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.13 ethic dialect: An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language ,often cutting across regional differences.14 sociolect: Social dialect, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.15 register: Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. For that reason, registers are also known as situational dialects.16 slang: Slang is a causal use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinage and figure of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.17 tabo A linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use.18 euphemism: Euphemism comes from the Greek word euphemismos, meaning “to speak with good words”. A euphemism, then ,is mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substitute when the speaker or writer fears more dire ct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive.{$isbest}九心理语言学1 psycholinguistics: Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind. As the name suggests, psycholinguistics is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics, drawing equally upon the language we acquire, produce and comprehend.2 cerebral cortex: The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the cerebral cortex.3 brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive of cognitive and percpetualfunctions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralization.4 linguistic lateralization: In their research of brain lateralization, psycholinguistics are particulary interested in linguistic lateralization, which is the brain’s neurological specialization for language.5 dichotic listening: Evidence in support of lateralization for language in the left hemisphere comes from researches in dichotic listening tasks6 right ear advantage: Stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right car. This phenomenon is knowas the right ear advantage.7 critical period hypothesis: The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one’s life extending from about age two to puberty during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly and without explicit instruction.8 linguistic determinism: Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. That is, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism.9 linguistic relativism: Whorf also believed that speakers of different language perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion10 subvocal speech: When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regard thought as “subvocal speech”.of linguistic relativism.{$isbest}十语言习得1 language acquisition: Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.2 telegraphic speech: The early multiword utterance of children have a special characteristic. They typically lack inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories. Because of their resemblance to the styly of language found in telegrams, utterance at this acquisition stage are often called telegraphic speech.3 holophrastic sentence: Children’s one-word utterance are also called holophrastic sentences.4 acquisition: According to Krashen,acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.5 learning: Learning, however, is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.6 language transfer: Learners will subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in learning a second language. This is known as language transfer.7 positive transfer: Presumably, positive transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target-language pattern.8 negative transfer: Conversely, negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language.9 contrastive analysis: The Contrastive Analysis approach was founded on the belief that, by establishing the linguistic differences between the native and target language system, it was possible to predict what problems learners of a particular second language would face and the types of errors they would make.10 interlanguage: SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction, in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner’s interim knowledge of the target language, known as interlanguage.11 formal instruction: Formal instruction occurs in classrooms when attempts are made to raise learner’s consciousness about the nature of target language rules in order to aid learning.12 instrumental motivation: Thus, instrumental motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is functional.13 integrative motivation: Integrative motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is social.14 acculturation: A related issue with integrative motivation has been the extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the12community. This adaptation process is called acculturation.。
自考语言学复习大纲(整理)
自考英语语言学复习大纲Chapter 1Introduction 绪论1.What is linguistics?什么是语言学1.1Definition:Linguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language.语言学普遍被定义为对语言进行的科学研究。
2.What is language?什么是语言？2.1Definitions:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是用于人类交流的一个任意的语音符号系统。
(1)language is a system (2)language is arbitrary (3)language is vocal (4)language is human specific Chapter 2Phonology 音位学1.The phonic medium of language 语言的语音媒介2.Phonetics 语音学 a.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.普通语言学。
b.The study of sounds,which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.语音学c.The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.音位学d.The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology.形态学e.The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.句法学f.The study of meaning in language is called semantics.语义学g.The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.语用学h.The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.社会语言学i.The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycholinguistics.心理语言学j.The study of applications(as the recovery of speech ability)is general known as applied linguistics.应用语言学h.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics,(人类语言学)neurological linguistics(神经语言学),mathematical linguistics(数字语言学)and computational linguistics(计算机语言学).1.2The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴a.语言的任意性（武断性）Arbitrarinessb.语言的能产性Productivityc.语言的双重性Dualityd.语言的移位性Displacemente.语言的文化传递性Cultural transmission1Prescriptive vs.Descriptive 规定性与描写性2Synchronic vs.Diachronic 共时性与历时性(Saussure)3Speech and Writing 口头语和书面语4Langue and Parole (both from French words)语言（抽象）和言语（具体）(Saussure)5Competence and Performance 语言能力与语言运用(Chomsky)1.3Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学研究中的一些重要的区分2.2Design features语言的甄别性特征Hockett人类语言和其他动物的交际系统区别开来的一些特征语言学内部的主要分支跨学科分支2.1Definition:phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language.语音学关注的是语言世界中的所有声音↘three points of view 2.2Organs of speech 从三个角度审视语言的发音器官2.3Orthographic representation of speech sounds —broad and narrow transcriptions IPA-International Phonetic Alphabet 国际音标语音的正字表征—宽式标音和严式标音There are two ways to transcribe speech sounds:两种标音方法2.4Classification of English speech sounds 英语语音的分类(1)articulatory phonetics 发音语音学→研究语言的产生(2)auditory phonetics 听觉语音学→研究语言怎样被感知(3)acoustic phonetics 声学语音学→研究语音的物理属性The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔(the throat)→喉咙The oral cavity 口腔(the mouth)→嘴巴The nasal cavity 鼻腔(the nose)→鼻子One is the transcription with letter-symbols only called broad transcription.The other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics called narrow transcription.stops 闭塞音/p/,/b/,/t/,/d/,/k/,/g/fricatives 摩擦音/f/,/v/,/s/,/z/,/ʃ/,/ʒ/,/θ/,/ð/,/h/affricates 塞擦音/tʃ/,/dʒ/liquids 流音/l/,/r/nasals 鼻音/m/,/n/,/ŋ/glides 滑音/w/,/j/bilabial 双唇音/p/,/b/,/m/,/w/labiodental 唇齿音/f/,/v/dental 齿音/θ/,/ð/alveolar 齿龈音/t/,/s/,/d/,/z/,/n/,/l/,/r/palatal 鄂音/ʃ/,/ʒ/,/tʃ/,/dʒ/,/j/velar 软腭音/k/,/g/,/ŋ/glottal 喉音/h/Front 前元音/i:/,/i/,/e/,/æ/,/a/Central 中元音/ɜ:/,/ə/,/ʌ/back 后元音/u:/,/u/,/ɔ:/,/ɔ/,/a:/close vowels 闭元音/i:/,/i/,/ɜ:/,/u/semi-close vowels 半闭元音/e/,/ɜ:/semi-open vowels 半开元音/ə/,/ɔ:/open vowels 开元音/æ/,/a/,/ʌ/,/ɔ/,/a:/Consonants 辅音in terms of manner of articulation 按照发音方式in terms of place of articulation按照发音部位Vowels元音the position of the tongue in the mouth按照舌在口腔的位置the openness of the mouth 按照嘴的张合度the shape of the lips 按照嘴唇形状the length of the vowels 按照音的长度rounded vowels 圆唇元音/u:/,/u/,/ɔ:/,/ɔ/unrounded vowels 不圆唇元音/i:/,/i/,/e/,/æ/,/a/,/ɜ:/,/ə/,/ʌ/long vowels 长元音/a:/,/ɔ:/,/ə:/,/i:/,/u:/short vowels 短元音/ʌ/,/ɔ/,/ə/,/i/,/u/,/e/,/æ/monophthong 单元音在元音中还有一些双元音(diphthong),包括：/ei/,/ai/,/au/,/əu/,/ɔi/,/iə/,/εə/,/uə/3.Phonology 音位学3.1phonology and phonetics 音位学和语音学3.2phone,phoneme,allophone 音素、音位和音位变体3.3Phonemic contrast,complementary distribution,and minimal pair 音位对立，互补分布和最小对立体3.4Some rules in phonology 3.5Suprasegmental features Chapter 3Morphology 形态学1.Definition:Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.形态学是语法学的一个分支，它研究的是单词的内在结构及单词的构成规律。
自整英语语言学
一.名词解释Chapter 1 Introduction引言1.linguistic语言Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.语言学一般被定义为语言的科学研究。
2.general linguistics一般语言学The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.作为整体而言的语言研究经常被成为一般语言学。
3.phonetics语音学The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics.语言交际中语音的研究导致了语音学的建立。
4.morphology形态学The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged and combined to form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.对这些符号的排列方式和组合方式的研究构成了语言学研究的分支形态学。
5.syntax句法The study of the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages is called syntax.句子的组合形式的研究称之为句法。
6.semantics语义学The study of meaning is known as semantics.意义的研究被称为语义学。
7.pragmatics语用学When the study of meaning is conducted，not in isolation，but in the context of language use，it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.当意义的研究是进展的，不是孤立的，而是在语言运用的语境中，它就称为语言学的另一个分支，语用学。
英语语言学填空题及答案（最新版）
英语语言学填空题及答案（最新版）Chapter one1.Linguistics is generally defined as the .2.The study of language as a whole is often called .3.The study of_ used in linguistic communication led to theestablishment of phonetics.4.The study of is known as semantics.5.Psycholinguistics relates the study of language to .6. The study of is generally known as applied linguistics.7. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be .8. The description of a language at some point of time in isa synchronic study the description of a language as it through time is a diachronic.9. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is to writing.10. _ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the member of a speech community, and refers to the realization of langue in actual use.11. Linguistic is descriptive while traditional grammer is .12. Modern linguistic regards the language as primary, not the written.13. Many of the rules of traditional grammer apply only to thelanguage.14. When the study of meaning is ,not in isdation ,but in the context of language use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.15. Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different oflinguistic study.答案：1.scientific study of language2.general linguistics3.sounds4.meaning5.psychology6.applications7.descriptive8.history; changes9.prior/doc/a86555740.html,ngue; parole11.prescriptive12.spoken13.written14.conducted15.typesChapter Two1. Phonetics is defined as the study of the of language; if is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s language.2. The three branches of phonetics are_ , auditory phonetics and acousfic phonetics respectively.3. English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in termsof _and the other is in terms of _ .4. Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language-_______.5. The different throes which can represent a phoneme indifferent phonetics envronments are called the _ of that phoneme.6. The assimulation rules assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a_______; thus making the two phones similate.7. The assimulation rule also accounts for the _______ of the alvedar nasal in some sound combinations.8. The deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted althoughit is______.9. Language is first ______through its sounds.10. The letter [P] in terms of place of articulation______ in terms ofmanner of articulation is _______.11. _______, not phonetic identity is the ctciterion with which we operate the phonological analysis of language .12. The greatest source of modification of the air stream is founding the _______.13. Corresponding to the distinction of long and short vowels is the distinction of _____and______ vowels .14. A phoneme is further analyzable because it consists of a set of______.15. Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a ______and a phrase consisting of the same elements.答案:1.phonic medium/doc/a86555740.html,beled articulation phonetics3.manner of articulation; place of articulation4.the speech sounds5.allo phones6.sequential phoneme7.varying pronunciation8.orthographically represented9.perceived10.bilabial; stops11.phonetic similarity12.oral cavity13.tense; lox14.simultaneous distinctive features/doc/a86555740.html,pound nounChapter Three1.Linguists define the word as the smallest ______found inlanguage.2.Morpheme is the_______________ that carries information aboutmeaning or function.3.The root consistutes the _____ of the word and carries themajor components of its meaning .4.Morpheme are usually ______: there is no nature connectionbetween their sound and meaning.5.When _______ are conjoined to other morpheme （or words）, anew words are derived , or formed.6.Derivation is an _______ that form a word with meaning andcategory distinct from that of its bases.7.Unlike phonemes and syllables which are the elements ofsound , words_______.8.______ are the foundation building blocks of a language .9.Linguists use the term morphology to refer to the part ofthegrammer that is concerned with ______ and ________.10.The content words of language , such as ____,_____,_____andadverbs, are sometimes called open class words.11.Affixes______ belong to a lexical category and are alwaysbound morpheme.12.Bound morphemes which are for the most part purelygrammatical makers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case are called_________.13._______, ________ and free morphemes combine are the majorways to produce new words.14.The ways word are formed are called _______.15.When two words are in the same _______, the compound willbe in this category.答案：1.free form2.smallest unit of language3.core4.arbitrary5.derivational morphemes6.affixational process7.carry meaning8.words9.word formation; word structure10.nouns; verbs; adjectives11.do not12.inflectional morphemes13.derivation; compounds14.morphological rules15.grammatical categoryChapter four1.To determine a word's category，three criteria are usually employed: , , .2. The XP rule is .3.Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that .4.The S rule is5.The first, formed by the in accordance with the subcategorization properties, is called deep structure.6.questions begin with a wh- word are called .7.Corresponding to the final syntactic form of sentence which results from appropriate transformations , is called .8.If the head is a verb, then the specifier is .9.Word level categories are divided into two kinds: and .10.Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called .11. The structures which formed by joining two or more elements ofthe some type with the help of a conjunction are .12.The information about is included in the head and termed subcategorization.13.The element which specifies optionally expressible properties of hand is .14.A special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another is .15.The construction in which the complement phrases is embedded is called .答案1.meaning，inflection, distribution2.XP→(specifier)X(complement)/doc/a86555740.html,ern the formation of sentences4.S→NP VP5.XP rule , head’s6.questions7.suffice structure8.qualifier9.major lexical categories , minor lexical categories10.phrases11.coordinate structures12.a word’s complement13.modifiers14.transformation15.matrix clauseChapter five1.According to the naming theory , words are just or labeis for things .2.3.Two kinds of context are recognized :the situational context and the .4.In the English vocabulary there are two category of words:and .5.Synonyms can be divided into the ,stylistic synonyms, and collocational synonyms.6.When two words are identical in ,they are .When two words are identical in ,they are homographs.7.swperordinate is more general in meaning, but hyponyms ismore .8.three kinds of antonymy are recognized：Gradable antonymys, , and .9.There are four certain relations between sentences,theyare: , , and preswpposes.10.There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and meaning .11.In terms of truth condition, if X is true, Y is true ,if X is false,Y may be true or false, we called the relation is12.A polysemic word is the result of the evolution of themeaning of the word. The various meaning of the word are to some degree. Complete homonyms are often brought into being by .13. Reference deals with the relationship between theelement and word of experience.14. held the view that “we shall know a word by thecompany it keeps15.semantics canbe simply defined as the study of . 答案：/doc/a86555740.html,s2.referent3.linguistic context4.native words, borrowed words5.Dialectal synonyms ,emotive synonyms6.homophones, spelling7.specific/doc/a86555740.html,plementary antonyms, relational opposites9.synonymous , inconsistence , entails10.semantic11.entails12.primary , related , coincidence13.linguistic ,non-linguistic14.J.R.Firth15.meaningWelcome T o Download欢迎您的下载，资料仅供参考！。
自考00830现代语言学串讲
1. What is linguistics?1.1 Definition1.2 The scope of linguistics1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic1.3.3 Speech and writing1.3.4 Langue and parole1.3.5 Competence and performance2. What is language?2.1 Definitions of language2.2 Design featuresStudy questionsChapter 2 Phonology1. The phonic medium of language2. Phonetics2.1 What is phonetics?2.2 Organs of speech2.3 Orthographic representation of speech sounds—broad and narrow transcriptions2.4 Classification of English speech sounds2.4.1 Classification of English consonants2.4.2 Classification of English vowels3. Phonology3.1 Phonology and phonetics3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophone3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair3.4 Some rules in phonology3.4.1 Sequential rules3.4.2 Assimilation rules3.4.3 Deletion rule3.5 Suprasegmental features—stress, tone, intonation3.5.1 Stress3.5.2 Tone3.5.3 IntonationStudy questionsChapter 3 Morphology1. Definition2. Morpheme2.1 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language2.2 Types of morphemes2.2.1 Free morphemes2.2.2 Bound morphemes2.2.3 Morphological rules3. Compounding3.1 Types of compound words3.2 Features of compoundsStudy questionsChapter 4 Syntax1.Syntax as a system of rules2. Sentence structure2.1 The basic components of a sentence2.2 Types of sentences2.2.1 The simple sentence2.2.2 The coordinate sentence2.2.3 The complex sentence2.3 The linear and hierarchical structures of sentences2.3.1 The linear word order of a sentence2.3.2 The hierarchical structure of a sentence2.3.3 Tree diagrams of sentence structure3. Syntactic categories3.1 Lexical categories3.2 Phrasal categories4. Grammatical relations5. Combinational rules5.1 Phrase structure rules5.2 The recursiveness of phrase structure rules5.3 X-bar theory6. Syntactic movement and movement rules6.1 NP- movement and WH- movement6.2 Other types of movement6.3 D-structure and S-structure6.4 Move α—a general movement rule7. Toward a theory of universal grammar7.1 General principles of Universal Grammar7.2 The parameters of Universal GrammarStudy questionsChapter 5 Semantics1. What is semantics?2. Some views concerning the study of meaning2.1 The naming theory2.2 The conceptualist view2.3 Contextualism2.4 Behaviorism3. Lexical meaning3.1 Sense and reference3.2 Major sense relations3.2.1 Synonymy3.2.2 Polysemy3.2.3 Homonymy3.2.4 Hyponymy3.2.5 Antonymy4. Sense relations between sentences5. Analysis of meaning5.1 Componential analysis—a way to analyze lexical meaning5.2 Predication analysis—a way to analyze sentence meaningStudy questionsChapter 6 Pragmatics1. What is pragmatics?1.1 Definition1.2 Pragmatics vs. semantics1.3 Context 1.4 Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning2. Speech act theory3. Principle of conversationStudy questionsChapter 7 Historical Linguistics1. The purpose and significance of the historicalstudy of language2. The nature of language change3. The historical development of English3.1 Major periods in the history of English3.1.1 Old English3.1.2 Middle English3.1.3 Modern English3.2 linguistic change of English3.2.1 Sound change3.2.2 Morphological change3.2.3 Syntactic change3.2.4 Lexical change3.2.5 Semantic change4. Language family4.1 Classifying genetically related languages4.2 The Indo-English language family5. The causes of language change5.1 Sound assimilation5.2 Rule simplification and regularization5.3 Internal borrowing5.4 Elaboration5.5 Sociological triggers5.6 Cultural transmission5.7 Children’s approximation t oward the adultgrammarStudy questionsChapter 8 Sociolinguistics1. Language variation1.1 Speech community1.2 Speech variety1.3 Regional variation1.4 Social variation1.5 Stylistic variation1.6 Idiolectal variation2. Standard and nonstandard language2.1 Standard and nonstandard language2.2 Lingua francas2.3 Pidgins2.4 Creoles3. Diglossia and bilingualism3.1 Diglossia3.2 Bilingualism4. Ethnic dialect4.1 Black English, a case study of ethnic dialect4.2 The social environment of Black English5. Social dialect5.1 Education varieties5.2 Age varieties5.3 Gender varieties5.4 Register varieties5.5 Address terms5.6 Slang5.7 Linguistic taboo5.8 EuphemismStudy questionsChapter 9 Psycholinguistics1. The biological foundations of language1.1 The case of Phineas Gage1.2 The human brain1.3 Brain lateralization2. Linguistic lateralization2.1 Left hemispheric dominance for language2.2 Dichotic listening research3. The language centers3.1 Broca’s are a3.2 Wernicke’s area3.3 The angular gyrus3.4 Language perception, comprehension andproduction4. The critical period for language acquisition4.1 The critical period hypothesis4.2 The case of Genie and the degeneration oflanguage faculty with age5. Language and thought5.1 Early views on language and thought5.2 The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis5.3 Arguments against the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis5.3.1 Words and meaning5.3.2 Grammatical structure5.3.3 Translation5.3.4 Second language acquisition5.3.5 Language and world views5.4 Understanding the relation of language andthought5.4.1 Major functions of language5.4.2 The development and blending of language5.4.3 Thinking without language5.4.4 Language as a conventional coding system toexpress thought5.4.5 The ways in which language affects thoughtStudy questionsChapter 10 Language Acquisition1. First language acquisition1.1 The biological basis of language acquisition1.2 Language acquisition as the acquisition ofgrammatical rules1.3 The role of input and interaction1.4 The role of instruction1.5 The role of correction and reinforcement1.6 The role of imitation2. Stages of first language acquisition2.1 The prelinguistic stage2.2 The one-word stage2.3 The two-word stage2.4 The multiword stage3. The development of the grammatical system3.1 The development of phonology3.2 The development of syntax3.3 The development of morphology3.4 The development of vocabulary and semantics4. Second language acquisition4.1 Acquisition vs. learning4.2 Transfer and interference4.3 Error Analysis and the natural route ofdevelopment4.4 Interlanguage and fossilization4.5 The role of input4.6 The role of formal instruction4.7 Individual learner factors4.7.1 The optimum age for secondacquisition4.7.2 Motivation4.7.3 Acculturation4.7.4 PersonalityStudy questionsSuggested Answers to Study QuestionsAn English-Chinese Glossaryis generally defined asThe study of language asIn a narrow sense,linguistics refers to the application ofprinciples and theories to language teachinglearning, especially the teaching of foreignsecond languages. In a broad sense, it refersapplication of linguistic findings to the solutionpractical problems such as the recovery ofA study of the featuresthe English used in Shakespeare’s time isA diachronic studylanguage is a historical study, which studiestime. e.g. a study of the changes Englishundergone since Shakespeare’s time is a diachronicThe ideal user’knowledge of the rules of his language.transformational-generative grammar（转化生成语法）is a model of language competence.performance islanguage usby all the members of acommunity; Langue is the set of conventionsrules which language users all have toLangue is relatively stable, it does notin actual use; parole is the concrete use ofvaries from person to person, andLanguage is a system oflanguage. It means that there is noconnection between meanings and sounds. ALanguage is productivemakes possible theLanguage is a system, whichat the lower or basic level, and the otherthings which are present or not present, realfar-away places. In other words, language canused to refer to contexts removed fromWhile we arethe detailsany language are not genetically transmitted,It refers to thethat distinguishFrench words.)Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation. 8.Chomsky的语言能力competence和语言使用performance各指什么？(American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance.)Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc…Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard (偶然的).9.How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance? And what is their difference?Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. Their purpose is to single out one aspect of language for serious study.They differ in that Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.10.What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.First of all, language is a system, i.e. elements of language are combined according to rules. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it refers to.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages.The term “human” is meant to specify that language is human-specific.11.What features of human language have been specified by Charles Hockett to show that it is essentially different from any animal communication system? 人类语言的甄别性特征是什么？1.Arbitrariness（任意性）: (课本答案：a sign of sophistication only humans are capable of) It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. Although language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. Non-arbitrary words make up only a small percentage of the total number. The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2.Productivity（创造性）: （课本答案：creativity: animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send）Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con¬struction and interpretation of an infinitely large number of sentences, including those they have never said or heard before.3.Duality（二重性）: （课本答案：a feature totally lacking in any animal communication）It means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower level and the other of meanings at the higher level. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structureof individual and meaningless sounds, which can begrouped into meaningful units at the higher level.This duality of structure or dou¬ble articulation oflanguage enables its users to talk about anythingwithin their knowledge.4.Displacement（移位性）: （课本答案：no animalcan “talk”about things removed from theimmediate situation）Language can be used to referto things which are present or not present, real orimagined matters in the past, present, or future, orfar-away places. In other words, language can beused to refer to contexts removed from theimmediate situations of the speaker.5. Cultural transmission（文化传递性）：（课本答案：details of human language system are taught andlearned while animals are born with the capacity tosend out certain signals as a means of limitedcommunication）While we are born with the abilityto acquire language, the details of any language arenot genetically transmitted, but instead have to betaught and learned.12.Do you think human language is entirelyarbitrary? Why?Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirelyarbitrary, because there are a limited number ofwords whose connections between forms andmeanings can be logically explained to a certainextent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words whichare coined on the basis of imitation of sounds bysounds such as bang, crash, etc.. Take compoundsfor another example. The two elements “photo” and“copy” in “photocopy”are non-motivated, but thecompound is not arbitrary.Chapter 2: Phonology1.Define the terms:1).phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study ofthe phonic medium of language; it is concerned withall the sounds that occur in the world’ s languages2).auditory phonetics: It studies the speech soundsfrom the hearer’s point of view. It studies how thesounds are perceived by the hearer.3).acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech soundsby looking at the sound waves. It studies thephysical means by which speech sounds aretransmitted through the air from one person toanother.4).international phonetic alphabet [IPA]: It is astandardized and internationally accepted system ofphonetic transcription.5).Broad transcription: the transcription withletter-symbols only, i.e. one letter-symbol for onesound. This is the transcription normally used indictionaries and teaching textbooks.6).Narrow transcription: is the transcription withletter-symbols together with the diacritics. This isthe transcription used by the phoneticians in theirstudy of speech sounds.7).diacritics: is a set of symbols which can be addedto the letter-symbols to make finer distinctions thanthe letters alone make possible.8).Voiceless（清音）: when the vocal cords are drawnwide apart, letting air go through without causingvibration, the sounds produced in such a conditionare called voiceless sounds.9).Voicing（浊音）: Sounds produced while thevocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.10).Vowel: the sounds in production of which noarticulators come very close together and the airstream passes through the vocal tract withoutobstruction are called vowels.11).Consonants: the sounds in the production ofwhich there is an obstruction of the air stream atsome point of the vocal tract are called consonants.12).phonology: Phonology studies the system ofsounds of a particular language; it aims to discoverhow speech sounds in a language form patterns andhow these sounds are used to convey meaning inlinguistic communication.13).phone: Phones can be simply defined as thespeech sounds we use when speaking a language. Aphone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does notnecessarily distinguish meaning.14).phoneme: a collection of abstract phoneticfeatures, it is a basic unit in phonology. It isrepresented or realized as a certain phone by acertain phonetic context.15).allophone: The different phones which canrepresent a phoneme in different phoneticenvironments are called the allophones of thatphoneme. For example [l] and [l]16).phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers tothe relation between two phonemes. If twophonemes can occur in the same environment anddistinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.17).Complementary distribution: refers to therelation between two similar phones which areallophones of the same phoneme, and they occur indifferent environments.18).minimal pair:When two different forms areidentical in every way except for one sound segmentwhich occurs in the same place in the strings, thetwo words are said to form a minimal pair. Forexample: bin and pin.19).suprasegmental features: the phonemicfeatures that occur above the level of the segmentsare called suprasegmental features. The mainsuprasegmental features include stress, tone andintonation.20).tone: Tones are pitch variations, which arecaused by the differing rates of vibration of thevocal cords. Pitch variation can distinguish meaningjust like phonemes. The meaning-distinctivefunction of the tone is especially important in tonelanguages, for example, in Chinese.21).intonation: When pitch, stress and sound lengthare tied to the sentence rather than the word inisolation, they are collectively known as intonation.For example, English has four basic types ofintonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, thefall-rise tone and the rise-fall tone.2.What are the two major media ofcommunication? Of the two, which one isprimary and why? 语言交际的两大媒介是什么？哪一个是基本的交际媒介？为什么？Speech and writing are the major media ofcommunication. Speech is considered primary overwriting. The reasons are: speech is prior to writingin language evolution, speech plays a greater role indaily communications, and speech is the way inwhich people acquire their native language.3.What are the three branches of phonetics? Howdo they contribute to the study of speech sounds?语音学的三个分支是什么。
现代语言学自考题-3_真题(含答案与解析)-交互
现代语言学自考题-3(总分100, 做题时间90分钟)PART ONEⅠDirections: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices **pletes the statement and put the letter A, B, C or D in the brackets.1.A linguistic theory is constructed about what ______ is and how it works.• A. langue• B. linguist• C. language• D. learningSSS_SIMPLE_SINA B C D分值: 2答案:C[解析] 语言的研究过程可以总结为：首先，要观察某些语言材料，从而发现一些共性并对其加以总结；其次，根据这些总结提出一些假设来解释这些语言材料，然后再通过进一步的观察来验证这些假设的正确性；最后建立一套语言学理论来说明语言的本质内容以及这些语言是如何发挥作用的。
2.We refer to the limited range of sounds as the phonic medium of language and individual sounds within that range as ______.• A. vowels• B. consonants• C. sounds• D. speech soundsSSS_SIMPLE_SINA B C D分值: 2答案:D[解析] 在语言交际中占有一席之地、由人类的发音器官所发出来的声音在数量上是有限的。
这些范围有限，但对人类交际活动意义重大、对语言学研究价值不菲的声音就是语言的音响媒介，凡是在这个范围内的每个单个的声音都叫做语音。
3.The basic unit in the study of morphology is ______.• A. the internal structure• B. morpheme• C. the rules by which words are formed• D. wordSSS_SIMPLE_SINA B C D分值: 2答案:B[解析] 正如音位是音系学研究中的基本单位一样，词素是形态学研究中的基本单位。
英语专业语言学考试
Chapter 11．What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication2. Design features of language ？a) Arbitrariness:It refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.b) Duality:the property of having two levels of structures. Such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organizationc) Productivity/creativity:Language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness. Language has its potential to create endless sentences.d) Displacement:Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.3. Functions of language1) Informative: The speakers use language to talk about their thoughts, ideas, beliefs or what they believe, they see, they hear.e.g. Water boils at 212 degree Fahrenheit.2) Interpersonal function: people use language to establish and maintain theirstatus in society.e.g. It includes forms of address, speech function, modality, etc.3) Performative: Language is used to “do things”, to perform actions.4) Emotive function: It is crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.5) Phatic communion: The speaker will use seemingly meaningless expressions to establish a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content.6) Recreational function: The language is used for the sheer joy.7) Metalingual function: Language can be used to talk about language. Language is self-reflexive.E.g. paraphrase: (order change, similar expressions)definition: (/a:/ is a vowel and /b/ is a consonant.)4. Main branches of linguistics1) Phonetics----speech soundsIt studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is, how the speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the sounds of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, etc.2) Phonology ---phonemeIt studies the rules governing of the structure, distribution and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. Simply put it, it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.3) Morphology---morphemeIt is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning---morphemes and word-formation process.4) SyntaxIt studies the rules in the formation, organization of a sentence. Or specifically, it studies the word order of a sentence.5) SemanticsIt concerns the study of meaning in a language.6) PragmaticsIt is the study of meaning in a context, in a particular situation.5.Macrolinguistics:Linguistics is a discipline. It has relationships with other disciplines such as psychology, sociology, computer science and so on.1)Psycholinguistics: It investigates the interrelation of language and mind.2) Sociolinguistics:It concerns the relationship between language and society, including the social functions of language and the social characteristics of its users.3) Anthropological linguistics:It uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.6. Important distinctions in linguistics1)Descriptive vs. prescriptiveThe distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. Descriptive linguistics describes and analyzes the facts observed. Prescriptive linguist ics tries to lay down rules for “correct” behavior.2) Synchronic and DiachronicA synchronic description takes a fixed instant as its point of observation.That is, if we study language at some point in time, it is synchronic study.Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history. That is, if we study language as it exists in different historical periods, it is diachronic study.3) Langue and paroleLangue is the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, including rules, conventions; It is stable and systemic.Parole is the concrete use of rules. Parole is subject to personal and situational constraints4) Competence and performanceCompetence refers to the language user’s underlying know ledge about the system of rules.Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.Chapter 21.Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, andperceived.Articulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds.Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds.Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.2.Consonants and vowelsConsonants are produced with some form of obstruction of the air passage, with or without the vibration of the vocal cords.A vowel is produced without any obstruction of the air stream in the mouth,The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.Place of articulation(1).Bilabial (双唇音): [p], [b], [m], [w](2). Labial-dental（唇齿音: [f], [v](3). Dental（齿音）: [ð], [θ](4). Alveolar（齿龈音）: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l](5). Post-alveolar（后齿龈音）:[ſ], [3](7). Palatal（硬腭音）: [j](8). Velar（软腭音）: [k], [g], [η](11). Glottal（声门音）: [h]3.What is minimal pair?two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place.4.Allophones[p, ph] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme.complementary distribution: they never occur in the same context: Phonetic similarity: the allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance.5.Assimilation:Nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are allinstances of assimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.6.Suprasegmentals features are those aspects of speech that involvemore than single sound segments. The principle suprasegmentals arestress, tone, and intonation.7.The syllable structure: All syllables must have a nucleus but allsyllables contain an onset and a coda. A syllable that has no coda iscalled an open syllable while a syllable with coda is a closed syllable.8.Tone: languages like Chinese are known as tone languages.Chapter 31. Morpheme（词素）: the smallest meaningful unit in composition of words.Morphology: the study of word-formation, or the internal structure ofwords, and the rules by which words are formed from smaller components --- morphemes.1.types of morphemes1)free morpheme and bound morpheme（自由词素和粘附词素）Free morphemes ---morphemes which may occur alone or mayconstitute words by themselves, e.g. dog, nation, desk, close.Bound morphemes --- morphemes which can not occur alone and must appear with at least another morpheme, e.g. dis-, un-, -ed, -ment.2)root, affix and stem(词根、词缀和词干)Root--- the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. It is the part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. All words contain a root.Affix--- the morphemes that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem). There are three subtypes: Prefixes, Suffixes & Infixes. Stem--- any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. Or it is the part of word form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed.3).inflectional affix and derivational affix（屈折词缀和派生词缀）Inflectional affix--- affixes which often only add a grammaticalmeaning to the stem.Derivational affix--- affixes which change the lexical meaning.•Two fields of Morphology:Inflectional morphology- the study of inflections.•Derivational morphology (派生形态学): the study of word-formation.2.what is word1)stability2)relative uninterruptbility3)a minimum free form(A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function.)3.classification of words1) Variable & invariable wordsVariable: words with ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms. Part of the word remains relatively constant.Invariable: words without inflective endings.e.g. since, when, seldom, through, etc.2) Grammatical words and Lexical wordsGrammatical / Function words: words which express grammatical meaning; to link different parts together.Lexical / Content words: words which have lexical meaning, or which carry the main content of a language3) Closed-class & open-class wordsClosed-class: whose membership is fixed or limited, i.e., new members cannot normally be added, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliaries.Open-class: whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited, i.e., new members can be added, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs4)Word class: known as Parts of Speech in traditional grammar, which establishes nine word classes, such as noun, verb, adjectives, adverbs, pronoun, preposition, conjunction, interjection and article.Pro-form: substitutes for other terms.●Pro-adjective: Your car is red. So is his.●Pro-verb: He speaks English better than he does.●Pro-adverb: He hopes to win and I hope so too.●Pro-locative: He went there, under the tree.4.Lexical Change1) Invention/Coinage 发明法2) Blending混成法:3) Back-formation逆构词法4) Clipping /Abbreviations缩写词5) Acronym缩略语6) Analogical creation类推构词7) Borrowing借词pound refers to a word that is composed of more than one morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form. Derivation shows a relationship between roots and affixes. New derivational words are created by attaching prefixes or suffixes to already existing words.Chapter 41.Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language, or (a relation between one item and others in a sequence or between elements which are all present). Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations observed by F. de Saussure.2.The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of wordssubstitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure, (or relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, between one element present and the others absent).3.The technique of breaking up sentences into smaller units by makingsuccessive binary cutting is called Immediate Constituent (IC) Analysis.4.Immediate constituents: constituents immediately, directly, below thelevel of construction, or, the two parts that are yielded after each cut. An immediate constituent can be further segmented until we obtain thesmallest grammatical unitAdvantage of IC analysis⏹On one hand, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstratedclearly in IC analysis.⏹On the other hand, if some ambiguities exist, they will also be revealed.5.Endocentric: Endocentric construction is one whose distribution isfunctionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., aword or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.6.Exocentric: Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntacticallyrelated words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre”or “Head”inside the group,7.Category: It refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g. noun,verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. More specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units:Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countabilityCategories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice8.Agreement: Agreement (or Concord) may be defined as the requirementthat the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall also, becharacterized by the same paradigmaticlly marked category (orcategories).Chapter51.Semantics:It refers to the study of meaning in language. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentencesin particular2.The word “meaning” itself has different meanings. In this lecture The Meaning of Meaning written in 1923, C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards presented a “representative list of the main definitions which reputable students of mea ning have favored”.3.Seven types of meaning:*Conceptual/denotative meaning Connotative meaningSocial meaningAffective meaning Reflected meaning Collocative meaning Thematic meaning4.“Semantic triangle” theory （语义三角理论）⏹a) Proposed by Ogden and Richards in the book The Meaning ofMeaning.⏹b) They argue that the relation between a word and a thing it refersto is not direct. It is mediated by concept, mental image. In other words, the link between words and things can be made only through the use of mind.For every word, there is an associated concept.⏹Concept--- is the mental image, the abstraction or generalization ofobjects of the same kind. It is abstracted from the object which is referred to.5. Sense: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualised.Reference: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real,physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.6.Sense relations:a)Synonymy:1)Dialectal synonymy: regional dialects2)Stylistic synonymy (Register)3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning4)Collocational synonymy:5)Semantically different synonymsUsage of Synonymy:1. Paraphrase2. Cohesion in textual analysisb)Antonymy1)Gradable antonymy2)Complementary antonymy3)Converse antonymyc)Hyponymy⏹Superordinate/hypernym: the more general term⏹Hyponym: the more specific term⏹Co-hyponyms: members of the same classponential analysis: It is an approach that analyzes word meaning by decomposing it into its semantic features.Chapter61.Six subjects of research⏹Language acquisition (L1 / L2) ⏹Language comprehension⏹Language production ⏹Language disorders⏹Language and Thought ⏹Neurocognitionnguage Acquisition1)Holophrastic stage (独词句阶段)2)Two-word stage: around 18m3)Three-word-utterance stage4)Fluent grammatical conversation stageChapter61.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis1)Two points in his theory:⏹Language determines our thinking patterns⏹Similarity between languages is relative. The greater their structuraldifferentiations, the more diverse their conceptualization of theworld will be.2)Linguistic determinism(语言决定论):语言决定思维Linguistic relativity (语言相对论)：思维相对于语言，思维模式随着语言的不同而不同。
心理语言学英文
心理语言学英文Psycholinguistics: An Intriguing FieldPsycholinguistics is like a magical bridge that connects two really important worlds - the world of our minds and the world of language. It's not just some dry academic thing; it's super interesting and relevant to our daily lives.Let's think about how we learn languages as kids. It's like we're little explorers in a big, new world of sounds, words, and grammar. Psycholinguistics tries to figure out how our brains soak up all this language stuff so easily when we're young. You know how a sponge soaks up water? Well, our brains are like that sponge when ites to language in the early years.One really cool aspect of psycholinguistics is looking at how we process language in real - time. When we're having a conversation, our brains are doing all sorts of amazing things. It's not just about understanding the words that are being said. It's about understanding the meaning behind those words, the tone, and even predicting what the other person might say next. It's like we're detectives, trying to piece together all the clues in a conversation.Take a simple sentence like "I'm going to the store." Our brains quickly analyze the words. We know who "I" is (usually the person speaking), we understand the action "going," and we know the destination "the store." But it's not always that straightforward. Sometimes words can have multiple meanings. For example, the word "bank" can be a place where we keep our money or the side of a river. How do our brains know which one is meant? Psycholinguistics dives deep into these questions.Another fascinating part is how language and thought are intertwined. Do we think in words? Or do words juste after we've thought something? It's kind of like the chicken and the egg problem. Some people might say that we have thoughts first and then we find the words to express them. But others might think that the words we know shape the way we think. For instance, if you don't have a word for a particular concept in your language, does that mean you can't think about that concept? It's a really mind - boggling question.When ites to language production, it's also aplex process. Have you ever tried to explain something reallyplicated and found yourself tripping over your words? It's not just because you're nervous (although that can be part of it). It's because our brains have to organize all the ideas and find the right words to convey them. It's like trying to pack a suitcase with a whole bunch of different - sized items. You have to fit everything in just right so that the messagees out clearly.Psycholinguistics also looks at how language can be affected by things like our emotions. When we're happy, we might use more positive and energetic words. When we're sad, our language might be slower and more subdued. It's as if our emotions are painting our language with different colors.And what about bilingual or multilingual people? Their brains are like a multilingual supeputer. They can switch between languages effortlessly (well, most of the time). Psycholinguistics tries to understand how these different language systems coexist in the brain. Are they separatepartments? Or do they interact and influence each other?In a way, psycholinguistics is like a big jigsaw puzzle. There are all these different pieces - language acquisition, language processing, language production, the relationship between language and thought, and the influence of emotions on language. And researchers in this field are trying to put all these pieces together to get aplete picture of how our minds and language work together.I think psycholinguistics is really important because it helps us understand not only how wemunicate but also how we think and perceive the world around us. It gives us insights into the amazing capabilities of our brains and how we can use language more effectively. It's not just for scientists in a lab; it has implications for educators, language learners, and anyone who wants to understand the power of words. So, it's a field that's well worth exploring further.。
Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics - Exercises
Chapter 9 PsycholinguisticsExercisesI. In each question there are four choices. Decide which one will be the bestanswer to the question, or will best complete the sentence.1. The brain has a number of language-related functions. It controls the cognitiveprocessing involved in ______ or understanding language.A. producingB. speakingC. writingD. shaping2. Linguistic _____ refers to a view that all knowledge is acquired through experience.In a language-acquisition context, it holds a view that an infant acquires language chiefly through exposure to the speech of those about it.A. rationalismB. empiricismC. mentalismD. behaviorism3. Language production is logically divided into four major steps: conceptualization,formulation, articulation, and _________.A. transformationB. generationC. self-regulationD. modification4. Linguistic determinism holds that the characteristics of the language we speak ____the way in which we think and view the world. The theory was called into question by studies of color systems across languages.A. resemblesB. doesn’t resembleC. does n’t determineD. determines5. In language acquisition, children have a wider use of a grammatical feature orconcept than adult norms permit. This phenomenon cannot be called_______.A. over-regularizationB. over-extension.C. over-generalizationD. over-internalizationII. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False.1. According to researches, the left hemisphere of human brain is responsible forlanguage use.2. Speech error analyses suggest that the most common error in word selection occurswhen a speaker substitutes a semantically related word for the intended one, such as calling a van bus.3. Although all human languages do not share some universal syntactic properties, theconstraints on how constituents may be generated vary substantially.4. According to research on text understanding, people tend to comprehend ormemorize the structure but not the content. Therefore, background information does not play a very important role in text understanding.5. There’s nothing critically different between the first language acquisition and thesecond language acquisition.III. Define the following terms.1. psycholinguistics2. linguistic determinism3. linguistic relativity4. the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis5. undergeneralization6. overgeneralization7. conceptualization8. language comprehensionIV. Answer the following questions.1. Children have been found easy to commit the mistakes of overgeneralization. Doyou think adults are immune to the problem of this kind? Why or why not?2. What implication can you get from the following expressions? A room without light.A river without lighthouse. A professor without skill. A stick without length.3. Read carefully the following sentences produced by George W. Bush and analyzethe mistakes in light of psycholinguistic theories.(1)You know, I'm the President during this period of time, but I think when the historyof this period is written, people will realize a lot of the decisions that were made on Wall Street took place over a decade or so, before I arrived in President, during I arrived in President.(2)Make no mistake about it; I understand how tough it is, sir. I talk to families whodie.(3)Our enemies are innovative and resourceful, and so are we. They never stopthinking about new ways to harm our country and our people, and neither do we. (4)Rarely is the question asked: Is our children learning?Suggested answersI. 1. A 2. B 3. C 4. D 5. DII. 1. T 2. T 3. F 4. F 5. FIII.1.psycholinguistics: Psycholinguistics is a new science which attempts to studylanguage as a psychological process, a study of great theoretical and practical significance. It takes the human language and its psychological processes as its subject area. Its aim is to find out about the structures and processes that underlie human being’s ability to learn, to speak and to understand language.2.linguistic determinism: Linguistic determinism is the idea that language andits structures limit and determine human knowledge or thought. Determinism itself refers to the viewpoint that all events are caused by previous events, and linguistic determinism can be used broadly to refer to a number of specific views.3.linguistic relativity: The linguistic relativity principle is the idea that thevarying cultural concepts and categories inherent in different languages affect the cognitive classification of the experienced world in such a way that speakers of different languages think and behave differently because of it.Popularly, the distinction is between a weak and a strong version (i) weak: ‘language limits thought’ and (ii) strong: ‘language determines thought’.4.The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: The Sapir-Whorf theory, named after theAmerican linguists Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, is a very influentialbut controversial theory concerning the relationship between language, thought and culture. What this hypothesis suggests is like this: our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express our unique ways of understanding the world. Following this argument, two important points could be captured in this theory. On the one hand, language may determine our thinking patterns; on the other, similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be. For this reason, this hypothesis has alternatively been referred to as Linguistic Determinism and Linguistic Relativity. Nowadays, few people would possibly tend to accept the original form of this theory completely. Consequently, two versions of the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis have been developed, a strong version and a weak version. The strong version of the theory refers to the claim the original hypothesis suggests, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns. The weak version of this hypothesis, however, is a modified type of its original theory, suggesting that there is a correlation between language, culture and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorical.5.undergeneralization: When a child uses a word(or a linguistic construct) in amore limited way than adults do, this phenomenon is called undergeneralization.6.overgeneralization: In language acquisition, children tend to have a wider useof a grammatical feature or concept than adult norms permit. This phenomenon is called overgneralization.7.conceptualization:It is a process of language production during which aninfant adjusts the range of senses attached to a word until it resembles the range of an adult. (?)nguage comprehension: It is one of the central topics in psycholinguistics. Itis concerned about the retrieval of language information. It includes sound comprehension, word comprehension, sentence comprehension and text comprehension.IV. （属于自由思考题，答案略）。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics心理语言学一、本章纲要二、本章重点(2005，单选；2007，名词解释) Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind. As the term suggests, it is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics, drawing equally upon the language we acquire, produce and comprehend, and the mind or brain in which our linguistic and cognitive faculties are localized and organized, and interact with each other in particular ways. Our linguistic capability depends largely on the structure and dynamics of the human brain. 心理语言学主要从心理的角度对语言进行研究，目的在于揭示人类是如何掌握语言，说出语言和理解语的，语言与思维的关系等一系列问题。
1.The biological foundations of language语言的生理基础（2005，判断）Our linguistic ability is a biological gift of the species’ gene program. 人类不需要课堂教学就可以自然习得自己的母语。
人类有语言能力的主要原因不可能是人有声带，因为其它动物也有声带。
人类的语言能力主要依赖人脑结构和人脑的机制。
人类大脑的左半球的某些区域比右大脑相应的区域要大，这是人类大脑所特有的特征。
由此，人们相信人类的语言能力有其生理基础。
The case of Phineas Gage盖奇案例(2007，单选) The view that the brain is the source of human language and cognition goes back over 2000 years. 19世纪中叶,菲尼亚斯•盖奇由于工伤事故大脑前部损伤严重，但是他的感知能力、语言能力和理解能力都没有受到明显的影响。
（2008，单选）盖奇案例使得研究人员认为如果支配语言活动的中枢是在大脑的话，那么显然它不在大脑的前部。
大脑的表面，即大脑皮层，布满了上百亿个神经原(neurons)。
将人与动物区别开来的认知能力都集聚在大脑皮层上（cerebral cortex）。
大脑分为左半球和右半球。
将大脑两个半球相连的是神经路径(nerve pathway)。
通常大脑左半球控制着人体右半身的活动，大脑右半球则控制着人体左半身的活动。
The human brain人的大脑Human brain contains an average of ten billion nerve cells named neurons. The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain called cerebral cortex (大脑皮层).（2002，填空）The brain is divided into two roughly symmetrical halves, called hemispheres, one on the right and one on the left. The nerve pathway connecting two hemispheres coordinates their activities.（2006，2008，判断）In general, right hemisphere controls voluntary movements of, and responds to signals from, the left side of the body, vice versa.Brain lateralization大脑的侧化（2005，填空）The localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralization.The process of lateralization is believed to be maturational (发展成熟的过程). Although many maturational processes are not uncommon in the biological development of other species, brain lateralization appears to be specific to human beings. It is a commonly held view that lateralization is an evolutionary precondition of the development of superior intelligence as well as a precondition of language acquisition.（2004，判断）Psychological research shows that both hemispheres perform important, mental functions and they differ only in the manner in which they treat incoming stimuli.大脑的认知等功能的分工过程叫作大脑侧化。
脑力活动功能的分工有一个发育成长的过程。
大脑单侧化的功能是人类大脑所特有的。
左大脑和右大脑都参与人类重要的智能活动，只是在处理所接收的刺激信号的方式上有所差异。
它们之间的关系是一种相互依赖、互为补充的关系：如：（单选，判断）Left hemisphere Right hemispherelanguage and speech perception of nonlinguistic soundsanalytic reasoning holistic reasoningtemporal ordering visual and spatial skillsreading and writing recognition of patternscalculation recognition of musical melodiesassociative thought2.Linguistic lateralization语言侧化It is the brain’s neurological specialization for language. Linguistic lateralization in terms of left hemisphere dominance for language is found to exist in an overwhelming majority.Left hemisphere dominance for language左半球的语言优势语言侧化(linguistic lateralization)指语言能力在大脑神经系统中的分工。
一般认为，语言功能的侧化主要在大脑的左半球。
对于多数人而言，大脑左半球有着语言上的优势，这种优势与与惯用右手之间没有直接和必然的联系。
Dichotic listening research两耳分听实验It was used to analyze the characteristics of incoming stimuli processed by the individual hemispheres, later leading to right ear advantage not for all sounds, but only for those that are linguistic in nature.两耳分听研究的结果证实了人类大脑左半球的语言侧化现象。
两耳分听实验让受试者带着耳机，然后同时向左右耳输入不同的语言信号。
研究人员发现受试者能够更为准确地报告由右耳输入的语言信号。
研究人员认为右耳接收到的语言信息直接进入左脑进行加工，而左耳接收到的信息先进入右脑，然后再从右脑送至左脑进行加工。
由于间接的路径比直接的路径长，且信息传输所需的时间也长，所以受试者在报告左耳听到的信息没有右耳听到的信息准确。
这种现象又称为“右耳优势”。
3.The language centers语言中枢In addition to the motor area which is responsible for physical utterances, three areas of the left hemisphere are vital to language, which are Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area, the angular gyrus.Broca’s area (Broca is a French surgeon and anatomist) 布罗卡区The first to substantiate the claim that damage to a specific area of the brain results in a speech production deficit. （2004，单选）Language disorder resulting from damage to this area in the brain reveals word-finding difficulties and problems with syntax. 布罗卡区位于左大脑前部小叶区,有着控制语言表达的机能。
布罗卡区受伤的病人在交际时在句法和选择单词时遇到障碍。
Wernicke’s area韦尼克区He contributed directly to the hypothesis that there was more than one language area in the left-brain. His patient may suffer a severe loss of understanding. Unlike Broca’s aphasics (失语症), it produces fast and fluent speech with good intonation and pronunciation. The content of their speech ranges from mildly inappropriate to complete nonsense, often intelligible. They are very general in response to specific requests for information. 韦尼克区是另一个重要语言区域，它位于左大脑后部的一个区域。