Morphology的上课笔记
英语语言学笔记（3）
三、 MORPHOLOGY 形态学请结合《词汇学中的构词法》进⾏学习。
语素：语⾔最⼩的意义单位 语素的类型 复合词的类型 复合词的特征 Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. It is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. 形态学研究单词的内部结构以及构词规则，有屈折形态学和词汇形态学两⼤分⽀。
Morpheme:the smallest meaningful unit of language. 语素：语⾔最⼩的意义单位。
Free Morpheme: A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. （independent） ⾃由语素可以作为单词独⽴使⽤。
Bound Morpheme: A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself. 粘着语素必须和其他语素结合成单词 Bound Morpheme includes two types: （1） root （2）Affix（词缀） 1）Inflectional affixes （屈折词缀）（inflectional morphemes）: affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional 2）Derivational affixes（派⽣词缀） A） prefix: A prefix comes before words. B）suffix An adjective suffix（形容词后缀） that is added to the stem, whatever classis belongs to , the result will be an adjective. free=free root（⾃由词根） Morpheme（词素） Bound root prefix bound derivational affix suffix inflectional Root and stem（词根和词⼲） 1） Root 2） Stem The differences between root and stem: A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root. Individualistic Undesirables Individualist （stem） undesirable （stem） Individual （stem） desirable （stem） dividual （stem） desire （root, stem） divide（root, stem） Affixation词缀法（Derivation派⽣法）：adding word-formation or derivational affixes to stem. Prefixation前缀@：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems. 1）'表⽰否定'nagative prefixes: un-,non,in-,dis,a- etc. 2）''reversative or privative prefixes: un-,de-dis etc. 3）'表⽰贬义'pejorative prefixes: mis-, mal-, pseudo- etc. 4）'表⽰程度'degree or size prefixes: arch-, super-,out-,sub-,over-,under-,hyper-,ultra-,mini- etc. 5）'表⽰⽅向、态度'orientation & attitude prefixes:counter-,contra-,anti-,pro- etc. 6）locative prefixes:super-,sub-,inter-,trans- etc. 7）'表⽰时间、次序'time and order prefixes:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. 8）'表⽰数量'number prefixes:uni-/mono-,bi-/di-,tri-,multi-/poly- etc. 9）'混杂'miscellaneous prefixes：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice- Suffixation后缀@: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems. 1）noun suffixes 2）adjective suffixes 3）Adverb suffixes 4）verb suffixes Compounding复合法（also called composition） Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems Formation of compounds Noun + noun（名词＋名词） —— handbook, sunshine Adjective + noun（形容词＋名词）——highway, deadline Adjective + noun + -ed（形容词＋名词＋ed）——white-haired, red-eyed Verb + noun（动词＋名词）——driveway, breakwater（挡⽔板） Adverb + noun（副词＋名词）——downtown, overburden Noun + verb（名词＋动词）——toothpick, snowfall Verb + adverb（动词＋副词）——follow-up, kick-off Noun + adjective（名词＋形容词）——world-famous, lifelong -ing form + noun（ing+名词）——baking power, dining-room other forms（其他）——go-between, father-in-law Features of compounds复合词的特征 1.Orthographically书写特征 （Compounds are written in three ways: solid（airmail） hyphenated（air-conditioning） open（air force, air raid） 2.Syntactically句法特征（复合词的词性⼀般取决于复合词最后⼀个成分的词性） 3.Semantically语义特征（复合词的意义具有习语性质，许多复合词的意义都不是其构成成分意义和总和） 4.Phonetically语⾳特征（复合词的单词重⾳落在第⼀个构成成分上）。
英语语言学笔记
3
语音学
语音（Phonetics）
研究语言的发音机制、音素（音位）的发音特征和分布规律。
/b/、/t/、/d/等辅音音素的发音方式。
4
音位（Phoneme）
语言中能够区分意义的最小语音单位。
在英语中，“bit”和“bet”因音位/ɪ/和/ɛ/的不同而意义不同。
5
音系学
音系（Phonology）
研究语言中音素的组合规则和模式，以及这些规则如何影响语言的意义。
英语中的重音和节奏模式对单词和句子的意义有影响。
6
语法学
语法（Grammar）
描述语言中单词、短语和句子如何组合成有意义的结构的规则系统。
句子“The cat sat on the mat.”遵循英语语法规则。
英语语言学笔记
序号
主题/子主题
关键概念/术语
定义/解释
示例/应用
备注
1
语言学基础
语言学（guistics）
研究语言的科学，包括语言的结构、功能、演变以及语言在社会中的应用。
语言学家研究不同语言的语音、语法、词汇等。
2
语言（Language）
人类特有的、用于沟通的一套符号系统，包括口语、书面语和手势语等。
研究语言中的词汇、短语和句子如何表达意义。
单词“happy”的意义是“快乐的”。
10
语用学
语用（Pragmatics）
研究语言如何在特定情境中使用，以及语言使用者的意图、背景和互动如何影响语言的意义。
“It’s cold in here.”可能不仅仅是描述温度，还可能暗示要求关窗或开暖气。
11
社会语言学
社会语言学（Sociolinguistics）
Chapter 3新编语言学教程 Morphology
the classification of morphemes 1
A. free morpheme自由语素 Morphemes may occur alone or constitute words by themselves. All monomorphemeic单语素词 words are free morphemes.
Free morphemes can be divided into two categories: Lexical morphemes(词汇语素)：ordinary nouns, verbs and adjectives which carry the content of messages we convey. E.g. book, desk Functional morphemes(功能语素)：conjunctions, articles, prepositions and pronouns. E.g. if, when, because.
2. The smallest unit of morphology & the classification of morphemes
Morpheme(语素): A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function. It cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
1.4 Definition of morphology P52
Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
新编简明英语语言学教程【笔记】
Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his lan guage. 6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
Chapter 3 Morphology 要点总结
Chapter 3 Morphology(形态学)1.What is morphology（形态学）?Morphology, as a branch of linguistics , is the study of the internal structure, forms and classes of words.eg. Unfriendly → un + friend + ly2.Morphemes(词素、语素)A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function.eg. Maps→(2 units)→map + s3.Types of morphemes:free morphemes(自由语素) and bound morphemes(黏着语素)1>Free morphemes(自由语素)A.Some morphemes can stand alone as words, such morphemes are called freemorphemes.B．Rooot(词根) & Stem(词干)❶Root：a root is the based form of a word which cannot be further analyzed . It may be a free morpheme(as black in blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith) as well as a bound morpheme( -ceive in perceive认识，deceive欺骗，receive).❷Stem: a stem is any morpheme or combination of morpheme to which an inflectional affix can be added (friend in friends, friendship in friendships are both stem).C . Free Morphemes can be divided into two categories. They are:Closed Class & Opened Class(封闭词类和开放性词类)❶Closed Class（functional morphemes）: a closed class is one whose membership is principle fixed or limited. (封闭类：连介代冠conjunctions, preposition, pronouns, articles)❷Open Class( lexical morphemes): an open class is one whose membership is principle indefinite or unlimited. (包括：名动形副数叹noun, verbs, adjectives)2>Bound Morphemes(黏着语素)A.Some morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as parts of words.Such morphemes are called bound morphemes.Bound morphemes are actually affixes(词缀)—>prefix(前缀), suffix(后缀), infix(中缀).eg. dis- , un- , -ity, -al, -sB. Two Categories of Bound Morphemes:Derivational Morphemes(派生语素) & Inflectional Morphemes(屈折语素)❶Derivational Morphemes(派生语素): ~~ are used to make new words in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.eg. nouns→ verbs/ adj. verbs→ nouns/ adj.friend→ unfriend解除朋友关系( noun→ verb)❷Inflectional Morphemes(屈折语素):~~ are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical function of a word.①plurality(复数): - s, - es, - ies……②tense(时态): - s, - ing, - en, - ed……③possessive case(所有格): ’s④comparative/ superlative degree(比较级/最高级): -er, - esteg. dislikes → dis + +3> free morphemes(自由语素) & bound morphemes(黏着语素)❶All monomorphemic(单词素/单语素) words are free morphemes;❷These polymorphemic words are either compounds( combination of two or more free morphemes) or derivatives(words derived from free morphemes).4.Morphs(形素) and Allomorphs（语素变体）Morphs: the phonological and orthographic forms which realize morphemes are termed ― morphs‖.(语素的语音及对应拼写法的体现叫形素)Most morphemesSome morphemesAllomorphs: an allomorph is any of the different form of the same morpheme( 语素变体是同一个语素的不同形式).eg. plurality ―- s‖: map→ maps; dog→ dogs; class→ classed; mouse→ mice; sheep→ sheep Complementary distribution(互补分布)：allomorph is a member of a set of morph;allomorph can’ t occur in the same environment .5> Types of Word Formation(构词法)❶Compounding(合成法)Words are formed by putting two words together, this way of building new words is called compounding.❷Derivation(派生法)Derivation is done by adding affixes to other words or morphemes.❸Conversion(转换法)Many words have more than one part of speech. A noun can become a verb easily and a verb can be used as a noun.❹Backformation(逆向构词法)As we have editor, we get edit by dropping – or . This process is called ~~❺Clipping(截短法)This process by cutting off part of word is called ~~❻Blending(混合法)A single new word can also be formed by combining two separate forms, this process iscalled ~~~❼Acronymization(缩略法)。
Chapter-Morphology--形态学现代语言学
Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学1.Definition 定义Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.形态学是语法学的一个分支，它研究的是单词的内在结构及单词的构成规则。
The aim of morphology is to find out these rules.形态学的任务就是要找出这些规则（单词构成的规则）。
Morphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter the study of word-formation.形态学可以划分两个分支：屈折形态学和词汇形态学（也叫派生形态学）。
前者研究的是单词的屈折变化，后者研究的是构词法。
2.Morpheme 词素Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language 词素：语言中最小的意义单位Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.正如音位是音系学研究中的基本单位一样，词素是形态学研究中的基本单位。
Monomorphemic words 单词素单词Types of morphemes 词素的类型Free morphemes 自由词素The morphemes that are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves are called free morphemes. Such as help, table,room, mate, quick, able.这些词素是独立的、可以自由使用的意义单位，所以它们就被称作自由词素。
自考英语语言学Chapter 3 Morphology
Chapter 3 Morphology形态学一、本章纲要二、本章重点1.DefinitionsIt is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Two sub-branches: inflectional morphology / lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies inflection and the latter word-formation. 形态学研究单词的内部结构和构词规则，有屈折形态学和词汇形态学两大分支，前者研究语法屈折和语法意义的表达，后者研究单词的构成和同义的表达。
2.Morpheme语素2.1 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language语素：语言最小的意义单位。
（2004填空）The meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning. 单词不是语义的最小单位，因为单词可以解析为在意义上更小的意义成分。
语义的最小单位是语素。
语素表达的意义有两种：语法意义和词汇意义。
2.2 Types of morphemes语素的类型2.2.1 Free morphemes自由语素（2005，选择；2006，填空；2007选择）Morphemes, which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes. 自由语素有着完整的语义，它们被称为自由语素是因为它们可以作为单词独立使用，如helpful中的help就是自由词素，因为help可以作为独立的单词来使用。
简明语言学第三章笔记
3.6 Morphological rules of word formation
productive
less productive
1) Derivation is an affixational process that forms a word with a meaning and/ or category distinct from that of its base. Once formed, derived words become independent lexical items and receive their own entry in a speaker’s mental lexicon. a) Affix Change Examples -able V-A fixable, emendable, respectable -al V-N proposal, refusal, disposal -ing V-A exciting, moving, touching -ive V-A exertive, impressive, restrictive -ful N-N mouthful, spoonful -ful N-A hopeful, wonderful, faithful -ize N-V realize, finalize, hospitalize -ness A-N happiness, sadness, shyness Prefix dedisreantiun-
Assignments
1. Explain the following terms morpheme, allomorph free morphemes, bound morphemes 2. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes 1) The farmer’s cows escaped. 2) It was raining. 3) Those socks are inexpensive. 4) Jim needs the newer copy. 5) The strongest rower continued. 6) She quickly closed the book. 7) The alphabetization went well.
胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点
1. 语言的普遍特征：任意性arbitrariness双层结构duality 既由声音和意义结构多产性productivity移位性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西文化传播性cultural transmission2。
语言的功能：传达信息功能informative人济功能：interpersonal行事功能：Performative表情功能：Emotive寒暄功能：Phatic娱乐功能recreatinal元语言功能 metalingual3. 语言学linguistics：包括六个分支语音学Phonetics音位学 phonology形态学 Morphology句法学 syntax语义学 semantics语用学 pragmatics4. 现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinand de saussure提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语language and parole ，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语5. 语法创始人：Noam Chomsky提出概念语言能力与语言运用competence and performance1. Which of the following statements can be used to describe displacement. one of the unique properties of language:a. we can easily teach our children to learn a certain languageb. we can use both 'shu' and 'tree' to describe the same thing.c. we can u se language to refer to something not presentd. we can produce sentences that have never been heard before.is the most important function of language?a. interpersonalb. phaticc. informativefunction of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it ?"is __a informativeb. phaticc. directived. performativedistinction between competence and performance is proposed by __a saussureb. hallidayc. chomskyd. the prague school5. Who put forward the distinction between language and parole?a. saussureb. chomskyc. hallidayd anomymous第二节语音学1.发音器官由声带the vocal cords和三个回声腔组成2.辅音consonant：there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.3.辅音的发音方式爆破音 complete obstruction鼻音 nasals破裂音 plosives部分阻塞辅音 partial obstruction擦音 fricatives破擦音 affricates等4.辅音清浊特征voicing辅音的送气特征 aspiration5.元音vowel分类标准舌翘位置，舌高和嘴唇的形状6双元音 diphthongs,有元音过渡 vowel glides1. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies __.a. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechb. the perception of soundsc. the combination of soundsd. the production of sounds2. The distinction between vowel s and consonants lies in __a. the place of articulationobstruction f airstreamc. the position of the tongued. the shape of the lips3. What is the common factor of the three sounds: p, k ta. voicelessb. spread4. What phonetic feature distinguish the p in please and the p in speak?a. voicingb. aspirationd. nasalityof the following is not a distinctive feature in English?a. voicingc. approximationd. aspirationphonological features of the consonant k are __a. voiced stopb. voiceless stopc. voiced fricatived. voiceless fricativeis divverent from k in __a. the manner of articulationb. the shape of the lipsc. the vibration of the vocal cordspalce of articualtionof the vocal cords results in __a. aspirationc. obstructiond. voicing第三节音位学 phonology1.音位学与语音学的区别：语音学着重于语音的自然属性，主要关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音；音位学则强调语音的社会功能，其对象是某一种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音。
简明语言学整理笔记
简明语言学整理笔记精品文档第一章1.linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language2．The scope of linguisticsPhonetics-语音学phonology-音系学morphology-形态学syntax-句法学semantics-语义学pragmatics-语用学从语言形式划分：Sociolinguistics社会语言学，psycholinguistics心理语言学，applied linguistics应用语言学3. Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive &> prescriptive 规定性&描写性Synchronic & >diachronic 共时性&历时性Speech&> writing 口语&书写Langue & <="">Competence &< performance 语言能力&语言运用(Saussure and Chomsky think rule>language fact )Traditional grammer & modern linguistics4.What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication5.Design features of language 语言的识别特征Charles Hockett①Arbitrariness(任意性)refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to theirmeaning. (sounds and meanings)②Productivity/creativity(能产性）:Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of newsignals by its users③Duality（双重性）:The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of theprimary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has itsown principles of organization..④Displacement(移位性):Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication.⑤ Cultural transmission（文化传承性）人独有。
高中英语教师资格证学科知识与能力教材第一部分笔记
教材笔记第一部分第二章语言学与英语教学1.语言学的主要分支包括语音学（phonetics）、音位学（phonology）、形态学（morphology）、句法学（syntax）和语用学（pragmatics）等。
2.语言（language）有两方面：语言（langue）和言语（parole）3.乔姆斯基（Chomsky）转换生成语言学Transformational-Generative approach(TG grammars)的创始人。
最先指出语言能力（competence）和语言行为（performance）的不同。
LAD(语言习得机制)语法学习。
4.克拉申（Krashen）的五种假设：习得—学得假说（the Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis）;监测假说（the Monitor Hypothesis）; 输入、输出假说（the Input/ Output Hypothesis）;自然顺序假说（the Natural Order Hypothesis）;情感过滤假说（the Affective Filter Hypothesis）5韩德里Halliday，Systemic-Functional Grammar (系统功能语法)与乔姆斯基的TG 语法相反。
6.奥斯丁Austin的Speech Act Theory(言语行为理论)第三章语言能力目标要求1.教师语言表达能力良好的语言修养是教师必备的条件，是教师职业能力结构的重要组成部分。
优秀教师应该把语言学家的准确，数学家的严密，哲学家的深邃，演说家的雄辩，艺术家的情感集于一身，将深奥化为浅显，枯燥化为生动，抽象化为具体，营造出一种轻松愉快的学习氛围，教师的语言功能包括：1.教育功能；2。
示范功能 3.能力训练功能4.激励功能5.调控功能。
2.教师的沟通能力体现在：教师与学生的沟通；教师与家长的沟通；教师与教师的沟通。
英语语言学导论笔记
一、语言学总论1. design feature of language（语言的定义特征)defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication1）Arbitrariness(任意性): 象似性iconicity定义：the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.举例：书, book, livre喜欢，like，aimer2）Duality（二层性）:定义：the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level.举例：Sounds > syllables > words > phrases > clauses > sentences> texts/discourses3）Creativity/Productivity（创造性）:定义：Language can be used to create new meanings because of its duality.举例1：/k/ ,/a:/, /p/---- carp or park举例2：England, defeated, FranceEngland defeated France.France defeated England.4）Displacement（替代性、移位性）:定义：Human languages enable their users to symbolize something which are not present at the moment of communication.5）Cultural Transmission（文化传递性）:定义：language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct.反例：印度狼孩2. Important Distinctions in Linguistics(语言学研究中几对重要的概念)1) Descriptive （描述性）vs. Prescriptive （规定性）Descriptive: describing how things are.prescriptive: prescribing how things ought to beImportant Distinctions in Linguistics举例：Don't say X.People don't say X.The first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement.2). Synchronic（共时性）vs. Diachronic （历时性）synchronic: takes a fixed instant as its point of observation.diachronic: the study of a language through the course of its history.举例：研究1800年的英语发音Synchronic studies (共时性研究)研究1800-1900的法语语法变化Diachronic studies (历时研究)3). langue（语言）& parole （言语）Theorist：Saussure（索绪尔）, father of modern linguisticslangue: abstract linguistic systemparole: actual realization of langueImportant Distinctions in Linguistics4) Competence（语言能力）and performance （语言运用）theorist: Chomsky(乔姆斯基)competence: user's knowledge of rules about the linguistic system.performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in concrete situations.二、语音学和音系学1.语音学(phonetics)和音系学(phonology)的定义和区别2.语音学重要概念: 清音和浊音3.音系学重要概念: 音子，音位, 超音段特征Phonetics studies all speech sounds in human languages: how they are produced, transmitted and how they are received.Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patternsand how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.区别: meaning(是否研究和表达意义有关的语音）举例:too 和tea 中的/t/发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部语音学要研究这种/t/发音的不同之处, 音系学不研究语音学分类articulatory phonetics(发音语音学): speakers productionacoustic phonetics（声学语音学）: transmission’s mediumauditory phonetics(听觉语音学): receiver’s receptionHow speech sounds are madeSpeech organsPosition of the vocal folds(声带): voicing(浊音) and voiceless (清音)Voiceless(清音)：vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting the air stream go through without causing obstruction清音举例：[p,s,t]Voicing/Voiced（浊音）：vocal cords held together, letting the air stream vibrates浊音: [b,z,d]The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of air stream.As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.音系学重要概念:Phone(音子)：a phonetic unit; the speech sounds we hear and produce during communication are all phones举例:too 和tea 中的/t/发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部所以too 和tea 中的/t/两个不同的音子Phoneme(音位): phonological and abstract unit, a unit of distinctive value;the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.举例：tea 和sea, /t/和/s/是两个不同的音位morphemeSuprasegmental features (超音段特征)Suprasegmental features: phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments .The principal suprasegmentals are:stress （重音）举例: perfect (adj) 和perfect (v)tone (声调)/pitch (音高):定义: sound feature which are caused by the differing rate of vibration of the vocal folds.举例: mā妈, má麻, mă马，mà骂比较：英语单词，如meintonation （语调）：pitch, stress, and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation.三、Morphology 形态学1. 学科定义2. 语素的定义和分类3. 词的分类（classification of words）形态学研究的基本单位1. morpheme(语素）. The most basic element of meaning in language，an element that cannot be further divided into smaller units without altering its meaning.举例：ballfootballballsTypes of MorphemesFree morphemes vs. Bound morphemes（自由语素和黏着语素）:Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, eg boy, girl, table, nation. Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, eg -s, -ed, dis-, un-.Types of Bound MorphemeInflectional morpheme (屈折语素)=inflectional affix(屈折词缀)：change the grammatical meaning (number, aspect, case, tense)Derivational morpheme（派生语素）=derivational affix (派生词缀）: change the lexical meaningDerivational morpheme(改变词义):改变词义：dis-, un-, multi-, micro-改变词性：en-, -full, -mentInflectional morpheme（改变语法含义）:改变名称的性，数，格：-ess, -s,改变动词的时, 态，体: -ing, -ed,改变形容词的级：-er, -est如何区分派生词（derivational word）和合成词(compound word) : 拆开后看各个组成的语素能否都单独成词，如果可以，就是合成词，如果不能就是派生词。
简明语言学整理笔记
第一章1.linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language2．The scope of linguisticsPhonetics-语音学phonology-音系学morphology-形态学syntax-句法学semantics-语义学pragmatics-语用学从语言形式划分：Sociolinguistics社会语言学，psycholinguistics心理语言学，applied linguistics应用语言学3. Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive &> prescriptive 规定性&描写性Synchronic & >diachronic 共时性&历时性Speech&> writing 口语&书写Langue & <parole 语言&言语Competence &< performance 语言能力&语言运用(Saussure and Chomsky think rule>language fact )Traditional grammer & modern linguistics4.What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication5.Design features of language 语言的识别特征Charles Hockett①Arbitrariness(任意性)refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)②Productivity/creativity(能产性）:Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users③Duality（双重性）:The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization..④Displacement(移位性):Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication.⑤ Cultural transmission（文化传承性）人独有。
英语语言学之Morphology
What is a word?
What are the main features of a word?
What do you think of the following definitions of a word?
A word is a meaningful group of letters printed or written horizontally across a piece of paper.
“doing”---consisted of two parts “do” and “-ing”,from which we can work out a rule:we can put “ –ing” to a verb to form a “-ing’ participle.
形态学研究词素、词素的不同形态(即词素变体)极其构词法.英语 形态学是研究英语词素及其构词法的.
Lecture 5
授课题目 : morphology.
教学目标及基本要求：Teaching target and object
(1) Let students know what morphology is, and how the morphemes are combined into larger units for human communication.
(2) Let students know how new words are formed.
教学重点 Teaching focus
(1) word and word classes (2) word, morphemes, and allomorph (3) types of morphemes (4) morphological rules (5) the formation of new words
语言学第三章笔记和习题
Chapter 3 Morphology⏹Lexicon is the collection of all the words of a language. It is synonymous with “vocabulary”.Words are the focus of the study of lexicon, so the emphasis of this chapter falls upon words, i.e., the analysis and creation of words.Linguists define the word as the smallest free form found in language. The features of wordWord is meaningful; word is a grammatical unit; word can be used independently; word is relatively stable and uninterruptible.⏹Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.⏹The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.⏹Words are the smallest free units of language that unite sounds with meaning.Morphology is a branch of linguistics, whereas lexicon is a component of language instead of a branch of linguistics.Open class word and closed class word⏹Open class words----content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, e.g. beatnik(a member of the Beat Generation), hacker, email, internet, “做秀，时装秀…” in Chinese.⏹Closed class words----grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns. Morpheme--the minimal unit of meaning. The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme.---Words are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes, e.g.⏹1-morpheme boy, desire⏹2-morpheme boy+ish, desir(e)+ble⏹3-morpheme boy+ish+ness, desir(e)+bl(e)+ity⏹4-morpheme gentle+man+li+ness, un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity⏹5-morpheme un+gentle+man+li+ness⏹7-morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism⏹Morph: when people wish to distinguish the sound of a morpheme from the entire morpheme, they may suedthe term.It is the phonetic realization of a morpheme⏹Allomorph: A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called allomorphs. It is the phoneticvariant of a morpheme.⏹Some morphemes have a single form in all contexts, such as “dog, bark, cat”,etc. In other instances, there may be some variation, that is, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. They are said to be the allomorphs of the morpheme, the plural morpheme may be represented by:⏹map----maps [s]⏹dog----dogs [z]⏹watch----watches [iz]⏹mouse----mice [ai]⏹ox----oxen [n]⏹tooth----teeth⏹sheep----sheep⏹Each of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme.⏹Affix⏹Prefix ---- morphemes that occur only before others, e.g.un-, dis, anti-, ir-, etc.⏹Suffix ---- morphemes that occur only after others, e.g.-ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -able, -tive, tion, etc.Root: The root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning. A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. A root may be free or bound (such as mit, tain, cur,ceive). An affix is naturally bound.Free morpheme & bound morpheme⏹Free morpheme----is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc.⏹Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves, such as “-s” in “dogs”, “al” in “national”, “dis-” in “disclose”, “ed” in “recorded”, etc.⏹Some morphemes constitute words by themselves. These morphemes are called free morphemes.⏹Other morphemes are never used independently in speech and writing. They are always attached tofree morphemes to form new words. These morphemes are called bound morphemes.⏹The distinction between a free morphemes and a bound morpheme is whether it can be usedindependently in speech or writing.⏹Free morphemes are the roots of words, while bound morphemes are the affixes (prefixes andsuffixes).Derivational morpheme & inflectional morphem e⏹Derivational morphemes---- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. modern---modernize, length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc.⏹Inflectional morphemes---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g.a) number: tables apples carsb) person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talkedc) c ase: John/John’s⏹Inflectional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of nouns, tense and aspect ofverbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.⏹Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes added to existing forms to construct new words.◆English affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes.◆Some languages have infixes, bound morphemes which are inserted into other morphemes.●Conclusion: classification of morphemes⏹Morphemes◆Free morphemes◆Bound morphemes●Inflexional●Derivational: affixes⏹Prefixes⏹SuffixesMorphological rules⏹The rules that govern the formation of words, e.g. the “un- + ----” rule.unfair unthinkable unacceptable…⏹Compounding is another way to form new words, e.g.landlady rainbow undertake…◆The process of putting affixes to existing forms to create new words is called derivation. Words thus formed are called derivatives.Compounds⏹Noun compoundsdaybreak (N+V) playboy (V+N) haircut (N+V)callgirl (V+N) windmill (N+N)⏹Verb compoundsbrainwash (N+V) lipread (N+V) babysit(N+V)⏹Adjective compoundsmaneating (N+Ving) heartfelt (N+Ved)dutyfree (N+adj.)⏹Preposition compoundsinto (P+P)throughout (P+P)Some points about compounds⏹When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category, e.g. postbox, landlady, icy-cold, blue-black…⏹When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound, e.g. head-strong, pickpocket…⏹Compounds have different stress patterns from the non-compounded word sequence, e.g. red coat, green house…⏹The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.●Formation of new words1. Inflection: it is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectionalaffixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case.2. Derivation◆Derivation forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.◆Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create a derived word with a numberof affixes. For example, if we add affixes to the word friend, we can form befriend, friendly,unfriendly, friendliness, unfriendliness,etc. This process of adding more than one affix to a freemorpheme is termed complex derivation.◆Derivation is also constrained by phonological factors.◆Some English suffixes also change the word stress.pounding◆Compounding is another common way to form words. It is the combination of free morphemes.◆The majority of English compounds are the combination of words from the three classes – nouns,verbs and adjectives – and fall into the three classes.◆In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech of the word.◆The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of the components.4. Conversion (invention)◆Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class into another class.◆Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.5. Clipping (abbreviations) front, back, front and back◆Clipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables.◆Clipped words are initially used in spoken English on informal occasions.◆Some clipped words have become widely accepted, and are used even in formal styles. Forexample, the words bus (omnibus), vet (veterinarian), gym (gymnasium), fridge (refrigerator)and fax(facsimile)are rarely used in their complete form.6.Blending◆Blending is a process that creates new words by putting together non-morphemic parts of existingwords. For example, smog (smoke + frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morning, replacing bothbreakfast and lunch), motel(motor + hotel). There is also an interesting word in the textbook forjunior middle school students –“plike” (a kind of machine that is like both a plane and a bike).7. Back-formation◆Back-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix. Forexample, the word televise is back-formed from television. Originally, the word television is formedby putting the prefix tele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix –sion inEnglish indicating nouns. Then people consider the –sion in the word television as that suffix and dropit to form the verb televise.8.Acronyms◆Acronyms are formed by putting together the initial letters of all words in a phrase or title.◆Acronyms can be read as a word and are usually longer than abbreviations, which are read letterby letter.◆This type of word formation is common in names of organizations and scientific terminology.9.Eponyms◆Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or places. For example, theword sandwich is a common noun originating from the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his foodbetween two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambling.10.Coinage◆Coinage is a process of inventing words not based on existing morphemes.◆This way of word formation is especially common in cases where industry requires a word for anew product. For example, Kodak and Coca-cola.11.Borrowing: English in its development has managed to widen its vocabulary by Borrowing wordsfrom other languages . Greek, Latin, French, Arabic and other languages have all played an active rolein this process, such as “atom, electricity” from Greek, “cancer, tumour” from Latin, “violin, pizza”from Italian.12. Onomatopoeia: it is a way of creating words by imitating the sounds of the outside world. Supplementary Exercises Chapter 3：MorphologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.3. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.5. Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.9. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed according to the morphological rules are acceptable words.10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:11. M ____ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.12. The affix “-ish” in the word boyish conveys a g____ meaning.13. B___________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.14. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d__________ affixes.15. D________ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.16. A s______ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it may case change its part of speech.17. C__________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.18. The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are called m___________ rules.19. In terms of morphemic analysis, d_______________ can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.20. A s______ can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself to which a derivational affix can be added.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:21. The morpheme “vision” in the common word “television” is a(n) ______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme22. The compound word “bookstore” is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound __________.A. is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D. None of the above.23. The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part of speech of __________.A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements.24. _______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words25. _________ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.A. SyntaxB.GrammarC. MorphologyD. Morpheme26. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic27. Bound morphemes are those that ___________.A. have to be used independentlyB. can not be combined with other morphemesC. can either be free or boundD. have to be combined with other morphemes.28. ____ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes29. _________ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. Sentences30. “-s” in the word “books” is_______.A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a rootIV. Define the following terms:31. morphology 32. inflectional morphology33. derivational morphology 34. morpheme35. free morpheme 36. bound morpheme37. root 38. affix39. prefix 40. suffix41. derivation 42. CompoundingV. Answer the following questions:43. What are the main features of the English compounds?44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Suggested answers to supplementary exercises Chapter 3 MorphologyIV. Define the following terms:31. Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.32. inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections33. derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation.34. Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.35. free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.36. bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.37. Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.38. Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.39. Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word . Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.40. Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.41. Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.42. Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.V. Anwser the following questions:43. What are the main features of the English compounds?Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book-” in the word “bookish”.Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish” in “bookish”. Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene-” in the word “generate”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “-s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ” in the word “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “-less” in the word “friendless。
语言学笔记(上课的笔记)
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION(高叔叔说这章要考50分，所以东西有点多~)1.Linguistics1.1Definition: linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Three key words:♦Language:preceded by the zero article implies not any particular language but language in general.♦Study: investigate examine research♦Scientific:observation →generalization→hypotheses formation→data collection→hypotheses testing→ theory formulation How to make a study "scientific"?1) Exhaustiveness: gather all the materialsrelevant to one's investigation and give theman adequate explanation.2) Consistency: make no contradiction between parts of the total statement3) Economy: other things being equal, simpler shorter analysis is better.4) Objectivity: be as objective as possible in describing and analyzing the data, allowing no prejudice to influence one’s generalization.1.2 the scope of linguisticsGeneral linguistics: the study of language as a whole. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas.General linguistics can be further divided into theoretical linguistics (micro-linguistics) and application of linguistics (macro-linguistics).1.2.1 Theoretical linguistics:1)Phnetics :the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.2) Phonology : studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in communication.3)Morphology: study of the way in which the smallest meaningful components called morpheme are arranged to form words.4) Syntax[‘sintæks]: s tudies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences5)Semantics [si’mæntiks]: the study of meaning in isolation, statically out of context.1.2.2 Application of linguistics(2-8了解即可)1) Pragmatics: the dynamic study of meaning in context.2) Applied linguistics: application of linguistics theories, principles, methods and research findings to any language connected areas (broad sense), to language teaching esp to the teaching of foreign or second language (narrow sense) It includes language acquisition, language testing, language evaluation.3) Sociolinguistics: the study of social factors of language such as education background, economic status, sex and its relation with society. It includes language norm, language change and language policy.4) Psycolinguistics: studies the correlation between linguistic behavior and psychological processes that are believed to underlie that behavior. it aims to answer three questions:1) how human work when we use language;2)how we acquire our mother tongue ; 3)how we percept and internalize the information we receive in communication.5) Anthropological linguistics: it uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.6) Neurolinguistics : studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.7) Mathematical linguistics: studies the mathematical features of language by employing models and concepts of mathematics.8) Computational linguistics; approaches in which mathematical techniques and concepts are applied with theaid of computer machine. Translation or automatic translation; project which teaches machine how to recognize speech sounds and therefore words (speech synthesis)1.3 important distinctions in linguistics ( 重点)1.3.1 Prescriptive and descriptive [Descriptive →objective Prescriptive→subjective ]♦If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use , it is descriptive(描写性）♦If it aims to lay down rules for correct behavior, that is to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, It is called Prescriptive（规定性).Traditional grammar is Prescriptive, while modern linguistics is descriptive.1.3.2 Synchronic (共时) vs diachronic (历时)♦The description of language at some point in time is a Synchronic study. (Periodical study)♦The description of language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. (Hisistorical study)1.3.3 Speech and WritingTwo major media of communication,speech is primary to writing.1.3.4 Langue (语言) and Parole (言语)♦Ferdinand de Saussure (1857—1913), pioneer of semiotics (符号学) ,he is the father of modern linguistics.♦Course in General Linguistics published in 1916. Saussure’s work marked the beginning of modern linguistics. ♦Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. It is a set of rules and conventions which all language users all have to abide by. It is abstract, not the language people actually use. ♦Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use . It is concrete, naturally occurring language event.1.3.5 competence（语言能力）and performance (语言运用)It was proposed by American linguistics N. Chomsky in the late 1950's.♦Competence refers to the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language and,♦Performance refers to the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication,♥what linguist should study is competence, not performance, why?1) Competence is comparatively stable2) Performance is haphazard due to some social or psychological factors such as stress, anxiety and embarrassment, or mistakes such as slips of the tongues and unnecessary pauses, despite a perfect knowledge.It is a distinction between what one “knows”and what one “does”.nguage2.1 Definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2.2 Design features of language (重点)Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.♦Arbitrariness（任意性）It means there is no logical (intrinsic or direct) connection between sounds and meanings, or the linguistic forms bear no natural relationship to their meaning.♦ Productivity (创造性/多产性)Different sounds can be grouped to form words ,and different words can be arranged to form different sentences. Productivity is unique to human language.♦ Duality (二元性)*Language is a system consisting of two levels: Lower (sounds) and Higher (meaning)♦ At the lower level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless,which can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning♦At the higher level, the units of meaning can be grouped and regrouped into an infinite number of sentences.Phoneme—morpheme—word—phrase—clause—sentence♦ Displacement (移位性) [2 dimensions: Temporal时间的& Spatial空间的]Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present real or imagined, matters in the past ,present or future .♦ Cultural transmission (文化传递性)Language can be passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning rather than by instinct or inheritance/birth.♦ Specialization (特化作用)Linguistic signals do not normally serve any other type of purpose, such as breathing or feeding.♦ Interchangeability/reciprocity (相互性)This refers to the fact that any speaker/ sender of a linguistic signal can also be a listener/ receiver.2.3 Functions of Language1)Informational function（信息功能）: transmission of information (tell story /teaching)2) Interpersonal function（人际功能）: interaction between the addresser (writer) and addressee (reader) and their attitudes among each other. (personal talk)3)Performative function（施为功能）: use language to change one’s social status.4)Emotive function（感情功能）: change the emotional status of audience for or against some one or something.5)Phatic function（寒暄功能）: maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content (nice day/ good morning )6)Recreational function（娱乐功能）: use language for sheer joy7) Meta-lingual function（元语言功能）: use language to talk about language itself.CHAPTER 2 PHONOLOGY(木有讲~~)CHAPTER 3 MORPHOLOGY(形态学)♥ What is word?Word is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether in spoken or written form.♦ Three aspects of words:1) A physically definable unit：Phonological & orthographic2)The common factor underlying a set of forms.3) A grammatical unit♦ Classification of words:1) Variable and invariable words （有时态变化的词和没有变化的词）2) Lexical words(实词) and grammatical (function, form) words(虚词)3) Open-class words (开放性词) and closed-class words（封闭性词）♦ Word formation:（最重要的两种）1) Compounding（复合词）2）Derivation(派生词)3. What is Morphology?Morphology: the study of the internal structure of words and rules for word formation. In other words, it is the study of the composition of words.3.1Two sub-branches of Morphology:1) inflectional morphology屈折形态学2) derivational morphology词汇形态学3.2 Morpheme词位，语素(形位)3.2.1 Definition of morpheme♦ Morpheme: Smallest meaningful components of words.3.2.2 Allomorphs 词位变体The different/ variant forms of the same morpheme are called its allomorphs（词位变体）.A morpheme needs to be represented in certain phonological and orthographic forms. one denotes its lexical meaning and the other the grammatical meaning.6.3 Types of Morphemes6.3.1 Free Morphemes 自由词位（语素）♦A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself.Free morphemes fall into two categories: content words (open-class words) & function words (closed-class words) 6.3.2 Bound Morphemes 黏着词位（语素）♦ Bound morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with at least one other morpheme, either free or bound, to form a word.♦Bound morphemes include two types: roots (词根) and affixes（词缀）♦Affixes are of two types: inflectional(屈折词缀)and derivational(派生词缀)1) Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations such as number, tense, degree, and case.2) Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.CHAPTER 4 SYNTAX(木有讲~~)CHAPTER 5 SEMANTICS(语义学)5.1 The definition of semantics♦ Semantics is the branch of linguistics which studies meaning in language.The theme of semantics is meaning. Language must have meaning and meaning is part of language.A sentence is considered correct or acceptable if it is well-formed both grammatically and semantically.5.2 Approaches to meaning5.2.1 Meaning as naming♦The meaning of an expression is what it refers to (or denotes), stands for, or names.also called referential (or denotational) theory, or naming theory.5.2.2 Meaning as concept♦Any particular sound image is psychologically associated with a particular concept.5.2.3 Meaning as behaviour♦The meaning of an expression is the stimulus either the stimulus that evokes it or the response that it evokes, ora combination of both on particular occasions of utterance,also called behaviourism or behaviourist theory.5.2.4 Meaning as context♦The meaning is found in the context within which a particular expression is uttered.Two kinds of context are recognized: a linguistic context and a situational context.5.2.5 Meaning as truth conditions♦The sense of a declarative sentence permits you to know under what circumstances that sentence is true. Those “circumstances”are called truth conditions of the sentence. This is called truth-conditional theory/semantics,S is true if and only if P5.2.6 Meaning as useIt asserts that the meaning of an expression is just the use to which it is put in the language,also called use theory.5.3 Word meaning5.3.1 Sense and reference♦Sense(意义)relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the linguistic elements themselves (mostly words), it is concerned with intralinguistic relations.♦Reference（所指）deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements, words, sentences, etc., and the non-linguistic world of experience.5.3.2 Seven types of meaning（记得到那七种意义就可以了~概念不用背）According to the British linguist G. Leech, meaning in its broadest sense can be classified into seven types:5.3.2.1 Conceptual meaning（概念意义）♦The meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to.5.3.2.2 Connotative meaning（内涵意义）♦Connotative meaning is the communicative value that a word or a combination of words has by virtue of what refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.Difference between connotative meaning and conceptual meaning♥Connotative meaning is peripheral, and relatively unstable.♥In addition, connotative meaning is indeterminate and open-ended in a sense in which conceptual meaning is not.5.3.2.3 Social meaning（社会意义）♦Social meaning is that which an expression conveys about the social circumstances of its use. It chiefly includes stylistic meaning and the illocutionary force of an utterance.5.3.2.4 Affective meaning（情感意义）♦Affective meaning or emotive meaning refers to the fact that language reflects the feelings of a speaker.5.3.2.5 Reflective meaning（联想意义）♦Reflective meaning is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.5.3.2.6 Collocative meaning（搭配意义）♦Collocative meaning is composed of the associations a word obtains because of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its circumstances.5.3.2.7 Thematic meaning（主题意义）♦Thematic meaning is what is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.5.3.3 Semantic relations between words（记名字就可以了~~那两个有differences的要注意）♦Homonymy(同音异义)：words having different meaning have the same form.Words are identical in sound =>homophones(同音异形异义字)Words are identical in form =>homographes(同形异义字)Words are identical in sound and form =>homonyms(同形同音异义字)♦Polysemy（一词多义）：one word having two or more meanings which are all related by extension. Difference between polysemy and HomonymyThe distinction can be found in the typical dictionary entry for words. If a word has two or more meanings (polysemic), then there will be a single entry, with a numbered list of the different meanings of the word. If the two words are treated as homonyms, they will typically have two separate entries.♦Synonymy（近义词）：the sense relation of “sameness of meaning”.♦Antonymy（反义词）：refers to oppositemess of meaning.♦Hyponymy（下义关系）：the relationship where the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another.Hyponymy: X is a kind of Y eg:Potato is a kind of vegetable,♦Meronymy（部分与整体）：the semantic relationship which obtains between “parts”and “wholes”body.Meronymy: X is a part of Y eg:Head is a part of body.5.4 Sentence meaningPredication (句子) consist of Arugement（变元）&Predicates（谓语）consist of Features（语义特征）5.5 Semantic relations between sentences(名字要记到，最好晓得例子)♦Entailment(蕴含关系)♦Presupposition（预设关系）♦Synonymy（同义关系）♦Inconsistency（不一致关系）♦Implicature（暗含关系）5.6 Three Theoretical Approach（了解第一个就可以了，其他的两个晓得名字就OK~）5.6.1 Componential analysis（成分分析）♦Componential analysis claims that all lexical items can be analyzed into a set of semantic components or semantic features which may be universal.♦The problems:It is not easy to show relations of antonymy or oppositeness of meaning.5.6.2 Semantic Field Theory♦ A semantic field is a group of lexemes.(词位)5.6.3 Cognitive Semantics（认知语义学）♦It identifies meaning with conceptualization-the structure and processes which are part of mental experience.CHAPTER 6 PRAGMATICS6.1 The definition of pragmatics♦Pragmatics can be defined as the study of language in use.6.2 The scope of pragmatics♦Micropragmatics（微观语用学）The study of language use in smaller contexts. Phenomena such as reference（指称）, deixis（指示）, anaphora （回指）and presupposition（预设）are the topics in this field.♦In pragmatics,reference can be defined as an act by which a speaker or writer uses language to enable a hearer or reader to identify something.♦In semantics, reference is often assumed that the words we use to indentify things are in some direct relationship to those things.♦Macropragmatics（宏观语用学）♦Metapragmatics（元语用学）6.3 Pragmatic theories6.3.1 Speech act theory（言语行为理论）（晓得名字，记到一个例子就可以了~~）♦Speech act theory was proposed by J. L. Austin , which proposed that language is not only used to inform or to describe things, it is often used to “do things”, to perform acts.A. locutionary act（言中行为）: the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and referenceB. Illocutionary act（言外行为）: the making of a statement, offer, promise, etc. in uttering a sentence, by virtue of the conventional force associated with it.C. Perlocutionary act（言后行为）:the bringing about of effects on the audience by means of uttering the sentence, such effects being special to the circumstances.e.g. The weather is fine.言中行为：仅仅是描述天气好言外行为：天气那么好，我们逃课嘛去逛街嘛言后行为：我们没有去上课，去逛街去了~~6.3.2 Searl's classification of illocutionary acts（塞尔对言外行为的分类）（记名字和类型）♦Representatives（阐述类）：statements of fact, assertions, conclusions, and descriptions♦Directives（指令类）：They are commands, orders, requests, suggestions♦Commissives（承诺类）：They are promises, threats, refusals, and pledges.♦Expressives（表达类）：They are apologizing，thanking，congratulating.♦Declarations（宣告类）：The speaker has to have a special institutioanl role, in specific context, in order to perform a declaration appropriately.6.3.3 Indirect speech act（间接言语行为）♦三种基本句子形式及其对应功能：Declarative(陈述句) => statementInterrogative（疑问句）=> q uestionImperative（祈使句）=> command♦当句子形式与其基本功能不相互对应时，则此时即发生了“间接言语行为”6.3.4 The cooperative principle（合作原则）6.3.4.1 The cooperative principle and its maxims（合作原则及准则）比较重要，都记一下嘛`~~♦The Maxim of Quality（质量原则）：Try to make your contribution one that is true(i) Do not say what you believe to be false;(ii) Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.♦Maxim of Quantity（数量原则）：(i) Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purposes of the exchange) .(ii) Do not make your contribution more informative than required.♦Maxim of Relation（相关原则）: Be relative.♦Maxim of Manner（礼貌原则）: Be perspicuous.(i) Avoid obscurity of expression.(ii) Avoid ambiguity.(iii) Be brief.(iv) Be orderly.6.3.4.2 Conversational implicature（话语暗示）♦Conversational implicature is a kind of extra meaning that is not contained in the utterance.♦According to Grice, conversational implicatures can arise from either strictly and directly observing or deliberately and ostentatiously flouting the maxims.6.3.5 The politeness principle（礼貌原则）（呜呜~我也不晓得这个重要不，还是了解一下嘛~~）♦Tact Maxim （得体原则）a) Minimize cost to otherb) Maximize benefit to other♦Generosity Maxim（慷慨原则）a) Minimize benefit to selfb) Maximize cost to self ]♦Approbation Maxim（赞扬原则）a) Minimize dispraise of otherb) Maximize praise of other♦Modesty Maxim（谦虚原则）a) Minimize praise of selfb) Maximize dispraise of self♦Agreement Maxim（赞同原则）a) Minimize disagreement between self and otherb) Maximize agreement between self and other♦Sympathy Maxim （同情原则）a) Minimize antipathy between self and otherb) Maximize sympathy between self and otherCHAPTER 11 SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION(二语习得)（还木有上完哈，我不晓得那些是重点，上完了补给你们哈~~）♦Second Language Acquisition (SLA):refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a secondlanguage subsequent to his native language.♦Target language (TL)(目的语): the language which a person is learning, in contrast to a first language or mother tongue.。
英语语言学笔记纲要（4）
Chapter 4 Morphologyl What is morphology?n The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.n Words are the smallest free units of language that unite sounds with meaning.n Morphology is defined as the study of the internal structure and the formation of words.l Morphemes and allomorphsn The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme.n A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called allomorphs.n “zero” form of a morpheme and suppletivesu Some countable nouns do not change form to express plurality. Similarly, some regular verbs do not change form to indicate past tense. In these two cases, the noun or verb contains two morphemes, among which there is one “zero form” of a morpheme.u Some verbs have irregular changes when they are in past tense. In this case, the verbs also have two morphemes. Words which are not related in form to indicate grammatical contrast with their roots are called suppletives.l Free and bound morphemesn Some morphemes constitute words by themselves. These morphemes are called free morphemes.n Other morphemes are never used independently in speech and writing. They are always attached to free morphemes to form new words. These morphemes are called bound morphemes.n The distinction between a free morphemes and a bound morpheme is whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.n Free morphemes are the roots of words, while bound morphemes are the affixes (prefixes and suffixes).l Inflexional and derivational morphemesn Inflexional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of nouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.n Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes added to existing forms to construct new words.u English affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes.u Some languages have infixes, bound morphemes which are inserted into other morphemes.u The process of putting affixes to existing forms to create new words is called derivation. Words thus formed are called derivatives.l Conclusion: classification of morphemesn Morphemesu Free morphemesu Bound morphemesl Inflexionall Derivational: affixesn Prefixes: -s, -’s, -er, -est, -ing, -ed, -sn Suffixesl Formation of new wordsu Derivation forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.u Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create a derived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes to the word friend, we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness, unfriendliness, etc. This process of adding more than one affix to a free morpheme is termed complex derivation.u Derivation does not apply freely to any word of a given category. Generally speaking, affixes cannot be added to morphemes of a different language origin.u Derivation is also constrained by phonological factors.u Some English suffixes also change the word stress.n Compoundingu Compounding is another common way to form words. It is the combination of free morphemes.u The majority of English compounds are the combination of words from the three classes – nouns, verbs and adjectives –and fall into the three classes.u In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech of the word.u The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of the components.n Conversionu Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class into another class.u Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.n Clippingu Clipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables.u Clipped words are initially used in spoken English on informal occasions.u Some clipped words have become widely accepted, and are used even in formal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus), vet (veterinarian), gym (gymnasium), fridge (refrigerator) and fax (facsimile) are rarely used in their complete form. n Blendingu Blending is a process that creates new words by putting together non-morphemic parts of existing words. For example, smog (smoke + frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morning, replacing both breakfast and lunch), motel (motor + hotel). There is also an interesting word in the textbook for junior middle school students – “plike” (a kind of machine that is like both a plane and a bike).n Back-formationu Back-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed from television. Originally, the word television is formed by putting the prefix tele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix –sion in English indicating nouns. Then people consider the –sion in the word television as that suffix and drop it to form the verb televise.n Acronyms and abbreviationsu Acronyms and abbreviations are formed by putting together the initial letters of all words in a phrase or title.u Acronyms can be read as a word and are usually longer than abbreviations, which are read letter by letter.u This type of word formation is common in names of organizations and scientific terminology.n Eponymsu Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or places. For example, the word sandwich is a common noun originating from the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his food between two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambling.u Coinage is a process of inventing words not based on existing morphemes.u This way of word formation is especially common in cases where industry requires a word for a new product. For example, Kodak and Coca-cola.n For more detailed explanation to the ways of word formation, see my notes of Practical English Grammar.。
英语专八人文知识 语言学必背第4讲-形态学
英语专八人文知识语言学必背第4讲:形态学第四节形态学Morphology一、基本概念研究单词内部结构及其构成的规则It studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.二、相关概念1．语素Morpheme：研究的basic unit，不能再进一步分成更小的单位而不破坏或者彻底改变词汇/语法意义的单位，desire是 a morpheme，desir+able就是two morphemes自由语素free morpheme：可以独立出现、独立成词的语素。
如girl，rely等黏着语素bound morpheme：必须与其它语素一起出现的语素，词缀居多。
如pre-，-al，-ment，dis-等2．语速变体Allomorph：相对抽象，是语素的实际体现，不改变词义，但会在形式上有所变化similar to allophone3．词的曲折变化Inflection：其实就是在原词上加上词缀的过程-ed，-ing，-s etc.不会改变词义，也不会引起词的语法类别的改变4．几个易混的概念词素Lexemes：就是同底数幂的概念，是一组词的共有因子，如writer、writing、wrote等拥有的write就是词素，必须有一群词词根Root：单词的基础，无法再分割成更小的单位。
两类：若词根是自由语素，则为自由词根，否则是黏着词根词干Stem：是可以附加词缀的语素或者语素群：friend in friends；friendship in friendships，词干词根，如education是词干，词根是educate5．词语Word：词的三种含义a physically definable unit, a common facter underlying a set of forms, a grammatical unit，介于词组和语素之间实词Lexical words：传递实际语义内容的词，包括nouns, verbs, adj., 大部分adv.虚词Functional words：承担语法意义、执行句法或结构功能的词，包括prep. Articles冠词，pronoun. Conj.连词等开放词open classes：可无限容纳新成员的词，如名形、部分动词/副词等；封闭词类closed classes无法或很难容纳新成员的词，如介代连指情态等6．三种语言：黏着语言Agglutinating or Agglutinative Language：在英语中一般用介词、所有格来表达的概念，在黏着语言中一般作为语素出现在一个单词中曲折语言Inflecting Language：指那些大量使用曲折形式的语言孤立语言Isolated Language/分析语言Analytical Language：一般使用独立的词语来表示单独的概念和功能。
unit 4 morphology
◇1-morpheme
boy, desire ◇2-morpheme boy+ish, desir(e)+ble ◇3-morpheme boy+ish+ness, desir(e)+bl(e)+ity ◇4-morpheme gentle+man+li+ness, un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity
词干是指去掉一个词缀后所剩下的词素或词素组合词干是指去掉一个词缀后所剩下的词素或词素组合
Chapter 4 Morphology: the study of word structure
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Contents of this lesson
I. morpheme, morph and allomorph II. Free morphemes and bound morphemes III. Root , stem and affix IV. Internal structure of a word( tree diagram) V. the definition of word
moose / moose-Ø ox / ox-en
a morpheme may undergo certain phonetic changes when combining with the base word.
E.g. the plural morpheme {s} pronounced [z] in dogs, [s] in pests, [iz] in houses [ai] in mice [i:] in teeth and sheep goose and geese Allomorphs( 形 位 变 体 ） : the different variants of a morpheme
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CH 5 Morphology 的上課筆記 1. What is morphology?2. How to use it? Who is it for?3. When to use it?4.Are there rules in it?5. Is there an infix in English?6. The use/ significance of the morphology.Morphology (構詞學) is (1) the study of morphemes and their different forms (allomorphs), and the way they combine in word formation, i.e., the English word unfriendly is formed from friend , the adjective-forming suffix -ly and the negative prefix un-. (2) a morphemic system(詞素系統).Morphology helps people recognize possible words. 有沒有新字的出現？ 例子1：Bug → a possible word Bog → a possible word Sog → not a possible word 例子2：木神 →Morphology ( it depends on people)(1) 昨晚我的ㄅㄧㄤˋ痛得睡不著。
→從這句話大概知道句子要表達意思：某人遭受疼痛之苦，但不是能清楚知道每個字(individual words)的意思。
在訓練聽力時，是訓練學生get the main concept (idea) in the context/ dialogue.(2) 我的手臂上長了一個ㄅㄧㄤˋ，很癢。
→ㄅㄧㄤˋ可能是瘤或青春痘。
(3) 我的腳上長了一個ㄅㄧㄤˋ，不舒服。
→ㄅㄧㄤˋ可能是皮膚病。
(1)→(2)→(3)：從不同的context，慢慢會懂“ㄅㄧㄤˋ”的意義，但還是有點模糊。
直到你看到實物的那一天，才能真正了解其意義。
因為文字本身就是抽象的，所以如果用文字去表達一個抽象的概念，會很難懂；但若是用具體的實物來講解，會比較容易明白。
教單字→可以把圖片運用在單字教學上。
Morphology可以幫助學習新單字。
例子4：A: Have you seen ―wuggles‖ before?B: What are ―wuggles‖ ?A: They are four-legged animals.B: What do they look like? Dogs, cats, rabbits, or horses?A: No, they look like spiders.B: They are six-legged insects.因為―wuggles‖(a possible word)符合造字原則，所以B會問What are ―wuggles‖ ?辶日：白天遊走的意思迌：晚上遊走的意思→ 辶人 =辶日迌人(一個字代表三個音)鑫→淼→森→焱→垚(三者為多)囚(chiu)：指一個人被困在四面牆中。
Superordinate Affix(附加詞綴)Hyponym(superordinate 是上層關係；hyponym 是附屬在下面的詞)例子6： Infix = Pa Present tensePast tense Jump Tuluk Tu pa luk Jumped Eat chimoChi pa moAte例子7：m+ infix +nsh___p a~e ee ~ ee // ~// /i/~/i+ø/例子8：→ binary cuts = string of sounds: each part must have meanings.healthi nesshealthi –ness → morpheme = the smallest meaningful unit in a language(最小有意義的單位)word ？→depend on situations例子9：Cat = Cat →one morphemeCat+ -s = Cats →two morphemesProantiestablishmentalisms = pro + -anti + establish + -ment + -al + -ism + -sSeven morphemes Against Root PluralAllomorph同位詞素：Any of the different forms of a morpheme.(1)聲音相同或不同( the same or different sounds )(2)拼音相同或不同(the same or different spelling)(3)意義一定相同(with the same meaning)例子10：Hyponym Allomorph Superordinate Dogs []Cats []Churches []Oxen [][][][[]Plural meanings of N 例子11：Teacher []→名詞詞尾。
Bigger []例子12：V→NAgentive morphemesTeach + {er} →TeacherAct+{or} →ActorAssist+{ant} →AssistantArt +{ist} →Artist比較分析→可以用來教單字→創意教學。
傳統教法學生記憶、模仿老師所教的。
學生只是不斷重複同樣的東西。
學生並沒有思考。
How do students learn/acquire the meanings of words?老師要叫學生自己去找字的意義。
學生要分析，才能真正習得字義。
→學以致用，而不是靠記憶。
創意教學找一段文章，同時有中英翻譯(左右對照或上下對照)(1)把英文單字列出來，要學生從中文去尋找字義。
(2)為什麼學生無法把兩、三音節的英文單字背起來？(1)因為中文字是單音節。
(2)讓學生把單字內化成自己的知識。
如果是單字一個一個教，量會太多。
如何分類詞素？(若是用function來分：(1)grammatical morphemes (2) lexical morphemes.)(1)Free morphemes：A form which can be used on its own. (可單獨出現，本身具有意義)(2)Bound morphemes：A linguistic form which is never used alone but must be used withanother morpheme, e.g. as an affix or combining form. (不可單獨出現)(3)Inflectional morphemes: Adding an affix to a word or changing it according to the rulesof the grammar of a language.(4)Derivational morphemes: Adding affixes to other words or morphemes.The difference of Inflectional morphemes and Derivational morphemes:(1)(a) Inflectional morphemes never change the part of speech, i.e., work →works(b)Derivational morphemes can change the part of speech, i.e., wind →windy(2)(a) You can not add any other suffix in final Inflectional morphemes, which can not befollowed any suffix. For example, workings = working + s(b) You can add any other suffix after Derivational morphemes, which can continue to addand can be followed any suffix. For instance, healthiness=health + -y + -ness製作單字教材(科目：新聞英文；對象：高中)作法一：Find out Chinese meanings of the underlined vocabulary or phrases.Britons may not be the world's greatest linguists but an opera company's decision to introduce surtitles to its performances has raised eyebrows-- as it only sings in English.The move by the English National Opera (ENO) that is based in central London prompted some ridicule. ―I think it is a contradiction in terms...this is the thin end of the wedge,‖ John Allison, editor of Opera magazine, told BBC Radio.The trend to install surtitles above or next to stages has been growing since the 1980s in a bid to make operas —traditionally sung in Italian and German — intelligible to non-native speakers.英國人也許不是世界上最偉大的語言家，但一家劇團決定在演出歌劇時，打上英文字幕，著實令人感到驚訝─因為該劇團只演唱英文歌劇。
總部設在倫敦中區的「英國國家歌劇」劇團的這項舉動，招致若干嘲弄。