金属热处理中英文对照外文翻译文献
金属合金 外文翻译 外文文献 英文文献 铁类金属
附录5Ferrous MetalsMetals are divided into two general groups: ferrous metals and nonferrous metals. Ferrous metals are those metals whose major element is iron. The major types of ferrous metals arc irons, carbon steels, alloy steels and tool steels.IronThe iron ore which we find in the earth is not pure. It contains some impurities which we must remove by smelting. The process of smelting consists of heating the ore in a blast furnace with coke and limestone, and reducing it to metal. Blasts of hot air enter the furnace from the bottom and provide the oxygen which is necessary for the reduction of the ore, The ore becomes mohen, and its oxide combines with carbon kom the coke. The non-metallic constituents of there combine with the limestone to form a liquid slag. This floats on top of the molten iron, and passes out of the furnace through a tap. The metal which remains is pig-iron, and consists of approximately 93 percent iron, 5 percent carbon, and 2 percent impurities.Remehing pig iron and scrap iron in a furnace to remove some of the impurities produces cast iron. The type, or grade, of cast iron is determined by the extent of refining, the amounts of pig iron and scrap iron, and the methods used to cast and cool the metal.The three primary types of cast iron are gray cast iron, white cast iron, and malleable iron.Gray cast iron is primarily used for cast frames, automobile engine blocks, handwheel, and east housings. White cast iron is hard and wear resistant and is used for parts such as train wheels. Malleable cast iron is a tough material used for tools such as pipes and wrenches. Generally, cast irons have very good compressive strength, corrosion resistance, and good machinability. The main disadvantage of cast iron is its natural brittleness.Carbon SteelCarbon steel is made from pig iron that has been refined and cleaned of most impurities. Most of the original carbon in the metal is burned out during the refining process. Measured amounts of carbon are then added to the molten metal to produce the exact grade of carbon steel desired. After the steel is poured into ingots and allowed to cool, it is usually sent to a rolling mill to be rolled and formed into specific shapes.The three principal types of carbon steel used in industry are low, medium, and high carbon steel. The percentage of carbon :is the most important factor in determining the mechanical properties of each type of carbon steel. :Low carbon contains between 0. 05% and O. 30% carbon and is primarily used for parts that do not require great strength. Typical uses of low carbonsteel include chains, bolts, screws, washers, nuts, pins, wire, shafting, and pipes. This metal is also known as machine steel, mild steel, and cold-rolled steel. Low carbon steel is tough, ductile material that is easily machined and welded. It is useful for parts that must be stamped or formed.Containing between 0. 30 and 0.50% carbon, medium carbon steel is used for parts that required great strength than is possible with low carbon steel, such as gears, crankshafts, machine parts and axles. Because this steel has higher carbon content, it can be heat-treated to increase both hardness and wear resistance. Medium carbon steel is a tough, hardenable metal that has good machinability and is easily welded.Containing between 0.50 and 1.70% carbon, high carbon steel is used for parts that require hardness and strength, such as files, knives, drills, razors, and woodworking tools. Due to their increased carbon content, high carbon steels can be heat-treated to make them harder and more wear resistant than low or medium carbon steels. Due to their great hardness, high carbon steels are often brittle.Alloy SteelsAlloy steels are basically carbon steels with elements added to modify of change the mechanical properties of the steel. All steels are alloy steels because each is a combination of elements, including carbon steel, a mixture of iron and carbon. To identify the two groups, one is called carbon or plain steel and the other is referred to as alloy steel.Alloying elements are added to the molten steel in measured amounts. The desired end product determines the elements and amounts added. The primary alloying elements and their effect on the steel are as follows: Boron —The hardenability of an alloy is increased by boron. Only very small amounts of boron are needed to increase the hardenability characteristics of the other elements in the alloy.Chromium — When used in small amount, chromium increases the depth hardness of the metal. The more chromium used, the better the alloy resists corrosion. Chromium is a principal element in stainless steels.Cobalt —Cobalt is added to an alloy to increase wear resistance and increase red hardness, which is the ability of a metal to maintain a cutting edge at elevated temperature. Cobalt is a valuable addition to some high-speed tool steels.Lead —By reducing the cutting friction, lead improves machinability. Leaded steels also have good weldability and formability.Manganese —Impurities in alloy steels are controlled by using manganese as a purifier and scavenger. When added in larger amount ( 1 to 15 percent) , manganese produces good hardness and wear resistance.Molybdenum — A tough alloy suitable for a wide range of high-strength applications, molybdenum steel permits good depth hardness and strength at elevated temperatures.Nickel —High-strength alloys resistant to both elevated temperaturesand corrosion are produced by nickel. When alloyed with molybdenum, nickel steel becomes a very tough alloy, which is often used for many aircraft parts. Larger amounts of nickel greatly add to the corrosion resistance of stainless steels.Phosphorus and Sulfur —Free-machining carbon steels are produced with phosphorus and sulfur. When alloyed with carbon steels, phosphorus and suffer produce alloys with excellent machining characteristics.Tungsten —When alloyed with steel, tungsten produces a variety of high-speed tool steels and adds hardenability and strength at elevated temperatures as well as high resistance to wear.Vanadium —A tough, fine-grained steel that acts as a cleanser and purifier to eliminate many of the impurities of steel is produced by vanadium.Tool SteelsTool steels are a special grade of alloy steels used for making a wide variety of tools. Depending on their composition, tool steels are highly resistant to wear, shocks, and heat. These alloys gener ally contain more carbon, tungsten, and cobalt than do the standard alloy steels, i41 Another principal difference between most alloy steels and tool steels is the control with which elements are added.Tool steels are made with much closer quality controls than are other alloy steels.铁类金属金属材料分为两种类型：铁类金属和非铁金属。
金属的热处理外文翻译
金属的热处理外文翻译外文资料翻译Heat Treatment of MetalThe generally accepted definition for heat treating metals and metal alloys is “heating and cooling a solid metal or alloy in a way so as to obtain specific conditions and I or properties.”Heating for the sole purpose of hot working(as in forging operations) is excludedfrom this definition．Likewise，the types of heat treatment that are sometimes used for productssuch as glass or plastics are also excluded from coverage by this definition．Transformation Curves.The basis for heat treatment is thetime-temperature-transformation curves or TTT curveswhere，in a single diagram all the three parameters are plotted．Because of the shape of thecurves，they are also sometimes called C-curves or S-curves．Material forming processesIn this section，a short description of the process examples will begiven. But assembly andjoining processes are not described here.ForgingForging can be characterized as: mass conserving, solid state of work material (metal), andmechanical primary basic process-plastic deformation. A wide variety of forging processes areused, and Fig.9.1(a) shows the most common of these: drop forging. The metal is heated to asuitable working temperature and placed in the lower die cavity. The upper die is then lowered sothat the metal is forced to fill the cavity.[1]Excess material is squeezed out between the die facesatthe periphery as flash, which is removed in a later trimming process. When the term forging isused, it usually means hot forging. Cold forging has several specialized names. The material lossin forging processes is usually quite small.Normally, forged components require some subsequent machining, since the tolerances andsurfaces obtainable are not usually satisfactory for a finished product. Forging machines includedrop hammers and forging presses with mechanical or hydraulic drives. These machines involvesimple translatory motions.金属的热处理普遍认同对金属及合金热处理的定义是，以一定的方式加热或冷却固态金属或合金，以达到一定的条件和/或获得某些性能。
金属的热处理 毕业论文外文文献翻译
英文及翻译Heat Treating of metalsHeatingFor this discussion, I will take you through the hardening process that I use on a high carbon steel blade, but first a few asides. When you place the steel in the fire it begins to gain heat. The steel will begin to give off visible color just above 900F it will continue to pick up color until it reaches a point where it seems to hang. It is still gaining heat, but it is undergoing an internal transformation from its cold structure into a metastable condition called austenite. This point at which it seems to hang is called decalescence and it represents the bottom of the critical temperature. It usually begins around 1335FIn carbon steel depending on the carbon content. Once it passes through this point, the crystal structure of the steel changes as the ferrite reacts with some of the carbide and begins to pool into austenite. As the temperature increases more of the austenite will begin to form in other places and continue until it reaches a point 10 or 15 degrees above the critical temperature where all of the ferrite should be consumed. At this point the steel should consist of austenite and undissolved carbides. The austenite grains start from a small nucleus and continue to grow until they impinge on other growing grains. The initial grain size is established at this point and if the excess carbide is in large quantities it will maintain this size with little increase, pinned by the carbide.You can see this transformation if you watch the steel carefully and bring the steel up slowly. The Japanese talked about watching the shadows on the blade and quenching when the shadows turned to liquid. If you take the blade out of the fire at this point and watch the colors drop, you will notice a point where the steel will brighten even as it is cooling. On a tapered cross section like a knife blade it will appear to travel up from the edge to the spine of the blade. This is call recalescence and represents the transformation from austenite back to pearlite. After I am done forging a blade, I cycle the blade just above critical and down to dark heat at leastthree times. I watch for these two points to establish critical in my mind and to set up a very fine grain pearlite structure in the steel.After reaching critical temperature, the steel should be fully austenized, but the carbides will continue to dissolve. It may be necessary to soak at temperature to fully dissolve all the carbides. In some steels it may be necessary to continue to raise the temperature for this to be accomplished especially in the presence of alloying elements that retard the transformation.Once the steel is above critical and austenite, it may be quenched and hardened. The structure of the steel can be established by carefully controlling the time it takes the steel drop from critical through the various temperature sensitive points.Transformations on CoolingAnnealing, normalizing, quenchingThe structure and hardness of the steel is established by the rate of cooling from the austenitic condition. If brought down slowly the steel will be annealed and soft. The structure will be mostly ferrite and cementite, carbides. This can be done in a temperature controlled furnace by dropping the temperature through a known rate over a set period of time dependent on the type of steel. Another method is to preheat a heavy bar of low carbon to the same temperature as critical for the steel and bury both of them together in vermiculite. It will slow the cooling rate down so that the blade will still be hot to the touch the next day. For most of the carbon steels this will be enough to anneal the piece.If allowed to air cool it will be normalized, a tougher condition comprised of fine pearlite and carbides. Blades can be prepared for heat treatment in either normalized or annealed states. Another treatment that is particularly effective for workability and for dimensional stability is called sphereodizing. With the steel in a normalized condition you reheat, usually in salt to inhibit oxidization, to a temperature just below lower critical, 1300F and hold for at least an hour. What occurs is that the carbideswill begin to aglomulate or pool into larger more evenly spaced particles in a ferrite matrix. It makes handfinishing much easier.It is important to precondition your blades not only because it helps workability, but also to stress relieve the steel after forging. This will reduce chances of cracking and warping in the quench. It is helpful to think of the forging stage as the beginning of the heat treatment and to pay careful attention to the heats especially in the final forging. My last heats are always at critical. When the blade is finally shaped, I cycle the blade just above critical and down to almost black heat at least three times, cooling between by moving it back and forth in the air gently.HardeningYou have a lot of options when it comes to hardening carbon steel. Even the slightest change in alloy content can make a remarkable difference in the hardening characteristics of the steel, so I would again encourage you to study the steels you will be using.The transformation temperatures and times are described using a chart that shows the Ae1 line, the temperature at which austenite begins to form and the Ms line, the temperature at which martensite starts to form from austenite.The time line at the bottom of the chart is in seconds and side bars give temperature. This is called an "S" curve chart and it is very useful in determining the quench speeds for each steel. The top curve of the "S" is known as the nose of the curve. When quenching from critical, the temperature of the steel must drop below the nose of the curve within a precise amount of time in order for the steel to harden to martensite. In this case, it must get below 900F in under five seconds to form martensite.MarquenchingIf the steel is quenched to below the Ms, martensite will be the predominate structure, however if the blade is quenched to a point slightly above the Ms point, say around 500F and held until it has stabilized at that temperature, the steel has thepromise to form martensite, but will not set up until it drops below Ms. This is called marquenching and is commonly used because it is less stressful particularly in difficult cross sections like we encounter in knife blades. When the blade is removed from the quench it is still above the Ms point and has very unusual properties. It can be easily bent or straightened and is still quite soft. As it cools however, it begins to setup martensite and will harden at room temperature. Again, you need to look at the chart for each steel you will be using because the Mf, or martensite finish point can be well below room temperature on some highly alloyed steels. These steels benefit from sub zero quenching because the colder temperatures are necessary to complete the austenite transformation and to reach the martensite finish. Care must be taken that the blade is not chilled by placing on a cold surface or even by being placed in a breeze or draft. The safest method is to allow it to cool in still air. The blade should be tempered after it has cooled to the point where it can be handled with bare hands.AustemperingIf the steel is quenched from Ae3, critical, to a point between the Ms and the nose of the curve, say 600F and held at temperature for a long time, the austenite will convert to banite. Banite is a much tougher structure than martensite and will maintain the hardness of the steel as tempered to that temperature. This process requires a salt bath and good controls, but makes an really tough spring and is being used by some makers on steels like 52100.QuenchantsThe method of controlling the speed of cooling is the quenchant. The quench rate is determined by how quickly the quenchant can remove the heat from the steel. When a piece of hot steel enters the quenchant the area surrounding the blade absorbs heat from the blade until it is heated itself.金属的热处理加热加热这种讨论,我将以高碳钢为例向你介绍其硬化过程.首先，你把钢铁放在火上加热时。
金属的热处理-(英文版)
Alessandro Anzalone Ph DAlessandro Anzalone, Ph.D.Hillsborough Community CollegeBrandon Campus1.Heating and Cooling of Metals2.The Iron Carbon Phase DiagramThe Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram3.Nonferrous Phase Diagrams4.Principles of Heat Treating5.Heat Treating Ferrous Metals6.Solution Heat Treating and Precipitation Hardening(Hardening Nonferrous Metals)7.Strengthening by Plastic Deformation and Alloying8.Annealing9.Heating Equipment10.ReferencesTemperature versus Time Curves Temperature versus Time CurvesThe states (liquid and solid) and the different atom lattices are referred to as phases (a phase being something separate, distinct, and homogeneous), so when these changes occur they aref d t h h d di f h threferred to as phase changes, and a diagram of where thesechanges take place is called a phase diagram. On the iron—carbon phase diagram lines marked liquidus and solidus areshown. Liquidus indicates the temperatures at which the various compositions of the alloy begin to become solid as thetemperature is reduced. Solidus indicates the temperatures atwhich the various compositions of the alloy are completely solid, and thus all liquid is absent. The ferrite and austenite phases areq p very important in heat treating and manufacturing.Fe-Fe3C Phase Diagram, Materials Science and Metallurgy, 4th ed., Pollack, Prentice-Hall, 1988/work/pAkmxBcSVBfns037Q0LN_files/image003.gifEutectic The root of this word means the lowest melting point. In Figure 3.4 the lowest melting point can be seen at 4.3 percentcarbon, and this point is identified as the eutectic in Figure 3.3. A t ti b th t t l i l d i th lleutectic can occur because the two metals involved in the alloysystem lack complete solubility; that is, they have partialsolubility, which also means they are partially insoluble. Eutectoid This word has the same root as eutectic but now refers to metals that are solids, so instead of being the lowest meltingpoint it is the lowest temperature at which one solid phasetransforms into other solid phases. The eutectoid also occurspbecause of insolubility, and in Figure 3.4 it can be seen that the single-phase austenite transforms into two phases, ferrite andcementite.Heat treating is generally identified with processes in which a metal is heated to an elevated temperature from which it is cooled very rapidly,and in the process the metal somehow gets harder and stronger. Butwhat is really going on?The phase diagrams of Figures 3.3 and 3.9 tell us what happens when the various compositions of alloys are heated or cooled under “equilibrium”conditions; for our purposes we can interpret equilibrium to mean thatthe alloys are heated or cooled very slowly. If, instead of cooling slowly,say we cool very rapidly by quenching in water, what can the phasediagram tell us? If our attempts at cooling are completely successful, wewill retain at room temperature whatever phase existed at the highertemperature. That is, we will have made the metal do something that byits original nature it was not supposed to do. Thus, for Figure 3.3 if weheat a steel (iron with 2 percent or less of carbon) into the austeniterange and then quench it we will have austenite at room temperaturecontaining much more carbon than iron should at that temperature.Note that the ferrite phase that normally exists at room temperaturecontains almost zero carbon./Quality_clip_image007.jpg /classes/MSE2094_NoteBook/96ClassProj/examples/icnew2.gif/work/pAkmxBcSVBfns037Q0LN_files/image004.gifHardening SteelsPlain carbon steel contains no alloying elements other than carbon and small percentages of elements such as manganese that are necessary in steel manufacture. It is used for knives, files, and fine cutting tools such aswood chisels because it will hold a keen edge. The hardness andstrength of alloy steels is determined by the carbon they contain, andother elements contribute properties to the steel such as corrosionresistance, and high-or-low-temperature strength. One of the majorreasons for using alloying elements is to gain hardenability, or as theword suggests, the ability to become hard. When alloying elements are added they usually slow down the rate at which austenite can changeinto the softer products that result from cooling, for example, pearlite.The effect of the alloy-ing elements is to move the TTT diagram to the right, giving the steel the time needed to cool to the Ms temperature and transform to martensite.The process of hardening steel is carried out in two operations. The first step is to heat the steel to a temperature that is slightly above the A3 andA3,1 lines on the iron—carbon phase diagram. This operation is called austenitizing by metallurgists. The austenitized steel (FCC crystalstructure) contains all the carbon in the interstices (spaces or voids in the lattice structure). The second step is to cool the red-hot metal soquickly that it has no opportunity to transform into softermicrostructures but still holds the carbon in solution in the austenite.This operation is called quenching. Quenching media, such as brine, tap water, fused salts, oil, and air, all have different cooling rates.Slower cooling is necessary for tool steels, and rapid rates are neededfor plain carbon steel. Rapid quenching can produce cracking in thicker sections and therefore is normally used on small or thin sections with low mass and for plain carbon steels.Hardening Cast IronsIn Figure 3.4 it can be seen that in the cast iron region, above the A31 transformation line, is an area containing austenite. This austenite can be cooled slowly to form pearlite, or rapidly to form martensite. Thus, all the forms of cast iron (white, gray, ductile, malleable) can beproduced with the same options as steels. Austenite can also be cooled on a path that will hold it above the Ms temperature and allow it totransform to bainite. This process is known as austempering and acurrently popular form of cast iron is ADI, or austempered ductile iron.TemperingMartensite, whether in a carbon or alloy steel, is very brittle until it is tempered. A tool that is hardened and not tempered will break in pieces when first used. Tempering involves reheating the hardened steel to a much lower temperature than that used for hardening, but it is morethan just a low-temperature anneal. During tempering some of thecarbon leaves the BCT martensite lattice and forms a complex carbide.In this process the steel loses some of its hardness, depending on thetemperature, and gains toughness, reducing brittleness. The higher the tempering temperature used, the softer the metal becomes. Oxide colors that form on the clean surfaces of steel in a given temperature rangeshow heat treaters the approximate temperature of the metal. This color method of tempering was used by black-smiths to determine thetemperature before they plunged the part into a water tank to stop the heating action. It is still used to some extent in small shops, but moreexact methods are used in the manufacturing of heat-treated steel parts.Surface HardeningOften, it is desirable to harden only the outer surface of a steel part, or to surface harden it to create a hard case around a softer core. A gear, for example, needs to be hard on its surface to resist wear but tough andimpact-resistant in its interior so it can resist sudden and repetitiveloads. There are two basic approaches to meeting this requirement: (1) adding carbon at the surface of an otherwise low carbon steel to change the chemistry of the surface and then heat treating the whole gear or (2) starting with sufficient carbon in the steel to achieve the hardnessrequired and heat treating only the outer surface. In the first methodthe surface chemistry of the steel is changed, and in the second it isselectively heat treated.Changing the Surface Chemistry. Carburization has been used for many years as a means of raising the car-bon content of the surface.This is done by diffusing carbonaceous or nitrogenous substances into the surface followed by heating and quenching in most cases. Some of these processes are carburizing, nitriding, carbonitriding, andcyaniding. Low-carbon steel can be carburized and surface hardened toa depth of about 0.003 in. by heating it with a torch to about 17000 F(927°C) and rolling it in a carbon compound such as Kasenit® followed by reheating and water quenching. In order to harden to 1/16 in. deep, the part must be packed in the carburizing compound and held at that temperature for about 8 hours. Nitriding produces a harder case with a lower temperature and less distortion. Other methods produce a more uniform, harder case than carburizing in a shorter time. Some of thedisadvantages to these methods of surface hardening are that the entire part must often be heated and quenched, altering its entire chemicalstructure. Rising energy costs and the need for increased productionefficiency have brought about the development of better surfacehardening methods./fp/0/251/374.jpgSelective Heat Treating of the Surface. Although induction hardening has been used for many years to harden small parts or the ways onmachine tools newer processes make use of this hardening process in a selective manner so that wear surfaces are hardened only in stripesmoving progressively along the surface. This is done on flat surfaces,inside cylinders, and for hearing races on shafts. In these quick-heating processes the heated area is self-quenched by the adjacent cold metal, resulting in a shallow hardened area in the form of a line (stripe) orspiral. Electron beam equipment is also capable of producing selectively hardened areas, but it usually is done in a vacuum. Laser systems can operate in ambient conditions for selective heat treating./img2/laserhaerten03.jpg /lsm3.jpgExample of 2014 Aluminum DataPhysical Data :Density (lb / cu. in.) 0.101Specific Gravity 2.8Melting Point (Deg F) 950Modulus of Elasticity Tension 10.6Modulus of Elasticity Torsion 4Chemistry Data :Aluminum Balance Chromium 0.1 maxCopper 3.9 -5Iron 0.7 maxMagnesium 0.2 -0.8Manganese 0.4 -1.2Remainder Each 0.05 maxRemainder Total 0.15 maxSilicon 0.5-1.2Specifications The following specifications cover Aluminum 2014* ASTM B209* ASTM B210* ASTM B211* ASTM B221S co 05Titanium 0.15 maxTitanium + Zinc 0.2 maxZinc 0.25 max * ASTM B241 (Pipe-Seamless)* ASTM B247 (Forging -Open Die)* ASTM BB241* DIN 3.1255* MIL T-15089* QQ A-200/2* QQ A-225/4* QQ A-250/4* QQ A-367 (Forging -Open Die)* SAE J454* UNS A92014The behavior of metal crystals under load depends on a number of factors:✓the interatomic bonding strength:✓irregularities in the lattice—vacancies and discontinuities: and✓the lattice type.The third factor, lattice type, determines two other very important factors:✓the density of the atoms in the atom planes of the lattice and✓the space or distance between the planes of atoms in the lattice.AlloyingMetals may also he hardened by blocking the slip planes with atoms of other elements or compounds, by alloying. The diameters of the atoms of two metals can vary by as much as ±14 percent and the two metals will still have some solubility. Although these differences may seem small, thecombining of two such atoms in the same lattice can double the strength of the alloy. This phenomenon is referred to as solid solutionstrengthening. Such an increase is not as dramatic as what can heaccomplished with heat treating, but alloying can still improveproperties enough to make some alloys useful as engineering materials. The term annealing refers to any one of several thermal processes: stress relieving, process annealing, normalizing, full annealing, orspheroidizing. In general, the purpose of these processes is to return a metal to a softer, more workable condition than before the treatment.Compared with heat treating annealing involves much slower coolingrates; in effect it is the opposite of heat treating. It should beappreciated that metals do not have to undergo one of these controlled thermal treatments for the effects to occur. That is, if a part is heated to cure an epoxy adhesive, and the temperature and time are sufficient,then the part can experience stress relief. Also, a heat-treated part may be fully annealed if it is welded.Metals go through three stages in turn as they are heated at increasing temperatures: stress relief, recrystallization, and grain growth. These stages occur in all metals, ferrous and nonferrous. We shall thereforeconsider these stages first and then apply that knowledge to specialapplications with ferrous metals including normalizing, full annealing, and spheroidizing.Stress ReliefAs its name suggests the stress relief process requires that the metal has experienced a forming or heating process (for example, welding) thathas left behind stresses that are called residual stresses. Such stresses are not the stresses that produced the plastic deformation of a rolling or forging process, for example, but rather these are elastic stresses leftresiding in the metal by these operations.Stress relief is often needed for castings and weldments. Large welded structures such as tanks are sometimes stress relieved by covering them on the outside with thermal insulation blankets and heating them onthe inside with propane burners.Thermal stress relief is preferred for most manufacturing processes;however, vibratory stress relief (VSR) is often used for cast or weldedstructures that are too large to fit into a heat-treat furnace. To use VSR effectively, there must be1.loading of a structure by means of resonance by close control of avibrator’s frequency,2.proper instrumentation to display the pertinent VSR data. RecrystallizationRecrystallization takes place when cold-worked metals are heated to their specific recrystallization temperatures. The stored energy from coldworking combines with the heat energy of the annealing furnace,enabling small nucleating sites to form that contain unstrained atomlattices. With time additional atoms form up on these lattices, andgradually the whole cold-worked structure is replaced with a new“recrystallized” structure. Because the number of nucleating sites isdetermined by the amount of cold work, highly cold worked metals will have the smaller grains after annealing.The following factors are important in recrystallization:1. A minimum amount of deformation is necessary forrecrystallization to occur, regardless of the temperature.2.Similarly, a minimum temperature is required for recrystallizationto occur regardless of the amount of cold work present.3.The larger the grain size before cold working the greater theamount of cold work, or temperature, is required to cause a givenamount of recrystallization.4.Increasing the time of anneal decreases the tempera-ture necessaryfor recrystallization.5.The recrystallized grain size depends mostly on the degree ofdeformation and, to some extent, on the annealing temperature.6.Continued heating after recrystallization (re-forming of grains) iscomplete increases the grain size.7.The higher the temperature at which the cold work is done, thelarger the amount of deformation required to cause an equivalentpercentage of cold work.Grain GrowthIn performing such annealing treatments it is important to avoid heating fortoo long a time and/or at too high a temperature that causes the metalto go into the third stage of heating grain growth. The large grains that to go into the third stage of heating—grain growth. The large grains thatresult improve a metal’s ductility but may cause the surface to beroughened in a condition called orange peel. Full annealing, with someamount of grain growth, is some-times done to facilitate a difficultforming operation, in which case the orange peel will probably beremoved. Full annealing is usually accomplished by cooling the metalfrom the annealing temperature in the furnace with the doors closed toachieve a very slow cooling rate. The resulting metallurgical structure isvery similar to what is predicted by equilibrium cooling on the phasediagram.Full annealingSpheroidizing/capabilities.html/images/SSL10542.JPG /yahoo_site_admin/assets/images/HEAT_TREAT_OVEN.166101828.jpg/00074169/b/0/Electrode-Salt-Bath-Furnace.jpg /images_di/photo-g/salt-bath-furnace-36594.jpg/unique/forcedconvection.jpg/images_di/photo-g/paternoster-furnace-352728.jpg/images_di/photo-g/aluminum-heat-treatment-bell-type-furnace-396269.jpg/upload_file/prod/emp/2008/oimg_GC00030132_CA00030133.jpg /Images/manufacturing/DSCN5810.JPG1.R Gregg Bruce, William K. Dalton, John E Neely, and Richard R Kibbe, , ModernMaterials and Manufacturing Processes, Prentice Hall, 3rd edition, 2003, ISBN:97801309469802./default.asp3./propertypages/2014.aspAlessandro Anzalone Ph DAlessandro Anzalone, Ph.D. Hillsborough Community College Brandon Campus。
外文翻译--金属热处理
外文原文Metal heat treatmentMetal heat treatment is a kind of craft to heat pieces of metals at the suitable temperature in some medium and to cool them at different speed after some time.The metal heat treatment is one of the important crafts in the machine-building, comparing with other technologies, the heat treatment seldom changes the form of the work pieces and chemical composition of the whole .it improve the serviceability of the work piece through changing their micro- work pieces, chemical composition, or surface. Its characteristic is improving inherent quality of work pieces which can not be watched by our eyes.In order to make the metal work piece have mechanics , physics and chemical property which are needed, besides the use of many materials and various kinds of crafts which are shaped , the heat treatment craft is essential. Steel is a wide-used material in the mechanical industry, its complicated micro-composition can be controlled through the heat treatment , so the heat treatment of the steel is a main content of the metal heat treatment . In addition aluminium, copper, magnesium, titanium and their alloys also can change their mechanics , physics and chemical property through the heat treatment to make different serviceability.During the process of development from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age and to the Iron Age, the function of the heat treatment is gradually known by people. As early as 770 B.C.~222 B.C., the Chinese in production practices had already found the performance of the copper and iron changed by press and temperature . White mouthfuls of casting iron’sgentle-treatment is a important craft to make farm implements.In the sixth century B.C., the steel weapon was gradually adopted. In order to improve the hardness of the steel, quench craft was then developed rapidly. Two sword and one halberd found in YANXIA, Hebei of China , had “MA structure” in its micro-composition which was quenched.With the development of quenching technology, people gradually found the influence of cold pharmaceutical on quality of quenching. Pu yuan a people of the Three Kingdoms(now, Shanxi province Xiegu town)made3000 knives for Zhu Ge-liang.the knives were quenched in Chengdu according to legend. This proved that the chinese had noticed the cooling ability of waters with different quality in ancient times, and the cooling ability of the oil and urine at the same time were found. People found a sword in Zhongshan tomb which were up to the Western Han Dynasty (B.C. 206 -A.D. 24 ),in whose heart department carbon was about 0.15-0.4%, but on whose surface carbon was about more than 0.6%.this has shown the use of the carburization craft. But as the secret of individual's " craftsmanship " at that time, the development was very slow.In 1863, Britain metallo graphy expert and geologist's discoverity that six kinds of different metallography organizations existed in the steel under the microscope, proved that the inside of steel would change while heating and cooling. the looks of steel at the high temperature would change into a harder looks when urgently colded. Frenchmen Osmon established Allotropic theory , and Englishmen Austin first made the iron- carbon looks picture .these tow theories set the theoretical foundation for the modern heat treatment craft . Meanwhile, people also studied the metal protection in the heating to avoid the metal's oxidizing and out of carbon inthe course.1850~1880s, there were a series of patent to use kinds of gases to heat (such as hydrogen , coal gas , carbon monoxide etc. ). Englishman's Rec obtained the patent of bright heat treatment of many kinds of metal in 1889-1890.Since the 20th century, the development of metal physics and transplantation application of other new technologies,make the metal heat treatment craft develop on a large scale even more. A remarkable progress was carburizition of gas in a tube of stoves in industrial production during 1901~1925; 1930s the appeariance of the electric potential different count and then the use of carbon dioxide and oxygen made stove carbon of atmosphere under control . In 1960s, hot treatment technology used the function of the plasma field, developed the nitrogen, carburization craft.The application of laser , electron beam technology, made the metal obtain new method about surface heat treatment and chemical heat treatment.The metal heat treatment craftThe heat treatment craft generally includes heating, keeping and cooling and sometimes only heating and cooling two progresses . The course links up each other.Heating is one of the important processes of the heat treatment . There are a lot of heating methods of the metal heat treatment . the first heat source were the charcoal and coal , then liquid and gaseous fuel. The application of the electricity is easy to control the heating, and no environmental pollution. the heat source could be heated directly or indirectly by the use of salt or metal of melting or the floating particle.While metal heated, the work piece in air , is often oxidized or take off carbon ( steel's surface carbon contentreduces).this does harm to the metal's surface performanc which is heated. Therefore metal should heat in the the vacuum or the melted salt, in controlled atmosphere or protected atmosphere . Sometimes it is heated in the protect means of coating or pack .Heating temperature is one of the important craft parameters of the heat treatment craft , choosing and controling heating temperature is a main matter of guaranting heat treatment quality. Heating temperature may change according to the different purposes of the heat treatment and different metal materials , but usually it is up to the temperature at which high temperature frame could be abtained.it must keep some time at the high temperature to make the inside and outside of the metal reach the some heating level,so that its micro-frame would turn out wholely.we call this period of time "keep-heat"time. There is no "keep-heat"time when adopting density heating and surface heat treatment of high energy because of the rapidity. But the chemical heat treatment often need much more time to sustain the heat .Cooling is an indispensable step in the craft course of heat treatment too . cooling methods are different because of crafts , mainly at controling the speed of cooling. generally anneals is slowest in speed, the cooling normalizing is a little fast in speed, the quenched cooling is much faster in speed. But there are different demands according to the kindof steel, for example empty hard steel can be cooled with normalize as quick as the speed by hard quench .The metal heat treatment craft can be divided into whole heat treatment , surface heat treatment and chemical heat treatment.Every kind could be divided into different crafts according to heating medium , heating temperature and coolingmethod. The same kind of metal adopting different heat treatment crafts can get different organizations which have different performance . The steel is the widest-used metal on the industry, and its micro- organization is the most complicated, so the steel heat treatment craft is various in style.The whole heat treatment is to change the whole mechanics performance of work piece through heating the work piece wholely and then cooling at the proper speed. The whole heat treatment of steel roughly has four basic crafts of annealing , normalizing , quenching and flashing back .Annealing means heating the work piece to the proper temperature ,then adopting different temperature retention time according to the material and size of work piece and then cooling slowly, whose purpose is to make the metal organization to achieve or close to the balance state, obtain good craft performance and serviceability, or prepare for quench further. normalizing is to cool in the air after heating the work piece at suitable temperature , its result is similar to annealing except that the organization out of normalizing are more refined which is often used to inhance the cutting performance of the material and is occationally used for the final heat treatment of material which are not high-requested. .Quenching is to cool work piece which has been heated and kept in warm fast in the cold medium as water , oil , other inorganic salts ,or organic aqueous solution and so on . The steel quenched becomes hard and fragile too. To reduce its fragility , we must first keep the quenched piece of steel in a certain temperature which is higher than room temperature but lower than 650℃for a long time,and then cool it again. this progress is called the flashing back . Annealing , normalizing,quenching , flashing back is " four fires " in the whole heat treatment . the quenching contact close to flashing back ,and they are often used together." Four fire "is divided into kinds of heat treatment crafts by different heating temperatures and diferent ways of cooling. What is " quality adjust " is a kind of craft combining "quench" with "high-temper a ture flash back" to make the work piece obtain certain intensity and toughness. Some alloy saturation out of quench can improve its hardness, intensity, electricity and magnetism after it is kept in the high proper temperature for a little long time . Such heat treatment craft is called “effective dealing”.Deformation-heat-treatment is the combination of pressure-deformation and heat treatment on work piece ,this mothod could enhance its intensity; and vacuum-heat-treatment is that work piece is heated in atmosphere or vacuum.It can make the work piece not oxidize or take off carbons , keep its surface bright and neat and improve its performance. At the same time ,it can carry on the chemical heat treatment by the pharmaceutics.Surface heat treatment on work piece is only to heat its cover to change the metal-layer's mechanics performance. In order to only heat the layer of work piece without making too much heat spreading into the inside, the heat source used must be of high density of energy , namely it can offer greater heat energy on the unit's area of the work piece and make its layer or parts reach high temperature in short-term or instantaneously. The main method of the surface heat treatment is "flame quenching" and "reaction heat" treatment and the heat source used commonly are flame as oxygen acetylene or propane, reaction electric current, laser and electron beam,ect.The chemical heat treatment is to alter the chemical composition, organization and performance of the top layer of work piece.The difference between Chemical and surface heat treatment is that the latter just change the chemical composition of the top layer of work piece . The former is to set the work piece heating in the medium (the gas , liquid , solid ) including carbon , nitrogen or other alloying elements,and then to keep it warm for longer time, thus to make elements as the carbon,nitrogen,boron and chromium,etc permeate through the top layer of work piece.Sometimes after permeation, there is other heat treatment craft to carry on such as quenching and flashing back . The main method of the chemical heat treatment include carbon,nitrogen, and metal permeation.The heat treatment is one of the important processes in machine components and tool and mould manufacture. Generally speaking, it guarantees and improves various kinds of performance of the work piece , for instance wear proof and anti-corrosion. It also improve the organization and state of the tough work piece to ensure various kinds of cooling and heating work.For example tin are annealed for a long time to turn into malleable cast iron which is of plasticity. proper heat treatment craft can prolong the gear wheel's service life at double or dozens of times than these without heat treatment ; In addition, the cheap carbon steel with some alloying elements permeated will own the alloy steel performance whose prices hold high so that it can replace some heat-resisting steel , stainless steel ; all tool and mould need to be through the heat treatment before in use..中文译文金属热处理金属热处理是将金属工件放在一定的介质中加热到适宜的温度，并在此温度中保持一定时间后，又以不同速度冷却的一种工艺。
外文翻译--金属热处理
英文原文HEAT TREATMENT OF METAL AnnealingThe word anneal has been used before to describe heat-treating processes for softening and regaining ductility in connection with cold working of material. It has a similar meaning when used in connection with the heat treating of allotropic materials. The purpose of full annealing is o decrease hardness, increase ductility, and sometimes improve machinability of high carbon steels that might otherwise be difficult to cut. The treatment is also used to relieve stresses,refine grain size, and promote uniformity of structure throughout the material.Machinability is not always improved by annealing. The word machinability is used to describe several interrelated factors, including the ability of a material to be cut with a good surface finish. Plain low carbon steels, when fully annealed, are soft and relatively weak , offering little resistance to cutting, but udually having sufficient ductility and toughness that acut chip tends to pull and tear the surface from which it is removed, leaving a comparatively poor quality surface, which results in a poor machinability rating.1 For such steels annealing may not be the most suitable treatment. The machinability of many of the higher plain carbon and most of the alloy steels can usually be greatly improyed by annealing, as they are often too hard and strong to be easily cut at any but their softest condition.2 The procedure for annealing hypoeutectoid steel is to heat slowly to approximately 60 above the Ac3 line,3°°to soak for a long enough period that the temperature equalizes throughout the material and homogeneous austenite is formed, and then to allow the steel to cool very slowly by cooling it in the fumace or burying it in lime ot some other insulating material. The slow cooling is easential to the precipitation of the maximum ferrite and the coarsest pearlite to place the steel in its softest, most ductile, and least strained condition.NormalizingThe purpose of normalizing is somewhat similar to that of annealing with the exceptions that the steel is not reduced to its softest condition and the pearlite is left rather fine instead of coarse. Refinement of grain size, relief of internal stresses, and improvement ofstructural uniformity together with recovery of some ductility provide high toughness qualities in normalized steel. The process is frequently used for improvement of machinability and for stress relief to reduce distortion that might occur with partial machining or aging.The procedure for normalizing is to austenitize by slowly heating to approximately 80°above the Ao3 or Accm3 temperature for hypoeutectoid or hyereutectoid sreels, respectively.Providing soaking time for the formation of austenite; and cooling slowly in still air, Note that the steels with more carbon than the eutectoid composition are heated abou the Accm instead of the Ac13 used for annealing. The purpose of normalizing is to attempt to dissolve all the cementite during austenitization to eliminate, as far as possible, the settling of hard, brittle iron carbide in the grain boundaries. The desired decomposition products are smallgrained, fine pearlite with a minimum of free ferrite and free cementite1 SpheroidizingMinimum hardness and maximum ductility of steel can be produced by a process called spheroidizing, which causes the iron carbide to form in small spheres or nodules in a ferrite matrix. In order to start with small grains that spheroidize more readily, the process is usually performed on normalized steel. Several variations ofprocessing are used, but all require the holding of the steel near the A1 temperature {usually slightly below } for a number of hours to allow, the iron carbide to form on its more stable and lower energy state of small, rounded globules.The main need for the process is to improve the machinability quality of high carbon steel and to pretreat hardened steel to help produce greater structural uniformity after quenching. Because of the lengthy treatment time and therefore rather high cost, spheroidizing is not performed nearly as much as annealing or normalizing.Hardening of SteelMost of the heat treatment hardening processes for steel ate based on the production of high percebtages of martensite.The first step,therefore, is that used for most of the other heat-treating processes—treatmentto produce austenite. Hypoeutectoid steels ate heated to approximately 60°above the Ac3 temperature and allowed to soak to obtain temperature uniformity and austenite homogeneity. Hypereutectoid steels ate soaked at about 60°above the Ac1 temperature,which leaves some iron carbide present in the material.The second step involves cooling rapidly in an attempt to avoid pearlite transformation by missing the nose of the I—Tcurve.The cooling rate is determined by the temperature and ability of the quenching media to carry heat away from the surface of the material being quenched and by the conduction of heat through the material itself.Table 11—1 shows some of the commonly used media and the method of application to remove heat, arranged in order of decreasing cooling ability.High temperature gradients contribute to high stresser that cause distortion and cracking, so the quench should only as extreme as is necessary to produce the desired structure. Care must be exercised in quenching that heat is removed uniformly to minimize thermal stresses. For example, a long slender bar should be end-quenched, that is, inserted into the qudenching medium vertically so that the entire section is subjected to temperature change at one time. If a shape of this kind were to be quenched in a way that caused one side to drop in tempeiature before the other, change of dimensions would likely cause high stresses producing plastic flow and permanent distortion.Seyeral special types of quench are conducted to minimize quenching stresses and decrease the tendency for distortion and cracking. One of these is called martemoering and consists of quenching an austenitized steel in a salt at a temperature above that needed for the start of martensite formation (Ms).The steel being quenched is held in this bath until it is of uniform temperature but is removed before there is time for formation of bainite topletion of the cooling in air then causes the same hard martensite that would have formed with quenching from the high temperature,but the high thermal or “quench” stresses that are the primary source of cracks and warping will have been eliminated.A similar process performed at a slightly higher temperature is called austempering.In this case the steel is held at the bath temperature for a longer period,and the result of the formation of bainite.The bainite structure is not as hard as the martensite that could be formed from the same composition,but in addition to reducing the thermal shock to which the steel would be subjected under normal hardening procedures,it is unnecessary to perform any further treatment to develop good impact resistance in the high hardness range.4 TemperingA third step usually required to condition a hardened steel for swevice is tempering,or as it is sometimes referred to,drawing. With the exception of austempered steel,which is frequently used in the as—hardened condition,most steel are not serviceable “as quenched”.The drastic cooling to produce martensite causes the steel to be very hard and to contain both macroscopic internal stresses with the result that the material this little ductility and extreme brittleness. Reduction pg these faults is accomplished by reheating the steel to sometimes referred to, drawing. With the exception of austempered steel, which is frequently used in the as-hardened cognition, most steels are not serviceable “as quenched”, The drastic cooling to produce martensite causes the steel to be very hard and to contain both macroscopic and microscopic internal stresses with the result that the material has little ductility and extreme brittleness. Reduction of these faults is accomplished by reheating the steel to some point below the A1 (lower transformation) temperature.The structural changes caused by tempering of hardened steel are functions of both time and temperature, with temperature being the most important. It should be emphasized that tempering is not a hardening process, but is ,instead, the reverse. A tempered steel is one that has been hardened by heat treatment and then stress relieved, softened, and provided with increased ductility by reheating in the tempering or drawing procedure.The magnitude of the structural changes and the change of properties caused bytempering depend upon the temperature to which the steel is reheated. The higher the temperature, the greater the effect, so the choice of temperature will generally depend on willingness to sacrifice hardenss and strength to gain ductility and toughness. Reheating to below 100°has little noticeable effect on hardened plain carbon steel. Between 100°and 200°,there is evidence of some structural changes. Above 200°marked changes in structure and properties appear . Prolonged heating at just under the A1 temperature will result in a spheroidized structure similar to that produced by the spheroidizing process.In commercial tempering the temperature range of 250—425°C is usually avoided because of an unexplained embrittlement,or loss of ductility, that often occurs with steels tempered in this range of 425—600°C,particularly when cooled slowly from or through this range of temperature.when high temperature remperature tempering is necessary for these steels,they are usually headed to above600 ºC and quenched for rapid cooling. Quenchesfrom this temperature, of course ,do not cause hardening because austenitization has not been accomplished.附录B汉语翻译金属热处理一退火在前面描述冷拔加工材料的软化并重新获得塑性的热处理方法时，就已使用退火这个词。
金属材料及热处理工艺常用基础英语词汇翻译对照
金属材料及热处理工艺常用基础英语词汇翻译对照X线结晶分析法 X – ray crystal analyics method奥氏体 Austenite奥氏体碳钢 Austenite Carbon Steel奥氏铁孻回火 Austempering半静钢 Semi-killed steel包晶反应 Peritectic Reaction包晶合金 Peritectic Alloy包晶温度 Peritectic Temperature薄卷片及薄片（0.3至2.9mm厚之片）机械性能 Mechanical Properties of Thin Stainless Steel（Thickness from 0.3mm to 2.9mm）– strip/sheet 杯突测试（厚度： 0.4公厘至1.6公厘，准确至0.1公厘 3个试片平均数）Erichsen test （Thickness： 0.4mm to 1.6mm， figure round up to 0.1mm）贝氏体钢片 Bainite Steel Strip比电阻 Specific resistivity & specific resistance比较抗磁体、顺磁体及铁磁体 Comparison of Diamagnetism， Paramagnetic & Ferromagnetism比热 Specific Heat比重 Specific gravity & specific density边缘处理 Edge Finish扁线、半圆线及异形线 Flat Wire， Half Round Wire， Shaped Wire and Precision Shaped Fine Wire扁线公差 Flat Wire Tolerance变态点 Transformation Point表面保护胶纸 Surface protection film表面处理 Surface finish表面处理 Surface Treatment不破坏检验 Non – destructive inspections不锈钢 Stainless Steel不锈钢–种类，工业标准，化学成份，特点及主要用途 Stainless Steel – Type， Industrial Standard， Chemical Composition， Characteristic & end usage of the most commonly used Stainless Steel不锈钢薄片用途例 End Usage of Thinner Gauge不锈钢扁线及半圆线常用材料 Commonly used materials for Stainless Flat Wire & Half Round Wire不锈钢箔、卷片、片及板之厚度分类 Classification of Foil， Strip，Sheet & Plate by Thickness不锈钢材及耐热钢材标准对照表 Stainless and Heat-Resisting Steels 不锈钢的磁性 Magnetic Property & Stainless Steel不锈钢的定义 Definition of Stainless Steel不锈钢基层金属 Stainless Steel as Base Metal不锈钢片、板用途例 Examples of End Usages of Strip， Sheet & Plate 不锈钢片材常用代号 Designation of SUS Steel Special Use Stainless不锈钢片机械性能（301， 304， 631， CSP） Mechanical Properties of Spring use Stainless Steel不锈钢应力退火卷片常用规格名词图解 General Specification of Tension Annealed Stainless Steel Strips不锈钢之分类，耐腐蚀性及耐热性 Classification， Corrosion Resistant & Heat Resistance of Stainless Steel材料的加工性能 Drawing abillity插入型固熔体 Interstital solid solution常用尺寸 Commonly Used Size常用的弹簧不锈钢线-编号，特性，表面处理及化学成份 StainlessSpring Wire – National Standard number， Charateristic， Surface finish & Chemical composition常用的镀锌钢片（电解片）的基层金属、用途、日工标准、美材标准及一般厚度 Base metal， application， JIS & ASTM standard， and Normal thickness of galvanized steel sheet长度公差 Length Tolerance超耐热钢 Special Heat Resistance Steel超声波探伤法 Ultrasonic inspection冲击测试 Impact Test冲剪 Drawing & stamping初释纯铁体 Pro-entectoid ferrite处理及表面状况 Finish & Surface纯铁体 Ferrite磁场 Magnetic Field磁畴 Magnetic domain磁粉探伤法 Magnetic particle inspection磁化率 Magnetic Susceptibility （Xm）磁矩 magnetic moment磁力 Magnetic磁力 Magnetic Force磁偶极子 Dipole磁性 Magnetisum磁性变态 Magnetic Transformation磁性变态点 Magnetic Transformation磁性感应 Magnetic Induction粗珠光体 Coarse pearlite淬火 Quenching淬火及回火状态 Hardened & Tempered Strip/ Precision – Quenched Steel Strip淬火剂 Quenching Media单相金属 Single Phase Metal单相轧压镀锡薄铁片（白铁皮/马口铁） Single-Reduced Tinplate弹簧不锈钢线，线径及拉力列表 Stainless Spring Steel， Wire diameter and Tensile strength of Spring Wire弹簧用碳钢片 CarbonSteel Strip For Spring Use弹簧用碳钢片材之边缘处理 Edge Finished弹性限度、阳氏弹性系数及屈服点 elastic limit， Yeung's module of elasticity to yield point倒后擦发条 Pull Back Power Spring导热度 Heat conductivity低碳钢或铁基层金属 Iron & Low Carbon as Base Metal低碳马氏体不锈钢 Low Carbon Martensite Stainless Steel低温脆性 Cold brittleness低温退火 Low Temperature Annealing第二潜变期 Secondary Creep第三潜变期 Tertiary Creep第壹潜变期 Primary Creep点焊 Spot welding电镀金属钢片 Plate Metal Strip电镀金属捆片的优点 Advantage of Using Plate Metal Strip电镀锌（电解）钢片 Electro-galvanized Steel Sheet电镀锌钢片的焊接 Welding of Electro-galvanized steel sheet电镀锌钢片或电解钢片 Electro-galvanized Steel Sheet/Electrolytic Zinc Coated Steel Sheet电解/电镀锌大大增强钢片的防锈能力 Galvanic Action improving Weather & Corrosion Resistance of the Base Steel Sheet电解冷轧钢片厚度公差 Thickness Tolerance of ElectrolyticCold-rolled sheet电炉 Electric furnace电器及家电外壳用镀层冷辘 [低碳] 钢片 Coated （Low Carbon） Steel Sheets for Casing，Electricals & Home Appliances电器用的硅 [硅] 钢片之分类 Classification of Silicon Steel Sheet for Electrical Use电器用钢片的绝缘涂层 Performance of Surface Insulation of Electrical Steel Sheets电器用钢片用家需自行应力退火原因 Annealing of the Electrical Steel Sheet电器用硅 [硅] 钢片 Electrical Steel Sheet电阻焊 Resistance Welding定型发条 Constant Torque Spring定型发条的形状及翻动过程 Shape and Spring Back of Constant Torque Spring定型发条及上炼发条的驱动力 Spring Force of Constant Torque Spring and Wing-up Spring定型发条驱动力公式及代号 The Formula and Symbol of Constant Torque Spring镀层质量标记 Markings & Designations of Differential Coatings镀铬 Chrome Plated镀黄铜 Brass Plated镀铝（硅）钢片–美材试标准（ASTM A-463-77）35.7 JIS G3314镀热浸铝片的机械性能 Mechanical Properties of JIS G 3314 Hot-DipAluminum-coated Sheets and Coils镀铝（硅）钢片–日工标准（JIS G3314） Hot-aluminum-coated sheets and coils to JIS G 3314镀铝（硅）钢片及其它种类钢片的抗腐蚀性能比较 Comparsion of various resistance of aluminized steel & other kinds of steel镀铝（硅）钢片生产流程 Aluminum Steel Sheet， Production Flow Chart 镀铝硅钢片 Aluminized Silicon Alloy Steel Sheet镀铝硅合金钢片的特色 Feature of Aluminized Silicon Alloy Steel Sheet 镀镍 Nickel Plated镀锡薄钢片（白铁皮/马日铁）制造过程 Production Process of Electrolytic Tinplate镀锡薄铁片（白铁皮/马口铁）（日工标准 JIS G3303）镀锡薄铁片的构造 Construction of Electrolytic Tinplate锻造 Fogging断面缩率 Reduction of area发条的分类及材料 Power Spring Strip Classification and Materials 发条片 Power Spring Strip反铁磁体 Antiferromagnetism方线公差 Square Wire Tolerance防止生锈 Rust Protection放射线探伤法 Radiographic inspection非晶粒取向电力用钢片的电力、磁力、机械性能及夹层系数 Lamination Factors of Electrical， Magnetic & Mechanical Non-Grain Oriented Electrical沸腾钢（未净钢） Rimmed steel分类 Classification负磁力效应 Negative effect钢板 Steel Plate钢板订货需知 Ordering of Steel Plate钢板生产流程 Production Flow Chart钢板用途分类及各国钢板的工业标准包括日工标准及美材试标准 Type of steel Plate & Related JIS， ASTM and Other Major Industrial Standards 钢材的熔铸、锻造、挤压及延轧 The Casting， Fogging， Extrusion，Rolling & Steel钢的脆性 Brittleness of Steel钢的种类 Type of Steel钢铁的名称 Name of steel钢铁的制造 Manufacturing of Steel钢铁的主要成份 The major element of steel钢铁生产流程 Steel Production Flow Chart钢铁用“碳”之含量来分类 Classification of Steel according to Carbon contents高锰钢铸–日工标准 High manganese steel to JIS standard高碳钢化学成份及用途 High Carbon Tool Steel， Chemical Composition and Usage高碳钢片 High Carbon Steel Strip高碳钢片用途 End Usage of High Carbon Steel Strip高碳钢线枝 High Carbon Steel Wire Rod （to JIS G3506）高温回火 High Temperature Tempering格子常数 Lattice constant铬钢–日工标准 JIS G4104 Chrome steel to JIS G4104铬镍不锈钢及抗热钢弹簧线材–美国材验学会 ASTM A313 – 1987 Chromium – Nickel Stainless and Heat-resisting Steel Spring Wire –ASTM A313 – 1987铬系耐热钢 Chrome Heat Resistance Steel铬钼钢钢材–日工标准 G4105 62 Chrome Molybdenum steel to JIS G4105 各种不锈钢线在不同处理拉力比较表 Tensile Strength of various kinds of Stainless Steel Wire under Different Finish工业标准及规格–铁及非铁金属 Industrial Standard – Ferrous & Non – ferrous Metal公差 Size Tolerance共晶 Eutectic共释变态 Eutectoid Transformation固熔体 Solid solution光辉退火 Bright Annealing光线（低碳钢线），火线（退火低碳钢线），铅水线（镀锌低碳钢线）及制造钉用低碳钢线之代号、公差及备注 Ordinary Low Carbon Steel Wire，Annealed Low Carbon Steel Wire， Galvanized low Carbon Steel Wire & Low Carbon Steel Wire for nail manufacturing - classification， Symbol of Grade， Tolerance and Remarks.硅含量对电器用的低碳钢片的最大好处 The Advantage of Using Silicon low Carbon Steel滚焊 Seam welding过共晶体 Hyper-ectectic Alloy过共释钢 Hype-eutectoid含硫易车钢 Sulphuric Free Cutting Steel含铅易车钢 Leaded Free Cutting Steel含铁体不锈钢 Ferrite Stainless Steel焊接 Welding焊接合金 Soldering and Brazing Alloy焊接能力 Weldability 镀铝钢片的焊接状态（比较冷辘钢片） Tips on welding of Aluminized sheet in comparasion with cold rolled steel strip 合金平衡状态 Thermal Equilibrium厚度及阔度公差 Tolerance on Thickness & Width滑动面 Slip Plan化学成份 Chemical Composition化学结合 Chemical bond化学性能 Chemical Properties化学元素 Chemical element黄铜基层金属 Brass as Base Metal回复柔软 Crystal Recovery回火脆性 Temper brittleness回火有低温回火及高温回火 Low & High Temperature Tempering回火状态 Annealed Strip基层金属 Base Metal of Plated Metal Strip机械性能 Mechanical Properites机械性能 Mechanical properties畸变 Distortion级别、电镀方法、镀层质量及常用称号 Grade， Plating type， Designation of Coating Mass & Common Coating Mass级别，代号，扭曲特性及可用之线材直径 Classes， symbols， twisting characteristic and applied Wire Diameters级别，代号及化学成份 Classification， Symbol of Grade and Chemical Composition挤压 Extrusion加工方法 Manufacturing Method加工性能 Machinability简介 General交换能量 Positive energy exchange矫顽磁力 Coercive Force金属变态 Transformation金属材料的试验方法 The Method of Metal inspection金属材料的性能及试验 Properties & testing of metal金属的特性 Features of Metal金属的相融、相融温度、晶体反应及合金在共晶合金、固熔孻共晶合金及偏晶反应的比较 Equilibrium Comparision金属间化物 Intermetallic compound金属结晶格子 Metal space lattice金属捆片电镀层 Plated Layer of Plated Metal Strip金属塑性 Plastic Deformation金属特性 Special metallic features金属与合金 Metal and Alloy金相及相律 Metal Phase and Phase Rule晶粒取向（Grain-Oriented）及非晶粒取向（Non-Oriented）晶粒取向，定取向芯钢片及高硼定取向芯钢片之磁力性能及夹层系数（日工标准及美材标准） Magnetic Properties and Lamination Factor ofSI-ORIENT-CORE& SI-ORIENT-CORE-HI B Electrical Steel Strip （JIS and AISI Standard）晶粒取向电器用硅 [硅] 钢；片–高硼低硫（LS）定取向钢片之磁力及电力性能 Magnetic and Electrical Properties of SI-ORIENT-CORE-HI-B-LS 晶粒取向电器用硅 [硅] 钢片–高硼（HI-B）定取向芯钢片及定取向芯钢片之机械性能及夹层系数 Mechanical Properties and Lamination Factors of SI-ORIENT-CORE-HI-B and SI-ORIENT-CORE Grain Orient Electrical Steel Sheets晶粒取向电器用硅 [硅] 钢片–高硼低硫（LS）定取向钢片之机械性能及夹层系数 Mechanical Properties and Lamination Factors ofSI-ORIENT-CORE-HI-B-LS晶粒取向电器用硅（硅）钢片–高硼（HI-B）定取向芯钢片，定取向芯钢片及高硼低硫（LS）定取向芯钢片之标准尺寸及包装 Standard Forms and Size of SI-ORIENT-CORE-HI-B，SI-CORE， & SI-ORIENT-CORE-HI-B-LS Grain- 晶粒取向电器用硅（硅）钢片-高硼（HI-B）定取向芯钢片，定取向芯钢片及高硼低硫（LS）定取向芯钢片之厚度及阔度公差 Physical Tolerance ofSI-ORIENT-CORE-HI-B， SI-ORIENT-CORE， & SI-CORE-HI-B-LS Grain 晶粒取向电器用硅钢片 Grain-Oriented Electrical Steel晶粒取向电器用硅钢片主要工业标准 International Standard –Grain-Oriented Electrical Steel Silicon Steel Sheet for Electrical Use 晶体结构 Crystal Pattern晶体结构，定向格子及单位晶格 Crystal structure， Space lattice & Unit cell净磁矩 Net magnetic moment绝缘表面 Surface Insulation均热炉 Soaking pit抗磁体 Diamagnetism抗腐蚀及耐用 Corrosion & resistance durability抗化学品能力 Chemical Resistance抗敏感及环境保护 Allergic， re-cycling & environmental protection 抗热超级合金 Heat Resistance Super Alloy扩散退火 Diffusion Annealing拉尺发条 Measure Tape拉伸测试（顺纹测试） Elongation test冷冲及冷锻用碳钢线枝 Carbon Steel Wire Rods for Cold Heading & Cold Forging （to JIS G3507）冷拉钢板重量表 Cold Drawn Steel Bar Weight Table冷拉钢枝材 Cold Drawn Carbon Steel Shafting Bar冷拉高碳钢线 Hard Drawn High Carbon Steel Wire冷轧钢片 Cold-Rolled Steel Sheet/Strip冷轧高碳钢–日本工业标准 Cold-Rolled （Special Steel） Carbon Steel Strip to JIS G3311冷轧或热轧钢片阔度公差 Width Tolerance of Cold or Hot-rolled sheet 冷轧状态 Cold Rolled Strip冷辘（低碳）钢片的分类用、途、工业标准、品质、加热状态及硬度表 End usages， industrial standard， quality， condition and hardness of cold rolled steel strip冷辘低碳钢片（双单光片）（日工标准 JIS G3141） 73 - 95 Cold Rolled （Low carbon） Steel Strip （to JIS G 3141）冷辘钢捆片及张片的电镀和印刷方法 Cold rolled steel coil & sheet electro-plating & painting method冷辘钢捆片及张片制作流程图表 Production flow chart cold rolled steel coil sheet冷辘钢片（拉力： 30-32公斤/平方米）在没有表面处理状态下的焊接状况Spot welding conditions for bared （free from paint， oxides etc） Cold rolled mild steel sheets（T/S：30-32 Kgf/ μ m2）冷辘钢片储存与处理提示 General advice on handling & storage of cold rolled steel coil & sheet冷辘钢片的“理论重量”计算方程式 Cold Rolled Steel Sheet –Theoretical mass冷辘钢片订货需知 Ordering of cold rolled steel strip/sheet理论质量 Theoretical Mass连续铸造法 Continuous casting process两面不均等锡层 Both Side Different Thickness Coated Mass两面均等锡层 Both Side Equally Coated Mass裂纹之容许深度及脱碳层 Permissible depth of flaw and decarburized layer临界温度 Critical temperture马氏体不锈钢 Martensite Stainless Steel马氏铁体淬火 Marquenching埋弧焊 Submerged-arc Welding每公斤发条的长度简易公式 The Length of 1 Kg of Spring Steel Strip 美材试标准的冷辘低碳钢片 Cold Rolled Steel Strip American Standard – American Society for testing and materials （ASTM）美国工业标准–不锈钢及防热钢材的化学成份（先数字后字母排列）AISI – Chemical Composition of Stainless Steel & Heat-Resistant Steel （in order of number & alphabet）米勒指数 Mill's Index魔术手环 Magic Tape魔术手环尺寸图Drawing of Magic Tap耐热不锈钢 Heat-Resistance Stainless Steel耐热不锈钢比重表 Specific Gravity of Heat – resistance steel plates and sheets stainless steel镍铬–日工标准 G4102 63 Chrome Nickel steel to JIS G4102镍铬耐热钢 Ni - Cr Heat Resistance Steel镍铬系不锈钢 Nickel Chrome Stainless Steel镍铬系耐热不锈钢特性、化学成份、及操作温度 Heat-Resistance Stainless Steel镍铬钼钢–日工标准 G4103 64 Nickel， Chrome & Molybdenum Steel to JIS G4103疲劳测试 Fatigue Test片及板材 Chapter Four-Strip， Steel & Plate平坦度（阔度大于500公厘，标准回火） Flatness （width>500mm， temper：standard）破坏的检验 Destructive Inspection其它焊接材料请参阅日工标准目录 Other Soldering Material其它日工标准冷轧钢片（用途及编号） JIS standard & application of other cold Rolled Special Steel气焊 Gas Welding潜变测试 Creep Test潜变强度 Creeps Strength强度 Strength琴线（日本标准 G3522） Piano Wires （ to G3522）球化退火 Spheroidizing Annealing曲面（假曲率） Camber屈服强度（降伏强度）（Yield strangth）全静钢 Killed steel热力应先从工件边缘透入 Heat from the Laminated Stacks Edges热膨胀系数 Coefficient of thermal expansion热轧钢片 Hot-Rolled Sheet/Strip热轧钢片厚度公差 Thickness Tolerance of Hot-rolled sheet日本工业标准–不锈钢的化学成份（先数字后字母排列） JIS – Chemical Composition of Stainless Steel （in order of number & alphabet）日工标准（JIS G3141）冷辘钢片化学成份 Chemical composition – cold rolled steel sheet to JIS G3141日工标准（JIS G3141）冷辘钢片重量列表 Mass of Cold-Rolled Steel Sheet to JIS G3141日工标准JIS G3141冷辘低碳钢片（双单光片）的编号浅释 Decoding of cold rolled（Low carbon）steel strip JIS G3141日工标准下的特殊钢材 Specail Steel according to JIS Standard熔铸 Casting软磁 Soft Magnetic软磁材料 Soft Magnetic Material软焊 Soldering Alloy软焊合金–日本标准 JIS H 4341 Soldering Alloy to JIS H 4341上链发条 Wind-up Spring上漆能力 Paint Adhesion伸长度 Elongation渗碳体 Cementitle渗透探伤法 Penetrate inspection生产流程 Production Flow Chart生锈速度表 Speed of rusting时间淬火 Time Quenching时间效应（老化）及拉伸应变 Aging & Stretcher Strains释出硬化不锈钢 Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steel双相辗压镀锡薄钢片（马口铁/白铁皮） Dual-Reduction Tinplate顺磁体 Paramagnetic碳钢回火 Tempering碳污染 Prevent Carbon Contamination特点 Characteristic特殊钢 Special Steel特殊钢以用途来分类 Classification of Special Steel according to End Usage特殊钢以原素分类 Classification of Special Steel according to Element提防过份氧化 No Excessive Oxidation铁磁体 Ferromagnetism铁铬系不锈钢片 Chrome Stainless Steel铁及非铁金属 Ferrous & Non Ferrous Metal铁锰铝不锈钢 Fe / Mn / Al / Stainless Steel铁线（低碳钢线）日工标准 JIS G 3532 Low Carbon Steel Wires （ Iron Wire ） to JIS G 3532铁相 Steel Phases同素变态 Allotropic Transformation铜基层金属 Copper as Base Metal透磁度 Magnetic Permeability退火 Annealing退火时注意事项 Annealing Precautionary外价电子 Outer valence electrons弯度 Camber完全退火 Full Annealing物理性能 Physical Properties物料科学 Material Science物料科学定义 Material Science Definition锡层质量 Mass of Tin Coating （JIS G3303-1987）锡基、铅基及锌基轴承合金比较表 Comparison of Tin base， Lead base and Zinc base alloy for Bearing purpose细线材、枝材、棒材 Chapter Five Wire， Rod & Bar显微观察法 Microscopic inspection线材/枝材材质分类及制成品 Classification and End Products ofWire/Rod线径、公差及机械性能（日本工业标准 G 3521） Mechanical Properties （JIS G 3521）相反旋转 Opposite span相律 Phase Rule锌包层之重量，铜硫酸盐试验之酸洗次数及测试用卷筒直径 Weight of Zinc-Coating， Number of Dippings in Cupric Sulphate Test and Diameters of Mandrel Used for Coiling Test锌镀层质量 Zinc Coating Mass锌镀层质量（两个不同锌镀层厚度） Mass Calculation of coating （For differential coating）/MM锌镀层质量（两个相同锌镀层厚度） Mass Calculation of coating （For equal coating）/MM亚共晶体 Hypoeutetic Alloy亚铁磁体 Ferrimagnetism亚铁释体 Hyppo-Eutectoid延轧 Rolling颜色 Colour易车（快削）不锈钢 Free Cutting Stainless Steel易车（快削）不锈钢拉力表 Tensile Strength of Free Cutting Wires 易车（快削）不锈钢种类 Type of steel易车不锈钢及易车钢之不同尺寸及硬度比较 Hardness of Different Types & Size of Free Cutting Steel易车碳钢 Free Cutting Carbon Steels （to JIS G4804 ）易溶合金 Fusible Alloy应力退火温度 Stress –relieving Annealing Temperature应用材料 Material Used硬磁 Hard Magnetic硬磁材料 Hard Magnetic Material硬度 Hardness硬度及拉力 Hardness & Tensile strength test硬焊 Brazing Alloy硬化 Work Hardening硬化性能 Hardenability用含碳量分类–即低碳钢、中碳钢及高碳钢 Classification According to Carbon Contains用途 End Usages用组织结构分类 Classification According to Grain Structure幼珠光体 Fine pearlite元素的原子序数 Atom of Elements原子的组成、大小、体积和单位图表 The size， mass， charge of an atom，and is particles （Pronton，Nentron and Electron）原子的组织图 Atom Constitutes原子及固体物质 Atom and solid material原子键结 Atom Bonding圆钢枝，方钢枝及六角钢枝之形状及尺寸之公差 Tolerance on Shape and Dimensions for Round Steel Bar， Square Steel Bar， Hexagonal Steel Bar 圆径及偏圆度之公差 Tolerance of Wire Diameters & Ovality圆面（“卜竹”）发条 Convex Spring Strip再结晶 Recrystallization正磁化率 Positive magnetic susceptibility枝/棒无芯磨公差表（μ）（μ = 1/100 mm） Rod/Bar Centreless Grind Tolerance枝材之美工标准，日工标准，用途及化学成份 AISI， JIS End Usage and Chemical Composition of Cold Drawn Carbon Steel Shafting Bar 直径，公差及拉力强度 Diameter， Tolerance and Tensile Strength直径公差，偏圆度及脱碳层的平均深度 Diameter Tolerance， Ovality and Average Decarburized Layer Depth置换型固熔体 Substitutional type solid solution滞后回线 Narrow Hystersis中途退火 Process Annealing中珠光体 Medium pearlite周期表 Periodic Table轴承合金 Bearing Alloy轴承合金–日工标准 JIS H 5401 Bearing Alloy to JIS H 5401珠光体 Pearlite珠光体及共释钢 Pearlite &Eutectoid主要金属元素之物理性质 Physical properties of major Metal Elements 转变元素 Transition element自发上磁 Spontaneous magnetization自由度 Degree of freedom最大能量积 Maximum Energy Product（to JIS G3521， ISO-84580-1&2）化学成份分析表 Chemical Analysis of Wire Rod305， 316， 321及347之拉力表 Tensile Strength Requirements for Types 305， 316， 321 and 347A1S1-302 贰级线材之拉力表 Tensile Strength of A1S1-302 WireGrain Oriented & Non-Oriented 电器用硅 [硅] 钢片的最终用途及规格End Usage and Designations of Electrical Steel StripOriented Electrical Steel SheetsSK-5 & AISI-301 每公尺长的重量/公斤（阔2.0-10公厘） Weight per one meter long （kg）（Width 2.0-10mm）SK-5 & AISI-301 每公斤长的重量/公斤（阔100-200公厘） Weight per one meter long （kg）（Width 100-200mm）SK-5 & AISI-301 每公斤之长度（阔100-200公厘） Length per one kg （Width 100-200mm）SK-5 & AISI-301 每公斤之长度（阔2.0-10公厘） Length per one kg （Width 2.0-10mm）。
热处理专业术语中英文对照
pearlite针尖组织
phosphating磷酸盐皮膜处理
physical vapor deposition物理蒸镀
plasma nitriding离子氮化
pre-annealing预备退火
precipitation析出
precipitation hardening析出硬化
press quenching加压硬化
process annealing制程退火
quench ageing淬火老化
quench hardening淬火
quenching crack淬火裂痕
quenching distortion淬火变形
quenching stress淬火应力
reconditioning再调质
95. inclusion夹杂物
96. segregation偏析
97. picking酸洗，酸浸
98. residual stress残余应力
99。remaining stress残余应力
100. relaxation of residual stress消除残余应力
101. stress relief应力释放
decarburization脱碳处理
decarburizing脱碳退火
depth of hardening硬化深层
diffusion扩散
diffusion annealing扩散退火
electrolytic hardening电解淬火
embossing压花
etching表面蚀刻
ferrite肥粒铁
80。drawing拉（件）
81。shot blasting喷丸（处理）
热处理专业术语中英文对照
90。cinder inclusion夹渣
91. lattice晶格
92。abrasion/abrasive/rub/wear/wearing resistance（property）耐磨性
93. spectrum analysis光谱分析
94. heat/thermal treatment热处理
bright electroplating辉面电镀
bright heat treatment光辉热处理
bypass heat treatment旁路热处理
carbide炭化物
carburized case depth浸碳硬化深层
carburizing渗碳
cementite炭化铁
chemical plating化学电镀
subzero treatment生冷处理
supercooling过冷
surface hardening表面硬化处理
temper brittleness回火脆性
temper colour回火颜色
tempering回火
tempering crack回火裂痕
texture咬花
thermal refining调质处理
72. induction hardening感应淬火
73。impedance matching感应淬火
74。hardening and tempering调质
75. crack裂纹
76。shrinkage缩孔，疏松
77。forging锻（件）
78。casting铸（件)
79. rolling轧（件）
64。creep蠕变
65。deflection挠度
66。elongation延伸率
金属热处理中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Heat treatment of metalThe generally accepted definition for heat treating metals and metal alloys is “heating and cooling a solid metal or alloy in a way so as to obtain specific conditions or properties.” Heating for the sole purpose of hot working (as in forging operations) is excluded from this definition．Likewise，the types of heat treatment that are sometimes used for products such as glass or plastics are also excluded from coverage by this definition．Transformation CurvesThe basis for heat treatment is the time-temperature-transformation curves or TTT curves where，in a single diagram all the three parameters are plotted．Because of the shape of the curves，they are also sometimes called C-curves or S-curves．To plot TTT curves，the particular steel is held at a given temperature and the structure is examined at predetermined intervals to record the amount of transformation taken place．It is known that the eutectoid steel (T80) under equilibrium conditions contains，all austenite above 723℃，whereas below，it is the pearlite．To form pearlite，the carbon atoms should diffuse to form cementite．The diffusion being a rate process，would require sufficient time for complete transformation of austenite to pearlite．From different samples，it is possible to note the amount of the transformation taking place at any temperature．These points are then plotted on a graph with time and temperature as the axes．Through these points，transformation curves can be plotted as shown in Fig.1 for eutectoid steel．The curve at extreme left represents the time required for the transformation of austenite to pearlite to start at any given temperature．Similarly，the curve at extreme right represents the time required for completing the transformation．Between the two curves are the pointsrepresenting partial transformation. The horizontal lines Ms and Mf represent the start and finish of martensitic transformation.Classification of Heat Treating ProcessesIn some instances，heat treatment procedures are clear-cut in terms of technique and application．whereas in other instances，descriptions or simple explanations are insufficient because the same technique frequently may be used to obtain different objectives．For example, stress relieving and tempering are often accomplished with the same equipment and by use of identical time and temperature cycles．The objectives，however，are different for the two processes． The following descriptions of the principal heat treating processes are generally arranged according to their interrelationships．Normalizing consists of heating a ferrous alloy to a suitable temperature (usually 50°F to 100°F or 28℃ to 56℃) above its specific upper transformation temperature．This is followed by cooling in still air to at least some temperature well below its transformation temperature range．For low-carbon steels, the resulting structure and properties are the same as those achieved by full annealing；for most ferrous alloys, normalizing and annealing are not synonymous.Normalizing usually is used as a conditioning treatment, notably for refining the grains of steels that have been subjected to high temperatures for forging or other hot working operations. The normalizing process usually is succeeded by another heat treating operation such as austenitizing for hardening, annealing, or tempering.Annealing is a generic term denoting a heat treatment that consists of heating to and holding at a suitable temperature followed by cooling at a suitable rate. It is used primarily to soften metallicmaterials, but also to simultaneously produce desired changes in other properties or in microstructure. The purpose of such changes may be, but is not confined to, improvement of machinability, facilitation of cold work (known as in-process annealing), improvement of mechanical or electrical properties, or to increase dimensional stability. When applied solely to relive stresses, it commonly is called stress-relief annealing, synonymous with stress relieving.When the term “annealing” is applied to ferrous alloys without qualification, full annealing is applied. This is achieved by heating above the alloy’s transformation temperature, then applying a cooling cycle which provides maximum softness. This cycle may vary widely, depending on composition and characteristics of the specific alloy.Quenching is a rapid cooling of a steel or alloy from the austenitizing temperature by immersing the work piece in a liquid or gaseous medium. Quenching medium commonly used include water, 5% brine, 5% caustic in an aqueous solution, oil, polymer solutions, or gas (usually air or nitrogen).Selection of a quenching medium depends largely on the hardenability of material and the mass of the material being treating (principally section thickness).The cooling capabilities of the above-listed quenching media vary greatly. In selecting a quenching medium, it is best to avoid a solution that has more cooling power than is needed to achieve the results, thus minimizing the possibility of cracking and warp of the parts being treated. Modifications of the term quenching include direct quenching, fog quenching, hot quenching, interrupted quenching, selective quenching, spray quenching, and time quenching.Tempering. In heat treating of ferrous alloys, tempering consists of reheating the austenitized and quench-hardened steel or iron to some preselected temperature that is below the lower transformation temperature (generally below 1300 ℃ or 705 ℃ ). Tempering offers a means of obtaining various combinations of mechanical properties. Tempering temperatures used for hardened steels are often no higher than 300 ℃(150 ℃). The term “tempering” should not be confused with either process annealing or stress relieving. Even though time and temperature cycles for the three processes may be the same, the conditions of the materials being processed and the objectives may be different.Stress relieving. Like tempering, stress relieving is always done by heating to some temperature below the lower transformation temperature for steels and irons. For nonferrous metals, the temperature may vary from slightly above room temperature to several hundred degrees, depending on the alloy and the amount of stress relief that is desired.The primary purpose of stress relieving is to relieve stresses that have been imparted to the workpiece from such processes as forming, rolling, machining or welding. The usual procedure is toheat workpiece to the pre-established temperature long enough to reduce the residual stresses (this is a time-and temperature-dependent operation) to an acceptable level; this is followed by cooling at a relatively slow rate to avoid creation of new stresses.The generally accepted definition for heat treating metals and metal alloys is “heating and cooling a solid metal or alloy in a way so as to obtain specific conditions or properties.” Heating for the sole purpose of hot working (as in forging operations) is excluded from this definition．Likewise，the types of heat treatment that are sometimes used for products such as glass or plastics are also excluded from coverage by this definition．Transformation CurvesThe basis for heat treatment is the time-temperature-transformation curves or TTT curves where，in a single diagram all the three parameters are plotted．Because of the shape of the curves，they are also sometimes called C-curves or S-curves．To plot TTT curves，the particular steel is held at a given temperature and the structure is examined at predetermined intervals to record the amount of transformation taken place．It is known that the eutectoid steel (T80) under equilibrium conditions contains，all austenite above 723℃，whereas below，it is pearlite．To form pearlite，the carbon atoms should diffuse to form cementite．The diffusion being a rate process，would require sufficient time for complete transformation of austenite to pearlite．From different samples，it is possible to note the amount of the transformation taking place at any temperature．These points are then plotted on a graph with time and temperature as the axes．Through these points，transformation curves can be plotted as shown in Fig.1 for eutectoid steel．The curve at extreme left represents the time required for the transformation of austenite to pearlite to start at any given temperature．Similarly，the curve at extreme right represents the time required for completing the transformation．Between the two curves are the points representing partial transformation. The horizontal lines Ms and Mf represent the start and finish of martensitic transformation.Classification of Heat Treating ProcessesIn some instances，heat treatment procedures are clear-cut in terms of technique and application．whereas in other instances，descriptions or simple explanations are insufficient because the same technique frequently may be used to obtain different objectives．For example, stress relieving and tempering are often accomplished with the same equipment and by use of identical time and temperature cycles．The objectives，however，are different for the two processes．The following descriptions of the principal heat treating processes are generally arranged according to their interrelationships．Normalizing consists of heating a ferrous alloy to a suitable temperature (usually 50°F to 100°F or 28℃ to 56℃) above its specific upper transformation temperature．This is followed by cooling in still air to at least some temperature well below its transformation temperature range．For low-carbon steels, the resulting structure and properties are the same as those achieved by full annealing；for most ferrous alloys, normalizing and annealing are not synonymous.Normalizing usually is used as a conditioning treatment, notably for refining the grains of steels that have been subjected to high temperatures for forging or other hot working operations. The normalizing process usually is succeeded by another heat treating operation such as austenitizing for hardening, annealing, or tempering.Annealing is a generic term denoting a heat treatment that consists of heating to and holding at a suitable temperature followed by cooling at a suitable rate. It is used primarily to soften metallic materials, but also to simultaneously produce desired changes in other properties or in microstructure. The purpose of such changes may be, but is not confined to, improvement of machinability, facilitation of cold work (known as in-process annealing), improvement of mechanical or electrical properties, or to increase dimensional stability. When applied solely to relive stresses, it commonly is called stress-relief annealing, synonymous with stress relieving.When the term “annealing” is applied to ferrous alloys without qualification, full annealing is applied. This is achieved by heating above the alloy’s transformation temperature, then applying a cooling cycle which provides maximum softness. This cycle may vary widely, depending on composition and characteristics of the specific alloy.Quenching is a rapid cooling of a steel or alloy from the austenitizing temperature by immersing the workpiece in a liquid or gaseous medium. Quenching medium commonly used include water, 5% brine, 5% caustic in an aqueous solution, oil, polymer solutions, or gas (usually air or nitrogen).Selection of a quenching medium depends largely on the hardenability of material and the mass of the material being treating (principally section thickness).The cooling capabilities of the above-listed quenching media vary greatly. In selecting aquenching medium, it is best to avoid a solution that has more cooling power than is needed to achieve the results, thus minimizing the possibility of cracking and warp of the parts being treated. Modifications of the term quenching include direct quenching, fog quenching, hot quenching, interrupted quenching, selective quenching, spray quenching, and time quenching.Tempering. In heat treating of ferrous alloys, tempering consists of reheating the austenitized and quench-hardened steel or iron to some preselected temperature that is below the lower transformation temperature (generally below 1300 ℃ or 705 ℃). Tempering offers a means of obtaining various combinations of mechanical properties. Tempering temperatures used for hardened steels are often no higher than 300 ℃(150 ℃). The term “tempering” should not be confused with either process annealing or stress relieving. Even though time and temperature cycles for the three processes may be the same, the conditions of the materials being processed and the objectives may be different.Stress relieving. Like tempering, stress relieving is always done by heating to some temperature below the lower transformation temperature for steels and irons. For nonferrous metals, the temperature may vary from slightly above room temperature to several hundred degrees, depending on the alloy and the amount of stress relief that is desired.The primary purpose of stress relieving is to relieve stresses that have been imparted to the workpiece from such processes as forming, rolling, machining or welding. The usual procedure is to heat workpiece to the pre-established temperature long enough to reduce the residual stresses (this is a time-and temperature-dependent operation) to an acceptable level; this is followed by cooling at a relatively slow rate to avoid creation of new stresses.The generally accepted definition for heat treating metals and metal alloys is “heating and cooling a solid metal or alloy in a way so as to obtain specific conditions or properties.” Heating for the sole purpose of hot working (as in forging operations) is excluded from this definition．Likewise，the types of heat treatment that are sometimes used for products such as glass or plastics are also excluded from coverage by this definition．Transformation CurvesThe basis for heat treatment is the time-temperature-transformation curves or TTT curves where，in a single diagram all the three parameters are plotted．Because of the shape of the curves，they are also sometimes called C-curves or S-curves．To plot TTT curves，the particular steel is held at a given temperature and the structure is examined at predetermined intervals to record the amount of transformation taken place．It is known that the eutectoid steel (T80) under equilibrium conditions contains，all austenite above 723℃，whereas below，it is pearlite．To form pearlite，the carbon atoms should diffuse to form cementite．The diffusion being a rate process，would require sufficient time for complete transformation of austenite to pearlite．From different samples，it is possible to note the amount of the transformation taking placeat any temperature．These points are then plotted on a graph with time and temperature as the axes．Through these points，transformation curves can be plotted as shown in Fig.1 for eutectoid steel．The curve at extreme left represents the time required for the transformation of austenite to pearlite to start at any given temperature．Similarly，the curve at extreme right represents the time required for completing the transformation．Between the two curves are the points representing partial transformation. The horizontal lines Ms and Mf represent the start and finish of martensitic transformation.Classification of Heat Treating ProcessesIn some instances，heat treatment procedures are clear-cut in terms of technique and application．whereas in other instances，descriptions or simple explanations are insufficient because the same technique frequently may be used to obtain different objectives．For example, stressrelieving and tempering are often accomplished with the same equipment and by use of identical time and temperature cycles．The objectives，however，are different for the two processes．The following descriptions of the principal heat treating processes are generally arranged according to their interrelationships．Normalizing consists of heating a ferrous alloy to a suitable temperature (usually 50°F to 100°F or 28℃ to 56℃) above its specific upper transformation temperature．This is followed by cooling in still air to at least some temperature well below its transformation temperature range．For low-carbon steels, the resulting structure and properties are the same as those achieved by full annealing；for most ferrous alloys, normalizing and annealing are not synonymous.Normalizing usually is used as a conditioning treatment, notably for refining the grains of steels that have been subjected to high temperatures for forging or other hot working operations. The normalizing process usually is succeeded by another heat treating operation such as austenitizing for hardening, annealing, or tempering.Annealing is a generic term denoting a heat treatment that consists of heating to and holding at a suitable temperature followed by cooling at a suitable rate. It is used primarily to soften metallic materials, but also to simultaneously produce desired changes in other properties or in microstructure. The purpose of such changes may be, but is not confined to, improvement of machinability, facilitation of cold work (known as in-process annealing), improvement of mechanical or electrical properties, or to increase dimensional stability. When applied solely to relive stresses, it commonly is called stress-relief annealing, synonymous with stress relieving.When the term “annealing” is applied to ferrous alloys without qualification, full annealing is applied. This is achieved by heating above the alloy’s transformation temperature, then applying a cooling cycle which provides maximum softness. This cycle may vary widely, depending on composition and characteristics of the specific alloy.Quenching is a rapid cooling of a steel or alloy from the austenitizing temperature by immersing the workpiece in a liquid or gaseous medium. Quenching medium commonly used include water, 5% brine, 5% caustic in an aqueous solution, oil, polymer solutions, or gas (usually air or nitrogen).Selection of a quenching medium depends largely on the hardenability of material and the mass of the material being treating (principally section thickness).The cooling capabilities of the above-listed quenching media vary greatly. In selecting a quenching medium, it is best to avoid a solution that has more cooling power than is needed to achieve the results, thus minimizing the possibility of cracking and warp of the parts being treated. Modifications of the term quenching include direct quenching, fog quenching, hot quenching, interrupted quenching, selective quenching, spray quenching, and time quenching.Tempering. In heat treating of ferrous alloys, tempering consists of reheating the austenitized and quench-hardened steel or iron to some preselected temperature that is below the lower transformation temperature (generally below 1300 ℃ or 705 ℃). Tempering offers a means of obtaining various combinations of mechanical properties. Tempering temperatures used for hardened steels are often no higher than 300 oF (150 ℃). The term “tempering” should not be confused with either process annealing or stress relieving. Even though time and temperature cycles for the three processes may be the same, the conditions of the materials being processed and the objectives may be different.Stress relieving. Like tempering, stress relieving is always done by heating to some temperature below the lower transformation temperature for steels and irons. For nonferrous metals, the temperature may vary from slightly above room temperature to several hundred degrees, depending on the alloy and the amount of stress relief that is desired.The primary purpose of stress relieving is to relieve stresses that have been imparted to the workpiece from such processes as forming, rolling, machining or welding. The usual procedure is to heat workpiece to the pre-established temperature long enough to reduce the residual stresses (this is a time-and temperature-dependent operation) to an acceptable level; this is followed by cooling at a relatively slow rate to avoid creation of new stresses.金属热处理对于热处理金属和金属合金普遍接受的定义是对于热处理金属和金属合金普遍接受的定义是“加热和冷却的方式了坚实的金“加热和冷却的方式了坚实的金属或合金，以获得特定条件或属性为唯一目的。
热处理专业术语中英文对照
14. brass 黄铜
15. copper 合金
16. stainless steel不锈钢
17. decarburization 脱碳
18. scale 氧化皮
19. anneal 退火
20. process anneal 进行退火
21. quenching 淬火
22. normalizing 正火
carburizing 渗碳
cementite 炭化铁
chemical plating 化学电镀
chemical vapor deposition 化学蒸镀
coarsening 结晶粒粗年夜化
coating 涂布被覆
cold shortness 高温脆性
comemtite 渗碳体
controlled atmosphere 年夜气热处置
process annealing 制程退火
quench ageing 淬火老化
quench hardening 淬火
quenching crack 淬火裂痕
quenching distortion 淬火变形
quenching stress 淬火应力
reconditioning 再调质
recrystallization 再结晶
secular distortion 经年变形
segregation 偏析
selective hardening 部份淬火
shot blast 喷丸处置
shot peening 珠击法
single stage nitriding 等温渗氮
sintering 烧结处置
soaking 均热处置
softening 软化退火
钢铁热处理中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文:Heat Treatment of SteelTypes of Heat Treating Operations Five Operations are detailed in this lesson as the basis of heat treatment. Explanations of these operations follow.Full annealing Full annealing is the process of softening steel by a heating and cooling cycle, so that it may be bent or cut easily. In annealing, steel is heated above a transformation temperature and cooled very slowly after it has reached a suitable temperature. The distinguishing characteristics of full annealing are: (a) temperature abovethe critical temperature and (b) very slow cooling, usually in the furnace.Normalizing Normalizing is identical with annealing, except that the steel is air cooled; this is much faster than cooling in a furnace. Steel is normalized to refine grain size, make its structure more uniform, or to improve machinability.Hardening Hardening is carried out y quenching a steel, that is, cooling it rapidly from a temperature above the transformation temperature. Steel is quenched in water or brine for the most rapid cooling, in oil for some alloy steels, and in air for certain higher alloy steels. After steel is quenched, it is usually very hard and brittle; it may even crack if dropped. To make the steel more ductile, it must be tempered.Tempering Tempering consistes of reheating a quenched steel to a suitable temperature below the transformation temperature for an appropriate time and cooling back to room temperature. How this process makes steel tough will be discussed later.Stress relieving Stress relieving is the heating of steel to a temperature below the transformation temperature, as in tempering, but is done primarily to relieve internal stress and thus prevent distortion or cracking during machining.This is sometimes called process annealing.Reasons for Heat Treating Heat treatment of steel is usually intended to accomplish any one of the following objectives:●Remove stresses induced by cold working or toremove stresses set up by nonuniform cooling of hot metalobjects;●Refine the grain structure of hot worked steelswhich may have developed coarse grain size;●Secure the proper grain structure;●Decrease the hardness and increase the ductility;●Increase the hardness so as to increase resistanceto wear or to enable the steel to withstand more serviceconditions;●Increase the toughness; that is, to produce a steelhaving both a high tensile strength and good ductility,enabling it to withstand high impact;●Improve the machinability;●Improve the electrical properties;●Change or modify the magnetic properties of steel.Heat Treatment The hardest condition for any givens steel is obtained by quenching to a fully martensitic structure.Since hardness is directly related to strength, a steel composed of 100% martensite is at its strongest possible condition. However, strength is not the only property that must be considered in the application of steel parts. Ductility may be equally important.Tempering Ductility is the ability of a metal to change shape before it breaks. Fleshly quenched martensite is hard but not ductile; in fact, it is very brittle. Tempering is needed to impart ductility to the martensite, usually at a smell sacrifice in strength. In addition, tempering greatly increases the resistance of martensite to shock loading.The effect of tempering may be illustrated as follows. If the head of a hammer were quenched to a fully martensitic structure, it probably would crack after the first few blows. Tempering during manufacture of the hammer imparts shock resistance with only a slight decrease in hardness. Tempering is accomplished by heating a quenched pert to some point below the transformation temperature, and holding it at this temperature for an hour or more, depending on its size. Most steels are tempered between 205 and 5,950C. As higher temperatures are employed, toughness or shock resistance of the steel is increased, but the hardness and strength decrease.Annealing the two-stage heat treating process of quenching and tempering is designed to produce high strength steel capable of resisting shock and deformation without breaking. On the other hand, the annealing process is intend to make steel easier to deform of machine. In manufacturing steel products, machining and severe bending operations are often employed. Even tempered steel may not cut or bend very easily and annealing is often necessary.Process annealing Process annealing consists of heating steel to a temperature just below the lowest transformation temperature for a short time. This makes the steel easier to form. This heat treatment is commonly applied in the sheet and wire industries, and the temperatures generally used are from 550 to 650o C.Full annealing Process annealing, where steel is heated 50 to 100 o C above the third transformation temperature for hypoeutectoid steels, and above the lowest transformation temperature for hypereutectoid steels, and slow cooled, makes the steel much easier to cut, as well as bend. In full annealing, cooling must take place very slowly so that a coarse pearlite is formed. Show cooling is not essential for process annealing, since any cooling rate from temperatures below the lowesttransformation temperature will result in the same microstructure and hardness.During cold deformation, steel has a tendency to harden in deformed areas, making it more difficult to bend and liable to breakage. Alternate deforming and annealing operations are performed on most manufactured steel products.Normalizing The process of normalizing consists of heating to a temperature above the third transformation temperature and allowing the pert to cool in still air. The actual temperature required for this depends on the composition of the steel, but is usually around 870o C. Actually, the term normalize does not describe the purpose. The process might be more accurately described as a homogenizing or grain-refining treatment. Within any piece of steel, the composition is usually not uniform throughout. That is, one area may have more carbon than the area adjacent to it. These compositional differences affect the way in which the steel will respond t heat treatment. If it is heated to a high temperature, the carbon can readily diffuse throughout, and the result is a reasonably uniform composition from one area to next. The steel is then more homogeneous and will respond to the heat treatment in a more uniform way.Because of characteristics inherent in cast steel, the normalizing treatment is more frequently applied to ingots prior to working, and to steel castings and forgings prior to hardening.Stress Relieving When a metal is heated, expansion occurs which is more or less proportional to the temperature rise. Upon cooling metal, the reverse reaction takes place. That is, a contraction is observed. When a steel bar or plate is heated at one point more than at another, as in welding or during forging, internal stress are set up. During heating, expansion of the heated area cannot take place unhindered, and it tends to deform. On cooling, contraction is prevented from taking place by the unyielding cold metal surrounding the heated area. The forces attempting to contract the metal are not relieved, and when the metal is cold again, the forces remain as internal stresses. Stresses also result from volume changes, which accompany metal transformations and precipitation. Internal or residual stresses are bad because they may cause warping of steel parts when they are machined. To relieve these stresses, steel is heated to around 595o C, assuming that the entire pert is heated uniformly, then cooled slowly back to room temperature. This procedure is calledstress relief annealing, or merely stress relieving.译文：钢的热处理各种类型的热处理本单元详细介绍了五种热处理的基本方法。
热处理专业术语中英文对照
decarburizing脱碳退火
depth of hardening硬化深层
diffusion扩散
diffusion annealing扩散退火
electrolytic hardening电解淬火
embossing压花
etching表面蚀刻
ferrite肥粒铁
first stage annealing第一段退火
flame hardening火焰硬化
flame treatment火焰处理
full annealing完全退火
straightening annealing矫直退火
strain ageing应变老化
stress relieving annealing应力消除退火
press quenching加压硬化
process annealing制程退火
quench ageing淬火老化
quench hardening淬火
quenching crack淬火裂痕
quenching distortion淬火变形
quenching stress淬火应力
reconditioning再调质
17. decarburization脱碳
18。scale氧化皮
19. anneal退火
20. process anneal进行退火
21. quenching淬火
22。normalizing正火
23。Charpy impact text夏比冲击试验
24。fatigue疲劳
25. tensile testing拉伸试验
26。solution固溶处理
27。aging时效处理
外文翻译--材料的热处理
外文翻译--材料的热处理外文资料HEAT TREATMENT OF METALSThe understanding of heat treatment is embrace by the broader study of metallurgy .Metallurgy is the physics, chemistry , and engineering related to metals from ore extraction to the final product . Heat treatment is the operation do heating and cooling a metal in its solid state to change its physical properties. According to the procedure used, steel can be hardened to resist cutting action and abrasion , or it can be softened to permit machining .With the proper heat treatment internal ductile interior . The analysis of the steel must be known because small percentages of certain elements,notably carbon , greatly affect the physical properties .Alloy steels owe their properties to the presence of one or more elements other than carbon, namely nickel, chromium , manganese , molybdenum , tungsten ,silicon , vanadium , and copper . Because of their improved physical properties they are used commercially in many ways not possible with carbon steels.The following discussion applies principally to the heat treatment of ordinary commercial steel known as plain-carbon steels .With this proves the rate of cooling is the controlling factor, produces the opposite effect .A SIMPLIFIED IRON-CARBON DAGRAMIf we focus only on the materials normally known as steels, a simplified diagram is often used . Those portions of the iron-carbon diagram near the delta region and those above 2% carbon content are of little importance to the engineer and are deleted. A simplified diagram, such as the one in Fig . 2.1 focuseson the eutectoid region and is quite useful in understanding the properties and processing of steel.The key transition described in this diagram is the decomposition ofsingle-phase austenite (γ)to the two-phase ferrite plus carbide structure as temperature drop . Control of this reaction ,which arises due to the drastically different carbon solubilities of austenite and ferrite , enables a wide range of properties to be achieved through heat treatment .To begin to understand these processes , consider s steel of the eutectoid composition , 0.77% carbon , being slow cooled along line X X'-in Fig .2.1 At the upper temperatures , only austenite is present , the 0.77% carbon being dissolved in solid solution with the iron . When the steel cools to 727(1341), several changes occur simultaneously . TheC Firon wants to change from the bcc austenite structure to the bcc ferrite Structure , but the ferrite san only contain 0.02% carbon in solid solution . The rejected carbon forms the carbon-rich cementite intermetallic with compositionFe C.In essence , the net reaction at the3eutectoid is:Austenite →ferrite +cementiteSince this chemical separation of the carbon component occurs entirely in the solid state, the resulting structure is a fine mechanical mixture of ferrite and cementite . Speciments prepared by plolishing and etching in a weak solution lf nitric acidand alcohol reveal the lamellar structure lf alternating plates that forms on slow cooling . This structure is composed of two distinct phases, but has its own set of characteristic properties and goes by the name pearlite , because of its resemblance to mother-of-pearl at low magnification.Steels having less than the eutectoid amount of carbon(less than 0.77%)are known as hypoeutectoid steels . Consider now the transformation of such a material represented by cooling along line y-y′ in Fig .2.1.At high temperatures , the material is entrirely austenite, but upon cooling enters a region where the stable phases are ferrite and austenite .Tie-line and lever-law calculations show that low-carbon ferrite nucleates and grows, leaving the remaining austenite richer in carbon . At 727°C (1341°F),the austenite is of eutectoid compositon(0.77%carbon)and further cooling transforms the remaining austenite to pearlite. The resulting structure is a mixture lf primary or proeutectoid ferrite (ferrite that formed above the eutectoid reaction )and regions of pearlite.Hypereutectoid steels are steels that contain greater than the eutectoid amount of carbon. When such a steel cools, as in z-z′of Fig .2.1 the process is similar to the hypoeutectoid case, except that the primary or proeutectoid phase is now cementite instead lf ferrite . As the carbon-rich phase forms, the remaining austenite decreases in carbon content, reaching the eutectoid composition at 727°C(1341°F).As before, any remaining austenite transforms to pearlite upon slow cooling through this temperature.It should be remembered that the transitions that have been described by the phase diagrams are for equilibrium conditions , which can be approximated by slow cooling , With slow heating,these transitions occur in the revertse manner . However, when alloys are cooled rapidly ,entirely different results may be obtained , because sufficient time is not provided for the normal phase reactions to occur, In such cases , the phase diagram is no longer a useful tool for engineering analysis.HARDENINGHardening is the process of heating p piece of steel to a temperature within or above its critical range and then cooling it rapidly . If the carbon content of the steel is known, the proper temperature to which the steel should be heated may be obtained by reference to the iron-iron carbide phase diagram. However, if the composition of the t steel is unknown, a little preliminary experimentation may be necessary to determine the range. A good procedure to follow is to heat-quench a number lf small specimens lf the steel at various temperatures lf the steel at various temperatures and observe the results, either by hardness testing or by microscopic examination. When then correct temperature is obtained ,there will be marked change in hardness and other properties.In any heat-treating operation the rate of heating is important. Heat flows from the exterior to the interior of steel at a definite rate. If the steel is heated too fast, the outside becomes hotter than the interior and uniform structure cannot be obtained. If a piece is irregular in shape, a slow rate is all the more essential to eliminate warping and cracking. The heavier the section, the longer must be the heating time to achieve uniform results. Even after the correct remperature has been reached, the piece should be held at that temperature for a sufficient period of time to permit its thickest section to attain a uniform temperature.The hardness obtained from a given treatment depends on the quenching rate, the carbon content , and the work size, In alloy steels the kind and amount lf alloying element influences only the harden ability (the ability lf the workpiece to be hardened to depths ) lf the steel and does not affect the hardness except in unhardened or partially hardened steels .Steel with low carbon content will not respond appreciably to hardening treatments. As the carbon content in steel increases up to around 0.60%,the possible hardness can be increased only slightly, because steels above the eutectoid point are made up entirely of pearlite and cementite in the annealed state. Pearlite responds best to heat-treating operations; any steel composed mostly of pearlite can be transformed into a hard steel .As the size of parts to be hardened increases ,the surface hardness decreases somewhat even though all other conditions have remained the same. There is a limit to the rate of heat flow through steel. No matter how cool the same . There is a limit to the rate lf heat flow through steel.。
毕业论文外文翻译--金属热处理(适用于毕业论文外文翻译+中英文对照)
2010 届Heat treatment of metal金属热处理姓名学号200615840114年级2006专业机械设计制造及其自动化系（院）工学院指导教师王宁宁2010 年01 月Heat treatment of metalIn industry today there are more than a thousand different metals being used to manufacture products. The modern automobile has more than one hundred different metals used in its construction. An attempt will be made in this passage to give an understanding of the basic classification of metals.Metals were formerly thought to be those elements that had a metallic luster and were good conductor of heat and electricity. Actually, metals are generally defined as those elements whose hydroxides from bases (such as sodium or potassium).the nonmetals’ hydroxides from acids (such as sulphur). Metals may exist as pure elements. When two or more metallic elements are combined,they form a mixture called an alloy The term alloy is used to identify any metallic system. In metallurgy it is a substance, with metallic properties, that is composed of two or more elements, in timately mixed. Of these elements one must be a metal. Plain carbon steel, in the sense, is basically an alloy of iron and carbon. Other elements are present in the form of impurities. However, for commercial purposes, plain carbon steel is not classified as an alloy steel.Alloy maybe further classified as ferrous and nonferrous. Ferrous alloys contain iron. Nonferrous alloys do not contain iron.All commercial varieties of iron and steel are alloys. The ordinary steels are thought of as iron-carbon alloys. However, practically all contain silicon and manganese as well. In addition, there are thousands of recognized alloy steels. Examples are special tool steels, steels for castings, forgings, and rolled shapes. The base metal for all these is iron.Steels are often called by the principal alloying element present. Examples are silicon steel, manganese steel, nickel steel, and tungsten steel. Even nonferrous alloys may contain iron in a small amount, as impurities. Some of the nonferrous alloys are bronze, brass, and monel.Although pure metals solidify at a constant temperature, alloys do not. The first nuclei have a tendency to form at a higher temperature than that at which complete solidification occurs. Each element in an alloy has its own peculiarities relative totemperature. Thus, the change in temperature as solidification progresses causes the solid being formed to change in chemical composition.Many alloying elements dissolve in the base metal in different proportions in liquefied and solidified steels. The proportion of the alloying element that remains in solid solutions has a tendency to vary with the temperature and grain structure of the alloy that is formed.Nonferrous metals are seldom formed in the pure state. They must be separated from the gangue before the ore can be reduced. Thus, a process known as ore-dressing is performed. Metals and metal compounds are heavier than the gangue. They settle to the bottom if such a mixture has been agitated in water. This process is similar to the method used by the early miners who panned for gold. However, refinements have been developed to speed up the accumulation of metal compound of metal compounds by using this principal.The reverberatory furnace is the type most often used in the smelting of nonferrous metals. This furnace is constructed of refractory brick with a steel structure on the outside. The charge is placed in the furnace and heated indirectly by the flame. Slag inducers or fluxes are added to the charge to reduce oxidation.Properties of metalsMetals have properties that distinguish them from other materials. The most important of these properties is strength, or the ability to support weight without bending or breaking. This property combined with toughness, or ability to bend without breaking, is important. Metals also have advantages regarding resistance to corrosion. They are responsive to heat treatment.Metals can be cast into many shapes and sizes. They can be welded, hardened,and softened. Metals also possess another important property-recycling and reuse. When a particular product is discarded, it can be cut into convenient sections. These sections can be put into a furnace, remelted, and used in another product.The properties of metals may be classified in three categories: chemical properties, mechanical properties, and physical properties. Here we will emphasize the primary mechanical properties of metals. In understanding the related areas ofmetalworking and methods used today, the mechanical properties of metals are of the utmost importance.The hardness of metals varies greatly. Some, like lead, can be indented easily. Others like tungsten carbide, approach diamond hardness. They are of great value as dies for cutting tools of various types. Heat treatment causes changes in the hardness. Annealed tool steel can readily be machined. Often, this is difficult after it has been hardened and tempered. Annealed brass is comparatively soft. When cold-worked the hardness is greatly increased.A tough metal possesses very high strength. It also has the capability to deform permanently and resist rupture. Toughness enables the metal to survive shock or impact without fracture.The strength of a metal is its ability to resist deformation or rupture. In certain items, a combination of strength and plasticity is desirable. Machine tools are an example.AnnealingThe word anneal has been used before to describe heat-treating processes for softening and regaining ductility in connection with cold working of material. It has a similar meaning when used in connection with the heat treating of allotropic materials. The purpose of full annealing is to decrease hardness, increase ductility, and sometimes improve machinability of highcarbon steels that might otherwise be difficult to cut. The treatment is also used to relieve stresses, refine grain size, and promote uniformity of structure throughout the material.Machinability is not always improved by annealing. The word machinability is used to describe several interrelated factors, including the ability of a material to be cut with a good surface finish. Plain low carbon steel, when fully annealed, are soft and relatively weak, offering litter resistance to cutting, but usually having sufficient ductility and toughness that a cut chip tends to pull and tear the surface from which it is removed, leaving a comparatively poor quality surface, which results in a poor machinablity of many of the higher plain carbon and most of the alloy steels canusually be greatly improved by annealing, as they are often too hard and strong to be easily cut at any but their softest condition.The procedure for annealing hypoeutectoid steel is to heat slowly to approximately 60℃ above the Ac3 line, to soak for a long enough period that the temperature equalizes throughout the material and homogeneous austenite is formed, and then to allow the steel to cool very slowly by cooling it in the furnace or burying it in the maximum ferrite and the coarsest pearlite to place the steel in its softest, most ductile, and least strained condition.NormalizingThe purpose of normalizing is somewhat similar to that of annealing with theExceptions that the steel is not to its softest condition and the pearlite is left rather fine instead of coarse. Refinement of grain size, relief of internalstresses, and improvement of structural uniformity together with recovery of someductility provide high toughness qualities in normalized steel. The process is frequently used for improvement of machinability and for stress relief to reduce distortion that might occur with partial machining or aging.The procedure for normalizing is to austenitize by slowly heating to approximate 80℃ above the AC3 or Accm3 temperature for hypoeutectoid or hypereutectoid.Steels, respectively; providing soaking time for the formation of austenite; and cooling slowly in still air. Note that the steels with more carbon than the eutectoid composition are heated above the Accm instead of the Ac13 used for annealing. The purpose of normalizing is to attempt to dissolve all the cementite during austenitization to eliminate, as for as possible, the settling of hard, brittle iron carbide in the grain boundaries. The desired decomposition products are smallgrained, fine pearlite with a minimum of free ferrite and free cementite.SpheroidizingMinimum hardness and maximum ductility of steel can be produced by a process called spheroidizing, which causes the iron carbide to form in small spheres or nodulesin a ferrite matrix. In order to start with small grains that spheroidize more readily, the process is usually performed on normalized steel. Several variations of processing are used, but all require the holding of the steel near the A1 temperature (usually slightly below)for a number of hours to allow the iron carbide to form on its more stable and lower energy state of small, rounded globules.The main need for the process is to improve the machinability quality of high carbon steel and to pretreat hardened steel to help produce greater structural uniformity after quenching because of the lengthy treatment time and therefore rather high cost, spheroidizing is not performed nearly as annealing or normalizing.Hardening of steelMost of the heat treatment hardening processes for the steel is the based on the production of high percentages of martensite .The first step, therefore, is that Used for most of the other heat-treating processes-treatment to produce austenite.Hypoeutectoid steels are heated to approximately 60℃ above the Ac3 temperature and allowed to soak to obtain temperature uniformity and austenite homogeneity. Hypereutectoid steels are soaked at about 60℃ above the Ac1 temperature, which leavesSome iron carbide present in the material.The second step involves cooling rapidly in an attempt to avoid pearlite transformation by missing the nose of the I-T curve. The cooling rate is determined by the temperature and the ability of the quenching media to carry heat away from the surface of the material being quenched and by the conduction of heat through the material itself. Table 11-1 shows some of the commonly used media and the method of application to remove heat, arranged in order of decreasing cooling ability.High temperature gradients contribute to high stresses that cause distortion and cracking, so the quench should only as extreme as is necessary to produce the desired structure. Care must be exercised in quenching that heat is removed uniformly to minimize thermal stresses. For example, along slender bar should be end-quenched, that is, inserted into the quenching medium vertically so that the entire section issubjected to temperature change at one time. If a shape of this kind were to be quenched in a way that caused one side to drop in temperature before the other, change of dimensions would likely cause high stresses producing plastic flow and permanent distortion.Several special types of quench are conducted to minimize quenching stresses and decrease the tendency for distortion and cracking. One of these is called martempering and consists of quenching and austenitized steel in a salt at a temperature above that needed for the start of martensite formation (Ms). The steel being quenched is in this bath until it is of uniform temperature but is removed before there is time for formation of bainite to start. Completion of the cooling in air then caused the same hard martenside that would have formed with quenching from the high temperature, but the high themal or “quench” stresses that are the primary source of cracks and warping will have been eliminatedA similar process performed at a slightly higher temperayure is called austempering. In this case the steel is the formation of bainite. The bainite structure is not as hard as the marten site that could be formed form the same form composition, but in addition n to reducing the thermal shock to which the steel would be subjected under normal hardening procedures, it is unnecessary to perform any further treatment to develop good impact resistance in the high hardness range.TemperingA third step usually required to condition hardened steel for service is tempering, or as it is sometimes referred to, drawing. With the exception of austempered steel, which is frequently used in the as-hardened condition, most steel are not serviceable “as quenched”. the drastic cooling to produce martensite causes the steel to be very hard and to contain both macroscopic and macroscopic internal stresses with the result that the material has little ductility and extreme brittle ness reduction of these faults is accomplished by reheating the steel to some point below the A1(lower transformation )temperature. Structural changes caused by tempering of hardened steel are functions of both time and temperature, with temperature being the most important. It should be emphasized that tempering is not a hardening process, but is, instead, the reverse. Atempered steel is one that has been hardened by heat treatment and then stress relieved, softened, and provided with increased ductility by reheating in the tempered or drawing procedure.The magnitude of the structural changes and the change of properties caused by tempering depend upon the temperature to which the steel is reheated. The higher the temperature, the greater the effect, so the choice of temperature will generally depend on willingness to sacrifice hardness and strength to gain ductility and toughness. Reheating to below 100℃ has little noticeable effect on hardened plain carbon steel. Between 100℃ and 200℃, there is evidence of some structural changes. Above 200℃ marked changes in structure and properties appear. Prolonged heating at just under the A1 temperature will result in a spheroidized structure to that produced by the spheroidizing process.In commercial tempering the temperature range of 250℃-425℃ is usually avoided because of an unexplained embrittlement, or loss of ductility, that often occurs with steels tempered in this range. Certain alloy steels also develop a “temper brittleness” in the tempe rature range of 425℃-600℃, particularly when cooled slowly from or through this range of temperature. When high temperature tempering is necessary for these steels, they are usually heated to above 600℃ and quenched for rapid cooling. Quenches from this temperature, of course, do not cause hardening because austenitization has not been accomplished.As we know, casting is a mechanical working process that forming a molten material into a desired shape by pouring it into a mold and letting it harden. When metal is not cast in a desired manner, it is formed into special shapes by mechanical working processes. Several factors must be considered when determining whether a desired shape is to be cast or formed by mechanical working. If the shape is very complicated, casting will be necessary to avoid expensive machining of mechanically formed parts. On the other hand, if strength and quality of material are the prime factors in a given part, a cast will be unsatisfactory. For this reason, steel castings are seldom used in aircraft work.There are there basic methods of metal-working. They are hot working, cold working, and extruding. The process chosen for a particular application depends upon the metal involved and the part required, although in some distances you might employ both hot5-and cold-working methods in making a single part.Almost all steel is hot-working from the ingot into some form from which it is either hot-or cold-worked to the finished shape. When an ingot is stripped from its mold, its surface is solid, but the interior is still molten. The ingot is then placed in s soaking pit, which retards loss of heat, and the molten interior gradually solidifies. After soaking, the temperature is equalized throughout the ingot, which is then reduced to intermediate size by rolling, making it more readily handled.Hot working is the process in which the ingot is deformed mechanically into a desired shape. Hot working is usually performed at an elevated temperature. At high temperature, scaling and oxidation exist. Scaling and oxidation produce undesirable surface finish. Often times, most ferrous metals need to be cold-worked after hot working in order to improve the surface finish.The main principle behind hot working is to cause plastic deformation within the material. The amount of force needed to perform hot working is normally less than that for cold working. As such, the mechanical properties of the material remain unchanged during hot working. The reason that the properties of the materials are unaltered comes from the fact that the deformation is performed above the metal recrystallization temperature. Plastic deformation occurs with metals when deformed at above the recrystallization temperature. Plastic deformation occurs with metals when deformed at above the recrystallization temperature without any strain hardening. As a matter of fact, the metal usually experiences a decrease in yield strength when hot-working. Therefore, it is possible to hot-work the metal without causing any fracture.Hot working has the following advantage:Elimination of porosity.Uniform distribution of impurities.Refinement of coarse or columnar grain-better physical properties.Lesser energy requirement to deform the metal into shape.Disadvantages of hot workingLower dimensional accuracy.Higher total energy required (due to thermal energy to heat the work-piece).Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer surface finish.shooter tool lifeThere are generally two types of hot working process: rolling and forging. Rolling is a process whereby the shape of the hot metal is altered by the action of the rollers which acts to “squeeze” the hot metal into desired shape and thickness. One advantage effect of hot rolling is the fact that there is a grain refinement. Refined grain usually possesses better physical properties.Forging is another hot working method. In forging, the metal is pounded by hammer that or squeezed between a pair of shaped dies. The die acts as a hammer that can “pound” the hot metal into shape. The metal is desired. Forging is done either by pressing or hammering the heated steel until the desired shape is obtained.Complicated sections that cannot be rolled, or sections of which only a small quantity is required, are usually forged. Forging of steel is a mechanical working of the metal above the critical range to shape the metal as desired. Forging is done either by pressing or hammering the heated steel until the desired shape is obtained.Pressing is used when the parts to be forged are large and heavy, and this process also replace hamming where high-grade steel is required. Since a press is show acting, its force is uniformly transmitted to the exterior to give the best possible structure as well as the exterior to give the best possible structure throughout.Hamming can be used only on relatively small piece. Since hamming transmits its force almost instantly, its effect is limited to a small depth. Thurs, it is necessary to use a very heavy hammer or to subject the part to repeated blows to ensure complete working of the section. If the force applied is too weak to reach the center, the finessed forging surface will be convex or bulged. The advantage of hammering is that the operator has control over the amount of pressure applied and the finishing temperature, and is able to produce parts of the highest grade.This type of forging is usually referred to as smith forging, and it is used extensively where only a small number of parts are needed. Considerable machining and saving when a part is smith forged to approximately the finished shape.金属热处理在现代工业中，有近千种金属应用于生产。
热处理专业术语中英文对照
44。grain晶粒
45. chromium铬
46. cadmium镉
47。tungsten钨
48。molybdenum钼
49。manganese锰
50. vanadium钒
gaseous cyaniding气体氧化法
globular cementite球状炭化铁
recrystallization再结晶
red shortness红热脆性
residual stress残留应力
retained austenite残留奥
rust prevention防蚀
salt bath quenching盐浴淬火
sand blast喷砂处理
seasoning时效处理
second stage annealing第二段退火
chemical vapor deposition化学蒸镀
coarsening结晶粒粗大化
coating涂布被覆
cold shortness低温脆性
comemtite渗碳体
controlled atmosphere大气热处理
corner effect锐角效应
creeping discharge蠕缓放电
72. induction hardening感应淬火
73. impedance matching感应淬火
74。hardening and tempering调质
75. crack裂纹
76。shrinkage缩孔，疏松
77。forging锻(件)
78。casting铸（件）
79. rolling轧(件）
25。tensile testing拉伸试验
热处理专业术语中英文对照
thermal refining 调质处理
thermoechanical treatment 加工热处理
time quenching 时间淬火
transformation 变态
tufftride process 软氮化处理
under annealing 不完全退火
vacuum carbonitriding 真空渗碳氮化
segregation 偏析
selective hardening 部分淬火
shot blast 喷丸处理
shot peening 珠击法
single stage nitriding 等温渗氮
sintering 烧结处理
soaking 均热处理
softening 软化退火
solution treatment 固溶化热处理 spheroidizing 球状化退火
stress relieving annealing 应力消除退火
subzero treatment 生冷处理
supercooling 过冷
surface hardening 表面硬化处理
temper brittleness 回火脆性
temper colour 回火颜色
tempering 回火
tempering crack 回火裂痕
box carburizing封箱渗碳
bright electroplating 辉面电镀
bright heat treatment 光辉热处理
bypass heat treatment 旁路热处理
carbide 炭化物
carburized case depth 浸碳硬化深层
carburizing 渗碳
热处理专业术语中英文对照
segregation偏析
selective hardening部分淬火
shot blast喷丸处理
shot peening珠击法
single stage nitriding等温渗氮
sintering烧结处理
soaking均热处理
softening软化退火
first stage annealing第一段退火
flame hardening火焰硬化
flame treatment火焰处理
full annealing完全退火
straightening annealing矫直退火
strain ageing应变老化
stress relieving annealing应力消除退火
solution treatment固溶化热处理spheroidizing球状化退火
stabilizing treatment安定化处理
51. molybdenum钼
52。silicon硅
53. sulfer/sulphur硫
54。phosphor/ phosphorus磷
55。nitrided氮化的
chemical vapor deposition化学蒸镀
coarsening结晶粒粗大化
coating涂布被覆
cold shortness低温脆性
comemtite渗碳体
controlled atmosphere大气热处理
corner effect锐角效应
creeping discharge蠕缓放电
80. drawing拉(件）
81. shot blasting喷丸（处理）
82. grit blasting喷钢砂（处理)
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中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Heat treatment of metalThe generally accepted definition for heat treating metals and metal alloys is “heating and cooling a solid metal or alloy in a way so as to obtain specific conditions or properties.”Heating for the sole purpose of hot working (as in forging operations) is excluded from this definition．Likewise，the types of heat treatment that are sometimes used for products such as glass or plastics are also excluded from coverage by this definition．Transformation CurvesThe basis for heat treatment is the time-temperature-transformation curves or TTT curves where，in a single diagram all the three parameters are plotted．Because of the shape of the curves，they are also sometimes called C-curves or S-curves．To plot TTT curves，the particular steel is held at a given temperature and the structure is examined at predetermined intervals to record the amount of transformation taken place．It is known that the eutectoid steel (T80) under equilibrium conditions contains，all austenite above 723℃，whereas below，it is the pearlite．To form pearlite，the carbon atoms should diffuse to form cementite．The diffusion being a rate process，would require sufficient time for complete transformation of austenite to pearlite．From different samples，it is possible to note the amount of the transformation taking place at any temperature．These points are then plotted on a graph with time and temperature as the axes．Through these points，transformation curves can be plotted as shown in Fig.1 for eutectoid steel．The curve at extreme left represents the time required for the transformation of austenite to pearlite to start at any given temperature．Similarly，the curve at extreme right represents the time required for completing the transformation．Between the two curves are the points representing partial transformation. The horizontal lines Ms and Mf represent the start and finish of martensitic transformation.Classification of Heat Treating ProcessesIn some instances，heat treatment procedures are clear-cut in terms of technique and application．whereas in other instances，descriptions or simple explanations are insufficient because the same technique frequently may be used to obtain different objectives．For example, stress relieving and tempering are often accomplished with the same equipment and by use of identical time and temperature cycles．The objectives，however，are different for the two processes．The following descriptions of the principal heat treating processes are generally arranged according to their interrelationships．Normalizing consists of heating a ferrous alloy to a suitable temperature (usually 50°F to 100°F or 28℃to 56℃) above its specific upper transformation temperature．This is followed by cooling in still air to at least some temperature well below its transformation temperature range．For low-carbon steels, the resulting structure and properties are the same as those achieved by full annealing；for most ferrous alloys, normalizing and annealing are not synonymous.Normalizing usually is used as a conditioning treatment, notably for refining the grains of steels that have been subjected to high temperatures for forging or other hot working operations. The normalizing process usually is succeeded by another heat treating operation such as austenitizing for hardening, annealing, or tempering.Annealing is a generic term denoting a heat treatment that consists of heating to and holding at a suitable temperature followed by cooling at a suitable rate. It is used primarily to soften metallicmaterials, but also to simultaneously produce desired changes in other properties or in microstructure. The purpose of such changes may be, but is not confined to, improvement of machinability, facilitation of cold work (known as in-process annealing), improvement of mechanical or electrical properties, or to increase dimensional stability. When applied solely to relive stresses, it commonly is called stress-relief annealing, synonymous with stress relieving.When the term “annealing”is applied to ferrous alloys without qualification, full annealing is applied. This is achieved by heating above the alloy’s transformation temperature, then applying a cooling cycle which provides maximum softness. This cycle may vary widely, depending on composition and characteristics of the specific alloy.Quenching is a rapid cooling of a steel or alloy from the austenitizing temperature by immersing the work piece in a liquid or gaseous medium. Quenching medium commonly used include water, 5% brine, 5% caustic in an aqueous solution, oil, polymer solutions, or gas (usually air or nitrogen).Selection of a quenching medium depends largely on the hardenability of material and the mass of the material being treating (principally section thickness).The cooling capabilities of the above-listed quenching media vary greatly. In selecting a quenching medium, it is best to avoid a solution that has more cooling power than is needed to achieve the results, thus minimizing the possibility of cracking and warp of the parts being treated. Modifications of the term quenching include direct quenching, fog quenching, hot quenching, interrupted quenching, selective quenching, spray quenching, and time quenching.Tempering. In heat treating of ferrous alloys, tempering consists of reheating the austenitized and quench-hardened steel or iron to some preselected temperature that is below the lower transformation temperature (generally below 1300 ℃or 705 ℃). Tempering offers a means of obtaining various combinations of mechanical properties. Tempering temperatures used for hardened steels are often no higher than 300 ℃(150 ℃). The term “tempering”should not be confused with either process annealing or stress relieving. Even though time and temperature cycles for the three processes may be the same, the conditions of the materials being processed and the objectives may be different.Stress relieving. Like tempering, stress relieving is always done by heating to some temperature below the lower transformation temperature for steels and irons. For nonferrous metals, the temperature may vary from slightly above room temperature to several hundred degrees, depending on the alloy and the amount of stress relief that is desired.The primary purpose of stress relieving is to relieve stresses that have been imparted to the workpiece from such processes as forming, rolling, machining or welding. The usual procedure is toheat workpiece to the pre-established temperature long enough to reduce the residual stresses (this is a time-and temperature-dependent operation) to an acceptable level; this is followed by cooling at a relatively slow rate to avoid creation of new stresses.The generally accepted definition for heat treating metals and metal alloys is “heating and cooling a solid metal or alloy in a way so as to obtain specific conditions or properties.”Heating for the sole purpose of hot working (as in forging operations) is excluded from this definition．Likewise，the types of heat treatment that are sometimes used for products such as glass or plastics are also excluded from coverage by this definition．Transformation CurvesThe basis for heat treatment is the time-temperature-transformation curves or TTT curves where，in a single diagram all the three parameters are plotted．Because of the shape of the curves，they are also sometimes called C-curves or S-curves．To plot TTT curves，the particular steel is held at a given temperature and the structure is examined at predetermined intervals to record the amount of transformation taken place．It is known that the eutectoid steel (T80) under equilibrium conditions contains，all austenite above 723℃，whereas below，it is pearlite．To form pearlite，the carbon atoms should diffuse to form cementite．The diffusion being a rate process，would require sufficient time for complete transformation of austenite to pearlite．From different samples，it is possible to note the amount of the transformation taking place at any temperature．These points are then plotted on a graph with time and temperature as the axes．Through these points，transformation curves can be plotted as shown in Fig.1 for eutectoid steel．The curve at extreme left represents the time required for the transformation of austenite to pearlite to start at any given temperature．Similarly，the curve at extreme right represents the time required for completing the transformation．Between the two curves are the points representing partial transformation. The horizontal lines Ms and Mf represent the start and finish of martensitic transformation.Classification of Heat Treating ProcessesIn some instances，heat treatment procedures are clear-cut in terms of technique and application．whereas in other instances，descriptions or simple explanations are insufficient because the same technique frequently may be used to obtain different objectives．For example, stress relieving and tempering are often accomplished with the same equipment and by use of identical time and temperature cycles．The objectives，however，are different for the two processes．The following descriptions of the principal heat treating processes are generally arranged according to their interrelationships．Normalizing consists of heating a ferrous alloy to a suitable temperature (usually 50°F to 100°F or 28℃to 56℃) above its specific upper transformation temperature．This is followed by cooling in still air to at least some temperature well below its transformation temperature range．For low-carbon steels, the resulting structure and properties are the same as those achieved by full annealing；for most ferrous alloys, normalizing and annealing are not synonymous.Normalizing usually is used as a conditioning treatment, notably for refining the grains of steels that have been subjected to high temperatures for forging or other hot working operations. The normalizing process usually is succeeded by another heat treating operation such as austenitizing for hardening, annealing, or tempering.Annealing is a generic term denoting a heat treatment that consists of heating to and holding at a suitable temperature followed by cooling at a suitable rate. It is used primarily to soften metallic materials, but also to simultaneously produce desired changes in other properties or in microstructure. The purpose of such changes may be, but is not confined to, improvement of machinability, facilitation of cold work (known as in-process annealing), improvement of mechanical or electrical properties, or to increase dimensional stability. When applied solely to relive stresses, it commonly is called stress-relief annealing, synonymous with stress relieving.When the term “annealing”is applied to ferrous alloys without qualification, full annealing is applied. This is achieved by heating above the alloy’s transformation temperature, then applying a cooling cycle which provides maximum softness. This cycle may vary widely, depending on composition and characteristics of the specific alloy.Quenching is a rapid cooling of a steel or alloy from the austenitizing temperature by immersing the workpiece in a liquid or gaseous medium. Quenching medium commonly used include water, 5% brine, 5% caustic in an aqueous solution, oil, polymer solutions, or gas (usually air or nitrogen).Selection of a quenching medium depends largely on the hardenability of material and the mass of the material being treating (principally section thickness).The cooling capabilities of the above-listed quenching media vary greatly. In selecting a quenching medium, it is best to avoid a solution that has more cooling power than is needed to achieve the results, thus minimizing the possibility of cracking and warp of the parts being treated. Modifications of the term quenching include direct quenching, fog quenching, hot quenching, interrupted quenching, selective quenching, spray quenching, and time quenching.Tempering. In heat treating of ferrous alloys, tempering consists of reheating the austenitized and quench-hardened steel or iron to some preselected temperature that is below the lower transformation temperature (generally below 1300 ℃or 705 ℃). Tempering offers a means of obtaining various combinations of mechanical properties. Tempering temperatures used for hardened steels are often no higher than 300 ℃(150 ℃). The term “tempering”should not be confused with either process annealing or stress relieving. Even though time and temperature cycles for the three processes may be the same, the conditions of the materials being processed and the objectives may be different.Stress relieving. Like tempering, stress relieving is always done by heating to some temperature below the lower transformation temperature for steels and irons. For nonferrous metals, the temperature may vary from slightly above room temperature to several hundred degrees, depending on the alloy and the amount of stress relief that is desired.The primary purpose of stress relieving is to relieve stresses that have been imparted to the workpiece from such processes as forming, rolling, machining or welding. The usual procedure is to heat workpiece to the pre-established temperature long enough to reduce the residual stresses (this is a time-and temperature-dependent operation) to an acceptable level; this is followed by cooling at a relatively slow rate to avoid creation of new stresses.The generally accepted definition for heat treating metals and metal alloys is “heating and cooling a solid metal or alloy in a way so as to obtain specific conditions or properties.”Heating for the sole purpose of hot working (as in forging operations) is excluded from this definition．Likewise，the types of heat treatment that are sometimes used for products such as glass or plastics are also excluded from coverage by this definition．Transformation CurvesThe basis for heat treatment is the time-temperature-transformation curves or TTT curves where，in a single diagram all the three parameters are plotted．Because of the shape of the curves，they are also sometimes called C-curves or S-curves．To plot TTT curves，the particular steel is held at a given temperature and the structure is examined at predetermined intervals to record the amount of transformation taken place．It is known that the eutectoid steel (T80) under equilibrium conditions contains，all austenite above 723℃，whereas below，it is pearlite．To form pearlite，the carbon atoms should diffuse to form cementite．The diffusion being a rate process，would require sufficient time for complete transformation of austenite to pearlite．From different samples，it is possible to note the amount of the transformation taking placeat any temperature．These points are then plotted on a graph with time and temperature as the axes．Through these points，transformation curves can be plotted as shown in Fig.1 for eutectoid steel．The curve at extreme left represents the time required for the transformation of austenite to pearlite to start at any given temperature．Similarly，the curve at extreme right represents the time required for completing the transformation．Between the two curves are the points representing partial transformation. The horizontal lines Ms and Mf represent the start and finish of martensitic transformation.Classification of Heat Treating ProcessesIn some instances，heat treatment procedures are clear-cut in terms of technique and application．whereas in other instances，descriptions or simple explanations are insufficient because the same technique frequently may be used to obtain different objectives．For example, stress relieving and tempering are often accomplished with the same equipment and by use of identical time and temperature cycles．The objectives，however，are different for the two processes．The following descriptions of the principal heat treating processes are generally arranged according to their interrelationships．Normalizing consists of heating a ferrous alloy to a suitable temperature (usually 50°F to 100°F or 28℃to 56℃) above its specific upper transformation temperature．This is followed by cooling in still air to at least some temperature well below its transformation temperature range．For low-carbon steels, the resulting structure and properties are the same as those achieved by full annealing；for most ferrous alloys, normalizing and annealing are not synonymous.Normalizing usually is used as a conditioning treatment, notably for refining the grains of steels that have been subjected to high temperatures for forging or other hot working operations. The normalizing process usually is succeeded by another heat treating operation such as austenitizing for hardening, annealing, or tempering.Annealing is a generic term denoting a heat treatment that consists of heating to and holding at a suitable temperature followed by cooling at a suitable rate. It is used primarily to soften metallic materials, but also to simultaneously produce desired changes in other properties or in microstructure. The purpose of such changes may be, but is not confined to, improvement of machinability, facilitation of cold work (known as in-process annealing), improvement of mechanical or electrical properties, or to increase dimensional stability. When applied solely to relive stresses, it commonly is called stress-relief annealing, synonymous with stress relieving.When the term “annealing”is applied to ferrous alloys without qualification, full annealing is applied. This is achieved by heating above the alloy’s transformation temperature, then applying a cooling cycle which provides maximum softness. This cycle may vary widely, depending on composition and characteristics of the specific alloy.Quenching is a rapid cooling of a steel or alloy from the austenitizing temperature by immersing the workpiece in a liquid or gaseous medium. Quenching medium commonly used include water, 5% brine, 5% caustic in an aqueous solution, oil, polymer solutions, or gas (usually air or nitrogen).Selection of a quenching medium depends largely on the hardenability of material and the mass of the material being treating (principally section thickness).The cooling capabilities of the above-listed quenching media vary greatly. In selecting a quenching medium, it is best to avoid a solution that has more cooling power than is needed to achieve the results, thus minimizing the possibility of cracking and warp of the parts being treated. Modifications of the term quenching include direct quenching, fog quenching, hot quenching, interrupted quenching, selective quenching, spray quenching, and time quenching.Tempering. In heat treating of ferrous alloys, tempering consists of reheating the austenitized and quench-hardened steel or iron to some preselected temperature that is below the lower transformation temperature (generally below 1300 ℃or 705 ℃). Tempering offers a means of obtaining various combinations of mechanical properties. Tempering temperatures used for hardened steels are often no higher than 300 oF (150 ℃). The term “tempering”should not be confused with either process annealing or stress relieving. Even though time and temperature cycles for the three processes may be the same, the conditions of the materials being processed and the objectives may be different.Stress relieving. Like tempering, stress relieving is always done by heating to some temperature below the lower transformation temperature for steels and irons. For nonferrous metals, the temperature may vary from slightly above room temperature to several hundred degrees, depending on the alloy and the amount of stress relief that is desired.The primary purpose of stress relieving is to relieve stresses that have been imparted to the workpiece from such processes as forming, rolling, machining or welding. The usual procedure is to heat workpiece to the pre-established temperature long enough to reduce the residual stresses (this is a time-and temperature-dependent operation) to an acceptable level; this is followed by cooling at a relatively slow rate to avoid creation of new stresses.金属热处理对于热处理金属和金属合金普遍接受的定义是“加热和冷却的方式了坚实的金属或合金，以获得特定条件或属性为唯一目的。