心理语言学Memory for Sentences
心理学专业英语memory
• Definition:
memory systems have large capacity but very short duration.
• Two main types: 1. iconic memory（映像记忆）:momentarily pres 5 : sensory memory
• Questions:1.what is sensory memory?
• 2.The duration of iconic memory and echoic memory.
sensory memory refers to the initial, momentary recording of information in our sensory systems. Sensory
• Questions:what is long-term memory? • Definition:
• Long-term memroy can store much larger quantities of information for potentially unlimited duration (sometimes a whole life span) . Long-term memory encodes information semantically.
2.echoic memory（回声记忆）:holds auditory stimuli
• • • •
Paragraph 6:short-term memory
Questions: 1.what is short-term memory? 2.how can we increase the memory capacity? Definition: Short-term memory (STM) has a limited capacity and lasts only briefly without rehearsal. Maintenance rehearsal can extend the presence of material in STM indefinitely. 短时记忆容量有限，在不复述的情况下，保存时间很短。保持复 述可以在一定程度上延长短时记忆材料的保留。 STM capacity can be increased by chunking unrelated items into meaningful groups. 可以通过把无意义的项目加以组块，构成有意义的族群，从而增 加短时记忆的容量。
语言学名词解释
自己整理的，供参考。
↖(^ω^)↗↖(^ω^)↗↖(^ω^)↗↖(^ω^)↗↖(^ω^)↗↖(^ω^)↗1Duality(二元性): each human language is organized into two basic seystems: a system of sounds and a system of meaning. This is called the duality of language.2.connotative meaning（内涵意义）: the additional meanings that a word or a phrase has beyond its central meaning.3. minimal pair（最小对立体）: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are called minimal pairs.4. Affix（词缀）: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem).(词缀是一个构词成分的集合,它们只能附加于另一个语素词根或词干上.)5. Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）studies the interaction between language and the structure and functioning of society.6. lingua franca（通用语)the general term for a language that serves as a means of communication between different groups of speakers.7. Psycholinguistics（心理语言学）studies how humans learn language and the relationship of linguistic behavoir and the psychological processes in producing and understanding language.8. diachronic linguistics（历时语言学）: The description of the historical development of a language is a diachronic study.9. immidiate constituent analysis（直接成分分析）is the technique of breaking up sentences into word groups by making successive binary cuttings until the level of single words is reached.(when constituents(i.e. Structural units) are considered as part of the successive unraveling of a sentence, they are known as its immidiate constituents.)10. Euphemism（委婉语）：a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or is used to avoid reference to certain acts or subjects,e.g. powder room for toilet.11. Taboo（禁忌语）：words that are offensive or embarrassing, considered inappropriate for “polite society”, thus to be avoided in conversation.12. structural linguistics（结构语言学）it is based on the assumption that grammatical categories, should be definede not in terms of meaning, but in terms of distribution and that the structure of each language should be focused on description.13. Semantic triangle（语义三角）One best known example to illustrate this view is the Semantic Triangle .Thought or Reference( concept)Symbol Referent(Linguistic elements) ( object in the world)14. Morphology（形态学）refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.15. Presupposition（预设）refers to the conditions that must be met in order for the intended meaning of a sentence to be regarded as acceptable.16. Overgeneralization（过分概括）the process of extending the application of a rule to items that are excluded from it in the language norm.17. Fossilization（僵化现象）It is a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.18. Register（语域）It is a technical term used to describe a language variety that is associated with a particular topic, the interpersonal relationship between the speaker and the hearer, and the speech channel.(It refers to the functional variety of language that is defined according to its use in context.)19. utterance meaning （话语意义）----refers to a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication. It becomes an utterance and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered or used.话语意义是指在句子意义的基础上，是句子意义在特定语境中的具体化，它体现了说话人的意图和目的，它是动态的。
语言学名词解释
一、名词解释1.Diachronic历时的It refers to say of the study of developing of language and languages over time.研究语言随时间发展变化的方法。
2.Arbitrariness任意性Saussure first refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表达的意义之间没有天然或逻辑的联系。
It is refers to absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.任意性是指语言符号和这些符号所指的实体间不存在任何物质的联系。
3.Parole言语It refers to the concrete utterances of a speaker.指语言在实际使用中的实现。
4.Creativity创造性By creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness, which enables human beings to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences including the sentences that were never heard before.创造性是指语言具有能产型，因为语言有双重性和递归性,也就是说话者能够结合各个语言单位形成无尽的句子，其中很多句子是以前没有的或者没有听说过的。
心理语言学名词解释_注释版
名词解释1. Mutual exclusivity bias相互排斥倾向A cognitive constraint in which children assume that an object is ordinarily not given two different names.2. Motherese 母式语言A form of adult-to-child speech characterized by relatively simple utterances,concrete referents指示物, exaggerated intonation patterns夸张的语调模式, and a high proportion of directive utterances指示话语.3. Critical period hypothesis临界期假设The view that there is a period early in life in which we are especially prepared to acquire a language.4. Language bioprogram hypothesis语言生物程序假设The hypothesis that children whose environmental exposure to language is limited use a backup linguistic system.5. Pidgin混杂语An auxiliary辅助的language that is created when speakers of mutually unintelligible 无法理解的languages are in close contact.6. Language transfer 语言迁移In second-language acquisition, the process in which the first language influences the acquisition of a subsequent后来的language.7. Overregularization规则泛化When a child a pplies a linguisitic rule to cases that ar e exceptions to the rule--for example, saying goed instead of went.8. Holophrase 表句词单词句A one-word utterance used by a child to express more than the meaning attributed to the word by adults.9. Idiomorph ？A sound or sound sequence音序used consistently by a child to refer to someone or something even though it is not the sound sequence conventionally used in the language for that purpose.10. Coalescence合并A phonological音位学的，音韵学的process in which phonemes音位，音素（the smallest unit of significant sound in a language）from different syllables音节are combined into a single syllable.11. Reduction减少cluster reduction音群删略A phonological process in child language in which one or more phonemes are deleted. Also called cluster reduction音群删略because consonant clusters辅音群，两个或两个以上的辅音连在一起are often reduced, such as saying take for steak.12. Assimilation 同化A phonological process in which one speech sound replaced by another that is similar sounds elsewhere in the utterance.13. Common ground共识The shared understanding of those involved in the conversation.14.Semantic bootstrapping语义引导She spent years bootstrapping herself through university.她靠自己多年奋斗念完大学The process of using semantics to acquire syntax.15. Accommodation顺应A phonological process in which elements that are shifted or deleted are adapted to their error-induced environments.20. Psycholinguistics心理语言学The study of the comprehension, production, and acquisition of language.21. Aphasia失语症A language or speech disorder caused by brain damage.A mental condition in which people are unable to remember simple words or communicate.22. Behaviorism行为主义The doctrine that states that the proper concern of psychology should be the objective study of behavior rather than the study of the mind.23. Distinctive features显著特征The specification详述of the differences between speech sounds in terms of individual contrasts.24. Observational adequacy观察充分性The extent to which a grammar can distinguish betw een acceptable and unacceptable strings of words.The grammar must specify what is and what is not acceptable sequence in the language.语法能对原始的语言材料做出正确的选择25.Descriptive adequacy描写充分性The grammar must specify the relationships between various sequences in the language. The extent to which a grammar can provide a structural description of a sentence.语法不仅应该能解释原始的语言材料，而且要正确解释说话人和听话人内在的语言能力。
现代语言学自考题-5
现代语言学自考题-5(总分：100.00，做题时间：90分钟)一、{{B}}PART ONE{{/B}}(总题数：0，分数：0.00)二、{{B}}Ⅰ{{/B}}(总题数：10，分数：20.00)1.______ answers such question that how we as infants acquire our first language.∙ A. Psycholinguistics∙ B. Applied linguistics∙ C. Sociolinguistics∙ D. Anthropological linguistics（分数：2.00）A. √B.C.D.解析：[解析] 心理语言学研究的是语言和心理的相互关系。
它重点解决以下问题：人类运用语言时的心理过程是怎样的，我们小时候是怎样习得母语的，交际过程中我们是用什么方式来识记并加工我们所接收到的信息的。
2.In linguistics, ______ is focused on that how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.∙ A. acoustic phonetics∙ B. articulatory phonetics∙ C. auditory phonetics∙ D. none of the above（分数：2.00）A.B. √C.D.解析：[解析] 语音学从三个既相互区别又相互联系的角度来审视语音现象。
其中，从说话者的角度来研究语音，即说话者是怎样利用他们的发音器官发出声音来的，叫做发音语音学。
3.A theory of grammar must provide a complete characterization of linguistic ______ that speakers implicitly consider well-formed, or grammatical sequences.∙ A. speeches∙ B. utterances∙ C. events∙ D. sentences（分数：2.00）A.B. √C.D.解析：[解析] 句法规则在所有人类语言中都普遍存在，这些规则包括讲某种语言的人内在的语言知识体系，这种语言知识体系被称作语言能力。
心理语言学：CH5 Sentence Processing 2
Deriving Propositions
• Children who are slow eat bread that is cold
– Slow children – Children eat bread – Bread is cold
Evidence for Propositions
• Memory better for sentences with fewer propositions
• Comprehending a sentence involves attention to syntactic, semantic and pragmatic factors.
• What part does each factor play? – Do we use our syntactic semantic, and pragmatic knowledge simultaneously when we comprehend a sentence?
Structural/ lexical ambiguity
• Find at least 5 meanings of this sentence:
–I made duck.
• I cooked waterfowl for her benefit (to eat) • I cooked waterfowl belonging to her • I created the (plaster?) duck she owns • I caused her to quickly lower her head or
• Traditional theories assume that sentence processing is algorithmic and that meaning is derived compositionally
心理语言学
How to comprehend
概念模型The conceptual model Argument is war: Your claims are indefensible. He attacked every weak point in my argument. His criticism were right on target.
daily conversations people do not usually say
things directly but tend to imply them.
conventions
语言交际是在对交际做出共享的假定的语境中发生的. 这些隐含的假定可 以成为约定（conventions）(Bach & Harnish, 1979; Grice, 1975)，Grice 归 纳了四条，他称之为准则（maxims）， 合起来就是“合作原则”（the cooperative principle）。
language by considering the literal meaning , then rejecting it. Searle (1975) claims that we use several stages, of which three are most relevant here.
What is conceptual metaphor?
Lakoff 提出了概念隐喻，概念隐喻包含两个认知域：一个始源 域(source domain)和一个目标域(target domain). 始源域使我们熟 悉、能直接体验的认知域；目标域，是抽象的、难以理解和感 知的认知域。隐喻的本质---用一种事物理解和经历另一种事情， 隐喻使我们能用熟悉的具体的概念去表达、理解、感知那些抽 象的事物的概念。 当一个认知域的事件、过程，被系统的用另外一个认知域的词 汇、句法去表达，即一个认知域的概念被另外一个认知域的概 念隐喻化，这就是概念隐喻。隐喻不仅出现在我们使用的句子 中，我们的思维也具有隐喻化得特征。
教师资格认证《心理学》文本教案Chapter 5 Memory
教师资格认证《心理学》文本教案（第5章）Chapter 5 Memory (记忆)Main Contents（主要内容）Section 1 Memory Summarization（概述）Section 2 Memorization （识记）Section 3 Keeping and Forgetting(保持和遗忘)Section 4 Recognition and Recollection（再认和回忆）Section 5 Class Exercise（课堂练习）Section 1 Memory Summarization(概述)5.1.1. What is Memory (什么是记忆)?记忆(Memory)是过去经验在人脑中的反映。
人脑感知过的事物，思考过的问题和理论，体验过的情感和情绪，练习过的动作，都可以成为记忆的内容。
记忆是一个复杂的心理过程，从“记”到“忆”包括识记（）、保持（）、再认（）或回忆（）三个基本环节。
识记是识别和记住事物，从而积累知识经验的过程。
保持是巩固已获得的知识经验的过程。
回忆和再认就是在不同的情况下恢复过去经验的过程。
经验过的事物不在面前，能把它重新回想起来称回忆（再现）。
经验过的事物再度出现时，能把它认出来称再认。
记忆过程中的三个环节是相互联系和相互制约的。
从信息加工观点来看，记忆就是对输入信息的编码、贮存和提取的过程。
记忆的重要性是十分清楚的。
人类具有惊人的记忆力。
人脑可以贮存1015比特(bit)的信息，因此记忆的容量是十分巨大的，保持的时间也很长，有些记忆能保持七、八十年或更长的时间。
5.1.2. Memory Image （记忆表象）记忆表象：感知过的事物不在面前，头脑中再现出来的形象。
表象具有直观性。
表象是感知留下的形象，所以具有直观性的特征。
但是，由于客观事物不在面前，而是通过记忆回忆起来的，所以它所反映的通常仅仅是事物的大体轮廓和一些主要特征，没有感知时所得到的形象那样鲜明、完整和稳定。
从心理语言学角度探讨英语词汇记忆策略
｝ 所以教师应该给学生创造各种集中训练这种策略的
－
１ 用 艾 宾 浩 斯 遗 忘 曲 线 规 律 ， 除 词 汇 难 记 的 机会， ． 运 排 Ｊ 使学生逐渐掌握英语词汇学习的真谛 ， 并能熟
的感知 、 思想和其他 的心理活动会在记忆里联系在一 ： 习被证明是最为有效 的学习策略 ， 而死记硬背则效率 起， 所以只要其 中的一些环节在 以后 出现 ， 它就会触 动其他相连的事情。从学习和记忆的角度来看， 贴近 联 系是一种比较弱 的形式 ， 更加重要 的原则是频率和 练习。两件事物贴近 出现的频率越 多， 它们 的联系就
的是把信息储存起来供以后使用 ： 有时差不多是即时 ｌ 特点是本文将进一步要研究的问题。
使用 ， 有时是短期内使用 ， 有时是供以后不定时长期 ｌ
使用 。那么要完成这些功能 ， 一个好的记忆 系统应该 Ｉ
具有 编码 、 忆 的提 取 和遗 忘 的性 质 。 记
二、 学生英语词汇记忆策略现状 在 当今的学生中， 英语词 汇的学习策略是否行之
差学生更善于运用各种词汇学 习策略。 但是在这些分 越强 。Ｅ ｂｎｈ ｕ曾以 自己为研究对象 ， ｂ ｉ ａｓ ｇ 研究记忆一 ｌ
些无 意义的音节的练 习和学习效率 的关系 。 的研究 Ｉ 他 析之后 ， 他们都没有提 出相应的词 汇教学方法。从心
结果表明 ：学 习的分量是练习的分量的一个函数 ， 。 语言学中记忆的功能这一 角度进行 研究 的成果则 练 理
习得 越多 ， 习的分量就越 大 ； 学 而且分散练 习比集中 ｌ 少 。 更
练习的效果要好 。
２记 忆 的提 取 ．
１
１
三、 英语 词汇记忆策略及教学对策 词汇记忆是一个复杂 的过程 。 记忆效果 的好坏与
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解（语言与认知）【圣才出品】
胡壮麟《语⾔学教程》笔记和考研真题详解（语⾔与认知）【圣才出品】第6章语⾔与认知6.1 复习笔记本章要点:1. Psycholinguistics⼼理语⾔学2. Language acquisition, language comprehension, language production 语⾔习得，语⾔的理解，语⾔的⽣成3. First language acquisition第⼀语⾔习得4. Cognitive linguistics认知语⾔学常考考点：语⾔习得；第⼀语⾔习得；语⾔的理解和⽣成；范畴；隐喻；整合理论等。
本章内容索引：I. Definition of cognitionII. Definition of PsycholinguisticsIII. Language acquisition1. The Behaviorist Approach2. The Innateness HypothesisIV. Language comprehension1. Sound Comprehension2. Word recognition3. Comprehension of sentences4. Comprehension of textV. Language Production1. Access to words2. Generation of sentences3. Written language productionVI. Cognitive Linguistics1. Definition2. Construal and Construal Operations(1) Attention/ Salience(2) Judgment/ Comparison(3) Perspective/ Situatedness3. Categorization(1) Basic level(2) Superordinate level(3) Subordinate level4. Image Schemas5. Metaphor(1) Ontological metaphors(2) Structural metaphors(3) Orientional metaphors6. Metonymy7. Blending TheoryI. Definition of cognition (认知的定义)Cognition is used in several different loosely related disciplines. In psychology it is used to refer to the mental processes of an individual, with particular relation to a concept which argues that the mind has internal mental states (such as beliefs, desires and intentions) and can be understood as information processing, especially when much abstraction or concretization is involved, or processes such as involving knowledge, expertise or learning for example are at work. Another definition of “cognition” is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.“认知”⼀词既可⽤于不同学科也可⽤于相关学科。
Chapter6 Sentence Comprehension and Memory心理语言学第六章句子理解和记忆
A particular form of elaborative processing is the drawing of inferences. Bransford, Barclay, and Franks(1972) 认为我们一般是在理解新事件的过 程中做出推论，然后这些推论也被纳入了我们对该事件的记忆表征中。 随着时间的流逝，越来越难以分辨哪些是曾经呈现过的，哪些是推论。
Chapter 6
Sentence Comprehension and Memory
姓名
Contents
01
Inferences and Sentence Memory
02
Propositions and Sentence Memory
01 Part one
Inferences and Sentence Memory
句子的命题表征是如何建立的？
接触到一个句子时，我们会抽取出它的意义，并建构一个表征该意义的命题。 同时，句子的表层形式被保留在工作记忆中。由于我们一般对意义更感兴趣， 因此用于意义（会保留一段时间）的加工资源多于表层形式（很快就消逝）。 如果表层结构具有语用显著性，就会得到较多注意，结果自然保持得较好。 这可能使人们产生附加命题（推论），并把它和句子命题储存在一起。 在记忆测试时，查询的是句子的记忆表征。除非句子具有语用显著性或是保 留时间相当短，否则的话就只有命题表征以及所作推论仍被储存着。 结果，我们对意义的记忆很好，但是也可能错误地记住了推断而来的信息。
Hit (George, Harry)
More complex sentences convey more than one propositions. George got into an argument with Harry, hit him, and then left the bar.
心理语言学论文-短时记忆与口语
短时记忆与口语摘要：尽管临时储存的短时记忆保存时间短，但在短时记住信息的0至9分钟内对于口语测试前临时背的短时记忆信息调动频率比长时记忆的调动频率大。
长时记忆的调动过程中干扰因素比短时记忆的调动过程多。
关键词：短时记忆口语听觉信息量1.介绍：根据多年的自身考试经验和同学的普遍意识，我发现英语口语考试时，我们更擅长调动短时记忆。
短时记忆是信息保持时间很短的记忆，其记忆容量有限，一般为7±2；短时记忆的信息可被意识到。
下图为短时记忆的遗忘过程：口语考试前，我们会临时背些重要的词汇与句型以应付接下来的口语考试。
长时记忆的容量大,保持的时间长,一般被认为是无限的。
由于长时记忆信息的提取都需要运用一定的策略，即依靠一定的线索和选择一定的中介。
经过我们班普遍调查发现尽管临时储存的短时记忆在考试结束后不久就忘了，但在短时记住信息的0至9分钟内对于考试前临时背的短时记忆信息调动频率比长时记忆的调动频率大。
若该假设成立将有助于我们在准备重要接待和口语考试时，有效合理地利用短时记忆以在接待和口语考试中发挥得更为出色！2.方法：1.调查目的：验证短时记忆在即时的口语中发挥更加重要的作用。
2.调查对象：外国语学院大一、大二英语系学生各10人（其中男生10人，女生10人，口语能力几乎处于同一水平线上）。
3,调查方法：抽样调查，采访调查。
作用，但是短时对于口语确实有不可抹灭的功能。
我们应该在保证长时记忆的同时有效利用短时记忆让我们口语考试发挥出色！4.参考文献：肖崇好，林崇德. 1992.《短时记忆提取机制研究》[J]. P302心理科学桂诗春. 1985《心理语言学》.P380-382.上海市：上海外语教育出版社.普通高等教育“十一五”国家级规划教材.心理学导论.P378二、短时记忆的特征。
第10章_心理语言学
一、语言产生
（一） 从记忆中提取信息 3、词汇产生模型 微弱的语义中介干扰效应（0.05<p<o.10） 支持语义与语音交互作用理论： 词条层的激活信息向音位层的传递过程是 瀑布式的，与目标词语义相关的词从上到 下像瀑布一样都得到激活，同时传递他们 对应的音位表征。
实验心理学
第十章
心理语言学
心理语言学是研究人类个体如何获得、理解 和生成语言，以及语言功能认知系统关系的 心理学分支。它从心理过程和心理机制的角 度来研究人类的语言活动特点。
实验心理学
【学科的多元化】
心理语言学研究是跨学科的，吸收和 采纳了语言学、社会学、生理学、计算机 科学等许多领域的理论和方法。
实验心理学
（一）从记忆中提取信息 1、储存的语言信息 记忆中储存的语言信息：语义、语音模式、 词汇形式、句法信息。
一、语言产生
1、储存的语言信息
研究方法：观察法和实验法 观察法：言语失误
舌尖现象（TOT） （语义和句法可能先于语音的提取）
实验心理学
一、语言产生
1、储存的语言信息 实验法： （1）图画命名
一、语言产生
（二）整合储存的信息 1、从认知到句法：语法编码（语义和语法） 2、从句法到语音：音韵的编码（语音）
实验心理学
二、语言理解
语言理解是指人们根据听觉或视觉的输入 信息建构意义的一种主动、积极地过程。 （一）词汇理解 （二）语句理解 （三）篇章理解
实验心理学
二、语言理解
（一）词汇理解 1、视觉词汇理解
二、语言理解
（二）语句理解 ERP技术：极高的时间分辨率 结果表明：早期的句法加工早于语义加工， 且能够影响随后的语义加工。 眼动测量技术：较高的生态效度 结果表明：被试会直接即时利用词汇知识指 导语法分析
语言学重点概念总结
Design features（定义特征）:the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishablefrom languages of animals.Synchronic（共时的）:said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time.Diachronic（历时的）:said of the study of development of language and languages over time.Prescriptive（规定式）:to make an authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.Descriptive（描写式）:to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.Competence（语言能力）:unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.对于一门语言的语法规则系统的无意识获得的知识。
Performance（语言运用）:the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.人们说话写作时实际使用的语言。
Langue（语言）:the language system shared by a “speech community”．一个“语言社团”共有的语言系统。
心理语言学-句子理解
Studies have been used to support the idea that we ordinarily use the syntactic structure of a sentence to extract the underlying meanning versus Surface Form
The key sentence :
When you score the results, do nothing to your correct answer but mark carefully those answers which are wrong.
A classic study by Sachs(1967) examined the time parameters within which these processes might operate.
1.Memory for Meaning versus Surface Form
Test design:
Fillenbaum(1966) was careful to distinguish between adjectives such as open and closed, which are contradictories, and tall and short, which are contraries. Whereas the negation of a contradictory implies its opposite, this does not happen for contraries (not short does not imply tall).
简明英语语言学教程1-8章知识要点
1.1 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language . The study of language as a whole if often called general linguistics . phonetics(语音学): the study of sounds phonology(音位学): how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning Lexicon / morphology(形态学): how morphemes(词素) are arranged and combined to form words syntax(句法学): the study of rules that govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences semantics(语义学): the study of meaning pragmatics(语用学): the study of meaning in the context of language use interdisciplinary branches: sociolinguistics(社会语言学), psycholinguistics(心理语言学), applied linguistics(应用语言学) Important distinctions in linguistics prescriptive(规定性 old linguistics) vs. descriptive(描述性 modern linguistics) synchronic(共时性) vs. diachronic(历时性) 1.2 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Arbitrariness (任意性): Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. Productivity/creativity (能产性): Construction and interpretation of new signals are possible, so that large number of sentences can be produced. Duality (双层性): Two levels enable people to talk about anything within their knowledge. lower level(sounds)---higher level(words) Displacement(移位性): enable people to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place. Cultural transmission(文化传承): We are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of language system have to be taught and learned. Phonetics （语音学）（定义） Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.（是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音） Three branches of phonetics: articulatory phonetics （发音）auditory phonetics （听觉）acoustic phonetics （声学） Orthographic representation of speech sounds ：Broad transcription and Narrow transcription A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound. Phonetics & phonology ：（定义，区别） Both are concerned with the same aspect of language: the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; (it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.) Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Phone （音素）Phoneme （音位）Allophone （音位变体）: （定义） Phone: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment （音素是一个语音单位或者说语音段） The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, and some don’t Phoneme: a phoneme is a phonological unit ; it is a unit of distinctive value, it is an abstract unit.（音位是一个音位学的单位，而且是一个有区别意义的单位，是一个抽象的单位） Allophones: the different phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.（在不同的语音环境下代表某个音位的音素） vowels (the air stream meets with no obstruction) and consonants(obstructed) stops(塞音), fricatives(擦音), affricates(塞擦音), liquids(流音), nasals, glides, bilabial(双唇音), laviodental(唇齿音), dental(齿音), alveolar(齿龈音), palatal(腭音), velar(软腭音), glottal(喉音) close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, open vowels(openness) unrounded vowels, rounded vowels(shape of the lips) long/tense vowels----short/lax vowels monophthongs(单元音), diphthongs(双元音) (single or combined)2.3 Phonology and phonetics differ in their approach and focus. phonology: how speech sounds form patterns and are used to convey meaning concerned with sound system of a particular language phonetics: of a general nature, interested in all the speech sounds stress(重音)---word stress and sentence stress The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. E.g. ‘import (n.) im’port (v.) // blackbird vs. black bird tone(语调)---pitch variation(音高变体) distinguish meaning E.g. 汉语四声 Intonation(音调)---English tones: falling tone, rising tone, fall-rise tone, rise-fall tone E.g. That’s not the book he wants. ⏹ Minimal pair----when two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. When the phonetically similar sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in complementary distribution . ⏹ The syllable consists of three parts: the ONSET （节首）, the PEAK （韵峰）, the CODA （韵尾） ⏹ Sentence stress----the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed.3.3 Word is the smallest free form found in language. Morphemes are the minimal units of meaning. Free and bound morphemes(自由词素can be a word by itself 粘着词素must be attached to another one---affix) 3.4 V----teachN Af----er Root （词根）Stem （词干）affix(词缀）（定义，会用，选择）Root: A root is that part of the word left when all the affixes (inflectional & derivational) are removed, e.g. “desire” in “desirable”, “care” in “ca refully ”. Affix:is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme 3.5 Derivational and inflectional morphemes(派生词素和屈折词素) Free morphemes Bound morphemes Root Root Affix dog, cat -ceive Prefix Suffix grammar -vert Derivational Derivational Inflectional … -mit un-, dis- -ment -s, -ing, -‘s, -er ● Derivational morphemes ---- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. modern---modernize, length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc. ● Inflectional morphemes ---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g. a) number: tables apples cars b) person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talked c) case: John/John’s Syntax （句法学）（定义） Syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. （句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支） Phrase categories and their structures Phrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as noun phrase: NP (N), verb phrase: VP (V), adjective phrase: AP (A), and prepositional: PP (P). The structure: specifier + head + complement Head （中心语）---- the word around which a phrase is formed Specifier （标志成分）---- the words on the left side of the heads Complement （补足成分）---- the words on the right side of the heads Phrase structure rules: The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as: NP (Det 限定词) + N + (PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls. VP (Qual 修饰词) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments. AP (Deg 程度词) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to PP (Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station S→NP VP (A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase)Do insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position. Semantics （语义学）（定义）Semantics: the study of meaning from thelinguistic point of view （对意义的研究）Behaviorism→ Bloomfield 行为主义论 based on contextualist view S: stimulus r: responseJill Jack S---------r………s ---------R(The small letters r, sàspeech) (The capitalized letter R, Sàpractical events)Pragmatics （语用学）（问答，辨析，定义）Pragmatics: the study of language in use orlanguage communication; the study of the use ofcontext to make inference about meaning.The study of how speakers of a language usesentences to effect successful communication. (book)Pragmatics vs. semanticsSemantics: is the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration).Pragmatics: the study of the intended meaning ofa speaker (taking context into consideration), e.g. “Today is Sunday”, semantically, it means that today is the first day of the week;pragmatically, you can mean a lot by saying this,all depending on the context and the intention of the speaker, say, making a suggestion or giving an invitation…Context: a basic concept in the study ofpragmatics. It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background,situation(time, place, manner, etc.), the relationship between the speaker and the hearer,etc. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义 Sentence meaning: Abstract and context-independent meaning; literal meaning of a sentence; utterance meaning: concrete and context-dependent meaning; intended meaning of a speaker; linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. Syntactic categories —word-level categories: major lexical categories (often assumed as the heads around which phrases are built) ---Noun (N) Verb (V) Adjective (A) Preposition (P) minor lexical categories---Determiner (Det) Degree words (Deg) Qualifier (Qual) Auxiliary (Aux) Conjunction (Con) Three criteria(条件) determining a word’s category: meaning, inflection (变形) and distribution (分布) A word’s category can be determined only by all three criteria. Phrase category is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP), prepositional phrase (PP) phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain : head, specifier, complement 4.3 Phrase structure rule---special type of grammatical mechanism regulating the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase NP→(Det) N (PP) an NP consists of a determiner, an N head, and a PP complement VP→(Qual) V (NP) a VP consists of a qualifier, a V head, and an NP complement AP→(Deg) A (PP) …… PP→(Deg) P (NP) …… XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement) Coordination rule: coordinate structures (consist a conjunction “and”/”or”)X→X *Con X Either an X or an XP can be coordinated; one or more categories can occur to the left of the Con. 5.3 Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning,which are related but different aspects of meaning.Sense: e.g. “dog”---a domesticated mammal... refer to any animal that meets the features describedReference: “dog”---A said to B:” The dog’s barking.” refer to a certain dog knownto both A&B Major sense relations:Synonymy (近义词）---words that are close in meaning dialectal syn.(autumn in BE & fall inAE), stylistic syn.(daddy & father), polysemy (一词多义）one word may have morethan one meaning)homonymy (同音形异义）homophones--- twowords same in sound, homographs---same in spelling, complete homonyms---same in both sound and spelling)feet 、fete meat/meet site/sighthyponymy (上下层关系）relation between a general word —superordinate, and a specific word--hyponyms) flower , rose, Lilyantonymy (反义）words that are opposite in meaning)gradable ant.---e.g. hot vs. cold complementary ant.---e.g. male vs. femalemarried. / John’s a bachelor. X, T—Y, F; X, F —Y, TX entails Y. E.g. He’s been to France. / He’s been to Europe. X, T—Y, T; X, F —Y, may be T or FX presupposes Y. E.g. John’s bike needs repairing. / John has a bike. X, T —Y, T; X, F —Y, TX is a contradiction. E.g. My unmarried sister married a bachelor. X is always false. X is semantically anomalous. (absurd in the sense)5.5 componential analysis----lexical meaning E.g. man---+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE predication(谓项) analysis---sentence meaning E.g. The kids like apples. ---KID, APPLE (LIKE) Tom smokes. ---TOM (SMOKE) It is hot. --- (BE HOT) Pragmatics studies how speakers of a language usesentences to effect successful communication (meaning in a certain context). Clause —a group of words which form a grammaticalunit and which contain a subject and a finite verb. A clause forms a sentence or part of a sentence and often functions as a noun, adjective or adverb.“IC analysis” is a new approach of sentencestudy that cuts a sentence into two (or more) segments. ⏹ Componential analysis---- a way toanalyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example,⏹ Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE] Cooperative principle (CP)---- According toGrice, in making conversation, there is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe.。
2021心理语言学的记忆理论及其在英语词汇教学中的应用范文2
2021心理语言学的记忆理论及其在英语词汇教学中的应用范文 一、英语教学在心理语言学的作用 心理语言学作为认知科学的一个分支,综合了心理学和语言学两门重要学科.其研究目的在于研究语言如何在产生、习得和理解三个心理过程中起作用.从心理语言学的角度可以把语言学习当作从理解到最终产生的心理过程.英语教学关注的是如何理解并产生英语.心理语言学的实质是总结语言学习过程与其它语言学习的过程之间的关联,得出的规律能够帮助教师理解语言学习的本质,分析学生的心理和英语的特点,最终选择更合适的教学方法.如果脱离语法,英语还是可以继续一些语言功能的,但是脱离词汇,就什么也表达不出来.然而词汇的记忆不是一件容易的事. 词汇包含语义,语法,形态.经过多次试验,专家得出证明,在这三者中任何一方的声音或是影像都会激活另外两个方面.二语习得相关理论表明,对于儿童来说语言的习得是天生的,自然的,但是对于非英语国家的我们来说,学习外语必定有环境上的缺陷,毕竟出国学习的人是少数,所以出于不利的语言环境中,词汇的记忆变得更加重要. 二、心理语言学的记忆理论 心理语言学将词汇的记忆过程分为三个阶段:输入,存储和输出.大脑将感知的信息进行编码存储在感觉记录器中以备短时记忆来处理.记忆的目的其实就是把获得的新信息储存起来,以便以后使用:有的时候是马上使用,而有的时候是为了不定时的长期使用.评判是否拥有良好的记忆系统需要从三个方面分析:记忆存储,记忆提取和部分遗忘. (一)记忆存储 能用最合适的形式存放信息,这就是良好的记忆系统基本要求.存储信息为了以后再次使用.我们把这个过程叫做存储.那么,怎样存储的基本过程?新的记忆必须要在已有的信息与新的信息之间建立某种特定之间的相互联系.这些联系的任务是把感知,思维和其他心理行为经过加工之后紧密的联系在记忆里,所以无论以后这其中的任一个环节再次出现,都会激发其他环节. 从英语学习和词汇记忆的角度来看这不是比较稳妥的形式,所以必须在此基础上增加练习的次数和频率.两件事物同时出现的频率越高,二者的联系也就越强. (二)记忆筛选 记忆系统的另一个部分是记忆的筛选,"内容寻址原则"在记忆筛选中起了相当重要的作用.这一原则表明必须先把旧记忆的经验中的内容和新的记忆中类似的内容匹配好,然后准确地提取相关信息,这是人类记忆的首要方法. (三)部分遗忘 事实验证,正常人类的记忆绝对不可能完整的记住经历过的所有信息.因为其中必定会有一些信息在存储的过程中丢失了. 即使在记忆存储以后,那些次要信息仍然会被记忆系统放弃,只有最重要的信息将会被保留下来.所以记忆的强度越大,提取的可能性就越大,速度也越快.但是随着时间的推移,记忆强度渐渐衰退,遗忘的可能性必定会增加,缓解这个现象的办法只有回述和再认,通过反复的练习和回顾,记忆的强度会再次提高,从而降低遗忘率.将其应用到学习和记忆中也是如此. 三、英语词汇策略及教学策略 经过大量的问卷调查和实验分析得出结论,中国学生普遍采用元认知策略和认知策略等多种策略来记忆英语词汇,而这些学习策略与词汇知识的质量和数量都存在很大关联.死记硬背是最容易被想到的方法,但是最普遍被使用的方法自然记忆的效率也最低.本文通过对记忆的功能进行研究,总结分析出如下记忆策略对英语词汇的学习有很大的帮助. (一)利用艾宾浩斯遗忘曲线规律,解决遗忘快的难题 艾宾浩斯的研究表明,遗忘的速度是有规律的,它不是我们以为的匀速,也不是混乱的,而是是先快后慢.也就是说在记忆的最初一段时间遗忘的很快,后来逐渐缓慢,最后几乎不再遗忘了.在记忆词汇的过程中,要把握这个规律,记忆后的三五天基本上会忘掉大部分内容,所以最好在记忆当天就要再次复习一次.比如,早上记忆的单词晚上睡前要复习一遍.但是哪怕是及时复习也不可能一劳永逸.在之后的第二天第三天都会发生一定比例的遗忘,这就是遗忘进程先快后慢的体现.因此,不仅要及时加强复习,还要注合理安排复习的时间间隔.因为间隔的时间也有相应的规律,对应遗忘规律的先快后慢,间隔的时间就要先短后长.比如早上学习了十个单词,最好的效果产生在当天晚上复习的那遍,第二天再花费稍短的时间复习,第三天再短一些,越到后来越短.这样的效果会很好. (二)培养学生的元认知策略 元认知是个体对自己的认知活动的认知.将元认知应用到学习中形成了元认知策略,学习者在学习中要学会使用一些策略去评估自己的理解、预计学习时间、选择有效的计划来解决学习的问题.词汇学习和记忆的元认知策略分为四种,分别是提前计划、注意、自我监控和自我评价. 1.提前计划:根据上文的信息存储过程为词汇的记忆做具体计划,学习经验告诉我们,对于词汇的学习,分散练习比集中练习要好,保持持续的学习兴趣是很重要的.练习必须要达到一定的量才能达到质的飞跃. 2.注意:我们现阶段的英语教材都是通过严格的挑选编写出来的,不管是课文还是词汇都是有一定的记忆意义.但是也避免不了其中一些消极词汇,除了教师的帮助和提示,学生应该有一定的判断能力对积极词汇和消极词汇进行区别对待.这一点表面看起来貌似对词汇的记忆方面的作用不大不,但是只有做好完善的准备,事先决定应该学什么样的单词,知道怎样去学习也是很关键的.3.自我监控:顾名思义,就是自我反省,善于纠正自己的错误.在词汇的记忆过程中,能够发现并改正错误从而不断完善自我的能力是很重要的.例如,中学时学过的"pickup"是"挑选,捡起"的意思,当你在阅读中遇到"You pick up the new method"时,脑海中会自然的反应出以往记忆的含义.但语境会让你作出否定的判断,此时"挑选、捡起"都是不对的,而应该引申为"偶然习得,学得"4.自我评价:在自我监控之后还要对自己的词汇记忆的结果做出评价和总结,加强自我了解.我们可以通过不同的方式检查自己的词汇记忆量.只有不断地对自己的词汇输入量和输出量做出客观评价,才能激励或督促自己获取更多更有效的记忆. (三)培养学生的组块联想 虽然人们的记忆能力在一定的范围内又有很大的差异,但就短时记忆这一部分而言,几乎所有正常成人都是相同的.所以我们应该在经验的基础上再次将所要记忆的新词汇进行组块化,也就是将不熟悉的词汇变成意义组块,这样就能扩大短时记忆的容量,从而提高记忆的效率.比如当我们看到"almond(杏)"这个词语时,就会就近联想到apple、orange、banana 等常见的水果词汇,这三个常用词汇已经存在于我们的长时记忆中,而 almond这个词就属于正在记忆存储的过程中,经过这次的联想,生词也会逐渐转化成长时记忆.这样,把 almond 这个新的单词添加入其余三个词汇中从而形成一个新的记忆组块,由组块联想建立起来的有效联想锁链能够唤醒处于"遗忘边缘"的长时记忆,大大提高了对词汇的记忆效率. (四)增加学习动机 由于学习动机对学习产生着至关重要的作用,因此学习者在实践中应该在以下几个方面上加强动机参与程度,从而提高词汇学习的效率和记忆效果. 1.自我关注 在实验中,我们把被试者分成两组,一组被告知此次实验只作为研究资料,另一组则被告知此次实验要记为学习成绩,最后让他们记住一些新的词汇.一天后检测这两组学生记忆新词汇的结果,测试结果不差上下,又过了七天后再一次检测,结果表明第一组比第二组的成绩要好得多,这说明当人们被测试的成绩是以自己为评判标准时,成绩会相对高一些.这就是自我关注,也叫自我参与.在英语词汇的学习中我们可以使用以下几个以自我关注为目的的学习方法.①构思多种复习词汇的方法提高自我关注度.比如,学习一部分新词汇之后,设计一些相关的问题,自问自答或者同桌之间互相提问,也可以通过背写一个单词的不同词性的单词来巩固记忆.②丰富的教与学的活动也有助于增强记忆.如果教师能够针对班级学生的特点设计一些趣味性活动.比如给学生安排课本中出现的对话练习,或者进行着名的小短剧的角色扮演,也可以策划一些有奖励制度的听写比赛,以此大大增加学习者反复强化词汇的机会,从而提高记忆效率. 2.尝试回忆有助于提高记忆效率 大多数学生采用的这种反反复复的读读写写其实并不是很有效的记忆策略.这个过程也就是自我检测的过程.也许并不是每一次回忆都能够有收获,但是这个行为会反复刺激记忆系统. 建议学习者能采用记忆与回忆同时进行的方法,使自己更容易的进入记忆状态.不仅能提高自我监控的能力还可以改善纠错能力.只有一层一层的筛选出难记的词汇,通过再次加工处理,如此反复才会大大提高记忆效率. 心理语言学所涉及到的词汇记忆策略还有很多需要我们去探索和检验,它为英语词汇学习的策略的应用提供了强大的理论依据,教师要做到因材施教,针对不同学生的特点来教授不同的学习方法.学生要积极配合教学活动,通过对大脑和心理的刺激来增强词汇的记忆能力.。
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Role of Inferences in Advertising
Harris (1977) let students listen to commercials about various products and later to determine whether statements about the products were true, false, or of indeterminate truth value (Carroll 150). Findings – People were generally not very good at distinguishing between claims directly asserted and those implied.
Fillenbaum's(1966) 966)
◆ 1 The ▲2The
window is not closed.
window is closed. Closer in form ▲3The window is not open. ▲4 The window is open. Closer in meaning The study found that most people correctly remember 1 as what they heard, but if they made an error, they were much more likely to choose 4 than either 2 or 3.
Greater elaboration of processing leads to better retention.
Inferences and False Recognition Errors
Experimental procedure: Present people with long lists of sentences and later probe their tendency to make FRE (Bransford 1972). FRE – errors people make by believing that they saw or heard something that was actually not presented. Long list – to encourage participants to attend to meaning, not just the form of the sentences.
Wanner’s study (1974) Participants hear: When you score the results, do nothing to your correct answer but mark carefully those which are wrong. Your correct or correct your ? (meaning-significant)
Sachs’s study (1967)
Time course of retention
Experimenal Procedure:Students were asked to listen to taperecorded passage and were interrupted at various intervals. She varied two factors: types of sentences and the retention interval (time between presentation and test).
Keenan, Mac Whinney, Mayhew's study (1977) Pragmatic Factors
They recorded lunch e o n discussion (natural conversation) and constructed recognition memory tests from the recordings. Findings – It is not the syntactic or semantic aspects that make the statements memorable but rather the pragmatic functions they play.
Mark carefully or carefully mark? (form-significant)
Findings – 100% correct for your correct , 50% for mark carefully. People primarily retain the meaning, not the surface form.
Role of Inferences in Advertising
Studies have shown that we are often unable to distinguish easily between linguistic messages and the inferences we draw from them. Psychologists have explored the question of whether our tendency to draw inferences might influence our beliefs about commercial products.
Inferences and Sentence Memory
Elaboration is thought of as a process by which incoming information is related to information already stored in permanent memory, thereby enriching the memory representation of the new material.
Inferences and False Recognition Errors
Explanation:
Why people believe they have heard the second sentence?
The result suggests that an inference about the instrument used in fixing the birdhouse was drawn during comprehension.
Propositional Model of Sentence Representation
In comprehension, we first encounter a sentence. We extract its meaning and construct a proposition that represents this meaning. Meanwhile, the surface form of the sentence is being recessing resources are devoted to the meaning than to the surface form. With a long interval, only the propositional representation along with any inferences that were drawn will be stored.
Memory for Sentences
Introduction: In this section, we will examine what we remrember and what we do not from sentences and the way sentences are ultimately stored in permanent memory.
Basic Idea: Whether we retain the exact or verbatim wording of a sentence or simply its meaning? Fillenbaum(1966) 9 Wanner’s study (1974) Sachs’s study (1967) Keenan, Mac Whinney, Mayhew's study (1977)
Inferences and False Recognition Errors
Example:
Original sentence – John was trying to fix the birdhouse. He was looking for the nail when his father came out to watch and to help him do the work. Test sentence – John was using the hammer to fix the birdhouse when his father…
Findings – Immediate presentation of the test sentence after the study sentence, retention of both form and meaning was excellent, but memory for form declined substantially with 40 syllables of retention interval (about 12.5 seconds).
Propositional Model of Sentence Representation
Anderson (1976): A sentence can be represented as a proposition consisting of two or more concepts and some form of relation between them. Examples: George hit Harry. Hit (George, Harry)