第十二章 科技文献的翻译
科技文献阅读和翻译
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3. Webs for translating a. / b. / 4. the best webs for dictionary A. / B. / C. / D. / E. /
科技论文标题的写法
二、介词词组 介词词组由介词十名词或名词词组构成。如果整个标题就 是 一 个 介 词 词 组 的 话 ， 一 般 这 个 介 词 是 “ on” ， 意 思 是 “对……的研究”。 例如： From Knowledge Engineering to Knowledge Management (介词词组+介词词组) On the correlation between working memory capacity and performance on intelligence tests
学术论文的英文写作简介
(2) 关于建议可用如下表达方式。
① It is advantageous to (do) ② It should be realized (emphasized, stressed, noted, pointed out ) that … ③ It is suggested (proposed, recommended, desirable) that … ④ It would be better (helpful, advisable) that…
学术论文的英文写作简介
四、结尾部分 1、致谢 为了对曾给予支持与帮助或关心的人表示感谢，在论文之后，作 者通常对有关人员致以简短的谢词，可用如下方式： I am thankful to sb. for sth I am grateful to sb. for sth I am deeply indebted to sb. for sth Thanks are due to sb. for sth The author wishes to express his sincere appreciation to sb. for sth. The author wishes to acknowledge sb. The author wishes to express his gratitude for sth.
科技文献中英文对照翻译
Sensing Human Activity:GPS Tracking感应人类活动:GPS跟踪Stefan van der Spek1,*,Jeroen van Schaick1,Peter de Bois1,2and Remco de Haan1Abstract:The enhancement of GPS technology enables the use of GPS devices not only as navigation and orientation tools,but also as instruments used to capture travelled routes:assensors that measure activity on a city scale or the regional scale.TU Delft developed aprocess and database architecture for collecting data on pedestrian movement in threeEuropean city centres,Norwich,Rouen and Koblenz,and in another experiment forcollecting activity data of13families in Almere(The Netherlands)for one week.Thequestion posed in this paper is:what is the value of GPS as‘sensor technology’measuringactivities of people?The conclusion is that GPS offers a widely useable instrument tocollect invaluable spatial-temporal data on different scales and in different settings addingnew layers of knowledge to urban studies,but the use of GPS-technology and deploymentof GPS-devices still offers significant challenges for future research.摘要：增强GPS技术支持使用GPS设备不仅作为导航和定位工具,但也为仪器用来捕捉旅行路线:作为传感器,测量活动在一个城市或区域范围内规模。
研究生科技英语阅读课文翻译(1、2、4、8、10)
Unit 1 Genetically modified foods -- Feed the World?If you want to spark a heated debate at a dinner party, bring up the topic of genetically modified foods. For many people, the concept of genetically altered, high-tech crop production raises all kinds of environmental, health, safety and ethical questions. Particularly in countries with long agrarian traditions -- and vocal green lobbies -- the idea seems against nature.如果你想在某次晚宴上挑起一场激烈的争论，那就提出转基因食品的话题吧。
对许多人来说，高科技的转基因作物生产的概念会带来诸如环境、健康、安全和伦理等方面的各种问题。
特别是在有悠久的农业生产传统和主张环保的游说集团的国家里，转基因食品的主意似乎有悖自然。
In fact, genetically modified foods are already very much a part of our lives. A third of the corn and more than half the soybeans and cotton grown in the US last year were the product of biotechnology, according to the Department of Agriculture. More than 65 million acres of genetically modified crops will be planted in the US this year. The genetic is out of the bottle.事实上，转基因食品已经成为我们生活重要的一部分。
第十二章 翻译策略和方法
途径）指的是视翻译为“发生在某个社会情境中的交际过 程” 的任何一种翻译方法或途径。虽然所有的翻译途径都 在某种程度上视翻译为交际，而这里所说的交际翻译却完 完全全地以目的语读者或接受者为导向。
交际翻译并不是一种极端的翻译策略，它和语义
翻译一样是翻译中的“中庸之道”，既不像编译 那么自由，也没有逐行译那么拘谨。
to environmental protection. (省译名词)
转换法
转译法指翻译过程中为了使译文符合目标语的表述方式、方法和习惯 而对原句中的词类、句型和语态等进行转换。具体的说，就是在词性 方面，把名词转换为代词、形容词、动词；把动词转换成名词、形容 词、副词、介词；把形容词转换成副词和短语。在句子成分方面，把 主语变成状语、定语、宾语、表语；把谓语变成主语、定语、表语； 把定语变成状语、主语；把宾语变成主语。在句型方面，把并列句变 成复合句，把复合句变成并列句，把状语从句变成定语从句。在语态 方面，可以把主动语态变为被动语态。如： 1. 我们学院受教委和市政府的双重领导。 Our institute is co-administrated by the States Education Commission and the municipal government. (名词转动词)
很大的差异，因此在进行英汉互译时必然会遇到很 多困难，需要有一定的翻译技巧作指导。常用的翻 译技巧有增译法、省译法、转换法、拆句法、合并 法、正译法、反译法、倒置法、包孕法、插入法、 重组法和综合法等。
增译法
增译法是指根据英汉两种语言不同的思维方式、语言习惯和表达方式， 在翻译时增添一些词、短句或句子，以便更准确地表达出原文所包含 的意义。这种方式多半用在汉译英里。汉语无主句较多，而英语句子 一般都要有主语，所以在翻译汉语无主句的时候，除了少数可用英语 无主句、被动语态或“There be…”结构来翻译以外，一般都要根据语 境补出主语，使句子完整。英汉两种语言在名词、代词、连词、介词 和冠词的使用方法上也存在很大差别。英语中代词使用频率较高，凡 说到人的器官和归某人所有的或与某人有关的事物时，必须在前面加 上物主代词。因此，在汉译英时需要增补物主代词，而在英译汉时又 需要根据情况适当地删减。英语词与词、词组与词组以及句子与句子 的逻辑关系一般用连词来表示，而汉语则往往通过上下文和语序来表 示这种关系。因此，在汉译英时常常需要增补连词。英语句子离不开 介词和冠词。另外，在翻译时还要注意增补一些原文中暗含而没有明 言的词语和一些概括性、注释性的词语，以确保译文意思的完整。总 之，通过增译，一是保证译文语法结构的完整，二是保证译文意思的 明确。
英语科技文献的词汇特点与翻译
英语科技文献的词汇特点与翻译
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• 10. Carrier—sense multiple access (CSMA) protocols are refinements on the pure and slotted ALOHA protocols． • 载波侦听多点访问(CSMA)协议是对纯 ALOHA和时隙ALOHA协议的改进。
英语科技文献的词汇特点与翻译
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Common Prefixes, Suffixes and Affixes in Technical Terms Translation and Common Head
• attached
英语科技文献的词汇特点与翻译
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• (三）词义复杂多变 • Cell 小屋 • 电学：电池 • 冶金学：电解槽 • 医学：细胞 • 无线电：元件
英语科技文献的词汇特点与翻译
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miniultrasonicprober = mini + ultra +sonic +prober 微型超声波金属探测仪 · macrospacetransship = macro +space + trans + ship 巨型空间转运飞船 · teletypesetter = tele + type + setter 电传排字机 · bathythermograph = bathy +thermo + graph 海水测温仪 · barothermograph = baro + thermo + graph 气压温度记录器 · deoxyribonucleic = de + oxy + ribo + nucleic 脱氧核糖核 · photomorphogenesis = photo +morpho + genesis 光形态发生
科技文献中英文翻译
Intelligent Power Supply英文With the rapid development of electronic technology, application field of electronic system is more and more extensive, electronic equipment, there are more and more people work with electronic equipment, life is increasingly close relationship. Any electronic equipment are inseparable from reliable power supply for power requirements, they more and more is also high. Electronic equipment miniaturized and low cost in the power of light and thin,small and efficient for development direction. The traditional transistors series adjustment manostat is continuous control linear manostat. This traditional manostat technology more mature, and there has been a large number of integrated linear manostat module, has the stable performance is good, output ripple voltage small, reliable operation, etc. But usually need are bulky and heavy industrial frequency transformer and bulk and weight are big filter.In the 1950s, NASA to miniaturization, light weight as the goal, for a rocket carrying the switch power development. In almost half a century of development process, switch power because of is small volume, light weight, high efficiency, wide range, voltage advantages in electric, control, computer, and many other areas of electronic equipment has been widely used. In the 1980s, a computer is made up of all of switch power supply, the first complete computer power generation. Throughout the 1990s, switching power supply in electronics,electrical equipment, into the rapid development. In addition, large scale integrated circuit technology, and the rapid development of switch power supply with a qualitative leap, raised high frequency power products of, miniaturization, modular tide.Power switch tube, PWM controller and high-frequency transformer is an indispensable part of the switch power supply. The traditional switch power supply is normally made by using high frequency power switch tube division and the pins, such as using PWM integrated controller UC3842 + MOSFET is domestic small power switch power supply, the design method of a more popularity.Since the 1970s, emerged in many function complete integrated control circuit, switch power supply circuit increasingly simplified, working frequency enhancesunceasingly, improving efficiency, and for power miniaturization provides the broad prospect. Three end off-line pulse width modulation monolithic integrated circuit TOP (Three switch Line) will Terminal Off with power switch MOSFET PWM controller one package together, has become the mainstream of switch power lC development. Adopt TOP switch lC design switch power, can make the circuitsimplified,volume further narrowing, cost also is decreased obviousiy.Monolithic switching power supply has the monolithic integrated, the minimalist peripheral circuit, best performance index, no work frequency transformer can constitute a significant advantage switching power supply, etc. American Pl (with) company in Power in the mid 1990s first launched the new high frequency switching Power supply chip, known as the "top switch Power", with low cost, simple circuit, higher efficiency. The first generation of products launched in 1994 represented TOP100/200 series, the second generation product is the TOPSwitch - debuted in 1997 П .The above products once appeared showed strong vitality and he greatly simplifies the design of 150W following switching power supply and the development of new products for the new job, also, high efficiency and low cost switch power supply promotion and popularization created good condition, which can be widely used in instrumentation, notebook computers, mobile phones, TV, VCD and DVD, perturbation VCR, mobile phone battery chargers, power amplifier and other fields, and form various miniaturization, density, on price can compete with the linear manostat AC/DC power transformation module.Switching power supply to integrated direction of future development will be the main trend, power density will more and more big, to process requirements will increasingly high. In semiconductor devices and magnetic materials, no new breakthrough technology progress before major might find it hard to achieve, technology innovation will focus on how to improve the efficiency and focus on reducing weight. Therefore, craft level will be in the position of power supply manufacturing higher in. In addition, the application of digital control IC is the future direction of the development of a switch power. This trust in DSP for speed and anti-interference technology unceasing enhancement. As for advanced control method, now the individual feels haven't seen practicability of the method appears particularly strong, perhaps with the popularity of digital control, and there are some new control theory into switching power supply.(1) The technology: with high frequency switching frequencies increase, switchconverter volume also decrease,power density has also been boosted, dynamic response improved. Small power DC - DC converter switch frequency will rise to MHz. But as the switch frequency unceasing enhancement, switch components and passive components loss increases, high-frequency parasitic parameters and high-frequency EMI and so on the new issues will also be caused．(2) Soft switching technologies: in order to improve the efficiency of non-linearity of various soft switch, commutation technical application and hygiene, representative of soft switch technology is passive and active soft switch technology, mainly including zero voltage switch/zero current switch (ZVS/ZCS) resonance, quasi resonant, zero voltage/zero current pulse width modulation technology (ZVS/ZCS - PWM) and zero voltage transition/zero current transition pulse width modulation (PWM) ZVT/ZCT - technical, etc. By means of soft switch technology can effectively reduce switch loss and switch stress, help converter transformation efficiency.(3) Power factor correction technology (IC simplifies PFC). At present mainly divided into IC simplifies PFC technology passive and active IC simplifies PFC technology using IC simplifies PFC technology two kinds big, IG simplifies PFC technology can improve AC - DC change device input power factor, reduce the harmonic pollution of power grid.(4) Modular technology. Modular technology can meet the needs of the distributed power system, enhance the system reliability.(5) Low output voltage technology. With the continuous development of semiconductor manufacturing technology, microprocessor and portable electronic devices work more and more low, this requires future DC - DG converter can provide low output voltage to adapt microprocessor and power supply requirement of portable electronic devicesPeople in switching power supply technical fields are edge developing related power electronics device, the side of frequency conversion technology, development of switch between mutual promotion push switch power supply with more than two year growth toward light, digital small, thin, low noise and high reliability, anti-interference direction. Switching power supply can be divided into the AC/DC and DC/DC two kinds big, also have AC/AC DC/AC as inverter DC/DC converter is now realize modular, and design technology and production process at home and abroad, are mature and standardization, and has approved by users, but the AC/DC modular, because of its own characteristics in the process of making modular, meetmore complex technology and craft manufacture problems. The following two types of switch power supply respectively on the structure and properties of this.Switching power supply is the development direction of high frequency, high reliability, low consumption, low noise, anti-jamming and modular. Because light switch power, small, thin key techniques are changed, so high overseas each big switch power supply manufacturer are devoted to the development of new high intelligent synchronous rectifier, especially the improvement of secondary devices of the device, and power loss of Zn ferrite (Mn) material? By increasing scientific and technological innovation, to enhance in high frequency and larger magnetic flux density (Bs) can get high magnetic under the miniaturization of, and capacitor is a key technology. SMT technology application makes switching power supply has made considerable progress, both sides in the circuit board to ensure that decorate components of switch power supply light, small, thin. The high frequency switching power supply of the traditional PWM must innovate switch technology, to realize the ZCS ZVS, soft switch technology has become the mainstream of switch power supply technical, and greatly improve the efficiency of switch power. For high reliability index, America's switch power producers, reduce by lowering operating current measures such as junction temperature of the device, in order to reduce stress the reliability of products made greatly increased．Modularity is of the general development of switch power supply trend can be modular power component distributed power system, can be designed to N + 1 redundant system, and realize the capacity expansion parallel. According to switch power running large noise this one defect, if separate the pursuit of high frequency noise will increase its with the partial resonance, and transform circuit technology, high frequency can be realized in theory and can reduce the noise, but part of the practical application of resonant conversion technology still have a technical problem, so in this area still need to carry out a lot of work, in order to make the technology to practional utilization.Power electronic technology unceasing innovation, switch power supply industry has broad prospects for development. To speed up the development of switch power industry in China, we must walk speed of technological innovation road, combination with Chinese characteristics in the joint development path, for the high-speed development of national economy to make the contribution.中文智能开关电源随着电子技术的高速发展，电子系统的应用领域越来越广泛，电子设备的种类也越来越多，电子设备与人们的工作、生活的关系口益密切。
科技文本的英译
科技文本：科学专著、科学论文、实验报告、工程技术说明、科技文献、科普文献等•一、科技文本的特点与英译原则•（1）特点：用词严谨、准确，行文规范，逻辑严密，注重客观性，一般不带个人感情色彩。
已经从ESP中形成一个分支：EST.•（2）英译原则：• a.用词多样化，专业术语多，使用缩略语•purely technical words:•nuclear physics: proton（质子）, neutron（中子）, electron（电子）, reactor（核反应堆）, radioactivity（放射性）.•semi-technical words:•fastener（建筑扣件）, carrier（车床底座）, gear switch（齿轮开关）, clamp（夹钳）, spade（铁铲）.•non-technical words:•vapourate, minimize, reciprocate（报酬）科技文本缩略语的翻译：•（1）首字母缩写（acronym）•PC:Personal Computer•IDDD:International direct distance dialiry•DNA:dexoxybonucleic acid•DOS:Disc operation system•CPU:Central processing unit•Telecom:telecommunication•(2)拼凑法•Sicom:situation comedy Biorhythm:Biological rhythm Comsat:communication satellite Minicom:miniature computer •Psywar:psychological war Telecon:telephone conferenceb.语法特点：多用一般现在时；c.名词化现象，注意转换（汉语-动态语言，英语-静态语言）•eg.The house is under construction.•(The house is being constructed.)•例句：中国已经成功地发射了第一课实验通讯卫星。
英文科技文献翻译
英文文献翻译二〇一二年五月三十日Integrated wiring systemModern science and technology progress has made rapid development of computer and network technology, provides a more powerful computer processing capacity and network communication ability. The computer and network communication technology can greatly improve the modern enterprise production management efficiency, reduce the operation cost, and makes the modern enterprise can obtain more effectively and timely decision market information, provide more quickly, more satisfactory service to customers, in the competition. The computer and network communication technology has become a key factor in the success of the company.Integrated cabling system in order to meet the development needs is specially designed a set of cabling system. For modern buildings, such as the body, it adopted a series of nerve of high quality standard, modular combinations of material, the voice, data and image and control signal system using uniform transmission media, through comprehensive, integrated unified planning design in a set of standard cabling system in modern architecture, the three subsystems will connect organically, and system integration for the modern architecture provides a physical medium. Structured cabling system can directly related to the success of the modernization of the building, choose a high quality of integrated wiring system is of vital importance.Computer and communication networks are dependent on wiring system as the physical basis of network connections and information transmission channel. The traditional single application on a particular special layout techniques, lack of flexibility and development of, can not meet the rapid development of modern business needs of network applications. The new generation of structured cabling systems provide the user the required data, voice, fax, video and other information service connections, which allows voice and data communications equipment, switching equipment, information management systems and equipment control system , security system connected to each other, but also to make these devices with external communication networks. It includes the building to the external network or phone line connection Bureau,with the work area of voice or data terminals associated with all the cables and wiring components. Cabling system composed by different series of components, including: transmission media, line management of hardware, connectors, sockets, plugs, adapters, transmission electronic circuits, electrical protection equipment and support. Compared with the previous wiring, cabling system features can be summarized as:Practicality: after the implementation of cabling systems will be able to adapt to the modern and future communication technology development and implementation of voice, data, unified communications, signal transmission.Flexibility: wiring system can satisfy the requirements of various applications, information points to any connection of different types of terminal equipment, such as telephone, computer, printer, computer terminal, electric machine, various sensors and image monitoring equipment.Modularity: integrated cabling system in fixed in buildings, the level of all cable connectors are basic type of the standard, all voice, data and interconnection of building automation, network and image, with convenient use, equipment, change, management and expansion.Scalability: integrated wiring system is for future expansion, more use, easy to expand into new equipment.Economy: the integrated wiring system enables managers, and at the same time, reduce the modular structure, work because of the difficulty of future changes greatly reduced the cost or moving system.General: to meet the standard of international communication and computer network topology structure, can adapt different transmission speed communication can adapt to the requirement, can support and accommodate various computer network operation.1 workspace subsystemPurpose is to realize the workspace terminal equipment and level of connections between subsystems, the terminal devices connected to the information socket connection cables. Workspace used computer, networkequipment is distributed (on), telephone, or may alarm detector, camera, monitors, acoustics, etc.2 Horizontal subsystemPurpose is to realize information socket and management subsystem (jumper wire connection between frame), will lead to the management subsystem of user workspace, and to provide users with one accord with international standard pronunciation, satisfy the requirements and the high-speed data transmission information points. The subsystem of information from a job, decorate the socket to the inside of the administrative levels of the cable distribution frames. In the system of transmission medium of UTP (4) shielding twisted-pair cable, it can support the most modern communication equipment. If you need some broadband application, you can use fiber. Information ISDN8 for export by core RJ45 jack (standard), each information socket outlets can be flexibly according to actual application requirements and optional change purposes.3 the management subsystemThis sub-system connected by a cross, composed of interconnect patch panel. Management point of connection means to connect to other subsystems. Cross-connect and interconnect allows communication lines locate or relocate to different parts of the building to make it easier to manage communication lines, so that when the mobile terminal device easily plug. Interconnection distribution frame connections under different hardware sub-floor distribution frame (box) IDF and MDF (box) MDF, IDF can be installed on each floor of the trunk connection between, MDF is usually installed in the equipment room.4 vertical lines subsystemPurpose is to achieve the computer equipment, pabx (PBX), with the management subsystem of control center is building a connection between the main cable, routing. This is usually between two units subsystem, especially in the central point in the public system provides more line facilities. By building the system all vertical lines and more logarithmic cable support hardware, toprovide total distribution frames and main equipment room wiring between floors between the main distribution frames routing. Common medium is multi-cores cable and optical fiber cable twisted-pair.5.Equipment room subsystemThis subsystem is mainly from the devices in the cable, connectors and related hardware support, the role of the computer, PBX, cameras, monitors and other weak and connected to the interconnection of equipment up on the main distribution frame. Equipment includes computer systems, network hub (Hub), network switches (Switch), program-controlled switchboards (PBX), audio output devices, CCTV control devices and alarm control center, etc.6 Buildings subsystem (Campus):The subsystem will be extended to cable a building complex of other buildings of the communications equipment and devices, is part of a structured cabling system to support the provision of buildings in the hardware required for communication between. It consists of cables, fiber optic cable and into the Building Department, over-current over-voltage protection equipment and other related electrical hardware, commonly used medium is optical fiber. Compared with the traditional routing, integrated wiring construction as a modern information transmission system, its main advantages are: Traditional wiring specification due to lack of a unified, user must choose a variety of different application types of cables, connectors and wiring, resulting in duplication of cable laying waste, lack of flexibility and can not support the development needs of the user application re-wiring; integrated wiring system integration requirements of modern architecture transmission of voice, data, video and other information, using international standardized information interface and performance specifications, to support multi-vendor equipment and protocols to meet the rapid development of modern enterprise information application needs.Integrated wiring system, the user can according to actual needs or changing office environment, flexible and convenient way to achieve change and restructuring routes, adjusting the mode of building the network required to fully meet user business needs.Structured cabling system is the star topology wiring methods and standard interfaces, which greatly improves over all network reliability and manageability, significantly reduce system management and maintenance costs. The modular system design to provide a good system scalability and future-oriented application development support, fully guaranteed the user's investment in cabling, providing customers a long-term benefits.Cabling System can solve the traditional wiring methods exist many problems, provides long-term benefits of advanced and reliable solutions. With the rapid development of modern information technology, integrated wiring system will be indispensable to modern intelligent building infrastructure.综合布线系统现代科技的进步使计算机及网络技术飞速发展，提供越来越强大的计算机处理能力和网络通信能力。
科技文献中英文对照翻译
Human Geomatics in Urban Design—Two Case Studies在城市设计中的人类地理信息学——两个案例研究Małgorzata Hanzl1,*,Karol Dzik2,Paulina Kowalczyk2,Krystian Kwieciński2,Ewa Stankiewicz2and AgataŁ.Wierzbicka2Abstract:The mapping of different aspects of urban phenomena and their relation to thephysical cityscape has been greatly extended by the use of geomatics.The tradition to basereasoning on‗understanding the world‘dates from the time of Aristotle.The extensionplan for Barcelona(Eixample),developed by Cerdà,which opened the era of modern urbanplanning,was preceded by analyses of rich data,describing both detailed demographicissues and physical structures.The contemporary,postmodernist city planning continuesthis tradition,although a shift towards analyses of more human-related issues can beobserved,covering,inter alia,citizens‘perception,cultural differences and patterns ofhuman activities with regard to distinct social groups.The change towards a morehuman-related perspective and the inclusion of urban morphology analyses are directconsequences of this trend.The required data may be gathered within a crowd-sourcingparticipation process.According to communicative planning theory,communication withthe wider public is indispensable in order to achieve the best results,and can be realizedwith the use of sophisticated IT tools.Evidence-based reasoning may be supported byimages of significant aesthetic values,which inspire immediate reactions.Keywords:GIS;crowd-sourcing;mash-up;education;urban planning;urban analyses摘要：不同方面的城市现象及其与物理城市景观的关系映射经由地理信息学的使用已经大大扩展了。
学术英语(理工)翻译text12
Text 121、随着人们对福岛核泄漏事故的担忧日益加剧，是否有可能精确计量核辐射对健康的直接和持续性影响？以下是核辐射疾病和日本面对的其他威胁背后的科学依据。
2、3月11号，日本发生了地震和海啸。
一场强大的，震级达9.0级的大地震袭击了日本的东北部，引发了波及美国西海岸的高达10米的海啸。
以下是这场灾难背后的科学依据。
3、紧随3月11号的地震和海啸而来的福岛第一大核电站不断发展的危机引起了人们对核辐射对健康的影响的担忧：核辐射的“危险“水平是多少？辐射如何影响健康？严重且长期的低剂量辐射有什么结果？4、尽管放射性水蒸气已经被释放，减小了毁坏的复合体反应堆内的压强，而且在那的三次爆炸导致更多的辐射泄露，但是由此导致的辐射水平激增并没有持续。
迄今报道的最高辐射水平是当地时间3月15号上午10点22分在3号反应堆测量的400毫西弗特的脉冲。
（西弗特是电离辐射的单位，等同于100雷姆；雷姆是X射线和伽马射线辐射的剂量单位）随着远离事故发生点，辐射水平剧烈下降。
位于西南方向大约220km的东京的辐射水平据报道只比正常水平略高一点。
5、华盛顿大学圣路易斯分校的健康物理学家和辐射安全官员Susan nghorst 说：“我们离人们应该担心的距离水平还很远。
”6、根据研究过1986年切尔诺贝利灾难的国际放射防护委员会副主席亚伯.岗萨雷斯所言，目前来自日本的关于辐射泄露水平的信息是不完善的，而且关于“可能出现最糟糕的情况”的推测是不切题的。
7、核辐射对健康的影响取决于它的水平，类型和持续时间。
放射性水平8、普通人每年暴露在0.2到0.3毫西弗特的本底辐射之下，这是宇宙射线和来自建筑材料以及环境中自然放射性物质的辐射共同作用的结果。
9、美国核能管理委员会建议，在这个背景水平之外，公众每年接触到的核辐射量应限制在1毫西弗特之内。
美国对辐射工作人员的限制是每年50毫西弗特，不过很少有工作人员接触到的核辐射量接近这个水平。
经典翻译范文之科技篇中英文对照
中国热门科技词汇科学发展观concept of scientific development全民科学文化素质scientific and cultural qualities of the entire people发展科技scientific and technological advancement科教兴国revitalize China through science and education农业技术agricultural technology[扩展]白色农业white agriculture （microbiological agriculture and biological cell agriculture）超级杂交水稻super-hybrid rice技术下乡spreading the application of science and technology in rural areas节水农业water-saving agriculture立体农业3-D agriculture农产品加工及转化the processing and commercialization of agro-products农业科技agro-science农作物良种seeds of high-quality crop农作物新品种选育the selection and breeding of new crops生态农业environmental-friendly agriculture无土栽培soil -less cultivationBP机，传呼beeper, pager背投屏幕rear projection screen不明飞行物unidentified flying object （UFO）operating system 操作系统产品科技含量technological element of a product创新innovation电话会议teleconference电话留言机answering machine对讲机talkie and walkie多媒体multimedia二期the second phase防抱死系统ABS （anti-lock braking system）孵化器incubator高产优质high yield and high quality高技术产业化apply high technology to production高科技板块high-tech sector高科技园high-tech park个人数字助理PDA （personal digital assistant）工业园区industrial park国家质量技术监督局the State Bureau of Quality and Technical Supervision 国家重点实验室national key laboratories火炬计划Torch Program （a plan to develop new and high technology）计算机中央处理器central processing unit（CPU）技术产权technology property right技术交底confide a technological secret to someone.technology-intensive product 技术密集产品交叉学科interdisciplinary branch of science科技成果转化为生产力transfer of scientific and technological achievements into productive forces科技含量technology content科技基础设施science and technology infrastructure科技是第一生产力Science and technology constitute a primary productive force科技体制改革reform of the science and technology management system科技与经济脱节science and technology are out of line from the economy科教兴国rejuvenate the country through science and education可持续发展战略strategy of sustainable development纳米nanometer三峡水利枢纽工程the key water control project at the Three Gorges on the Yangtze River物种起源origin of species新兴学科new branch of science研究成果research results在孵企业incubated enterprises自动取款机automatic teller machine （ATM）自然科学与社会科学的交叉融合integration of natural and social sciencesIT 信息技术[扩展]信息港info port信息高地information highland信息高速公路information superhighway信息革命information revolution信息含量information content信息化informationization信息技术处理ITA - Information Technology Agreement信息检索information retri办公自动化OA （Office Automation）笔记本电脑laptop / notebook / portable computer电脑病毒computer virus电脑犯罪computer crime电子管理e-management电子货币e-currency电子商务e-business; e-commerce电子商务认证e-business certification电子邮件E-mail非对称数字用户环路ADSL （Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Loop）高速宽带互联网high-speed broadband networks公告板BBS （bulletin board system）光盘杂志CD-ROM magazine广域网WAN （wide area net word）汉字处理软件Chinese character processing softwarehacker 黑客计算机2000年问题Y2K problem计算机辅助教育CAI -computer assisted instruction计算机辅助设计CAD-computer assisted design计算机合成制造CAM-computer assisted manufacturing计算机中央处理器CPU - central processing unit超文本传送协议hypertext transfer protocol （HTTP）界面interface金融电子化computerized financial services局域网LAN - local area network互联网服务提供商ISP （Internet Service Provider）全球移动通信系统（全球通）global system for mobile communications （GSM）刻录机CD burner宽带接入broadband access宽带网broadband networks内联网、局域网（计算机）Intranet垃圾邮件junk mail千年问题、千年虫millennium bug; Y2K bug人工智能AI - artificial intelligence人机交互human - computer interaction人机交互human-computer interaction虚拟人visual humanvirtual net 虚拟网虚拟网virtual net虚拟现实virtual reality虚拟银行virtual bank因特网服务提供商ISP- internet service provider万维网World Wide Web（WWW）应用软件internet applications域名domain在线on line掌上电脑palm computer政府上网工程Government Online Project只读存储器read-only-memory （ROM）智能感知技术perceptive technology智能终端intelligent terminal中文信息处理系统Chinese information processing system 数码科技digital technology高保真Hi-Fi （High Fidelity）高清晰度电视high definition TV （HDTV）光谷optical valley光通讯optical communication蓝光光盘Blue -ray Disc数码港cyber portdigital globe 数字地球数字蜂窝移动通信digital cellular mobile telecommunications三维电影three-dimensional movie三维动画three-dimensional animation[详析] “蓝光光盘”利用蓝色的激光束来刻录数据。
Unit12文献阅读与翻译第12章
(3) Translated into Chinese Adverbial Clauses of Condition
Turn off the switch when anything goes wrong with the machine.
如果机器发生故障，就把电门关上。
Translation Skills(12): Subordinate Clauses(c) Adverbial Clauses
Adverbial clauses
English adverbial clauses include adverbials of time, place, cause, condition, concession, purpose, result, and so on. Generally speaking, these adverbial clauses do not pose any obstacle to either comprehension or translation, and the point is how to conform the translations to Chinese usage, especially how to arrange them properly. And another point for attention is how to omit the unnecessary conjunctive words when English adverbial clauses are translated into Chinese.
(1)她不老实，我不能信任她。
Since she is not honest, I cannot trust her.
翻译概论 第十二章 翻译策略和方法
归化与异化 异化翻译法（或异化法）（Foreignizing
Translation or Minoritizing Translation）和归化翻译 法（或归化法）（Domesticating Translation or Domestication）是美国翻译理论家Lawrence Venuti 创造的、用来描写翻译策略的两个术语。异化翻 译法是故意使译文冲破目的语常规，保留原文中 的异国情调。Venuti把异化翻译法归因于十九世纪 德国 不惊动原作者，让读者向他靠近”。 Schleiermacher本人是赞同采用异化法的。Venuti 指出，在盲目自大地使用单语、并把归化翻译法 作为标准的文化社会（例如英美社会）中，应提 倡异化翻译法。
异化翻译法包括以下特点：（1）不完全遵循目的语语言与语篇规范； （2）在适当的时候选择不通顺、艰涩难懂的文体；（3）有意保留源 语中的实观材料或采用目的语中的古词语；（4）目的是为目的语读 者提供一次“前所未有的阅读经验”。
归化翻译法旨在尽量减少译文中的异国情调，为目的语读者提供一种 自然流畅的译文。Venuti 认为，归化法源于这一著名翻译论说，“尽 量不干扰读者，请作者向读者靠近”。然而，对Venuti来说，归化法 带有贬义，因为归化法实际上体现了主导文化社会中常见的政策，即 “盲目自大地使用单语，把外来文化拒于门外”。
第十二章 翻译策略和方法
我国在八十年代初出版的统编翻译教程（即张培 基等编著的教程），主要是讲述常用的翻译方法 与技巧，其中包括：词义的选择、引伸和褒贬； 词类转译法；增词法；重复法；省略法；正反、 反正表达法，分句、合句法；被动语态的译法； 名词从句的译法；定语从句的译法；状语从句的 译法；长句的译法，和习语、拟声词、外来词语 等特别语词的译法等。
科技外文文献译文
流动的：一个快速的，多平台的开放源码的同步化多媒体整合语言唱机Dick C.A. Bulterman, Jack Jansen, Kleanthis Kleanthous, Kees Blom and Daniel Benden CWI: Centrum voor Wiskunde en InformaticaKruislaan 4131098 SJ Amsterdam, The Netherlands+31 20 592 43 00Dick.Bulterman@cwi.nl摘要：本文概述了一个出现在早期的流动性的同步化多媒体唱机。
不同于其它同步化的实现，早期的播放器是一个可重组的同步化引擎，可以定制作为一个实验媒体播放器的核心。
同步化唱机是一个引用了同步化多媒体引擎并可以集成在一个广泛的媒体播放器的项目。
本文是以我们要创造一个新的同步化引擎为动机的综述开始的。
然后论述的是早期媒体播放器的核心架构（包括可扩展性，播放器自定义的集成装置）。
我们以一个关于我们在windows，Mac，Linux版本应用于台式机以及PDA设备上实施流动性例子的体验的讨论结束。
类别和主题描述符：H.5.2 多媒体的信息系统。
H.5.4 超级文本/超级媒体。
一般词汇：试验，性能，验证。
关键词：同步化多媒体整合语言，唱机，公开源代码，演示。
1.动机：早期公开的同步化媒体播放器是一个非常有特色的公开源代码的同步化 2.0播放器，它以研究团体的意图被使用（在我们的研究团体内外）目的是为了研究项目的团体在需要源代码的时候可以访问生产特性的同步化播放器的网站。
它也被用作一个独立的不需要专有的媒体格式的同步化播放器使用，播放器支持一系列同步化2.0配置文件（包括台式机和移动的配置）可以被分配利用在Linux，Macintosh，windows系统的台式机，PDA设备和掌上电脑。
同时现存的几个同步化播放器，包括网络视频播放软件,IE浏览器,小型同步化播放器, GRiNS ,X- GRiNS ，以及各种各样专有移动设备，我们发展流动性唱机有三个原因：准许制作数字以及个人或者课堂使用中的的全部硬拷贝即时没有提供拷贝权限或者商业性的利益分摊，而且在第一页有这种拷贝的注意事项。
英文科技文献以及翻译
科技翻译原文题目：Struts In Action译文题目：支杆的应用指导教师：邱保志职称：教授学生姓名：郑豪学号：20137670459专业：计算机科学与技术（软件方向）院（系）：信息工程学院完成时间：2017年5月30日Struts In Action1What is struts (2)2Who makes the Struts software (2)2.1Why is Struts open source (2)2.2Why is it called Struts (3)3What are application frameworks (3)3.1Other types of frameworks (3)3.2Enabling technologies (4)3.2.1Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTP) (4)3.2.2Common Gateway Interface(CGI) (5)3.2.3Java servlets (6)3.2.4JavaServer Pages (6)3.3Enabling technologies11 (7)3.4.1JSP tags (7)3.4.1JavaBeans (8)3.4Enabling technologies111 (9)4Struts from30,000feet (10)1What is strutsStruts is open source software that helps developers build web applicationsquickly and easily.Struts relies on standard technologies—such as JavaBeans,Javaservlets,and Java Server Pages(JSP)—that most developers already know how touse.By taking a standards-based,“fill-in-the-blanks”approach to software development,Struts can alleviate much of the time-consuming grunt work that comeswith every new project.2Who makes the Struts softwareStruts is hosted by the Apache Software Foundation(ASF)as part of its Jakartaproject. Besides Struts,Jakarta hosts several successful open source products,including Tomcat, Ant,and Velocity.The initial Struts codebase was developed between May2000and June 2001when version1.0was released.More than30developers contributed to the Struts distribution,and thousands more follow the Struts mailing lists.The Struts codebase is managed by a team of volunteer“Committers.”By2002,the Struts team included nine active Committers.The primary architect and developer of the Struts framework is Craig R.McClanahan.Craig is also the primary architect of Tomcat4and the implementationarchitect of the Java Web Services Developer Pack.He is now Sun’s specification lead for JavaServer Faces(JSR-127)as well as the Web Layer Architect for the Java2Enterprise Edition(J2EE)platform.Struts is available to the public at no charge under the Apache Software License[ASF,License].There are no acquisition or other recurring costs for using the software.Unlike some other open source licenses,the Apache Software License is business-friendly.You can use Struts to create a commercial project and distribute the Struts binary without any red tape,fees,or other hassles.You can also integrate the Struts components into your own framework just as if they were written in-house.For complete details,see the Apache Software License at/LICENSE.2.1Why is Struts open sourceMost of the leading Java utilities and frameworks are now open source projects.Many of the developers working on these projects do so as part of their regular jobs with companies like IBM,Sun Microsystems,and Apple.Collaborating openly on this type of software benefits the entire marketplace.Today,many open source components are integrated into commercial panies then sell professional documentation, guaranteed support levels,and other valuable aftermarket services to their clients.When software is freely available,it becomes much easier for the marketplace to support.Strutsis a prime example of this.Although still a youngster,it has already been featured in dozens of articles and seminars,not to mention books like this one.Many development teams do not like to use software that was not“invented”in-house.Open source components provide all the benefits of writing the same software in-house but do not lock you into a proprietary solution that only your team understands.Open source frameworks are a win-win for everyone.2.2Why is it called StrutsThe framework is called“Struts”to remind us of the invisible underpinnings that hold up our houses,buildings,bridges,and,indeed,ourselves when we are on stilts.This is an excellent description of the role Struts plays in developing web applications.When raising physical structures,construction engineers use struts to provide support for each floor of a building.Likewise,software engineers use Struts to support each layer of a business application.3What are application frameworksA framework is a reusable,semi-complete application that can be specialized to produce custom applications[Johnson].Like people,software applications are more alike than they are different.They run on the same computers,expect input from the same devices, output to the same displays,and save data to the same hard disks.Developers working on conventional desktop applications are accustomed to toolkits and development environments that leverage the sameness between applications.Application frameworks build on this common ground to provide developers with a reusable structure that can serve as the foundation for their own products.A framework provides developers with a set of backbone components that have the following characteristics:_They are known to work well in other applications._They are ready to use with the next project._They can also be used by other teams in the organization.Frameworks are the classic build-versus-buy proposition.If you build it,you will understand it when you are done—but how long will it be before you can roll your own?If you buy it,you will have to climb the learning curve—and how long is that going to take? There is no right answer here,but most observers would agree that frameworks such as Struts provide a significant return on investment compared to starting from scratch, especially for larger projects.3.1Other types of frameworksThe idea of a framework applies not only to applications but to application components as well.Throughout this book,we introduce other types of frameworks that you can use withStruts.These include the Lucene search engine,the Scaffold toolkit,the Struts validator, and the Tiles tag library.Like application frameworks,these tools provide semi-complete versions of a subsystem that can be specialized to provide a custom component.Some frameworks have been linked to a proprietary development environment.This is not the case with Struts or any of the other frameworks shown in this book.You can use any development environment with Struts:Visual Age for Java,JBuilder,Eclipse,Emacs,and Textpad are all popular choices among Struts developers.If you can use it with Java,you can use it with Struts.3.2Enabling technologiesApplications developed with Struts are based on a number of enabling technologies.These components are not specific to Struts and underlie every Java web application.A reason that developers use frameworks like Struts is to hide the nasty details behind acronyms like HTTP,CGI,and JSP.As a Struts developer,you don’t need to be an alphabet soup guru,but a working knowledge of these base technologies can help you devise creative solutions to tricky problems.3.2.1Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTP)When mediating talks between nations,diplomats often follow a formalprotocol.Diplomatic protocols are designed to avoid misunderstandings and to keep negotiations from breaking down.In a similar vein,when computers need to talk,they also follow a formal protocol.The protocol defines how data is transmitted and how to decode it once it arrives.Web applications use the Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTP)to move data between the browser running on your computer and the application running on the server.Many server applications communicate using protocols other than HTTP.Some of these maintain an ongoing connection between the computers.The application server knows exactly who is connected at all times and can tell when a connection is dropped. Because they know the state of each connection and the identity of each person using it, these are known as stateful protocols.By contrast,HTTP is known as a stateless protocol. An HTTP server will accept any request from any client and will always provide some type of response,even if the response is just to say no.Without the overhead of negotiating and retaining a connection,stateless protocols can handle a large volume of requests. This is one reason why the Internet has been able to scale to millions ofcomputers.Another reason HTTP has become the universal standard is its simplicity.An HTTP request looks like an ordinary text document.This has made it easy for applications to make HTTP requests.You can even send an HTTP request by hand using a standard utility such as Telnet.When the HTTP response comes back,it is also in plain text that developers can read.The first line in the HTTP request contains the method,followed by the location of the requested resource and the version of HTTP.Zero or more HTTP request headers follow the initial line.The HTTP headers provide additional information to the server.This can include the browser type and version,acceptable document types,and the browser’s cookies,just to name a few.Of the seven request methods,GET and POST are by far the most popular.Once the server has received and serviced the request, it will issue an HTTP response.The first line in the response is called the status line and carries the HTTP protocol version,a numeric status,and a brief description of the status. Following the status line,the server will return a set of HTTP response headers that work in a way similar to the request headers.As we mentioned,HTTP does not preserve state information between requests.The server logs the request,sends the response,and goes blissfully on to the next request.While simple and efficient,a stateless protocol is problematic for dynamic applications that need to keep track of their users.(Ignorance is not always bliss.)Cookies and URL rewriting are two common ways to keep track of users between requests.A cookie is a special packet of information on the user’s computer.URL rewriting stores a special reference in the page address that a Java server can use to track users.Neither approach is seamless,and using either means extra work when developing a web application.On its own,a standard HTTP web server does not traffic in dynamic content.It mainly uses the request to locate a file and then returns that file in the response.The file is typically formatted using Hypertext Markup Language(HTML)[W3C, HTML]that the web browser can format and display.The HTML page often includes hypertext links to other web pages and may display any number of other goodies,such as images and videos.The user clicks a link to make another request,and the process begins anew.Standard web servers handle static content and images quite well but need a helping hand to provide users with a customized,dynamic response.DEFINITION Static content on the Web comes directly from text or data files,like HTML or JPEG files.These files might be changed from time to time,but they are not altered automatically when requested by a web browser.Dynamic content,on the other hand,is generated on the fly,typically in response to an individualized request from a browser.3.2.2Common Gateway Interface(CGI)The first widely used standard for producing dynamic content was the Common Gateway Interface(CGI).CGI uses standard operating system features,such as environment variables and standard input and output,to create a bridge,or gateway,between the web server and other applications on the host machine.The other applications can look at the request sent to them by the web server and create a customized response.When a web server receives a request that’s intended for a CGI program,it runs that program and provides the program with information from the incoming request.The CGI program runs and sends its output back to the server.The web server then relays the response to the browser.CGI defines a set of conventions regarding what information it will pass as environment variables and how it expects standard input and output to be used.Like HTTP, CGI is flexible and easy to implement,and a great number of CGI-awareprograms have been written.The main drawback to CGI is that it must run a new copy of the CGI-aware program for each request.This is a relatively expensive process that can bog down high-volume sites where thousands of requests are serviced per minute. Another drawback is that CGI programs tend to be platform dependent.A CGI program written for one operating system may not run on another.3.2.3Java servletsSun’s Java Servlet platform directly addresses the two main drawbacks of CGI programs.First,servlets offer better performance and utilization of resources than conventional CGI programs.Second,the write-once,run-anywhere nature of Java means that servlets are portable between operating systems that have a Java Virtual Machine (JVM).A servlet looks and feels like a miniature web server.It receives a request and renders a response.But,unlike conventional web servers,the servlet application programming interface(API)is specifically designed to help Java developers create dynamic applications.The servlet itself is simply a Java class that has been compiled into byte code,like any other Java object.The servlet has access to a rich API of HTTP-specific services,but it is still just another Java object running in an application and can leverage all your other Java assets.To give conventional web servers access to servlets,the servlets are plugged into containers.The servlet container is attached to the web server. Each servlet can declare what URL patterns it would like to handle.When a request matching a registered pattern arrives,the web server passes the request to the container, and the container invokes the servlet.But unlike CGI programs,a new servlet is not created for each request.Once the container instantiates the servlet,it will just create a new thread for each request.Java threads are much less expensive than the server processes used by CGI programs.Once the servlet has been created,using it for additional requests incursn very little overhead.Servlet developers can use the init() method to hold references to expensive resources,such as database connections or EJB Home Interfaces,so that they can be shared between requests.Acquiring resources like these can take several seconds—which is longer than many surfers are willing to wait.The other edge of the sword is that,since servlets are multithreaded,servlet developers must take special care to be sure their servlets are thread-safe.To learn more about servlet programming,we recommend Java Servlets by Example,by Alan R.Williamson [Williamson].The definitive source for Servlet information is the Java Servlet Specification [Sun,JST].3.2.4JavaServer PagesWhile Java servlets are a big step up from CGI programs,they are not a panacea.To generate the response,developers are still stuck with using println statements to render the HTML.Code that looks likeout.println("<P>One line of HTML.</P>");out.println("<P>Another line of HTML.</P>");is all too common in servlets that generate the HTTP response.There are libraries that can help you generate HTML,but as applications grow more complex,Java developers end up being cast into the role of HTML page designers.Meanwhile,given the choice,most project managers prefer to divide development teams into specialized groups.They like HTML designers to be working on the presentation while Java engineers sweat the business ing servlets alone encourages mixing markup with business logic,making itdifficult for team members to specialize.To solve this problem,Sun turned to the idea of using server pages to combine scripting and templating technologies into a single component.To build Java-Server Pages,developers start by creating HTML pages in the same old way,using the same old HTML syntax.To bring dynamic content into the page, the developer can also place JSP scripting elements on the page.Scripting elements are tags that encapsulate logic that is recognized by the JSP.You can easily pick out scripting elements on JSP pages by looking for code that begins with<%and ends with%>.For instance,to display the last modified date on the page,the developer would place the following code in the page:<B>This page was accessed at<%=new Date()%></B>There are three different types of scripting elements:expressions,scriptlets,and declarations,as shown in table1.1.Table1.1JSP scripting elementsElement PurposeExpressions Java code,bound by<%=and%>,used to evaluate Java language statements andinsert the result into the servlet’s outputScriptlets Java code,bound by<%and%>,often used to create dynamic content Declarations Java code,bound by<%!and%>,used to add code to the body of the servlet class3.3Enabling technologies11To be seen as a JSP page,the file just needs to be saved with an extension of.jsp.When a client requests the JSP page,the container translates the page into a source code file for a Java servlet and compiles the source into a Java class file—just as you would do if you were writing a servlet from scratch.At runtime,the container can also check the last modified date of the JSP file against the class file.If the JSP file has changed since it was last compiled,the container will retranslate and rebuild the page all over again.Project managers can now assign the presentation layer to HTML developers,who then pass on their work to Java developers to complete the business-logic portion.The important thing to remember is that a JSP page is really just a servlet.Anything you can do with a servlet, you can do with a JSP.3.3.1JSP tagsScripting elements are only one of the two ways to generate dynamic JSP content. Scriptlets are quick,easy,and powerful but require that developers mix Java code with HTML.Experience has taught us that embedding logic into JSP pages leads tonon-maintainable applications with minimal opportunity for reuse.A popular alternative is to use JSP tags.JSP tags are mixed in with the HTML markup and can be used as if they were ordinary HTML tags.A single JSP tag may represent dozens of Java statements,but all the developer needs to know is to how to insert the tag.The programming code is hidden away in a Java class file.To use the same code on another page,the developer only has to insert the tag markup again.If the code for the tag changes,all the tags willautomatically use the updated version.The JSP page using the tag does not need to be revised.JSP tags provide much better reuse than scriptlets and can be easier for page developersJSPs vs.ASPsMicrosoft and Sun both offer their own brand of server pages.Sun offers JavaServer Pages and Microsoft offers Active Server Pages(ASP).Both JSP s and ASPs are designed so that developers can create dynamic web pages customized with back-office data.While similar on the surface,there are several differenc es between ASP s and JSP s:_ JSP s are platform independent—write once,run anywhere._Developers have input to the direction of JSP s through the Java Community Process(JCP)._JSP developers can extend the JSP tag set with custom tags._JavaBeans and Enterprise JavaBeans(EJB)can be used with JSP s to increase reusability and reduce maintenance._JSPs can access many other Java libraries,including Java Database Connectivity(JDBC),Java Mail,Java Message Service(JMS),and Java Naming and Directory Interface(JNDI)._JSP s are compiled into a binary class file and do not need to be interpreted for every request._JSP s find wide support with tool vendors,containers,and web servers.to use, since they look like the familiar HTML tags.A number of prebuilt JSP tags libraries are available that will perform useful functionality for developers.Among these is the new JSP Standard Tag Library(JSTL).This new standard provides a rich library of reusable JSP tags.For more on JSTL,we highly recommend JSTL in Action,by Shawn Bayern[Bayern]. Struts works well with JSTL and other publicly available tag libraries,as well as any you might write yourself.For more on JSP and JSP pages,we highly recommend Web Development with JavaServer Pages,by Duane K.Fields,Mark A.Kolb,and Shawn Bayern[Fields].The definitive source for JSP information is the JavaServer Pages Specification[Sun,JSP].JSP pages are an integral part of the Struts developer’s toolbox. Most Struts developers use JSP pages and custom tags to create all the dynamic content for their applications.3.3.2JavaBeansJavaBeans are Java classes which conform to a set of design patterns that make them easier to use with development tools and other components.DEFINITION A JavaBean is a reusable software component written in Java.To qualify as a JavaBean,the class must be concrete and public,and have a noargument constructor. JavaBeans expose internal fields as properties by providing public methods that follow a consistent design pattern.Knowing that the property names follow this pattern,other Java classes are able to use introspection to discover and manipulate JavaBean properties. Rolling your own1Create a class that implementsjavax.servlet.jsp.tagext.TagSupportor javax.servlet.jsp.tagext.BodyTagSupport by implementing the doStart()or doEnd()method.These methods obtain a JspWriter object to write out any valid HTML content you need.2Create a tag library descriptor(TLD)file to map the classes you just created to a JSP tag name.3Define your<taglib>elements in the web application descriptor file(web.xml).Tell the JSP page that you will be using your tags by placing a@taglib statement at the top of the page:<%@taglib uri="/tags/app.tld prefix="app"%>4This statement imports the library for use on this page and assigns it a tag prefix.For more,see the JSP Tag Library technology page.3.4Enabling technologies111The JavaBean design patterns provide access to the bean’s internal state through two flavors of methods:accessors are used to read a JavaBean’s state;mutators are used to change a JavaBean’s state.Mutators are always prefixed with lowercase token set followed by the property name.The first character in the property name must be uppercase.The return value is always void—mutators only change property values;they do not retrieve them.The mutator for a simple property takes only one parameter in its signature,which can be of any type.Mutators are often nicknamed setters after their prefix.The mutator method signature for a weight property of the type Double would be public void setWeight(Double weight)A similar design pattern is used to create the accessor method signature.Accessor methods are always prefixed with the lowercase token get,followed by the property name.The first character in the property name must be uppercase.The return value will match the method parameter in the corresponding mutator.Accessors for simple properties cannot accept parameters in their method signature.Not surprisingly, accessors are often called getters.The accessor method signature for our weight property is public Double getWeight()If the accessor returns a logical value,there is a variant pattern. Instead of using the lowercase token get,a logical property can use the prefix is,followed by the property name.The first character in the property name must be uppercase.The return value will always be a logical value—either boolean or Boolean.Logical accessors cannot accept parameters in their method signature.The boolean accessor method signature for an on property would be public boolean isOn()The canonical method signatures play an important role when working with Java-Beans.Other components are able to use the Java Reflection API to discover a JavaBean’s properties by looking for methods prefixed by set,is,or get.If a component finds such a signature on a JavaBean,it knows that the method can be used to access or change the bean’s properties.Sun introduced JavaBeans to work with GUI components,but they are now used with every aspect of Java development,including web applications.When Sun engineers developed the JSP tag extension classes,they designed them to work with JavaBeans.The dynamic data for a page can be passed as a JavaBean,and the JSP tag can then use the bean’s properties to customize the output.For more on JavaBeans,we highly recommend The Awesome Power of JavaBeans,by Lawrence H.Rodrigues[Rodrigues].The definitive source for JavaBean information is the JavaBean Specification[Sun,JBS].Model2The0.92release of the Servlet/JSP Specification described Model2as an architecture that uses servlets and JSP pages together in the same application.The term Model2 disappeared from later releases,but it remains in popular use among Java web developers.Under Model2,servlets handle the data access and navigational flow,while JSP pages handle the presentation.Model2lets Java engineers and HTML developers each work on their own part of the application.A change in one part of a Model2 application does not mandate a change to another part of the application.HTML developers can often change the look and feel of an application without changing how the back-office servlets work.The Struts framework is based on the Model2architecture.It provides a controller servlet to handle the navigational flow and special classes to helpwith the data access.A substantial custom tag library is bundled with the framework to make Struts easy to use with JSP pages.4Struts from30,000feetHold on to your hats!Now that we’ve covered the basics,it’s time for a whirlwind tour of Struts.Before we try to get into the nuts and bolts of the framework components,let’s start with the big picture.Struts uses a Model2architecture.The Struts ActionServlet controls the navigational flow.Another Struts class,the Action,is used to access the business classes.When the ActionServlet receives a request from the container,it uses the URI(or “path”)to determine which Action it will use to handle the request.An Action can validate input and access the business layer to retrieve information from databases and other data services.To validate input or use the input to update a database,the Action needs to know what values were submitted.Rather than force each Action to pull these values out of the request,the ActionServlet bundles the input into a JavaBean.The input beans are subclasses of the Struts ActionForm class.The ActionServlet can determine which ActionForm to use by looking at the path of the request,in Struts from30,000feet15the same way the Action was selected.An ActionForm extendsorg.apache.struts.action.ActionForm.Each HTTP request must be answered with an HTTP ually,a Struts Action does not render the response itself but forwards the request on to another resource,such as a JSP page.Struts provides an ActionForward class that can be used to store the path to a page under a logical name.When it has completed the business logic,the Action selects and returns an ActionForward to the servlet.The servlet then uses the path stored in the ActionForward object to call the page and complete the response.Struts bundles these details together into an ActionMapping object.Each ActionMapping is related to a specific path.When that path is requested,the servlet retrieves the ActionMapping object.The mapping tells the servlet which Actions, ActionForms,and ActionForwards to use.All of these details,the Actions,ActionForms, ActionForwards,ActionMappings,and some other things,are declared in thestruts-config.xml file.The Action-Servlet reads this file at startup and creates a database of configuration objects.At runtime,Struts refers to the objects created with the configuration file,not the file itself.Figure1.illustrates how these components fit together.Believe it or not,you already know enough about Struts to assemble a simple application.It won’t do much,but it will illustrate how Struts actually works.Figure1Struts from30,000feetBelieve it or not,you already know enough about Struts to assemble a simple application. It won’t do much,but it will illustrate how Struts actually works.。
英文科技文献及翻译
外文翻译DC GENENRATORS1. INTRODUCTIONFor all practical purposes, the direct-current generator is only used for special applications and local dc power generation. This limitation is due to the commutator required to rectify the internal generated ac voltage, thereby making largescale dc power generators not feasible.Consequently, all electrical energy produced commercially is generated and distributed in the form of three-phase ac power. The use of solid state converters nowadays makes conversion to dc economical. However, the operating characteristics of dc generators are still important, because most concepts can be applied to all other machines.2. FIELD WINDING CONNECTIONSThe general arrangement of brushes and field winding for a four-pole machine is as shown in Fig.1. The four brushes ride on the commutator. The positive brusher are connected to terminal A1 while the negative brushes are connected to terminal A2 of the machine. As indicated in the sketch, the brushes are positioned approximately midway under the poles. They make contact with coils that have little or no EMF induced in them, since their sides are situated between poles.Figure 1 Sketch of four-pole dc matchineThe four excitation or field poles are usually joined in series and their ends brought out to terminals marked F1 and F2. They are connected such that they produce north and south poles alternately.The type of dc generator is characterized by the manner in which the fieldexcitation is provided. In general, the method employed to connect the field and armature windings falls into the following groups (see Fig.2):Figure2 Field connections for dc generators:(a)separately excited generator;(b)self-excited,shunt generator;(c)series generator;(d)compound generator;short-shunt connection;(e)compoundgenerator,long-shunt connection.The shunt field contains many turns of relatively fine wire and carries a comparatively small current, only a few percent of rated current. The series field winding, on the other hand, has few turns of heavy wire since it is in series with the armature and therefore carries the load current.Before discussing the dc generator terminal characteristics, let us examine the relationship between the generated voltage and excitation current of a generator on no load. The generated EMF is proportional to both the flux per pole and the speed at which the generator is driven, EG=kn. By holding the speed constant it can be shown the EG depends directly on the flux. To test this dependency on actual generators is not very practical, as it involves a magnetic flux measurement. The flux is produced by the ampere-turns of the field coils: in turn, the flux must depend on the amount of field current flowing since the number of turns on the field winding is constant. This relationship is not linear because of magnetic saturation after the field current reaches a certain value. The variation of EG versus the field current If may be shown by a curve known as the magnetization curve or open-circuit characteristic. For this a given generator is driven at a constant speed, is not delivering load current, and has its fieldwinding separately excited.The value of EG appearing at the machine terminals is measured as If is progressively increased from zero to a value well above rated voltage of that machine. The resulting curve is shown is Fig.3. When Ij=0, that is, with the field circuit open circuited, a small voltage Et is measured, due to residual magnetism. As the field current increases, the generated EMF increases linearly up to the knee of the magnetization curve. Beyond this point, increasing the field current still further causes saturation of the magnetic structure to set in.Figure 3 Magnetization curve or open-circuit characteristic of a separately excited dc machine The means that a larger increase in field current is required to produce a given increase in voltage.Since the generated voltage EG is also directly proportional to the speed, a magnetization curve can be drawn for any other speed once the curve is determined. This merely requires an adjustment of all points on the curve according ton n x E E G G ''where the quantities values at the various speeds.3. VOLTAGE REGULATIONLet us next consider adding a load on generator. The terminal voltage will then decrease (because the armature winding ha resistance) unless some provision is made to keep it constant. A curve that shows the value of terminal voltage for various load currents is called the load or characteristic of the generator.Figure 4 (a) directs current it to urge the generator load characteristics; (b) circuit diagramFig.4 shows the external characteristic of a separately excited generator. The decrease in the terminal voltage is due mainly to the armature circuit resistance RA. In general,A A G t R I E V -=where Vt is the terminal voltage and IA is the armature current (or load current IL) supplied by the generator to the load.Another factor that contributes to the decrease in terminal voltage is the decrease in flux due to armature reaction. The armature current established an MMF that distorts the main flux, resulting in a weakened flux, especially in noninterpole machines. This effect is called armature reaction. As Fig.4 shows, the terminal voltage versus load current curve does not drop off linearly since the iron behaves nonlinear. Because armature reaction depends on the armature current it gives the curve its drooping characteristic.4. SHUNT OR SELF-EXCIITED GENRATORSA shunt generator has its shunt field winding connected in parallel with the armature so that the machine provides its own excitation, as indicated in Fig.5. The question arises whether the machine will generate a voltage and what determines the voltage.For voltage to “build up ” as it is called, there must be some remanent magnetism in the field poles. Ordinarily, if the generator has been used previously, there will be some remanent magnetism. We have seen in Section 3 that if the field would be disconnected, there will be small voltage Ef generated due to this remanent magnetism, provided that the generator is driven at some speed. Connecting the field for self-excitation, this small voltage will be applied to the shunts field and drive a small current through the field circuit. If this resulting small current in the shunt field is of such a direction that it weakens the residual flux, the voltage remains near zeroand the terminal voltage does not build up. In this situation the weak main pole flux opposes the residual flux.Figure 5 Shunt generator:(a)circuit;(b)load characteristicIf the connection is such that the weak main pole flux aids the residual flux, the induced voltage increases rapidly to a large, constant value. The build-up process is readily seen to be cumulanve. That is, more voltage increases the field current, which in turn increases the voltage, and so on. The fact that this process terminates at a finite voltage is due to the nonlinear behavior of the magnctic circuit. In steady state the generated voltage is causes a field current to flow that is just sufficient to develop a flux required for the generated EMF that causes the field current to flow.The circuit carries only dc current, so that the field current depends only on the field circuit resistance, Rf. This may consist of the field circuit resistance Rf, the field current depends on the generated voltage in accordance with Ohm ’s law.It should be evident that on a new machine or one that has lost its residual flux because of a long idle period, some magnetism must be created. This is usually done by connecting the field winding only to a separate dc source for a few seconds. This procedure is generally known as flashing the field.Series GeneratorsAs mentioned previously, the field winding of a series generator is in series with the armature. Since it carries the load current the series field winding consists of only a few turns of thick wire. At no load, the generated voltage is small due to residual field flux only. When a load is added, the flux increases, and so does the generated voltage. Fig.7 shows the load characteristic of a series generator driven at a certain speed. The dashed line indicates the generated EMF of the same machine with the armature open-circuited and the field separately excited. The difference between the two curves is simply the IR drop in the series field and armature winding, such that)(S A A G t R R I E V +-=where RS is the series field winding resistance.Figure 7 Series generator: (a)circuit diagram;(b)load characteristicsCompound Generators The compound generator has both a shunt and a series field winding, the latter winding wound on top of the shunt winding. Fig.8 shows the circuit diagram. The two windings are usually connected such that their ampere-turns act in the same direction. As such the generator is said to be cumulatively compounded.The shunt connection illustrated in Fig.8 is called a long shunt connection. If the shunt field winding is directly connected across the armature terminals, the connection is referred to as a short shunt. In practice the connection used is of little consequence, since the shunt field winding carries a small current compared to the full-load current. Furthermore, the number of turns on the series field winding. This implies it has a low resistance value and the corresponding voltage drop across it at full load is minimal.Curves in Fig.9 represents the terminal characteristic of the shunt field winding alone. By the addition of a small series field winding the drop in terminal voltage with increased loading is reduced as indicated. Such a generator is said to be undercompounded. By increasing the number of series turns, the no-load and full-load terminal voltage can be made equal; the generator is then said to be flatcompounded. If the number of series turns is more than necessary to compensate for the voltage drop, the generator is overcome pounded. In that case the full-load voltage is higher than the no-load voltage.Figure 9 Terminal characteristics of compound generators compared with that of the shunt generatorThe overcompounded generator may be used in instances where the load is at some distance from the generator. The voltage drops in the feeder lines are the compensated for with increased loading. Reversing the polarity of the series field in relation to the shunt field, the fields will oppose each other more and more as the load current increase. Such a generator is said to be differentially compounded. It is used in applications where feeder lines could occur approaching those of a short circuit. An example would be where feeder lines could break and short circuit the generator. The short-circuit current, however, is then limited to a “safe”value. The terminal characteristic for this type of generator is also shown in Fig.9. Compound generators are used more extensively than the other types because they may be designed to have a wide varity of terminal characteristics.As illustrated, the full-load terminal voltage can be maintained at the no-load value by the proper degree of compounding. Other methods of voltage control are the use of rheostats, for instance, in the field circuit. However, with changing loads it requires a constant adjustment of the field rheostat to maintain the voltage. A more useful arrangement, which is now common practice, is to use an automatic voltage regulator with the generator. In essence, the voltage regulator is a feedback control system. The generator output voltage is sensed and compared to a fixed reference voltage deviation from the reference voltage gives an error signal that is fed to a power amplifier. The power amplifier supplies the field excitation current. If the error signal is positive, for example, the output voltage is larger than desired and the amplifier will reduce its current drive. In doing so the error signal will be reduced to zero.中文翻译直流发电机1.介绍对于所有实际目的来说，直流发电机仅用于特殊场合和地方性发电厂。
科技文献的翻译
Therefore, electroplating on titanium and its alloys may greatly strengthen the superficial properties of the material, enlarging its scope of application. This undoubtedly opens up broad possibility for the superior property of titanium material, so that the space and aeronautic undertaking can be pushed forward. （去除译文中的划线部分）
本文在总结分析前人工 作的基础上，对河流生 态环境需水理论体系做 了初步探讨。
Therefore, based on the analysis and summary of the previous studies, this paper carried out an in-depth study on the theory systems of eco-environmental water requirements of river.
改译：To our great surprise, the only building that survived the violent earthquake was one of brick and wood structure.
其次，所谓清晰就是指要 把原文的意思充分而清楚 的表达出来。为实现这一 目标，译者可以使用下列 方法： 加词法；非谓语结 构法
目前，河流生态环境需水量研究 正处于起步阶段，对河流生态环 境需水量的概念及其内涵、河流 生态环境需水量的确定原则与计 算方法、需水量的保证措施与途 经等，都有待于广泛深入研究。
科技文献检索翻译
《科技文献检索》这门课程是我接触到的一门不同感觉的课程，它的课时也比较少，所以这门课程给我的第一感觉就是上起来应该比较轻松。
但是，在通过这门课程的学习后，我才发现它真正的意义。
它是一门实践性非常强的课程，可以加强我们对文献检索基本原理的理解、让我更熟悉自己专业的信息资源，同时还能掌握图书馆的检索方法。
虽然仅仅只是几节课的学习，这门课程便深化了我的信息意识。
在此之前，对本专业的学习，我主要都是阅读教材和图书馆的书籍，虽然一直觉得图书资源很不错，但是学习了这门课程后发现电子文献检索更加的方便快捷。
而且它的信息量也特别的大。
同时通过上机操作，使我轻松地掌握了获取和利用自己专业及专业相关的电子文献信息资源的基本方法，因而大大的提高了我的学习效率。
记得在大三时完成《自动化专业英语》选修课的一篇论文我花了将近一周的时间才收集整理好满足老师要求字数的材料，而如今，我可以用不到一个下午的时间便能保质保量地完成了。
再者，这门课程主要是自学和自己动手操作，所以它不但可以提高了我的动手能力还考察了我的细心、耐心以及自觉性。
最后，对于一个即将毕业的大四学生来说，接下来将会面对更多有难度的学习任务，所以光靠教材和老师的指导是远远不够的，大多数时候我们都是要靠自己收集资料。
比如说像课程设计、第二实践以及毕业论文等等，不但需要的信息量大而且还要很专业，但在通过科技文献检索这门课程的学习后，我丝毫不用担心这个问题，我可以快速地从众多的文献中准确挑选出符合自己专业的资料，绝对可以起到事半功倍的效果。
同时通过对文献检索的学习，可以大大增加我的知识量和扩大我的知识面，所以学习这门课程有很大的意义。
这门课程对于图书馆资源利用的效率有着极大地提升作用。
通过学习这门课程我们掌握了科技文献的类型以及一次文献、二次文献、三次文献的概念。
能按照科技文献的检索方法制定基本的检索步骤，也能利用学院图书馆的电子资源查询特定的科技文献。
科技文献是科技传播和继承的主要工具。
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第十二章科技文献的翻译科技文献是对科技理论、科研过程、科研成果及其推广应用的陈述，其特点是用词准确、语言明了、行文简洁、表达客观、条理清楚、内容确切。
科技作品翻译要注意尽量符合这些持点，力求准确、清楚、通顺。
本章将从词汇、句法和文体三个方面，简要介绍科技文献的特点及其英译处理。
第一节词汇特点及英译科技文献中通常会出现大量的专业术语。
作品越专，专业术语用的也就越多。
因此，翻译此类文献，首先必须弄懂文章的科技内容，然后准确通顺地用英文表达。
一、专业术语翻译专业术语因专业而异。
翻译时，首先要熟悉专业知识，根据所译材料的不同学科和不同专业领域，仔细分析上下文，然后选择正确、符合专业要求的词汇。
拿不准时，要勤查专业英文资料、词典、互联网，或请教他人，以求得确切的译文。
例如：1．高清晰度电视High-definition television (HDTV)2．一艘吃水5米的船a ship of 5m draught3．温室效应the greenhouse effect4．遗传工程生物品种genetically-engineered organisms5. 克隆技术cloning technology6．纳米技术nanometer technology翻译这类词汇切不可望文生义，而应根据其所在学科领域和所处的上下文认真分析，搞清真实含义、选择恰当的英语对应词。
再如：1．如蓄电池的电平降低过甚，电话机随即自动断路。
The telephone turns off by itself if the level of power in the battery falls too low.2．直线被称作是一维的。
A line is said to have one dimension.3. 大气中臭氧层保护地球免受太阳的有害辐射。
Ozone in the atmosphere protects the earth from harmful radiation from the sun.4. 到2050年左右，土壤中细菌的碳释放量有可能大于林木的吸收量，地球会加速变暖。
Around 2050, the amount of carbon released from the soil by bacteria would be greater than the amount soaked up by trees, and global warming would be accelerated.二、非专业词汇的翻译科技文献中除了专业术语外，还有大量的非专业化的常用词汇。
在翻译中常会遇到一些词或词组，无法直接搬用辞典中的释义。
在此情况下，就要在弄清原文词义的基础上，根据上下文的逻辑关系和英语的搭配习惯，对词义加以引申，使译文准确、简明，符合该学科专业的表达习惯。
常采用的译法有如下几种：1．按照英语的搭配习惯引申词义：（1）人类对于自然界的变化规律始终怀有巨大的兴趣。
Man has always had a great interest in how nature works.（2）古希腊文明社会使用过七种金属：金、银、铜、铁、锡、铅和水银。
The classical Greek civilization knew of seven metals: gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, lead and mercury.说明：英文中，civilization不能与use搭配，故我们把汉语的“使用过”译成英文的“knew of”。
（3）全息图像一定要直接透过底片才能观看。
因此，底片的尺寸使同时观看的人数受到限制。
The holographic image must be viewed by looking directly through the film. Consequently, the size of the film limits the size of the audience that may view it at one time.说明：汉语中“人数”是指复数，但英语中“audience”一词不能与“number”搭配，故译成“the size of the audience”，同时与上文“the size of the film”相呼应。
2．省略原文中的一些重复用词（1）按照传统说法，化学已逐步发展成了四大分支：有机化学、无机化学、物理化学和分析化学。
Traditionally, chemistry has evolved into four provinces: organic, inorganic, physical and analytical chemistry.（2）材料首先发生弹性变形，然后发生塑性变形。
The material will deform at first elastically and then plastically.（3）这些气体在达到蒸发温度或接近蒸发温度时迅速释出。
These gases are normally released rapidly at or near evaporation temperatures.3. 用表示动作意义的英语名词来表示诸如“现象、作用、方法、方式、过程、原理、情况”等概念。
（1）我们不可能预见到每一件可能发生的事件。
We cannot foresee every possible happening.（2）必须克服技术资料不足的现象。
The lack of technical data must be overcome.（3）这种微波的传播原理要用方程来解释。
The propagation of such microwaves will be explained in terms of equations.练习（见教材第333～334页）第二节句法特点及英译与科技汉语相比，科技英语在句法上有物称多于人称、受事多于施事等显著特点。
此外，汉英科技文章不同的句法结构也决定了句子成分及句子结构转换的必然性。
本节将主要讨论科技文献汉译英中物称与人称的处理问题，以及句子成分或句子结构的转换问题。
一、物称与人称的英译处理人称即以有生命物体（包括人）作主语，物称指以无生命物体作主语。
科技英语重物称的特点主要体现在名词化结构和被动语态的广泛应用上。
下面分别举例说明：1．名词化结构的应用科技英语中名词化结构指主导名词后附加介词短语或非限定动词的结构。
名词化结构行文简洁，表达客观，内容确切，负载信息量大，便于写作修辞。
而这些特点正是科技文体所要求的。
充分认识这一点，对科技翻译大有稗益。
请看例句：（1）电视通过无线电波发射和接受活动物体的图象。
Television is the transmission and reception of images of moving objects by radio waves.（2）在物体上作用另一个力，可以改变物体的运动方向。
The direction of motion can be changed by the action of another force on a body.（3）气体通过被冷却物体的速度决定热传递的速度。
The velocity of gas passing over the object to be cooled determines the rate of heat transferred to the objects.2．被动语态的运用根据科技英语广泛使用被动语态的特点，汉译英时可相应地把一些汉语主动句变成英语被动句。
例如：（1）自动生产线工作正常。
The automatic production line is found in proper operation.（2）自从采用数控以来，生产率大大提高了。
Since numerical control was applied to machine tools, the productivity has been raised greatly.（3）它只是星际空间的一块岩体，受火星引力作用而被吸引住，并沿着轨道环绕火星运动。
It is a space rock captured and now held in orbit by the gravity force of Mars.此外，汉语无主句以及以“我们、人们、大家、一切”作主语的句子，也往往被译作英语被动语态。
例如：（1）大家都知道，人体能产生微弱的磁场。
Weak magnetic fields are known to come from the human body.（2）我们知道，卡路里是指食物供给身体的热量的单位。
Calorie is known to be a measure of the heat energy of food given to the human body.（3）我们将理论设想与模拟实验结果进行比较，发现该理论设想完全可以应用于电力系统。
The theoretical prediction was compared with the results from the simulated tests and was found to be applicable to power system.（4）在进行某些地下核试验以后的几周后，可以记录到大量微弱的余震。
After some underground nuclear tests, large numbers of tiny aftershocks can be recorded during the next few weeks.（5）为了取代那些燃料，应较多地利用太阳能与风能来提供电力、热能和运输的动力。
In place of these fuels, more sun and wind power should be used to provide electricity, heat, and transportation power.（6）利用发电机，能够将机械能再转变成电能。
The mechanical energy can be changed back into electrical energy by a generator.其次，汉语中常以主动形式表示被动意义。
此时，也应利用过去分词等手段将其转换成英语被动形式。
例如：（1）举起的物体具有势能。
Lifted bodies have potential energy.（2）试验结果表明多数人工制造的同位素都具有放射性。