金融经济学第二章

合集下载

金融经济学 Financial_Economics_2

金融经济学 Financial_Economics_2

Economic functions
• Primitive societies: investment financed by own savings • Modern societies: investment financed by others’ savings • Without financial markets and intermediaries, most investment would be unintended inventory accumulation
2. The future is uncertain
• Savers expect to earn interest, but are not certain to do so. • The greater the uncertainty, the less likely they are to save • In other words, the greater the uncertainty, the higher the interest rate needed to persuade them to save.
Asset A Price (A + B )
Asset B
Time
ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้
4.Risk taking (speculation)
• Some risks cannot be diversified away.
• But they can be transferred to speculators • For example, an airline can undertake a swap agreement on the price of jet fuel.

金融经济学-第二章

金融经济学-第二章

货币的时间价值
普通年金未来值是以计算期期末为基准,
一组年金现金流的终值之和。

普通年金的未来值
普通年金终值犹如零存整取的本利和
(1 r ) n 1 FV A r

FV = A + A (1+r) + A (1+r)2 + A (1+r)3 +……+ A (1+r)n-1

某投资者于2009年9月25日按照报价102.77元购买了国债, 到期日为2011年9月25日,票面额为100元,票面利率为 2.95%,计息方式为固定利率,每年9月25日付息一次。 问到期收益率是多少?
债券收益率的度量
6、赎回收益率
C ( Fc P0 ) / n Yc ( Fc P0 ) / 2
n
(1)复利终值计算公式的推导
假设某人将10 000元存入银行,年存款利率为6%,经过1年时间的终值为: F1 =10 000×(1+6%)=10 600(元) 若此人不提走现金,将10 600元继续存入银行,则第二年末的终值为: F2 =10 000×(1+6%)×(1+6%) = 10 000×(1+6%)2=11 240(元) 同理,第三年末的终值为: F3 =10 000× (1+6%)2 ×(1+6%) = 10 000×(1+6%)3=11 910(元) 依此类推,第 n 年末的终值为:

假设某债券为10年期,8%利率,买入价是1000元,赎回价为800元。 计算赎回收益率为

[80+(800-1000)/10] / [(1000+800)/2] ]×100% =6.66%。
贴现债券收益率

史上最全最完整的金融经济学答案(王江版)

史上最全最完整的金融经济学答案(王江版)

而 f (·) 是正单调函数,因而 V (c1 ) = f (U (c1 )) ≥ f (U (c2 )) = V (c2 ) ⇔ U (c1 ) ≥ U (c2 ) 因此 V (c1 ) ≥ V (c2 ) ⇔ c1 c2 ,即 V (c) 表示的偏好也是 。
2.2* 在 1 期,经济有两个可能状态 a 和 b,它们的发生概率相等: a b 考虑定义在消费计划 c = [c0 ; c1a ; c1b ] 上的效用函数:
把他的禀赋表示成 Arrow-Debreu 证券的组合。 (c) 计算他的金融财富。写出他的预算集。 (d) 假设参与者的效用函数如下: U (c0 , c1a , c1b ) = −e−c0 −
1 2
e−c1a + e−c1b .
不考虑消费的非负约束,写出他的优化问题。求解他的最优消费选择。 (e) 讨论他的消费如何依赖于Arrow-Debreu 证券的价格向量 φ。 (f) 证明在某些价格下,他(在某些时期/状态下)的消费可能是负的。 解. (a) Arrow-Debreu 证券的支付向量是 Xa = [1; 0], Xb = [0, 1]; (b) 2Xa + Xb ; (c) 参与者的金融财富是 w = 2φa +φb ,他的预算集是 {c ∈ R3 + : c0 +φa c1a +φb c1b = w }; (d) 由于不考虑非负约束,参与者的优化问题就变成了 max (e−c1a + e−c1b ) −e−c0 − 1 2
1 U (c) = log c0 + 2 (log c1a + log c1b )
U (c) =
1 1−γ c 1− γ 0
+
1 2

金融学 第二章

金融学  第二章
一、信用的产生 含义:信用是指以偿还和支付利息为条件的借贷 活动。 偿还性是信用的基本特征。 信用是在私有制基础上产生的。 第一、信用最初产生于商品流通过程中。 第二、信用产生的社会根源是商品和货币的不均 衡分布。 第三、信用存在和发展的前提是所有制和经济利 益。
实物借贷与货币借贷
(五)商业票据
定义:商业票据是商业信用工具,它是提 供记载商业信用债权债务的一种凭证。 特点: 1.必须有特点的内容 2.强制性或不可争议性 3.流动性,必须可以转让流通 商业票据更具出票人不同,分为期票和汇 票两种。
期票:债务人对债权人签发的在一定时间内无条 件支付款项的债务证书。 汇票是债权人给债务人,命令他支付一定金额给 持票人或第三者的无条件的支付命令。 两者区别:承兑与否? 商业票据的贴现:是指票据所有者在票据到期以 前,为获取现款而向银行贴付一定利息的票据转 让。 计算公式为: 客户所得现金=票据面额(1—年贴现利率x未到 期天数/360天)
(二)在现代经济中,债权债务关系变的重要的 原因: 从现代经济的基本特征来看:现代经济是一种具 有扩张性质的经济,决定了信用是经济的基本条 件。 从货币形式的发展来看:自金融货币退出流通领 域以后,信用货币成为流通中最基本的货币形式。 信用货币是在信用的基础上产生的,是一种信用 活动。在现代经济社会中,任何人的生活都不可 能完全脱离货币,或多或少会与货币发生联系, 所以信用就成为一个无所不在的经济关系。
(二)资本主义信用
资本主义信用表现为借贷资本的运动。 借贷资本是货币资本家为了获取利息而贷放给职 能资本家使用的货币资本。 借贷资本的来源:生产经营中的闲置资本;用于 积累的剩余价值;货币储蓄等。 借贷资本的特点: (1)借贷资本是一种所有权资本。 (2)借贷资本是一种特殊的商品资本。 (3)借贷资本具有特殊的运动形式。 (4)借贷资本有特殊的转让形式。

金融经济学基础讲义2

金融经济学基础讲义2

从不确定性经济学到金融经济学 金融经济学的杰出贡献者 ➢获得诺贝尔经济学奖的金融经济学家
➢与诺贝尔经济学奖获得者齐名的金融经济 学家
➢学术论著被学术杂志频繁引用的金融经济 学家
伟大的先驱:路易斯·巴舍利耶 (1870-1946)
一个悲剧人物
主要著作:《投机理 论》(1900)
主要贡献:
➢ 金融市场价格的随机 游走理论:即“布朗 运动”
在研究人口发展趋势及人口结构对经济增长和收入分 配关系方面做出了巨大贡献。
约翰·希克斯(JOHN R. HICKS), 他们深入研究了经济均衡理论和福利理论 肯尼斯·约瑟夫·阿罗
(KENNETH J. ARROW)
华西里·列昂惕夫 (WASSILY LEONTIEF)
发展了投入产出方法,该方法在许多重要的经济问题 中得到运用。
诺贝尔奖与金融学
诺贝尔经济学奖溯源
诺贝尔奖是对世界范围内重大科学研究成 果比较公正、最具权威的评价和最高金额 的奖赏,它是一个国家科学文化发达的象 征。
诺贝尔奖的科学精神是“最高意义”上的 科学精神,它同奥林匹克精神一样,也是 一种挑战意识,所不同的,它是向人类大 脑智力的挑战。
以奖励“对人类幸福作出重大贡献的科学 发现”为宗旨的诺贝尔奖,最早设立于 1901年,其基金来自于艾尔弗雷德·诺贝 尔捐献的920万美元。
再由瑞典皇家科学院选定的5位瑞典经济学家(有时还 包括1~2位非正式成员)组成的委员会同国际上有名望 的经济学家,经过充分讨论,确定20~30名候选人,最 后再由260名瑞典皇家科学院院士以简单多数的方式选 出获奖者,并且投票是在保密的状态下进行的。
一般说来,该奖每年收到150~200份提名建议,被 提名者约在75~125人之间。

金融经济学02

金融经济学02
2016年11月10日5时21 分 28
风险补偿的经济学定义:
• 如果h是一个公平赌博,即有E(h)=0,那 么风险厌恶的投资者接受这一公平赌博所 要求的风险补偿X按E[u(w+h)] = u(w-X)定 义,通常情况下, X是w和h的函数,即X =X(w,h)。 • 注意,这里的风险补偿是风险厌恶者个体 所要求的风险补偿,不是市场定价给出的 风险补偿。市场定价给出的风险补偿将在 市场均衡与资产估值的理论部分讲解。
2016年11月10日5时21 分
5
偏好关系必须满足如下选择公理:
• 1、完备性公理: ∀ c1 ,c2 ∈X ,一定有
c c 或者c c
1 2 2
1
• 2、反身性公理: ∀ c∈X ,一定有 c • 3、传递性公理: ∀ c1 ,c2, c3 ∈X ,
c
c c ,c c c c
2016年11月10日5时21 分 14
独立性公理
• 对于所有的x,y,l∈X, λ ∈ (0,1),x﹥y意味着 λx+(1-λ)l ﹥ λy + (1-λ)l 。 • 独立性公理的含义是,在两个随机事件之外,同时引入 一个额外的不确定的随机事件或消费计划不会改变经济 行为主体原有的偏好。 • 独立性公理是不确定性条件下选择理论的一个核心公理。 它导致不确定条件下选择理论同确定条件下偏好选择理 论的差别。
1 2 2 3 1
3
2016年11月10日5时21 分
6
无差异关系:
• 无差异关系指消费者在消费集中比较消费计划 时,二者不分好坏。 • 数学表达为,消费集X上一个二元关系~,当且 仅当
c c 并且c c
1 2 2
1
有c1 ~ c2

金融学(中文版)第02章

金融学(中文版)第02章
❖ 你可能首先会猜测,收益率服从正态分 布(钟形)
❖ 正态分布的特征可以完全由均值和标准 差来刻划
38
时间
汇率举例
日本
15000 ¥
•150 ¥/£
英国
£100
3% ¥/¥(direct) 1.73% ¥/£/£/¥
120
标准差 = 28.4%
100
80
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60 1955 1959 1963 1967 1971 1975 1979 1983 1987 1991 1995 34
英国长期国债
Return (%)
160
140
平均收益率 = 8.8%
120
标准差 = 14.9%
100
80
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60 1955 1959 1963 1967 1971 1975 1979 1983 1987 1991 1995
35
英国30天国库券
Return (%)
160
140
平均收益率 = 8.3%
120
标准差 = 3.6%
100
80
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
Hale Waihona Puke -60 1955 1959 1963 1967 1971 1975 1979 1983 1987 1991 1995
❖ 因此,金融体系中的资金流动不仅是为了满足 经济支付的需要,而且是为了满足资金需求者 融入资金、资金富裕者融出资金的需要。而后 者已经成为现代金融体系最基本的功能。
4
直接融资过程

经济学金融学第二章

经济学金融学第二章
当地人民法院以该公司未经中国人民银行批准, 招收代办员,设立代办点,将其判刑7年。此案 震惊全国。众多学者认为:孙大午的融资行为 属于正常合理的企业融资行为。
(三)当代信用 属于借贷资本。
主要原因: 1、信用货币制度为信用规模的发展奠定了制度基础
信用货币发行不受贵金属准备的限制,国家可以根 据经济发展需要扩大货币供给和信用规模。 2、金融市场为信用的发展创造了条件 促进了信用形式和金融工具的多样化;信用工具的 发行和转让,各种金融衍生工具的出现为信用关系 的扩大提供了多种手段。
银行信用比商业信用更完善 !
(二)银行信用的性质 1、直接融资与间接融资的含义 间接融资:通过银行等中介机构通过存贷
款、投资业务实现的融资活动。 直接融资:借助于金融市场,通过股票债
券及其他有价证券的发行和交易实现的融 资活动。
在金融市场中再讲!
三、国家信用 (一)含义:(书34P):指政府或者更广泛地说
案例:
2003年被列为“全国民营企业500强”的河北大 午集团董事长孙大午,因涉嫌“非法吸收公众 存款罪”被逮捕、判刑、罚款。
2000年1月至2003年5月间,以高于银行同期存 款利率、承诺不交利息税等方式,出具“借款 凭证”或“借据”代替存单的制式凭证,向611 名社会公众变相吸收存款1627单,共计1308万 元。
3、按还本付息方式划分: ①一次性还本付息国债; ②分期偿付利息到期兑付本金。
4、按发行方式划分: ①公开招募国债:指向企业单位、团体、个
人公开发行的国债。 ②认购国债:指向银行、证券公司、基金组
织等机构投资者发行的国债。
(二)国家信用的形式 国债是国家信用的主要形式。
国家债券主要包括国库券和公债两大类。 1、国库券:期限在一年以内的政府债券。 特点:期限短,是解决短期财政收支不平衡

金融经济学课件:ch2 期望效用理论

金融经济学课件:ch2 期望效用理论
传递性也是理性经济人的基本要求之一。
(4)连续性(continunity)
对于任意的X、y,集合{x x ≥ y} 和{x x ≤ y} 是
闭集, {x x y} 和 {x x y} 是开集。
即如果x是一组至少与y一样好的消费束, 而且它趋近于另一消费束z,则z与y至少同样 好。这样就可以得到一条连续的无差异曲线。
该文档是极速PDF编辑器生成, 如果想去掉该提示,请访问并下载: /
第二章 期望效用理论
一、个体行为决策准则
(一)偏好关系(决策的前提是排序) 效用是一种纯主观的心理感受,因人因地因时而异。
偏好是建立在消费者可以观察的选择行为之上的。 偏好关系(preference relation)是指消费者对不
同商品或商品组合偏好的顺序。它可以用一种两维(或二 元)关系(binary relation)表述出来。
经济上,偏好关系是指参与者对所有可能的投资(消 费)计划的一个排序。
1.偏好关系的表述
令C 为商品(或者消费)集合,C 中有A 种可供选择 计划方案。f是采取计划a,消费c的一个结果,或者得 到的效用。我们可以在消费集合上建立下面的偏好关 系(preference relation)或者偏好顺序 (preference ordering),满足:
1.基数效用与序数效用 基数效用:19 世纪的一些经济学家如英国的
杰文斯、奥地利的门格尔等认为,人的福利或 满意可以用他从享用或消费过程中所获得的效 用来度量。对满意程度的这种度量叫做基数效 用.
序数效用:20 世纪意大利的经济学家帕累托 等发现,效用的基数性是多余的,消费理论完全 可以建立在序数效用的基础上。所谓序数效用是 以效用值的大小次序来建立满意程度的高低,而 效用值的大小本身并没有任何意义.

金融经济学

金融经济学

金融经济学金融经济学第二章金融市场与金融机构第一节金融体系的基本功能一、金融体系的概述金融体系的定义:市场及其他用于订立金融合约和交换资产及风险的机构的集合。

金融体系的分类:①金融市场(股票、债券及其他金融工具市场)②金融中介(银行、保险公司)③金融服务企业(金融咨询)二、金融体系的功能1、跨期转移资源2、管理风险3、清算支付和结算支付4、归集资源并细分股份5、提供信息6、设法解决激励问题激励问题:当金融交易一方拥有另一方不具备的信息,或一方是替代另一方做出决策的代理人时,就产生了激励问题。

①道德风险有了保险,会导致被保险方甘愿冒更大的风险②逆向选择购买保险的人可能比一般人更处于风险境地③委托—代理问题代理人可能并不作出和委托人本该做出的决策相同的决策第二节金融市场一、金融资产的基本类型1、债务(固定收益工具)2、权益权益是一家企业的所有者的索取权普通股:代表对一家公司资产的剩余索取权。

在履行了该企业的其他所有金融合同之后,普通股的所有者有权拥有剩余的任何资产。

优先股:相对于普通股而言的,指在利润分红及剩余财产分配的权利方面,优先于普通股。

但普通股股东享有公司的经营参与权,而优先股股东一般不享有。

普通股股东的收益要视公司赢利状况而定,而优先股的收益是固定的。

3、衍生工具一种或多种资产的价格衍生出其价值的金融工具。

例如期权和远期合约二、金融市场的类型(按照正在交易的索取权的到期期限划分)货币市场:低于一年的短期债务市场资本市场:长期债务市场和权益性证券市场第三节金融市场中的比率一、利率利率是一项经过承诺的收益率决定利率的三个要素:记账单位、到期期限、违约风险1、记账单位例子:假设你是一位日本投资者,正在进行为期1年的投资。

1年期日本政府债券的利率为3%,同时1年期的英国政府债券利率为9%。

且初期1英镑=150日元。

假设你在英国政府债券中投资100英镑。

1年以后的日元收益是多少(此时1英镑=140日元)?解:初始投资的日元金额:100英镑*150日元/英镑=15000日元一年后的英国政府债券收入:100英镑*(1+9%)=109英镑1年以后以日元表示的英国政府债券的实际收益率为:1.7%2、到期期限例如短期利率和长期利率可能是不同的3、违约风险在保持其他特征不变的条件下,固定收益工具的违约风险越高,利率越高。

《金融学第二章》PPT课件

《金融学第二章》PPT课件

商品让渡与货币让渡在
时间 空间
上不统一 没有进行等价交换,只有价 值单方面的转移。
体现了一种现代经济
关系(债权债务关系、信
用工具是资本运作的桥梁。)
11
ppt课件
第二节 信用的基本形式和工具
一、信用的基本形式
商业信用
商品交易过程中企业之间直接提供的信用
银行信用
银行机构通过吸收存款和发放贷款所形成的借贷关系
4
ppt课件
从法律的角度理解“信用”
它实际上有两层含义,一是指当 事人之间的一种关系,但凡“契约”规 定的双方的权利和义务不是当时交割的, 存在时滞,就存在信用;第二层含义是 指双方当事人按照“契约”规定享有的 权利和肩负的义务。
5
ppt课件
从货币的角度
在货币金融学中有一个重要的流派, 即以18世纪的约翰.劳为先驱、以19世纪 的麦克鲁德、韩以及20世纪的熊彼特等人 为代表的“信用创造学派”。
“相互信任同服从、仁爱、友谊和交谈一样,是把一国人民联系
和维系在一起必不可少的条件”,齐美尔 “没有人们之间相互
享有的普遍信任,社会本身将3 会瓦解。…现代生活是建立在对他ppt课件
从伦理道德层面看
指 “信守诺言”的一种道德品质。 “诚信”“可信”“讲信用”“一诺千金 ”.
“相互信任同服从、仁爱、友谊和交谈一样,是把一国人 民联系和维系在一起必不可少的条件”,齐美尔 “没有 人们之间相互享有的普遍信任,社会本身将会瓦解。…现 代生活是建立在对他人的诚实的信任基础上的,这一点的 重要性要远比人们通常认识到的程度大得多。”
在信用创造学派的眼中,信用就是货 币,货币就是信用;信用创造货币;信用 形成资本。
6
ppt课件

《金融学》2、3章

《金融学》2、3章

二、利息的本质
(一)西方经济学关于利息本质的论述 在西方经济学界关于利息本质的论述甚多, 较有影响的有以下几种: 1.古典经济学的利息本质理论 (1)“利息报酬说” (2)“资本租金论(资本余缺论)” (3)“利息源于利润说” (4)“利息剩余价值说”
2.近代西方经济学的利息本质理论 (1)西尼尔的“节欲论”。 (2)庞巴维克的“时差利息说”。 (3)欧文· 费雪的“人性不耐说”。
三、利息与收益的资本化
(一)利息与收益的一般形态 在现实生活中,利息通常被人们看作是收益 的一般形态。 在会计制度中,利息支出都列入成本,因此, 利润中不包含利息支出。于是,利率就成为 一个尺度,用来衡量投资收益或经济效益, 即人们通常都用利率来衡量收益,用利息来 表示收益,从而使利息转化成为收益的一般 形态。
(二)消费信用的形式 1.赊销。赊销是指零售商向消费者以延期付 款方式销售商品,属于短期消费信用。 2.分期付款。分期付款指消费者在购买商品 时,先支付一部分货款,然后按合同分期加息支 付其余款项。这种形式多用于购买房屋、汽车、 高档耐用消费品等,属于长期消费信用。 3.消费信贷。消费信贷是指银行及其他金融 机构采用信用放款或抵押放款方式,对消费者购 买消费品发放的贷款。
2、特点: (1)商业信用包含了两种经济行为,即商品买卖行 为和借贷行为。买卖行为是基础,如果没有商品的买 卖,也就不会有随后的借贷。 (2)商业信用贷出的是以商品形态提供的商品资本。 (3)能够发生商业信用的双方必须是有商品购销关 系的企业,而且商业信用主要是由生产企业向购货企 业提供的,即由卖方向买方提供。 (4)商业信用状况与经济周期的变化关系是十分密 切的,并且商业信用动态与产业资本动态一致。
(二)商业票据和票据流通 1、商业票据:在商业信用广泛发展的基 础上,产生了商业票据。商业票据是商业信 用的工具,它是商业信用的债权人为保证自 己对债务的索取权而掌握的一种书面债权凭 证。 2、票据流通:商业票据可以流通转让。 商业票据经债权人在票据背面作转让签字即 背书后,可以作为购买手段和支付手段流通 转让。

第二章 确定性投资决策的基本逻辑 《金融经济学》PPT课件

第二章   确定性投资决策的基本逻辑  《金融经济学》PPT课件
只有股东的效用无差异曲线与企业的实 业投资机会曲线相切,亦即在其切点处,企 业的投资达到最优。因此,企业投资的均衡 条件为:
企业投资的毛收益率等于股东消费的边 际时间偏好率。
C1 U '
U ''
U '''
BF
E
C
G
O(0)
DA
C0
二、存在金融市场下的确定性投资决策 现在,我们引入金融市场。假定金融市场完全 竞争,且仅存在一个利率。 则可以这样来阐述企业投资决策的逻辑: 首先,由企业作出实业投资的决策。 企业应该将它的实业投资数量调整到实业投资 的收益率等于金融投资收益率的状态。 如果实业投资的收益率高于金融投资的收益率, 则说明实业投资的数量不足,应该继续投资于实业; 如果实业投资的收益率低于金融投资的收益率,则 说明实业投资的数量过多,应该减少实业投资的数 量。只有当实业投资的收益率等于金融投资收益率 的时候,企业才不需要调整自己的实业投资数量。
因此,就企业来说,它可以预先地假定
股东消费的边际时间偏好率等于金融市场的 利率。或者换句话说,企业可以不考虑股东 的效用评价问题,只需要在实业投资和金融 投资之间认真权衡,做到企业投资的收益最 大即可。然后,由股东在当前消费和金融投 资(负债)之间认真权衡,做出最佳的选择。 通过企业和股东的这种分工合作,最终也能 够实现股东效用的最大化。这就是所谓的企 业投资与股东投资分离的定理。
在这里,我们把投资理解为对现期(t0时 刻)消费的延迟。亦即将一部分本来可立即
用于消费的资源(期初禀赋)推迟到在未来 的某一时刻(t1时刻)再用于消费。其原因 就是这一部分资源在这一段时间(t0-t1,又 叫做投资期)内会有一个量上的增加,从而

《金融学》第二章答案 金融系统

《金融学》第二章答案 金融系统

CHAPTER 2THE FINANCIAL S YS TEMObjectives∙To provide a conceptual framework for understanding how the financial system works and how it changes over time.∙To understand the meaning and determinants of rates of return on different classes of assets.Outline2.1 What Is the Financial System?2.2 The Flow of Funds2.3 The Functional Perspective2.4 Financial Innovation and the “Invisible Hand”2.5 Financial Markets2.6 Financial Market Rates2.7 Financial Intermediaries2.8 Financial Infrastructure and Regulation2.9 Governmental and Quasi-Governmental OrganizationsSummary∙The financial system is the set of markets and intermediaries used by households, firms, and governments to implement their financial decisions. It includes the markets for stocks, bonds, and other securities, as well as financial intermediaries such as banks and insurance companies.∙Funds flow through the financial system from entities that have a surplus of funds to those that have a deficit.Often these fund flows take place through a financial intermediary.∙There are six core functions performed by the financial system:1.To provide ways to transfer economic resources through time, across borders, and among industries.2.To provide ways of managing risk.3.To provide ways of clearing and settling payments to facilitate trade.4.To provide a mechanism for the pooling of resources and for the subdividing of shares in variousenterprises.5.To provide price information to help coordinate decentralized decision-making in various sectors of theeconomy.6.To provide ways of dealing with the incentive problems created when one party to a transaction hasinformation that the other party does not or when one party acts as agent for another.∙The fundamental economic force behind financial innovation is competition, which generally leads to improvements in the way financial functions are performed. The basic types of financial assets traded in markets are debt, equity, and derivatives.∙Debt instruments are issued by anyone who borrows money—firms, governments, and households.∙Equity is the claim of the owners of a firm. Equity securities issued by corporations are called common stocks.∙Derivatives are financial instruments such as options and futures contracts that derive their value from the prices of one or more other assets.∙An interest rate is a promised rate of return, and there are as many different interest rates as there are distinct kinds of borrowing and lending. Interest rates vary depending on the unit of account, the maturity, and the default risk of the credit instrument. The nominal interest rate is the promised amount of money you receive per unit you lend.∙The real rate of return is defined as the nominal interest rate you earn corrected for the change in the purchasing power of money. For example, if you earn a nominal interest rate of 8% per year and the rate of price inflation is also 8% per year, then the real rate of return is zero.∙There are four main factors that determine rates of return in a market economy:∙the productivity of capital goods—expected rates of return on mines, dams, roads, bridges, factories, machinery, and inventories,∙the degree of uncertainty regarding the productivity of capital goods,∙time preferences of people—the preference of people for consumption now versus consumption in the future, and∙risk aversion—the amount people are willing to give up in order to reduce their exposure to risk.∙Indexing is an investment strategy that seeks to match the returns of a specified stock market index.∙Financial intermediaries are firms whose primary business is to provide customers with financial products that cannot be obtained more efficiently by transacting directly in securities markets. A mong the main types of intermediaries are banks, investment companies, and insurance companies. Their products include checking accounts, loans, mortgages, mutual funds, and a wide range of insurance contracts.Solutions to Problems at End of Chapter1. Do you agree with Adam Smith’s view that society can rely more on the “invisible hand” than on government to promote economic pros perity?Student answers will vary of course.SAMPLE ANSWER:The communist system is the exact opposite of Adam Smith’s invisible hand. And of course we have recently seen the downfall of many of the communist countries around the world. In the communist world, it was believed that government could make better decisions promoting economic prosperity than individuals could. Clearly this system failed to promote economic prosperity. It seems that Adam Smith’s view was that competitive market systems as a whole (rather than government) could best allocate resources to promote economic prosperity. However, a completely unfettered capitalist society such as in the late 1800s in the Western world may n ot have been the perfect system either as the invisible hand helped the “rich get richer” while the poor and needy had no formal assistance. This outraged the moral fabric of society and government programs were eventually set up to formally address thisi ssue of general welfare and “fairness”.2. How does the financial system contribute to economic security and prosperity in a capitalist society?In a capitalist society, it is the price system which helps make capital resource decisions. Capital flows to those operations which can employ it to earn the highest rate of return. This therefore allocates capital to its most productive use, thereby enhancing society’s economic prosperity. In addition, the financial system has markets and intermediaries which transfer risks from those who are least willing to bear it to those who are most willing to bear it. This benefits society as a whole without costing it anything. In addition, by allowing individuals to reduce or eliminate risks, it fosters an atmosphere of undertaking business ventures which also benefits society.3. Give an example of how each of the six functions of the financial system are performed more efficiently today than they were in the time of Adam Smith (1776).Clearing and settling payments:In Adam Smith’s day, just as today there was paper and coin currency. However, due to technological innovations (primarily the computer) today there are many additional forms of payment settlement such as personal checks, credit cards, debit cards and electronic transfer of funds. In addition, certain credit cards and traveler’s checks are accepted everywhere in the world making currency exchange a relic of the past. Pooling resources and subdividing shares:In Adam Smith’s day, most businesses were s mall and were financed by sole proprietorships. Therefore the need to pool resources to finance large investments was not as prevalent or as important as it is today. Again, the technological revolution of computers and telephones allow for global capital marke ts to efficiently finance today’s much larger businesses. Today these companies can access huge pools of money around the world and find the cheapest source of financing for large scale projects.Transfer economic resources: Today there is a worldwide financial system which facilitates the transfer of resources and risk from one individual to another and from one point in time to another. In Adam Smith’s day, although there were financial markets which played a limited role, they were localized, small and much less efficient and innovative than they are today.Managing risk: Of course during Adam Smith’s day individuals and businesses faced many of the same risks they do today (risk of property damage, risk of financial loss, risk of crop failure etc.) Ho wever, there were limited means to offset this risk. There were some insurance companies in place at that time, however, they concentrated on managing business risk rather than personal risk and certainly there was not the same type of insurance. A good ex ample is that in Adam Smith’s day, there was no unemployment insurance. In Adam Smith’s day, there was very little a farmer could do about reducing his risk of crop failure or lower crop prices. Today there are a vast number of markets and securities which can be used to offset individual and business risk as well as a huge network of insurance companies whose role is to transfer risk from those who want to reduce risk to those who want to take on more risk.Price information: During Adam Smith’s day, info rmation traveled slowly. Of course, there were no phones, televisions or radios. News traveled by newspaper and by the mail. Today, information travels around the worldinstantaneously. Due primarily to the growth and innovation in computer and telephone t echnology, information about security prices and performance is known at virtually the same time everywhere around the world.Incentive problems: As discussed above, today’s financial system is large, innovative and global. In Adam Smith’s day, while there were problems of moral hazard and adverse selection (but less of a principal-agent problem) there was not the same financial system and sophistication to deal with these problems as there is today.4. How does a competitive stock market accomplish the result that Adam Smith describes? Should the stock market be regulated? How and why?Student answers will vary.SAMPLE ANSWER:Adam Smith talked about free and competitive markets as a system which allocates capital to its most productive use and greatest value. In a competitive stock market, prices are set through supply and demand. Those companies returning the highest return will be rewarded with the highest prices (or cheapest source of financing). Those companies which are under performing will not be allocated as much capital because they are not as productive. Because the universe of possible investments is huge and because it is at times difficult for investors to discern which companies are the most productive employers of capital, regulation shou ld be required to make sure relevant and standardized information is disseminated to potential investors. This would include regulation on disclosure and also insider trading and stock manipulation. However other forms of market regulation are perhaps not so important from a market efficiency point of view and may even impede society’s overall financial welfare.5. Would you be able to get a student loan without someone else offering to guarantee it?Since most students do not have any earning power (yet) or source of savings or other capital, it is doubtful any intermediary would take that credit risk at any reasonable interest rate.6. Give an example of a new business that would not be able to get financing if insurance against risk were not available.EXAMPLES:∙Chemical company∙Child safety products company∙Airline∙Bank∙Hospital∙Environmental consulting∙Hazardous waste disposal7. Suppose you invest in a real-estate development deal. The total investment is $100,000. You invest $20,000 of your own money and borrow the other $80,000 from the bank. Who bears the risk of this venture and why?The $20,000 of my own money is considered the equity capital and the $80,000 is debt financing. In general it is the equity investors who absorb the primary risk of business failure. This is because if the business goes bankrupt, I will unlikely get any or my money back as the debt holders get paid back before I do. However, the debt holder also faces some risk that it will not even get back all its principal and interest. So lenders do share some of the business risk along with the equity investors.8. You are living in the United States and are thinking of traveling to Germany 6 months from now. You can purchase an option to buy marks now at a fixed rate of $0.75 per mark 6 months from now. How is the option like an insurance policy?An option means you have a choice. In this example you can choose to buy the marks at $0.75 in 6 months but you do not have to. You will only buy the marks at this price if it is cheaper for you to do so (if the spot market at that time is higher). Therefore, like an insurance policy you are protected against a potential loss. You know that the maximum price you will have to pay is $0.75 per mark and that you are protected against any higher price. Presumably you will have to pay something for the price of that option and that can be equated to an insurance premium.9. Give an example of how the problem of moral hazard might prevent you from getting financing for something you want to do. Can you think of a way of overcoming this problem?SAMPLE ANSWER:Suppose I want to start a biotechnology business and I need a lot of financing. The trouble is, I do not want to disclose my technology secrets to potential equity and debt investors. I will have great difficulty raising financing. But I could do the following: At a minimum, I could require all potential lenders and investors to sign agreements saying they will not disclose any of my secrets. Secondly, I could share some of my equity with potential lenders (equity-kickers) and investors (stock and stock options). At least that way they will not be motivated to disclose my secrets to others. Finally, if I decided I did not want to share secrets, I could give collateral in my new plant to the debt lenders and that might make them more comfortable with the issue of moral hazard.10. Give an example of how the problem of adverse selection might prevent you from getting financing for something you want to do. Can you think of a way of overcoming this problem?SAMPLE ANSWER:Suppose I want to start a car leasing business. Initially my plan was to purchase several automobiles and lease them out at attractive annual rates. However, potential lenders were worried that my business would attract individuals who drive great distances each year. Rather than buy their own car and lose significant value, they would lease my cars and take a new one each year. I would not be able to obtain financing for this business until I instituted annual mileage restrictions. This alteration in the business plan was enough to make the lenders comfortable with the potential problem of adverse selection.11. Give an example of how the principal-agent problem might prevent you from getting financing for something you want to do. Can you think of a way of overcoming this problem?SAMPLE ANSWER:Suppose you want to start a personal care products company. However, you have the idea for the business, but you do not want to actually run the business. To do that you have hired an executive from a competitor. He will own no equity in the business but will be paid a salary of $100,000 to start up the business.Trouble with this example is that the executive you have hired has little incentive to make the business really work other than his salary (which presumably he could earn at many different companies). What if this executive is really a spy? It may be difficult to get financing for this venture. The way to solve the problem is if you the owner decide to run the business (you certainly are motivated for it do well) or at a minimum, grant your new employee stock or stock options in the business.12. Why is it that a country’s postage stamps are not as good a medium of exchange as its paper currency? Postage stamps would be much easier to copy (to counterfeit) than paper currency which has intricate designs and is made of special fibers (not easily duplicated). Secondly, postage stamps would not be as durable as paper currency and because of their other use, could easily stick to other items! Finally, because postage stamps are used for another purpose, one might run out of them and have to make a special trip to the post office to get more. Of course, the post office is not as convenient as an ATM machine for getting a new supply of currency.13. Who is hurt if I issue counterfeit U.S. dollars and use them to purchase valuable goods and services?If this were done in great size, everyone would be hurt through the inflation that would result in the increased money supply. However, if done in a s mall amount, the individuals accepting the currency are taking on the risk (without knowing it) that the dollars will not be accepted by others as a medium of exchange.14. Some say the only criterion to use in predicting what will serve as money in the future is the real resource cost of producing it, including the transaction costs of verifying its authenticity. According to this criterion what do you think will be the money of the future?SAMPLE ANSWER:Payments via electronic transfer may become the medium of choice. It is a very cheap way to create currency. The biggest challenge will be to create security systems that do not allow for tampering and fraud. Once this is done and once most individuals and retail establishments have access to the system (through bank accounts and linking computer systems) then this should become the “currency” of choice.15. Should all governments issue debt that is indexed to their domestic price level? Is there a moral hazard problem that citizens face with regard to their public officials when government debt is fixed in units of the domestic currency?The answer is that all governments should issue debt that is indexed to their domestic price level. This is due to the fact that if debts are not indexed to the domestic price level, governments have the incentive to print money to repay those debts, thereby increasing domestic inflation which negatively impacts all of society.16. Describe your country’s system for financing higher education. Wh at are the roles played by households, voluntary non-profit organizations, businesses and government?SAMPLE ANSWER:In the United States, the vast majority of higher education is paid for by individuals through savings. These sums can be supplemented in whole or in part by government-guaranteed loans and through student loans and scholarships provided by universities themselves as well as by private foundations such as those provided by the Fulbright scholarship.17. Describe your country’s system for fin ancing residential housing. What are the roles played by households, businesses and government?SAMPLE ANSWER:In the United States individuals and individual borrowings from savings and loans, commercial banks and mortgage lending companies finance the vast majority of residential housing through individual equity savings. The government guarantees a certain amount of low income mortgages and local governments finance some low-income housing. Businesses play a role through the lending business as well as through the financial markets which provide liquidity for portfolios of certain standardized mortgages.18. Describe your country’s system for financing new enterprises. What are the roles played by households, businesses and government?SAMPLE ANSWER:In the United States, the vast majority of new enterprises is financed through individual savings and through initial public offerings made to the general public. These sources of financing are augmented by established firms which spend research and development (R&D) dollars developing new products and businesses and by venture capital institutions which also provide start-up financing.19. Describe your country’s system for financing medical research. What are the roles played by voluntary non-profit organizations, businesses and government?SAMPLE ANSWER:In the United States, medical research is financed both by non-profit organizations (such as universities and medical facilities as well as organizations such as the American Heart Association) as well as by businesses such as Merck, Johnson & Johnson and Genentech. The government is involved in research grants, primarily to universities.20. Assume there are only two stocks traded in the stock market, and you are trying to construct an index to show what has happened to stock prices. Let us say that in the base year the prices were $20 per share for stock 1 with 100 million shares outstanding and $10 for stock 2 with 50 million shares outstanding. A year later, the prices are $30 per share for stock 1 and $2 per share for stock 2. Using the two different methods explained in the chapter, compute stock indexes showing what has happened to the overall stock market. Which of the two methods do you prefer and why? (See appendix that follows.)DJI-Type Index = Average of Current Prices/Average of Base Prices * 100 = 106.67S&P-Type Index = (Weight of Stock 1 * Current Price of Stock 1 / Base Price of Stock 1 + Weight of Stock 2 * Current Price of Stock 2/Base Price of Stock 2) * 100 = 124The S&P-Type Index accurately reflects what has happened to the total market value of all stocks.。

期望效用理论

期望效用理论
2011-9-25 金融经济学 9
A:可行行为的集合 可行行为的集合 S:可能现实状态的集合 可能现实状态的集合 C: 结果的集合 行为a∈ 和 结合产生的结果c∈ 行为 ∈A和s ∈ S结合产生的结果 ∈C 结合产生的结果 函数f把行为与状态和结果对应起来 把行为与状态和结果对应起来: 函数 把行为与状态和结果对应起来: (s,a)→c=f(s,a) → 假设状态集是有限的,记为: 假设状态集是有限的,记为:S={s1,….sn} 行为集A={a1,…am} 行为集 选择一个行为a 就对应于偶然状态结果的选取{f(s,ai)|s 选择一个行为 i就对应于偶然状态结果的选取 则选取结果可以表示为{c 因此选择a ∈S}, 则选取结果可以表示为 1i,…cni}. 因此选择 i或aj与 选择{c 是一样的。 选择 1i,…cni}或 {c1j,…cnj}是一样的。 或 是一样的
2011-9-25 金融经济学 16
四 一些常用的投资决策准则
收益最大准则
收益最大准则广泛应用于完全没有风险 没有风险的情 没有风险 况下。按照这一法则,只需选取收益率最高 选取收益率最高 的投资机会即可。经济学中的生产者理论和 的投资机会 价值理论广泛使用这一准则。 例子:一个公司的最优生产决策问题
2011-9-25
金融经济学
23
第二节 期望效用理论
一、二元关系 二 、效用函数 三、期望效用函数 四、期望效用理论矛盾
2011-9-25 金融经济学 24
二元关系(binary relations)
一个集合上的二元关系是确定这个集合中两 元素之间的一种联系。 有的二元关系所涉及的两个元素有相同的性 质,有的二元关系所涉及的两个元素则属于 不同性质的集合。
2011-9-25

金融经济学第二讲md资料文档

金融经济学第二讲md资料文档

式,反之亦然。
推论:整个投资组合前沿可以由任意两个不同的前沿组合线性生成。
推论:前沿组合的任意线性组合是一个前沿组合。
金融经济学第二章
2.2.3 风险资产组合前沿的一些性质

性质2.2.1:任意两个前沿组合p和q的回报率之间的协方差可以表
示为:

cov(~rp
, ~rq
)

C D
(E[~rp
如图2.2.2所示;在平面

(~r )
2 (~r
)EE[中[~r~r]中,] ,投投资资组组合合前前沿沿是是一一条条抛双物曲线线,,
如图2.2.3所示。在图2.2.2和图2.2.3中,所有位于投资组合前沿左边的
组合都是不可行投资组合,位于组合前沿右边(包括组合前沿)的投资
组合是可行投资组合。
(图2.2.2): (~r ) E[~r ]平面中的
更不是依赖着一处地方;
我的全部财产,也不会受一年盈亏的影响,
所以我的货物并不能使我忧愁。

(第一场 第一幕 安东尼奥)
金融经济学第二章
Markowitz(1952) 的投资组合理论建立在均值方差模型 基础之上。他认为,如果个体是风险回避的、不饱和的,则 给定资产的期望回报率,个体总是选择较低的方差,给定方 差,个体总是追求较高的期望回报率,即个体偏好可以用均 值-方差效用函数来刻画: E[u(W~ )] U (E[W~ ], 2 (W~ ))
资产和投资组合都是这N种风险资产的线性组合。
金融经济学第二章
记 e 为由N种风险资产的期望回报率构成的 N 1向量,记为:

e (E[~r1 其中上标“T”表示转 置。
], 1

金融经济学

金融经济学

第二章金融市场与金融机构第一节金融体系的基本功能一、金融体系的概述金融体系的定义:市场及其他用于订立金融合约和交换资产及风险的机构的集合。

金融体系的分类:①金融市场(股票、债券及其他金融工具市场)②金融中介(银行、保险公司)③金融服务企业(金融咨询)二、金融体系的功能1、跨期转移资源2、管理风险3、清算支付和结算支付4、归集资源并细分股份5、提供信息6、设法解决激励问题激励问题:当金融交易一方拥有另一方不具备的信息,或一方是替代另一方做出决策的代理人时,就产生了激励问题。

①道德风险有了保险,会导致被保险方甘愿冒更大的风险②逆向选择购买保险的人可能比一般人更处于风险境地③委托—代理问题代理人可能并不作出和委托人本该做出的决策相同的决策第二节金融市场一、金融资产的基本类型1、债务(固定收益工具)2、权益权益是一家企业的所有者的索取权普通股:代表对一家公司资产的剩余索取权。

在履行了该企业的其他所有金融合同之后,普通股的所有者有权拥有剩余的任何资产。

优先股:相对于普通股而言的,指在利润分红及剩余财产分配的权利方面,优先于普通股。

但普通股股东享有公司的经营参与权,而优先股股东一般不享有。

普通股股东的收益要视公司赢利状况而定,而优先股的收益是固定的。

3、衍生工具一种或多种资产的价格衍生出其价值的金融工具。

例如期权和远期合约二、金融市场的类型(按照正在交易的索取权的到期期限划分)货币市场:低于一年的短期债务市场资本市场:长期债务市场和权益性证券市场第三节金融市场中的比率一、利率利率是一项经过承诺的收益率决定利率的三个要素:记账单位、到期期限、违约风险1、记账单位例子:假设你是一位日本投资者,正在进行为期1年的投资。

1年期日本政府债券的利率为3%,同时1年期的英国政府债券利率为9%。

且初期1英镑=150日元。

假设你在英国政府债券中投资100英镑。

1年以后的日元收益是多少(此时1英镑=140日元)?解:初始投资的日元金额:100英镑*150日元/英镑=15000日元一年后的英国政府债券收入:100英镑*(1+9%)=109英镑1年以后以日元表示的英国政府债券的实际收益率为:1.7%2、到期期限例如短期利率和长期利率可能是不同的3、违约风险在保持其他特征不变的条件下,固定收益工具的违约风险越高,利率越高。

  1. 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性,平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
  2. 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
  3. 3、如文档侵犯您的权益,请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间:9:00-18:30)。
在这种形式下,容易验证个体的风险容忍系数为其初始 财富的线性函数。
1 1 T (W ) ( )W RA (W ) 1
典型案例:圣彼德堡悖论(Saint Petersbury Paradox) 考虑一个投币游戏,如果第一次出现正面的结果,可以 得到1元,第一次反面,第二次正面得 2 元,前两次反 面,第三次正面得 4 元,„„如果前 n-1 次都是反面, 第 n 次出现正面得 元。问:游戏的参加应先付多 2 n1 少钱,才能使这场赌博是“公平”的?
4、可测性:如果 x y z, or , x y z ,那么存在唯 一的α ,使得y~G(x,z;α ) 5、可排序:如果 x y z和 x u z,并且y~G(x,z;α1) 和u~G(x,z;α2) ,那么,如果 1 2 y u ,如果 α 1~α 2,则y~u 。 这五个公理归结起来就是对人的行为作如下假设: 1)个体总是理性的; 2)个体能够面对成千上万个选择能够作出理性的 决策。 另外,还假定个体是贪婪的,即多比少好!
损益
-2000
-3000 -4000
2000
3000 4000
0.75
0.80 0.85
8.2
10.0 12.2
-24.6
-40.0 -69.2来自-500050000.9
15.0
-135.0
C、建立风险厌恶定义
1. 风险态度
例:对下面两种情形,你会选择哪一个?I、确定 能够拿到10$;II、10%的可能获得100$,90% 的可能拿到0$。不同的选择代表不同的风险态 度。 (1)风险厌恶 U E (W ) E U (W ) ,见图a; (2)风险中性 U E (W ) E U (W ) ,见图b; (3)风险爱好 U E (W ) E U (W ) , 见图c;
u( x) x

1 1 x 1 E[u ( x)] p( x)u ( x) x 2 2 2 x 1 x 1 2

x {E[u( x)]} 2.914
2
因此,期望收益最大化准则在不确定情形下可能导致
不可接受的结果。而贝努利提出的用期望效用取代期望收 益的方案,可能为我们的不确定情形下的投资选择问题提 供最终的解决方案。 根据期望效用,20%的收益不一定和2倍的10%的收 益一样好;20%的损失也不一定与2倍的10%损失一样 糟。
对上面式子进行Taylor展开,可以得到
1 2 U '' (W ) z ' 2 U (W )
这就是Pratt-Arrow局部风险溢价测度。
定义绝对风险厌恶
相对风险厌恶
U '' (W ) ARR ' U (W )
RRA W * ARR
例:二次效用函数与指数效用函数:
期望效用原则
Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782)是出生于瑞 士名门著名数学家,1725-1733年期间一直在圣彼德堡 科学院研究投币游戏。其在1738 年发表《对机遇性赌博 的 分析》提出解决“圣彼德堡悖论”的“风险度量新理 论”。指出人们在投资决策时不是用“钱的数学期望”来 作为决策准则,而是用“道德期望”来行动的。而道德期 望并不与得利多少成正比,而与初始财富有关。穷人与富 人对于财富增加的边际效用是不一样的。
U(w)
U(w)
U(w)
图a
w
图b
w
w 图c
2、风险溢价 (1)Markowitz风险溢价 先介绍什么是确定性等价财富。 例:Smith先生现在手头有10$,现在他面临一个 赌博:赌资10$,80%的可能性得5$,20%的可能性得 30$。这个赌博给他带来的效用为
E[U (W )] 0.8U (5) 0.2U (30) 0.8 1.61 0.2 3.40 1.97
A.
不确定性下决策的五个公理
1. 完备性(可比性):所有选择x和y中,个体要么偏 好x( x y ),要么偏好y( y x ),或者认为x和y 无差异( x ~ y ),即任意两个选择是可以比较的。 2. 传递性(一致性):如果 x y 和 y z ,那么, z x y 如果 x z , ~ z ,那么 x ~ z 。 3. 强独立性:设想一个赌博,以概率α 得到x,以概 率1-α 得到z,记为G(x,z:α ),强独立性,即如
1、效用函数应该具有的两个性质 (1)如果 x y,那么 U ( x) U ( y。 )
(2)风险资产排序,即: 证明:见P42-43。 一般地 E U (W ) i pU (Wi ) i 效用函数对个人来说是特定的,没有办法对 比两个人的效用函数;群体的效用函数,比如一 个公司,是没有意义的。
即人们关心的是最终财富的效用,而不是财富的价值量, 而且,财富增加所带来的边际效用(货币的边际效用)是 递减的。 伯努利选择的道德期望函数为对数函数,即对投币游戏 的期望值的计算应为对其对数函数期望值的计算:
1 E (.) n log 2n 1.39 n 1 2

其中, >0为一个确定值。 另外, Crammer(1728)采用幂函数的形式的效用函 数对这一问题进行了分析。假定:
B、开发效用函数
基数效用与序数效用 基数效用:19 世纪的一些经济学家如英国的杰文 斯、奥地利的门格尔等认为,人的福利或满意可以 用他从享用或消费过程中所所获得的效用来度量。 对满意程度的这种度量叫做基数效用. 序数效用:20 世纪意大利的经济学家帕累托 等发现,效用的基数性是多余的,消费理论完全 可以建立在序数效用的基础上。所谓序数效用是 以效用值的大小次序来建立满意程度的高低,而 效用值的大小本身并没有任何意义.
该游戏的数学期望值:
1 1 1 1 E (.) 1 2 4 n 2n 1 2 4 8 2
但实验的结果表明一般理性的投资者参加该游戏愿意 支付的成本(门票)仅为2-3元。 圣彼德堡悖论:面对无穷的数学期望收益的赌博,为何 人们只愿意支付有限的价格?
确定性:是指自然状态如何出现已知,并替换 行动所产生的结果已知。它排除了任何随机事件 发生的可能性。
风险:是指那些涉及已知概率或可能性形式出现的随机 问题,但排除了未数量化的不确定性问题。即对于未来可 能发生的所有事件,以及每一事件发生的概率有准确的认 识。但对于哪一种事件会发生却事先一无所知。 不确定性:是指发生结果尚未不知的所有情形,也即那 些决策的结果明显地依赖于不能由决策者控制的事件,并 且仅在做出决策后,决策者才知道其决策结果的一类问 题。即知道未来世界的可能状态(结果),但对于每一种 状态发生的概率不清楚。
由于对有些事件的客观概率难以得到,人们在实际中常 常根据主观概率或者设定一个概率分布来推测未来的结果 发生的可能性,因此学术界常常把具有主观概率或设定概 率分布的不同结果的事件和具有客观概率的不同结果的事 件同时视为风险。即风险与不确定性有区别,但在操作 上,我们引入主观概率或设定概率分布的概念,其二者的 界线就模糊了,几乎成为一个等同概念。
果 x ~ y ,那么 G( x, z : ) ~ G( y, z : ) 。
完备性假定保证了消者具备选别判断的能力。
传递性保证了消费者在不同商品之间选好的首尾一贯 性。
独立性味着如果将两个抽奖与第三个抽奖放在一起考 虑,则前两者的偏好顺序独立于特定的第三个抽奖。 独立性公理是不确定性环境下决策理论的核心,它提供 了把不确定性嵌入决策模型的基本结构。通过该假设,消 费者将复杂的概率决策行为,分为相同和不同的两个独立 部分,整个决策行为仅由其不同的部分来决定。
第二讲 决策理论: 不确定下的效
用函数
本章将介绍投资者所面临的选择目标问题,
主要包括: 投资者对风险资产的偏好问题; 效用函数; 风险厌恶的度量; 用投资回报的均值和方差作为选择目标的参 数,并根据它们之间的相互替换程度绘制出 投资者的等效用曲线
关于风险与不确定性
奈特(Knight.F)《风险、不确定性和利润〉 中关于确定型、风险和不确定性的解释:
不确定性下的理性决策原则 数学期望最大化原则 数学期望收益最大化准则是指使用不确定性下各 种可能行为结果的预期值比较各种行动方案优劣。这 一准则有其合理性,它可以对各种行为方案进行准确 的优劣比较,同时这一准则还是收益最大准则在不确 定情形下的推广。 问题:是否数学期望最大化准则是不最优的不确定性下 的行为决策准则?
后期望效用理论:
由阿莱斯悖论等各种试验引发的新的期望效用理论, 如前景理论、遗憾理论、加权的期望效用理论、非线性的 期望效用理论等等行为金融学和非线性经济学对期望效用 的新的解释。
期望效用理论是不确定性选择理论中最为重要的价 值判断标准。期望效用函数作为对不确定性条件下 经济主体决策者偏好结构的刻画,具有广泛的用途。
而U(7.17)=1.97。7.17$就是该赌博的确定性等价财富W*。
风险溢价=期望财富-确定性等价财富
EW1 W *或U E(W ) E U (W )
风险溢价(risk premium)是指风险厌恶者为避免承担风险而 愿意放弃的投资收益。或让一个风险厌恶的投资者参与一项博 彩所必需获得的 风险补偿(risk compensation)。 它与个体的风险厌恶程度有关,与赌局成本的定义不一样,赌 局成本: 0 W * 。 W
假设α =0.6和U(0.0)=0,那么
U (1000) (1 )U (1000)

(1 0.6)(10) 6.7 0.6
重复以上过程,可以计算效用函数
损失 赢利 概率(赢) 效用(赢) 效用(输)
效用指数
-1000
-1000 -1000 -1000 -1000 -1000 -1000
1000
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
相关文档
最新文档