风险管理法则-Principles_of_Risk_Management
管理学专业术语(中英文对照)
1.管理与组织导论管理者:(manager)基层管理者:(first-line managers)中层管理者:(middle managers)高层管理者:(top managers)管理:(management)效率:(efficiency)效果:(effectiveness)计划:(planning)组织:(organizing)领导:(leading)控制:(controlling)管理角色:(management roles)人际关系角色:(interpersonal roles)信息传递角色:(informational roles)决策制定角色:(descisional roles)技术技能:(technical skills)人际技能:(human skills)概念技能:(conceptual skills)管理的普遍性:(universality of management)2.管理的历史劳动分工:(division of labor)工作专业化:(job specialization)工业革命:(industrific revolution)科学管理:(scientific management)一般行政管理理论:(general administrative theory) 管理原则:(principles of management)官僚行政组织:(bureaucracy)定量方法:(quantitative approach)组织行为:(organizational behavior)霍桑研究系统:(Hawthorne studies systems)封闭系统:(closed systems)开放系统:(open systems)权变理论:(contingency approach)劳动力多元化:(workforce diversity)电子企业:(e-business)电子商务:(e-commerce)内部网:(intranet)学习型组织:(learning organization)知识管理:(knowledge management)质量管理:(quality management)3.组织文化与环境管理万能论:(omnipotent view of management) 管理象征论:(symbolil view of management) 组织文化:(organization culture)强文化:(strong cultures)社会化:(socialization)工作场所精神境界:(workplace spirituality)外部环境:(external environment)具体环境:(specific environment)一般环境:(general environment)环境的不确定性:(environment uncertainty)环境的复杂性:(environment complexity)利益相关群体:(stakholders)4.全球环境中的管理狭隘主义:(parochialism)民族中心论:(ethnocentric attitude)多国中心论:(polycentric attitude)全球中心论:(geocentric attitude)跨国公司:(multinational corporation)多国公司:(multidomestic corporation)全球公司:(global company)跨国或无边界组织:(transnational or boredrless organization) 初始全球化组织:(born globals)全球外购:(global sourcing)出口:(exporting)进口:(importing)许可证经营:(licensing)许可经营:(franchising)战略同盟:(strategic alliance)合资企业:(joint venture)外国子公司:(foreign subsidiary)市场经济:(market economy)计划经济:(command economy)民族文化:(national culture)5.社会责任与管理道德古典观点:(classical view)社会经济学观点:(socioeconomic view)社会义务:(social obligation)社会响应:(social responsiveness)社会责任:(social responsinility)社会屏障筛选:(social screening)管理的绿色化:(gerrning of management)以价值观为基础的管理:(values-based management) 道德:(ethics)自我强度控制点:(ego strength locus of control)道德准则:(code of ethics)社会企业家:(social entrepreneur)社会影响管理:(social impact management)6.制定决策决策:(decisions)决策制定过程:(decision-making process)决策标准问题:(decision criteria problem)理性的:(rational)有限理性:(bounded rationality)满意的承诺升级:(satisfied escalation of commitment) 直觉决策:(intuitive decision making)结构良好问题:(structured problems)程序化决策:(programmed decision)程序:(procedure)规则:(rule)政策:(policy)结构不良问题:(unstructured problems)非程序化决策:(nonprogrammed decisions) 确定性:(certainty)风险性:(risk)命令型风格:(directive style)分析型风格:(analytic style)概念型风格:(conceptual style)行为型风格:(behavioral style)启发法:(heuristics)7.计划的基础陈述目标:(stated goals)真实目标:(real goals)战略计划:(strategic plans)运营计划:(operational plans)长期计划:(long-term plans)短期计划:(short-term plans)具体计划:(specific plans)方向性计划:(directional plans)一次性计划:(single-used plans)持续性计划:(standing plans)传统目标:(traditional goal setting)手段-目标链:(means-ends chain)目标管理:(management by objectives)使命:(mission)承诺概念:(commitment concept)正式计划部门:(formal planning department) 8.战略管理战略管理:(strategic management)组织战略商业模式:(strategies business model ) 战略管理过程:(strategic management process) 机会:(opportunities)威胁:(threats)资源:(resources)能力:(capabilities)核心竞争力:(core competencies)SWOT分析法:(SWOT analysis)公司层战略:(corporate strategy)增长战略:(growth strategy)相关多元化:(related diversification)非相关多元化:(unrelated diversification)稳定性战略:(stability strategy)更新战略:(renewal strategies)紧缩战略:(retrenchment strategy)扭转战略:(turnaround strategy)BCG矩阵:(BCG matrix)业务层战略:(business strategy)战略业务单元:(strategic business units) 竞争优势:(competitive advantage)成本领先战略:(cost leadership strategy) 遵循差异化战略:(differentiation strategy) 聚焦战略:(focus strategy)徘徊其间:(stuck in the middle)战略灵活性:(strategic flexibility)市场先入者:(first mover)9.计划的工具技术环境扫描:(environment scanning)竞争对手情报:(competitor intelligence) 预测:(forecasts)定量预测:(quantitative forecasting)定性预测:(qualitative forecasting)标杆比较:(benchmarking)资源:(resources)预算:(budget)甘特图:(Gantt chart)负荷图:(load chart)事件:(events)计划评审技术:(the program evaluation and review technique) 活动:(activities)松弛时间:(slack time)关键路径:(critical path)盈亏平衡分析:(breakeven analysis)线性规划:(linear programming)项目管理:(project management)脚本:(scenario)10.组织结构与设计组织结构设计:(organazational structure design)工作专门化:(work specialization)职能部门化:(functional departmentalization)产品部门化:(product departmentalization)地区部门化:(geographical departmentalization)过程部门化:(process departmentalization)顾客部门化:(customer departmentalization)跨职能团队:(cross-functional teams)指挥链:(chain of command)职权:(authority)职责:(responsibility)统一指挥:(unity of command)管理跨度:(span of control)集权化:(centralization)分权化:(decentralization)员工授权:(employee empowerment)正规化:(formalization)机械式组织:(mechanistic organization) 有机式组织:(organic organization)单件生产:(unit production)大批量生产:(mass production)连续生产:(process production)简单结构:(simple structure)职能型结构:(flanctional structure)事业部型结构:(divisional structure)团队结构:(team structure)矩阵型结构:(matrix structure)项目型结构:(project structure)无边界组织:(boundaryless organization) 虚拟组织:(virtual organization)学习型组织:(learning organization)组织结构图:(organizational charts)11.沟通与信息技术沟通:(communication)人际沟通:(interpersonal communication) 组织沟通:(organizational communication) 信息:(message)编码:(encoding)解码:(decoding)沟通过程:(communication process)噪声:(noise)非语言沟通:(nonverbal communication) 体态语言:(body language)语调:(verbal intonation)过滤:(filtering)信息超载:(information overload)积极倾听:(active listening)正式沟通:(formal communication)非正式沟通:(informal communication) 下行沟通:(upward communication)横向沟通:(lateral communication)斜向沟通:(diagonal communication)沟通网络:( communication networks)小道消息:(grape-vine)电子邮件:()即时消息:(instant messaging)音频邮件:(voic)电子数据交换:(electrinic data interchange)电话会议:(teleconferencing)可视会议:(videoconferencing)网络会议:(webconferencing)内部互联网:(intranet)外部互联网:(Extranet)实践社区:(communities practive)12.人力资源管理高绩效工作实务:(high-performance work practices)人力资源管理过程:(human resource management process) 工会(labor union)反优先雇佣行动计划:(affirmative action)人力资源规划:(human resource planning)职务分析:(job analysis)职务说明书:(job description)职务规范:(job specification)招聘:(recruitment)解聘:(decriuitment)甄选:(selection)效度:(validity)信度:(reliability)工作抽样:(work samping)评估中心:(assessment centers)真实工作预览:(relistic job preview)上岗培训:(orientation)绩效管理系统:(performance management system)书面描述法:(written essay)关键事件法:(critical incidents)评分表法:(graphic rating scales)行为定位评分法:(behaviorally anchored rating scales) 多人比较法:(multiperson comparisons)360度反馈法:(360-degree feedback)基于技能薪酬:(skill-based pay)浮动工资:(variable pay)精简机构:(downsizing)性骚扰:(sexual harassment)基于家庭的福利:(family-friendly benefits)13.变革与创新管理组织变革:(organizational change)变革推动者:(change agent)组织发展:(organizational development)压力:(stress)14.行为的基础行为:(behavior)组织行为学:(organizational behavior)员工生产率:(employee productivity)离职率:(turnover)组织公民行为:(organizational citizen behavior)工作满意度:(job satisfaction)工作场所不当行为态度:(workplace misbehavior attitudes) 认知行为:(cognitive component)情感成分:(affective component)行为成分:(behavior component)组织承诺:(organizational commitment)组织支持感:(perceived organizational support)认知失调:(cognitive dissonance)态度调查:(attitude surveys)人格:(personality)马基雅维里主义:(machiavellianism)自尊:(self-esteem)自我控制:(self-monitoring)印象管理:(impression management)情绪:(emotion)情绪智力:(emotional Intelligence)知觉:(perception)归因理论:(attribution theory)基本归因错误:(fundamental attribution error) 自我服务偏见:(self-serving bias)假设相似性:(assumed similarity)刻板印象:(stereotyping)晕轮效应:(halo effect)操作性条件反射:(operant conditioning)社会学习理论:(social learning theory)行为塑造:(shaping behavior)15.理解群体与团队群体:(group)形成阶段:(forming)震荡阶段:(storming)规范阶段:(norming)执行阶段:(performing)解体阶段:(adjourning)群体思维:(groupthink)地位:(status)社会惰化:(social loafing)群体内聚力:(group cohesiveness)冲突:(conflict)冲突的传统观点:(traditional view of conflict)冲突的人际关系观点:(human relations view of conflict) 冲突的交互作用观点:(interactionist view of conflict) 积极冲突:(functional conflict)消极冲突:(disfunctional conflict)任务冲突:(task conflict)关系冲突:(relationship conflict)过程冲突:(process conflict)工作团队:(workteams)自我管理团队:(self-managed work teams)跨职能团队:(cross-functional team)虚拟团队:(virtual team)社会网络构造:(social network structure)16.激励员工动机:(motivation)需要层次理论:(hierarchy of needs theory) 双因素理论:(two-factor theory)保健因素:(hygiene factors)激励因素:(motivators)三种需要理论:(three-needs theory)成就需要:(need for achievement)权力需要:(need for power)归属需要:(need for affiliation)目标设置理论:(goal-setting theory)自我效能感:(self-efficacy)强化理论:(reinforcement theory)强化物:(reinforcer)工作设计:(job design)工作扩大化:(job enlargement)工作丰富化:(job enrichment)工作深度:(job depth)工作特征模型:(job characteristics model) 公平理论:(equity theory)参照对象:(referents)分配公平:(distributive justice)程序公平:(procedural justice)期望理论:(expectancy theory)压缩工作周:(compressed workweek)弹性工作制:(flexible work hours)弹性时间制:(flextime)工作分担:(job sharing)远程办公:(telecommuting)账目公开管理:(open-book management)员工认可方案:(employee recognition programs) 绩效工资方案:(pay-for-performance program) 股票期权:(stock options)17.领导领导者:(leader)领导:(leadership)行为理论:(behavioral theories)独裁型风格:(authoeratic style)民主型风格:(democratic style)放任型风格:(laissez-faire style)定规维度:(initiating strueture)关怀维度:(consideration)高-高型领导者:(high-high leader)管理方格:(managerial grid)权变模型:(contingency model)最难共事着问卷:(least-preferred co-worker questionnaire) 情境领导理论:(situational leadership theory)成熟度:(readiness)领导者参与模型:(leader participation model)路径-目标理论:(path-goal theory)交易型领导者:(transactional leaders)变革型领导者:(transformational leaders)领袖魅力型领导者:(charismatic leader)愿景规划型领导:(visionary leadership)法定权利:(legitimate power)强制权利:(coercive power)奖赏权力:(reward power)专家权利:(expert power)参照权利:(referent power)信誉:(credibility)信任:(trust)授权:(empowerment)18.控制的基础控制:(controlling)市场控制:(market control)官僚控制:(bureaucratic control)小集团控制:(clan control)控制过程:(control process)偏差范围:(range of variation)直接纠正行动:(immediate corrective)彻底纠正行动:(basic correvtive action)绩效:(performance)组织绩效:(organizational performance)生产率:(productivity)组织有效性:(organizational effectiveness)前馈控制:(feedforward control)同期控制:(concurrent control)走动管理:(management by walking around)反馈控制:(feedback control)经济附加值:(economic value added)市场附加值:(market valueadded)平衡计分卡:(balanced scorecard)管理信息系统:(management information system)- - -标杆比较:(benchmarking)员工偷窃:(employee theft)服务利润链:(service profit chain)公司治理:(corporate governance)19.运营与价值链管理运营管理:(operations management)制造型组织:(manufacturing organizations)服务型组织:(service organizations)价值链:(value chain)价值链管理:(value chain management)组织过程:(organizational processes)知识产权:(intellectual processes)质量:(quality)批量定制:(mass customization)- - 总结资料。
ICH-Q9质量风险管理
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HARMONISATION OF TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR REGISTRATION OF PHARMACEUTICALS FOR HUMAN USE人用药注册技术要求国际协调会议ICH Harmonised Tripartite Guideline人用药注册技术要求国际协调会议三方协调后的指南Quality Risk Management质量风险管理Current Step 4 version现行第四步版本dated 9 November 20052005 年十一月 9日This Guideline has been developed by the appropriate ICH Expert Working Group and has been subject to consultation by the regulatory parties, in accordance with the ICH Process. At Step 4 of the Process the final draft is recommended for adoption to the regulatory bodies of the European Union, Japan and USA.本指南由人用药注册技术要求国际协调会议专家工作组根据人用药注册技术要求国际协调会议程序开发并提交各方的药政部门咨询。
根据人用药注册技术要求国际协调会议程序第四步，推荐给欧盟、日本和美国药的政部门采用的最终文本。
Document HistoryHaving reached Step 4 of the ICH Process at the ICH Steering Committee meeting on 9 November 2005, this guideline is recommended for adoption to the three regulatory parties to ICH在 2005 年 11 月 9 日的人用药注册技术要求国际协调会议上，本指南已经通过人用药注册技术要求国际协调会议第四步程序，本指南已经推荐给人用药注册技术要求国际协调会议三方的药政部门采用。
风险管理法则-PrinciplesofRiskManagement
Risk reduction achieved by all protective systems & External Risk Reduction Facilities
Mechanical equipment like reliefe valve, non return valve.
Fire pumps, foam systems, water curtains, deluge systems, ventilation emergency equipment and
Levels of Risk and ALARP
Unacceptable region
Risk cannot be justified except in extraordinary circumstances Tolerable only if risk reduction is impracticable or if its cost is grossly disproportionate to the improvement gained
What is Risk ?
Risk is a measure of the likelihood and consequence of an unwanted happening.
How often can it happened what will be the effect (consequence) if it does ?
Example A drain system, a fire wall and a bund are all external risk reduction facilities
Key terms and concepts “Risk” Combination of the probability of occurrence of Reduce risk by: harm and the severity of that harm
风险管理Module Principles of Major Risk Management
1E-5
风险பைடு நூலகம்理框架结构模型
零风险
安全环境的基础是«知识» 与«经验» 。 这个基础是通过信息通讯 与网络进行支持的。
人员行为
事故
知识 经验
知识 经验 通讯 & 网络
知识 经验
安全等级是基于三个主要 的支撑： 技术方法； 组织状态与实施步骤； 人员行为。 我们将针对风险管理框架 结构模型的不同要素进行 管理控制。
然而, …
风险是指所有对我们所从事工作产生消极 影响的、我们不希望出现的事件。
4 - First HSE Exchange meeting, 12th-14th of March 2007, Guangzhou, China
Risk and Uncertainty in Business
Business Risks (Management Sciences)
风险的涵义
危险 vs 风险 危险 可以描述为损害的内在潜伏性 风险可以描述为破坏发生的可能性 风险认可: 事故从来都是不可接受的 然而在某些情况下基于利益可以承受一定的风 险。风险还包含没有事故发生的可能性。 承担风险并不意味着我们允许发生事故！
3 - First HSE Exchange meeting, 12th-14th of March 2007, Guangzhou, China
22 - First HSE Exchange meeting, 12th-14th of March 2007, Guangzhou, China
风险管理原则
原则1：如何理解风险管理创造并保护价值我就联想到外汇是如何做好风险管理的呢～对于个人投资者，如想在外汇交易中赚钱，可以按以下步骤来做。
1.下载外汇交易平台软件，安装后开始模拟操作，这样会激发学习的兴趣。
2.找个网站学习基础知识。
边学习边实践，可以相互促进。
3..学习一种技术分析方法。
技术分析方法主要有：K线形态分析和技术指标分析。
没有绝对完美的分析方法，交易者需要根据自己的实际情况进行选择。
4.学习资金管理。
交易者常用的资金管理模型为固定百分比资金管理模型和固定头寸资金管理模型。
5.把资金管理，策略和技术交易方法结合，组成一个属于自己的交易系统6.情绪管理。
学习哲学极心理学方面知识，做到心态平衡，从而保证对交易系统执行的一致性基金公司风险管理创造价值基金公司的风险管理一直受到投资者的广泛关注，与资产规模、投资业绩等一并构成体现基金公司实力的主要因素。
基金公司的风险管理通常包括合规、经营、道德、及投资等风险的监控和管理，其中投资风险管理直接影响基金资产规模和业绩，在基金公司的风险控制体系中占据重要地位。
一、投资风险管理是投资流程的重要组成部分严格的投资风险管理有助于建立规范和有纪律性的投资流程，是创造持续稳定的投资收益的重要保障。
常见的投资风险可分为市场风险、流动性风险、投资研究与决策风险等。
1、市场风险：包括系统性和非系统性风险。
系统性风险主要指市场宏观因素的变化造成投资组合净值波动的风险。
正常情况下，开放式基金的系统性风险由大至小为指数型基金，股票型基金，配置型基金，债券型基金。
根据晨星统计，今年上半年晨星(中国)股市指数下跌45.07%，同期开放式基金指数下跌33.94%，其中股票型基金指数下跌38.11%，配置型基金指数下跌31.13%。
系统性风险不能完全消除，常见控制措施之一是由公司投资决策委员会在对宏观面、政策面、技术面、资金面的分析基础上，确定下一阶段的股票投资比例限制指标，并要求基金经理在规定的范围内进行投资。
企业质量风险管理 中英文对照
II.7 实验室控制及稳定性研究中的应用
II.8 Quality Risk Management as Part of Packaging and Labelling
Annex II: Potential Applications for Quality Risk Management
附件 II: 质量风险管理潜在应用前景.
II.1 Quality Risk Management as Part of Integrated Quality Management
II.1 综合质量管理中的质量风险管理
风险管理原理在商业和政府的许多领域都得到了有效应用，如：金融、保险、职业安全、公共卫生、药物监测及相应的监管部门。如今质量风险管理在药企中虽有应用，但范围有限，并没有发挥出它的全部效用。药企已经意识到了质量体系的重要性，而质量风险管理越来越明显地成为有效质量体系的重要组分。
It is commonly understood thatriskis defined as the combination of theprobability of occurrence ofharmand theseverityof that harm.However, achieving a shared understanding of the application of risk management among diversestakeholdersis difficult because each stakeholder might perceive different potential harms, place a different probability on each harm occurring and attribute different severities to each harm. In relation to pharmaceuticals, although there are a variety of stakeholders, including patients and medical practitioners as well as government and industry,the protection of the patient by managing the risk to quality should be considered of prime importance.
《风险管理》主要参考文献
部分国内外风险管理标准 《风险管理 术语》、 《风险管理 原则与实施 指南》、《供应链风险管理指南》、《公司治 理风险管理指南》； ISO31000，<Risk management — Principles and guidelines on implementation>; ISO/IEC GUIDE 73:2002, <Risk management — Vocabulary — Guidelines for use in standards> AS/NZS 4360：2004, < Risk Management> ； COSO, <Enterprise risk management—integrated framework>; Sarbanes-Oxley Act ; AIRMIC, ALARM, IRM, < A Risk Management Standard> 中央企业全面风险管理指引，2006.6.6
10. [日]小川英治，寿险公司金融风险管理战略 (M)，付海燕译，北京，中国金融出版社，2003年 10月
11.王一佳，马泓，陈秉正，寿险公司风险管理（ M）,北京，中国金融出版社，2003年10第1版 12. [美]勒内 M.斯塔茨，风险管理与衍生产品 (M)，机械工业出版社，2004年8月第1版。 13.友联时骏企业管理顾问公司编著，风险管理 (M)，复旦大学出版社，2005年1月第一版
18. 华小宁、梁文昭、陈昊 整合进行时 ——企业全面风险管理路线图（M），上 海，复旦大学出版社，2007年3月第一版 19. [美]保罗· 舒梅科（Paul J.H. Schomaker） 《从不确定性中盈利》（M ），北京天则经济研究所 选译，云南人 民出版社，2005年4月第1版 20.（美）COSO 制定发布，企业风险管 理——应用技术（M），张宜霞译，东北 财经大学出版社，2006年6月第一版
全面风险管理之101条风险管理准则(中英文简体版)
风险管理从十九世纪二三十年代开始,经历几十年的发展逐渐成为一门影响广泛的现代管理学科。
1983年在美国召开的风险和保险管理协会年会上，世界各国专家学者云集纽约，共同讨论并通过了“101条风险管理准则”，它标志着风险管理的发展已进入了一个新的发展阶段。
101条风险管理准则１．英文：「An organization risk management program must be tailored to its overall objectives and should change when those objectives change.」译文：「一个组织的风险规划方案必需配合企业之整体目标，且应随著目标之改变而改变」２．英文：「If you are in a “safe”business (relatively immune from depression, bankruptcy or shifts in products market), you risk management program can be more “risky”and less costly.」译文：「假如您要安稳地经营（亦即免除相当程度的经济萧条，破產或產品市场转换之衝撃）您的风险管理方案最好能够更具冒险性及成本最低性．」３．英文：「Don’t risk more than you can afford to lose.」译文：「不要冒自己所不能够承担之风险」４．英文：「Don’t risk a lot for a little」译文：「切勿冒因小利而受大害之风险」５．英文：「Consider the odds of an occurrence」译文：「多加考虑损失发生之可能性」６．英文：「Have clearly defined objectives which are consistent with corporate objectives」译文：「必需要有明确之风险管理目标且此目标需与企业目标一致」７．英文：「The risk management department, as a user of services, should award business on the basis of ability to perform.」译文：「风险管理部门是属服务部门，因此该部门对企业利润之回馈应以其执行能力之高低為认定之基础．」８．英文：「For any significant loss exposure, neither loss control nor loss financing alone is enough; control and financing must be combined in the right proportion.」译文：「对任何重大之风险仅以控制对策或理财对策处理是不够的,必需将此两类对策做适当比例正确之搭配始可」风险辨认衡量準则【準则条文】９．英文：「Review financial statements to help identify and measure risks.」译文：「评估财务报表有助於辨认和衡量风险」１０．英文：「Use flow charts to identify sole source suppliers or other contingent business interruption exposures.」译文：「使用流程图分析有助於辨认一个供应商所引发之风险或其他连带营业中断风险.」１１．英文：「To more fully identify and assess risks, you must visit the plants and relate to operations people.」译文：「如果要能更完整地辨认和评估风险，风险管理人员应亲身访问工厂和有关之操作人员」１２．英文：「A reliable data base is essential to estimate probability and severity.」译文：「可靠之资料储存库对估计机率和幅度是相当重要的」１３．英文：「Accurate and timely risk information reduces risk, in any of itself.」译文：「正确和及时之风险资讯有助於降低风险.」１４．英文：「The risk manager should be involved in the purchase or design of any new operation to assure that there are no built-in risk management problems.」译文：「风险管理人员应涉及任何新计划之设计规划或任何新购置方案之工作，俾便事先能确保不產生风险管理上之问题.」１５．英文：「Be certain environmental risks are evaluated in mergers, acquisitions and joint ventures.」译文：「企业在合併、购买和短期合营事业上应确定已完成环境风险之评估工作.」１６．英文：「Select hazardous waste contractors on their risk control measures and their financial stability or insurance protection 」译文：「选择处理具有危险性之废弃物之厂商时应以该厂商在处理废弃物时所採取之风险控制手段是否良好，他们本身之财务结构是否稳定，或从事此危险工作所引发之责任或损失是否良好之保险保障為主要之考虑依据」１７．英文：「Look for incidental involvement in critical risk areas, （ie. , aircraft and nuclear products, medical malpractice, engineering design, ect.）」译文：「在重要的风险区域范围内，积极寻求可能涉及的非所愿事件．（重要的风险区域范围指的是航空和核子科技產品，医疗作业失误、工程设计等工作而言．）」风险控制準则【準则条文】１８．英文：「Risk control works, it is cost effective and helps control local operating costs.」译文：「风险控制是项积极改善风险单位本身性质之工作．它可使成本做最有效之运用同时亦有助单位或部门营运成本之控制．」１９．英文：「The first ( and incontrovertible ) reason for risk control is the preservation of life.」译文：「风险控制首要的（和无可置疑的）理由乃是对人们生命的保护．」２０．英文：「A property conservation program should be designed to protect corporate assets-not the underwriter.」译文：「财產保全维护计划是為了保护公司的资產而设计的──并非為了保全人而设计的．」２１．英文：「Be mindful that key plants and sole source suppliers may need protection above and beyond normal HPR (highly protected risks)requirements.」译文：「对重要工厂和单一供应商应予留意也许它们需要超过HPR正常要求标準的防护措施．」２２．英文：「Use the risk control services of your broker and insurer as anextension of your corporate program. Don’t let them go off on a tangent.」译文：「要把保险经纪人和保险人所提供之风险控制服务视為自己公司的风险控制规划方案延伸的一部份．不能让他们突然地改变既有之服务内容．」２３．英文：「Quality control should not be substitute for a full product liability program. Quality control only assures the product is made according to specifications, whether good or bad.」译文：「品质控制不应视為全部產品责任损失控制方案之替代品．所谓品质控制仅是能确保產品是依据既定之规格製造，不管此一规格是好是坏．」２４．英文：「Most of the safety-related “standards”of governmental agencies should be considered as minimum requirements.」译文：「政府机关所订有关的安全法规或标準应视為风险控制之最低要求．」２５．英文：「Duplicate and separately store valuable papers and back-up data processing media.」译文：「复製并分开储存有价值之资料文件且储备许多电脑处理资料上需要的软硬体零件．」２６．英文：「Avoid travel by multiple executives in a single aircraft.」译文：「避免安排许多重要主管同乘一架航空器从事旅游或考察」风险管理準则【準则条文】２７．英文：「Risk manager. ent should focus on two separate zones of risk relative to the maximum dollar loss the company can survive form a single occurrence:. Below this level-optimize the use of insurance relative to current cost.. Above this level-transfer risk (usually insurance) to maximum extent possible-cost effectiveness is not a criterion in this zone; survival is.译文：「风险管理应著重一次损失之发生，企业能承受之最大损失能力之水準或范围下所分开的两个不同之风险范围．．低於此一范围水準之风险－求取保险与非保险对策之适切成本组合．．高於此一范围水準之风险－儘最大可能转移风险（通常利用保险）此时成本之有效性非决策标準而以存活之机会為决策标準．」２８．英文：「An entity with an unlimited budget can benefit from adopting all risk management measures which have benefits to the entity with an expected present value greater than the expected present value of costs of those measures to that entity.」译文：「较少预算限制之经济个体只要对所有之风险管理方案採取预期收益现值大於预期成本现值之方案即可获益．」２９．英文：「When, for budgetary or practical reasons, an entity must choose between mutually exclusive risk management measures, the entity should choose the measure that offers it the greatest excess of benefits over costs. When both benefits and costs are expressed as expected present values.」译文：「当為了有限之限算或实际之理由时，经济个体在选取互相衝突之风险管理方案时，经济个体应选择预期收益现值与预期成本现值差额最大的风险管理方案．」３０．英文：「Competitive bidding which causes market disruption should be avoided.」译文：「公开竞标易引起市场崩溃应予避免」３１．英文：「Never depend solely on someone else’s insurance .」译文：「不要单单依赖某一保险人提供之保险」３２．英文：「Retrospective rating plans of more than one year hamper flexibility.」译文：「超过一年以上之追溯费率计划反而妨碍弹性程度．」３３．英文：「A tax advantage should be considered a “plus”-not a principal reason for a risk financing decision.」译文：「税负减轻之优点仅能视為有利因子－它不是风险理财决策之主要理由」３４．英文：「Risk taking presents an opportunity for economic gain.」译文：「冒风险意愿著在经济上获益之机会」索赔管理準则【準则条文】３５．英文：「The risk manager should be notified immediately (with-in 24 hours)of any major loss or potential loss.」译文：「对任何重大或潜在之损失，风险经理应立即（24小时内）获得通知．」３６．英文：「Major liability claims should be reviewed for adequacy of investigation and accuracy of reserve.」译文：「对於重大责任损失查勘之适当性和损失準备之正确性应特别注意评估．」３７．英文：「Be careful of local plant involvement in property and liability claims. Local personnel may be too defensive to properly review a major claim.」译文：「特别留意涉及各地工厂部门之财產和责任索赔案件．因為各地工厂部门之人员容易為了减低其损失发失之责任而隐瞒实情以致重大之索赔关键无法正确评估．」３８．英文：「Request early advance payments on large property and business interruption losses.」译文：「对於重大的财產和营业中断损失及早要求保险人预付部份赔款．」－３９．英文：「Secure several estimates or an appraisal of self-insured vehicle physical damage losses.」译文：「对於自行承担之车辆实体毁损应儘可能获取数种之估价资料」４０．英文：「Aggressive claims subrogation ( insured and self-insured) reduces costs.」译文：「主动积极运用代位求偿（不管是被保损失之索赔或未保损失之理贴）可降低理赔成本．」４１．英文：「A claim and disability management program, directed toward getting the employee back to work as soon as possible can save money even though the employee cannot do all phases of the job. 」译文：「索赔和伤残管理规划中应儘可能使员工回復原有之工作，即使员工无法胜任原有所有之工作但可使企业组织节省金钱之花费．」４２．英文：「Periodically audit claims reserves of insurers and self-insurance administrators.」译文：「定期审查保险人和自我保险人所设立的损失理赔準备」４３．英文：「The best claim is a closed claim」译文：「最好的索赔就是结束索赔」员工福利準则【準则条文】４４．英文：「The provisions and costs of employee benefit programs should be clearly and frequently communicated to employees」译文：「员工福利方案的成本和条款应该时常清楚地与员工沟通」４５．英文：「When installing a new benefit plan, it is harder to reduce benefits than to improve them later on.」译文：「当设计一项新的福利项目时，要了解清楚的是将福利给付或项目缩减比事后改善福利项目和内容还难．」４６．英文：「A poor employee benefit program can generate more employee relations problems than no plan at all .」译文：「一个差劲的员工福利计划会比不设立员工福利计划產生更多的人事关係纠纷之问题」４７．英文：「Employee contributions, even small ones, can help you assess the real popularity of a benefit plan.」译文：「员工醵出额即使很小也能有助於评估员工福利方案真正被接受支持之普遍程度．」４８．英文：「Know the benefit plans of the companies with whom you compete for labor.」译文：「应深切了解在人力市场上与自己公司互相竞争的同业公司之员工福利计划．」４９．英文：「Benefit consultants and brokers are not efficiency replacements for in-house stall functions.」译文：「福利顾问和经纪人无法有效取代内部专业职员之功能」５０．英文：「Collective bargaining of employee benefits should involve corporate benefit professionals.」译文：「员工福利在集体议商制定时，公司的福利专业人员应积极涉入参与．」５１．英文：「Legislation and regulation are intensifying in the employee benefit field. Make your company’s opinions known to the government before legislation is enacted.」译文：「政府之立法和管理规定对员工福利具有重大实质之影响．故立法通过和执行前，自己企业公司之意见应让政府单位知道」退休年準则【準则条文】５２．英文：「The ultimate cost of any pension plan is equal to the benefits paid, plus the cost of administration, less any investment earning of the fund.」译文：「任何退休计划终极本等於给付支出额加上行政处理费用扣除资金之投资收益．」５３．英文：「For the most part different actuarial methods and/ or assumptions may alter the incidence of cost, but seldom alter the ultimate level of cost.」译文：「对於大部份不同的精算成本方法和（或）精算假设也许改变了每年退休成本的偶然不同性，但很少改变终极成本之水平．」５４．英文：「Clearly identify your corporate objectives with respect to your retirement program.」译文：「明确确认公司目标与退休计划方案之关係」５５．英文：「Recognize that retirement plans are long-term obligations which will span many political, economic and social environments.」译文：「确认退休计划是属长期之责任义务，这种计划涵盖了许多政治的、经济的和社会的层面环境」５６．英文：「Identify the nature and extent of pension liability prior to any acquisition or divestiture.」译文：「做任何有关退休债务之取或捨之决定前，应认清该退休债务之性质和程度范围」５７．英文：「Establish formal investment objectives with respect to your pension funds which define risk , diversification and absolute performance parameters.」译文：「应正式以书面建立与退休基金有关之投资目标，此目标应包括投资所可能產生风险之范围，投资项目之多元化之内容和肯定会影响投资绩效之因素有那些．」５８．英文：「Monitor the performance of your pension fund in the context of your investment objectives」译文：「应以投资书面目标评估退休基金之投资绩效」５９．英文：「Identify and monitor your corporate exposure as a result of participation in any industry wide multiemployer pension plans.」译文：「辨认和评估因参加任何同业之合同退休计划所可能產生之不利影响」国际性风险管理準则【準则条文】６０．英文：「Multinational organizations should step up to their international risk management responsibilities.」译文：「多国籍企业应逐步提昇国际性风险管理之责任」６１．英文：「Establish a worldwide risk and insurance management program; don’t rely totally on a difference-in-conditions approach.」译文：「多国籍企业应设立全球性风险和保险管理规划方案；不可完全抑赖条款差异保险」６２．英文：「A combination of admitted and non-admitted insurance usually provides the best world wide insurance program.」译文：「被认可保险与不被认可保险之组合通常提供了最佳的全球性保险计划．」６３．英文：「Avoid the use of long-term policies overseas.」译文：「避免使用海外之长期保单」６４．英文：「Be sensitive to and don’t underestimate nationalism when implementing a worldwide risk management program.」译文：「在执行全球性风险管理方案时，尤需保持警觉，并且不能低估国家主义所致之严重问题．」６５．英文：「Don’t ignore local objections to worldwide programs.」译文：「不要忽视海外当地对全球性计划方案之反对」风险管理行政準则【準则条文】６６．英文：「Establish a level of authority via management policy statement.」译文：「透过一份管理策略说明书建立起不同的权责标準」６７．英文：「Prepare and universally distribute a corporate risk managementmanual.」译文：「编製并普通分发公司的风险管理手册」６８．英文：「Set up realistic annual objectives with your brokers, underwriters and vendors and measure their accomplishments and results.」译文：「与您的经纪人，保险人和厂商设立实际具体可完成之年度目标俾便评估其成效和结果」６９．英文：「Verify the accuracy of all relevant information you receive.」译文：「应证实您所获取所有有关资讯之精确性」７０．英文：「Read every insurance policy carefully」译文：「仔细阅读每一张保险单」７１．英文：「Keep program design simple」译文：「应儘量保持风险管理方案设计之简明化」７２．英文：「Consolidate-where it makes sense to do so」译文：「如果行政工作程序合併简化具积极意义时就该合併」７３．英文：「Develop record retention procedures」译文：「应发展一套纪录保存之程序」７４．英文：「Keep intercom any premium allocation confidential. 」译文：「公司单位部门间之保费分摊应使人信服」７５．英文：「Establish administrative procedures in writing」译文：「应以书面建立行政处理程序」风险管理技巧準则【準则条文】７６．英文：「Insurance policy provisions should be uniform as to named insured, notice and cancellation clauses, territory, etc.」译文：「保单条款中有关记名被保人、通知和註销条款、投保区域之规定等应求取一致．」７７．英文：「The “notice ”provision in all insurance policies should be modified to mean notice to a specific individual」译文：「所有保单中之“通知”条款应被修订成通知特定单位或个人之通知条款」７８．英文：「Primary policies with annual aggregates should have policy periods which coincide with excess policies」译文：「年度累积式基本保单之期间应与超额保单期间一致」７９．英文：「Joint loss agreements should be obtained from fire and boiler and machinery insurers.」译文：「应取得火灾和锅炉机械保险之联合共同损失协议条款」８０．英文：「Add “drive other car”protection to your corporate automobile insuracne」译文：「公司的汽车保险方案中应加入“驾驶他车”之保障条款」８１．英文：「Eliminate coinsurance clauses.」译文：「应消除共保条款」８２．英文：「Know the implications of and difference between “claims made”and “pay on behalf of”liability contracts.」译文：「应该认识清楚“请求索赔”责任保单和“代被保人赔偿”责任保单之涵义和其间之区别」８３．英文：「Risks accepted under contracts are not necessarily covered under contractual liability coverage」译文：「透过契约而承受的风险不一定需由契约责任保险来承保」８４．英文：「Add employees as insured’s to liability contracts. Use discretionary language to avoid defending hostile persons.」译文：「应将员工纳入责任保险之被保人中．并採用较為广义弹性之用语以避免并防范怀有恶意之他人．」风险管理沟通準则【準则条文】８５．英文：「All communication providing or requesting information should be expressed in clear, objective language, leaving no room for individual interpretation.」译文：「沟通上所要提供之资讯或所需之资讯均应以明确且客观之用语显示，千万勿令人有两可解释之餘地．」８６．英文：「All communications and relationships should be conducted with due consideration to proprietary information.」译文：「所有之沟通及工作关係应充份尊重考虑最高负责人意思后才予实施」８７．英文：「Communicate effectively up and down and avoid management surprises」译文：「沟通应有效地做到上闻下达之地步并避免令管理人员闻讯后感到讶异．」８８．英文：「Don’t tell senior management anything-ask them, counsel them, inform them.」译文：「对最高管理阶层人员千万勿用「告诉」字眼－而是用「请问」、「建议」、「通知」他们之字眼．」８９．英文：「Communicate in business language, avoid insurance jargon.」译文：「应以一般商业用语沟通，避免用艰深之保险术语．」９０．英文：「Obtain letters of intent or interpretations regarding agreements(coverage or administration) which are outside of and/or in addition to actual insurance or service contracts. Never rely on verbal agreements.」译文：「对於保险契约或服务契约本身外的协议或额外的协议（保障或行政事项），应确实获得有关解释说明之书面文件．絶对不可依赖口头上之协议来行事．」９１．英文：「The immediate supervisor to the risk management function should be educated in principles of risk management.」译文：「对於直接执行风险管理职能之主管应受过风险管理专业教育训练始可．」９２．英文：「Communicate every insurance exclusion and no insurance implication to your management . 」译文：「风险管理人员应就每一保险契约中之免责事项及其所显示之保险以外之涵义与管理阶层人员沟通」９３．英文：「In competitive bidding situations, advise each competitor that the first bid is the only bid and stick to it.」译文：「在竞标中，应向每一位投标人建议每人的第一次标价就是唯一的标价并坚持此一原则．」９４．英文：「Risk managers should meet with underwriters rather than relyingtotally on others for market communications」译文：「风险管理人员应经常主动拜访保险人，以便取得市场资讯而不应完全依赖其他的人和事来取得市场资讯．」风险管理哲学準则【準则条文】９５．英文：「The risk manager ( and his corporation ) should avoid developing the reputation of a “shopper”or “market burner”. This reputation can be detrimental to the corporations best interests and the risk managers credibility」译文：「风险管理人员（或其公司）应避免建立起「购买者」或「市场交易带头者」之名声．此种名声能够阻碍公司最佳利益之获取和损及风险管理人员之信赖度．」９６．英文：「Determine your personal level of risk aversion and temper intuitive judgments up or down accordingly.」译文：「确定自己的风险偏好之程度并据此调适主观直觉之判断」９７．英文：「Program design will always be a function of current practicalities tempered by management’s level of risk aversion.」译文：「风险管理方案之规划常是管理决策者实际风险偏好程度之显示」９８．英文：「Everyone is in business to make a fair profit」译文：「企业中每一个人均要有為公司赢得顾客满意，赚取合理利润之心志」９９．英文：「Long term, good faith relationships are not obsolete.」译文：「长期且诚信的关係是絶不会过时的」１００．英文：「Integrity is not out of style」译文：「诚篤正直的心絶不会落伍」１０１．英文：「Common sense is the most important ingredient in risk management.」译文：「普通常识是风险管理中最重之要素．」。
风险管理风险管理原则
原则一：风险管理创造并保护价值
✓在组织的运营活动中，机遇和威胁并存， 风险管理就是要趋利避害，创造价值。在 某些特定领域，如金融业、从风险管理的 角度出发，币值波动既能造成潜在损失， 又是可能盈利的机会。
✓因此风险管理过程越来越多地被认为是既 要关注不确定因素带来的消极影响，又要 关注这些不确定性因素的积极影响。
原则八：风险管理考虑到人文因素
➢风险管理意识是可以促进或阻碍组织 目标的实现的内部和外部人的能量。 观念和意图
原则八：风险管理考虑到人文因素
✓ 组织应该在内部营造一种具有风险意识的企业文 化，培育风险管理文化，树立正确的风险管理理 念，增强员工风险管理意识，将风险管理意识转 化为员工的共同认识和自觉行动，促进企业建立 系统、规范、高效的风险管理机制。
✓风险管理过程就是一个决策过程。
✓风险识别、风险分析和风险评价是为了认 识、评价风险管理单位的风险状况，解决 风险管理中的各种问题，制定管理风险的 决策方案。
✓风险管理目标的确定、风险识别、风险衡 量、风险评价和风险控制等，都是为了确 定最终的风险管理方案。
✓从这一角度来看，风险管理过程实际上是 一个管理决策过程
➢ 组织应该建立获取风险有效信息的渠道，可以通 过各种渠道，包括经验、反馈、观察、预测、专 家判断等获取有效、有用的信息，确保风险管理 过程的充分性和有效性。
➢ 在利用收集到的各种信息时，要考虑各种信息来 源的局限性。确保信息对决策的有效支持。
➢ （国资委文件的第2章和第8章）
原则七：风险管理是定制的
➢风险管理与组织的内外部环境及风险状况 是匹配的
原则七：风险管理是定制的
✓ 这项原则的价值在风险管理应该是适宜的。 ✓ 风险管理与组织的内外部环境有关。风险管理与
Principles for the Management of Credit Risk (bcbs75)
Principles for the Management of Credit RiskBasel Committee on Banking SupervisionBaselSeptember 2000Risk Management Groupof the Basel Committee on Banking SupervisionChairman:Mr Roger Cole – Federal Reserve Board, Washington, D.C.Banque Nationale de Belgique, Brussels Ms Ann-Sophie Dupont Commission Bancaire et Financière, Brussels Mr Jos Meuleman Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions, Ottawa Ms Aina Liepins Commission Bancaire, Paris Mr Olivier Prato Deutsche Bundesbank, Frankfurt am Main Ms Magdalene Heid Bundesaufsichtsamt für das Kreditwesen, Berlin Mr Uwe Neumann Banca d’Italia, Rome Mr Sebastiano Laviola Bank of Japan, Tokyo Mr Toshihiko Mori Financial Services Agency, Tokyo Mr Takushi FujimotoMr Satoshi Morinaga Commission de Surveillance du Secteur Financier,LuxembourgMr Davy ReinardDe Nederlandsche Bank, Amsterdam Mr Klaas Knot Finansinspektionen, Stockholm Mr Jan Hedquist Sveriges Riksbank, Stockholm Ms Camilla Ferenius Eidgenössiche Bankenkommission, Bern Mr Martin Sprenger Financial Services Authority, London Mr Jeremy QuickMr Michael Stephenson Bank of England, London Ms Alison Emblow Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, Washington, D.C.Mr Mark Schmidt Federal Reserve Bank of New York Mr Stefan Walter Federal Reserve Board, Washington, D.C.Mr David Elkes Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, Washington, D.C.Mr Kevin Bailey European Central Bank, Frankfurt am Main Mr Panagiotis Strouzas European Commission, Brussels Mr Michel MartinoSecretariat of the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision, Bank for International Settlements Mr Ralph NashMr Guillermo Rodriguez GarciaTable of ContentsI.INTRODUCTION (1)PRINCIPLES FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF BANKS’ MANAGEMENT OF CREDIT RISK (3)II.ESTABLISHING AN APPROPRIATE CREDIT RISK ENVIRONMENT (5)III.OPERATING UNDER A SOUND CREDIT GRANTING PROCESS (8)IV.MAINTAINING AN APPROPRIATE CREDIT ADMINISTRATION, MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING PROCESS (13)V.ENSURING ADEQUATE CONTROLS OVER CREDIT RISK (18)VI.THE ROLE OF SUPERVISORS (19)APPENDIX: COMMON SOURCES OF MAJOR CREDIT PROBLEMS (21)iPrinciples for the Management of Credit RiskI.Introduction1.While financial institutions have faced difficulties over the years for a multitude of reasons, the major cause of serious banking problems continues to be directly related to lax credit standards for borrowers and counterparties, poor portfolio risk management, or a lack of attention to changes in economic or other circumstances that can lead to a deterioration in the credit standing of a bank’s counterparties. This experience is common in both G-10 and non-G-10 countries.2.Credit risk is most simply defined as the potential that a bank borrower or counterparty will fail to meet its obligations in accordance with agreed terms. The goal of credit risk management is to maximise a bank’s risk-adjusted rate of return by maintaining credit risk exposure within acceptable parameters. Banks need to manage the credit risk inherent in the entire portfolio as well as the risk in individual credits or transactions. Banks should also consider the relationships between credit risk and other risks. The effective management of credit risk is a critical component of a comprehensive approach to risk management and essential to the long-term success of any banking organisation.3.For most banks, loans are the largest and most obvious source of credit risk; however, other sources of credit risk exist throughout the activities of a bank, including in the banking book and in the trading book, and both on and off the balance sheet. Banks are increasingly facing credit risk (or counterparty risk) in various financial instruments other than loans, including acceptances, interbank transactions, trade financing, foreign exchange transactions, financial futures, swaps, bonds, equities, options, and in the extension of commitments and guarantees, and the settlement of transactions.4.Since exposure to credit risk continues to be the leading source of problems in banks world-wide, banks and their supervisors should be able to draw useful lessons from past experiences. Banks should now have a keen awareness of the need to identify, measure, monitor and control credit risk as well as to determine that they hold adequate capital against these risks and that they are adequately compensated for risks incurred. The Basel Committee is issuing this document in order to encourage banking supervisors globally to promote sound practices for managing credit risk. Although the principles contained in this paper are most clearly applicable to the business of lending, they should be applied to all activities where credit risk is present.5.The sound practices set out in this document specifically address the following areas:(i) establishing an appropriate credit risk environment; (ii) operating under a sound credit-granting process; (iii) maintaining an appropriate credit administration, measurement and monitoring process; and (iv) ensuring adequate controls over credit risk. Although specific credit risk management practices may differ among banks depending upon the nature and complexity of their credit activities, a comprehensive credit risk management program will address these four areas. These practices should also be applied in conjunction with sound practices related to the assessment of asset quality, the adequacy of provisions and reserves,1and the disclosure of credit risk, all of which have been addressed in other recent Basel Committee documents.16.While the exact approach chosen by individual supervisors will depend on a host of factors, including their on-site and off-site supervisory techniques and the degree to which external auditors are also used in the supervisory function, all members of the Basel Committee agree that the principles set out in this paper should be used in evaluating a bank’s credit risk management system. Supervisory expectations for the credit risk management approach used by individual banks should be commensurate with the scope and sophistication of the bank’s activities. For smaller or less sophisticated banks, supervisors need to determine that the credit risk management approach used is sufficient for their activities and that they have instilled sufficient risk-return discipline in their credit risk management processes. The Committee stipulates in Sections II to VI of the paper, principles for banking supervisory authorities to apply in assessing bank’s credit risk management systems. In addition, the appendix provides an overview of credit problems commonly seen by supervisors.7. A further particular instance of credit risk relates to the process of settling financial transactions. If one side of a transaction is settled but the other fails, a loss may be incurred that is equal to the principal amount of the transaction. Even if one party is simply late in settling, then the other party may incur a loss relating to missed investment opportunities. Settlement risk (i.e. the risk that the completion or settlement of a financial transaction will fail to take place as expected) thus includes elements of liquidity, market, operational and reputational risk as well as credit risk. The level of risk is determined by the particular arrangements for settlement. Factors in such arrangements that have a bearing on credit risk include: the timing of the exchange of value; payment/settlement finality; and the role of intermediaries and clearing houses.28.This paper was originally published for consultation in July 1999. The Committee is grateful to the central banks, supervisory authorities, banking associations, and institutions that provided comments. These comments have informed the production of this final version of the paper.1See in particular Sound Practices for Loan Accounting and Disclosure (July 1999) and Best Practices for Credit Risk Disclosure (September 2000).2See in particular Supervisory Guidance for Managing Settlement Risk in Foreign Exchange Transactions (September 2000), in which the annotated bibliography (annex 3) provides a list of publications related to various settlement risks.2Principles for the Assessment of Banks’ Management of Credit RiskA.Establishing an appropriate credit risk environmentPrinciple 1: The board of directors should have responsibility for approving and periodically (at least annually) reviewing the credit risk strategy and significant credit risk policies of the bank. The strategy should reflect the bank’s tolerance for risk and the level of profitability the bank expects to achieve for incurring various credit risks. Principle 2: Senior management should have responsibility for implementing the credit risk strategy approved by the board of directors and for developing policies and procedures for identifying, measuring, monitoring and controlling credit risk. Such policies and procedures should address credit risk in all of the bank’s activities and at both the individual credit and portfolio levels.Principle 3: Banks should identify and manage credit risk inherent in all products and activities. Banks should ensure that the risks of products and activities new to them are subject to adequate risk management procedures and controls before being introduced or undertaken, and approved in advance by the board of directors or its appropriate committee.B.Operating under a sound credit granting processPrinciple 4: Banks must operate within sound, well-defined credit-granting criteria. These criteria should include a clear indication of the bank’s target market and a thorough understanding of the borrower or counterparty, as well as the purpose and structure of the credit, and its source of repayment.Principle 5: Banks should establish overall credit limits at the level of individual borrowers and counterparties, and groups of connected counterparties that aggregate in a comparable and meaningful manner different types of exposures, both in the banking and trading book and on and off the balance sheet.Principle 6: Banks should have a clearly-established process in place for approving new credits as well as the amendment, renewal and re-financing of existing credits. Principle 7: All extensions of credit must be made on an arm’s-length basis. In particular, credits to related companies and individuals must be authorised on an exception basis, monitored with particular care and other appropriate steps taken to control or mitigate the risks of non-arm’s length lending.C.Maintaining an appropriate credit administration, measurement and monitoring processPrinciple 8: Banks should have in place a system for the ongoing administration of their various credit risk-bearing portfolios.3Principle 9: Banks must have in place a system for monitoring the condition of individual credits, including determining the adequacy of provisions and reserves.Principle 10: Banks are encouraged to develop and utilise an internal risk rating system in managing credit risk. The rating system should be consistent with the nature, size and complexity of a bank’s activities.Principle 11: Banks must have information systems and analytical techniques that enable management to measure the credit risk inherent in all on- and off-balance sheet activities. The management information system should provide adequate information on the composition of the credit portfolio, including identification of any concentrations of risk.Principle 12: Banks must have in place a system for monitoring the overall composition and quality of the credit portfolio.Principle 13: Banks should take into consideration potential future changes in economic conditions when assessing individual credits and their credit portfolios, and should assess their credit risk exposures under stressful conditions.D.Ensuring adequate controls over credit riskPrinciple 14: Banks must establish a system of independent, ongoing assessment of the bank’s credit risk management processes and the results of such reviews should be communicated directly to the board of directors and senior management.Principle 15: Banks must ensure that the credit-granting function is being properly managed and that credit exposures are within levels consistent with prudential standards and internal limits. Banks should establish and enforce internal controls and other practices to ensure that exceptions to policies, procedures and limits are reported in a timely manner to the appropriate level of management for action.Principle 16: Banks must have a system in place for early remedial action on deteriorating credits, managing problem credits and similar workout situations.E.The role of supervisorsPrinciple 17: Supervisors should require that banks have an effective system in place to identify, measure, monitor and control credit risk as part of an overall approach to risk management. Supervisors should conduct an independent evaluation of a bank’s strategies, policies, procedures and practices related to the granting of credit and the ongoing management of the portfolio. Supervisors should consider setting prudential limits to restrict bank exposures to single borrowers or groups of connected counterparties.4II.Establishing an Appropriate Credit Risk EnvironmentPrinciple 1: The board of directors should have responsibility for approving and periodically (at least annually) reviewing the credit risk strategy and significant credit risk policies of the bank. The strategy should reflect the bank’s tolerance for risk and the level of profitability the bank expects to achieve for incurring various credit risks. 9.As with all other areas of a bank’s activities, the board of directors3 has a critical role to play in overseeing the credit-granting and credit risk management functions of the bank. Each bank should develop a credit risk strategy or plan that establishes the objectives guiding the bank’s credit-granting activities and adopt the necessary policies and procedures for conducting such activities. The credit risk strategy, as well as significant credit risk policies, should be approved and periodically (at least annually) reviewed by the board of directors. The board needs to recognise that the strategy and policies must cover the many activities of the bank in which credit exposure is a significant risk.10.The strategy should include a statement of the bank’s willingness to grant credit based on exposure type (for example, commercial, consumer, real estate), economic sector, geographical location, currency, maturity and anticipated profitability. This might also include the identification of target markets and the overall characteristics that the bank would want to achieve in its credit portfolio (including levels of diversification and concentration tolerances).11.The credit risk strategy should give recognition to the goals of credit quality, earnings and growth. Every bank, regardless of size, is in business to be profitable and, consequently, must determine the acceptable risk/reward trade-off for its activities, factoring in the cost of capital. A bank’s board of directors should approve the bank’s strategy for selecting risks and maximising profits. The board should periodically review the financial results of the bank and, based on these results, determine if changes need to be made to the strategy. The board must also determine that the bank’s capital level is adequate for the risks assumed throughout the entire organisation.12.The credit risk strategy of any bank should provide continuity in approach. Therefore, the strategy will need to take into account the cyclical aspects of any economy and the resulting shifts in the composition and quality of the overall credit portfolio. Although the strategy should be periodically assessed and amended, it should be viable in the long-run and through various economic cycles.13.The credit risk strategy and policies should be effectively communicated throughout the banking organisation. All relevant personnel should clearly understand the bank’s3This paper refers to a management structure composed of a board of directors and senior management. The Committee is aware that there are significant differences in legislative and regulatory frameworks across countries as regards the functions of the board of directors and senior management. In some countries, the board has the main, if not exclusive, function of supervising the executive body (senior management, general management) so as to ensure that the latter fulfils its tasks. For this reason, in some cases, it is known as a supervisory board. This means that the board has no executive functions. In other countries, by contrast, the board has a broader competence in that it lays down the general framework for the management of the bank. Owing to these differences, the notions of the board of directors and senior management are used in this paper not to identify legal constructs but rather to label two decision-making functions within a bank.5approach to granting and managing credit and should be held accountable for complying with established policies and procedures.14.The board should ensure that senior management is fully capable of managing the credit activities conducted by the bank and that such activities are done within the risk strategy, policies and tolerances approved by the board. The board should also regularly (i.e. at least annually), either within the credit risk strategy or within a statement of credit policy, approve the bank’s overall credit granting criteria (including general terms and conditions). In addition, it should approve the manner in which the bank will organise its credit-granting functions, including independent review of the credit granting and management function and the overall portfolio.15.While members of the board of directors, particularly outside directors, can be important sources of new business for the bank, once a potential credit is introduced, the bank’s established processes should determine how much and at what terms credit is granted. In order to avoid conflicts of interest, it is important that board members not override the credit-granting and monitoring processes of the bank.16.The board of directors should ensure that the bank’s remuneration policies do not contradict its credit risk strategy. Remuneration policies that reward unacceptable behaviour such as generating short-term profits while deviating from credit policies or exceeding established limits, weaken the bank’s credit processes.Principle 2: Senior management should have responsibility for implementing the credit risk strategy approved by the board of directors and for developing policies and procedures for identifying, measuring, monitoring and controlling credit risk. Such policies and procedures should address credit risk in all of the bank’s activities and at both the individual credit and portfolio levels.17.Senior management of a bank is responsible for implementing the credit risk strategy approved by the board of directors. This includes ensuring that the bank’s credit-granting activities conform to the established strategy, that written procedures are developed and implemented, and that loan approval and review responsibilities are clearly and properly assigned. Senior management must also ensure that there is a periodic independent internal assessment of the bank’s credit-granting and management functions.418. A cornerstone of safe and sound banking is the design and implementation of written policies and procedures related to identifying, measuring, monitoring and controlling credit risk. Credit policies establish the framework for lending and guide the credit-granting activities of the bank. Credit policies should address such topics as target markets, portfolio mix, price and non-price terms, the structure of limits, approval authorities, exception procesing/reporting, etc. Such policies should be clearly defined, consistent with prudent banking practices and relevant regulatory requirements, and adequate for the nature and complexity of the bank’s activities. The policies should be designed and implemented within the context of internal and external factors such as the bank’s market position, trade area, staff 4This may be difficult for very small banks; however, there should be adequate checks and balances in place to promote sound credit decisions.6capabilities and technology. Policies and procedures that are properly developed and implemented enable the bank to: (i) maintain sound credit-granting standards; (ii) monitor and control credit risk; (iii) properly evaluate new business opportunities; and (iv) identify and administer problem credits.19.As discussed further in paragraphs 30 and 37 through 41 below, banks should develop and implement policies and procedures to ensure that the credit portfolio is adequately diversified given the bank’s target markets and overall credit strategy. In particular, such policies should establish targets for portfolio mix as well as set exposure limits on single counterparties and groups of connected counterparties, particular industries or economic sectors, geographic regions and specific products. Banks should ensure that their own internal exposure limits comply with any prudential limits or restrictions set by the banking supervisors.20.In order to be effective, credit policies must be communicated throughout the organisation, implemented through appropriate procedures, monitored and periodically revised to take into account changing internal and external circumstances. They should be applied, where appropriate, on a consolidated bank basis and at the level of individual affiliates. In addition, the policies should address equally the important functions of reviewing credits on an individual basis and ensuring appropriate diversification at the portfolio level. 21.When banks engage in granting credit internationally, they undertake, in addition to standard credit risk, risk associated with conditions in the home country of a foreign borrower or counterparty. Country or sovereign risk encompasses the entire spectrum of risks arising from the economic, political and social environments of a foreign country that may have potential consequences for foreigners’ debt and equity investments in that country. Transfer risk focuses more specifically on a borrower’s capacity to obtain the foreign exchange necessary to service its cross-border debt and other contractual obligations. In all instances of international transactions, banks need to understand the globalisation of financial markets and the potential for spillover effects from one country to another or contagion effects for an entire region.22.Banks that engage in granting credit internationally must therefore have adequate policies and procedures for identifying, measuring, monitoring and controlling country risk and transfer risk in their international lending and investment activities. The monitoring of country risk factors should incorporate (i) the potential default of foreign private sector counterparties arising from country-specific economic factors and (ii) the enforceability of loan agreements and the timing and ability to realise collateral under the national legal framework. This function is often the responsibility of a specialist team familiar with the particular issues.Principle 3: Banks should identify and manage credit risk inherent in all products and activities. Banks should ensure that the risks of products and activities new to them are subject to adequate risk management procedures and controls before being introduced or undertaken, and approved in advance by the board of directors or its appropriate committee.23.The basis for an effective credit risk management process is the identification and analysis of existing and potential risks inherent in any product or activity. Consequently, it is important that banks identify all credit risk inherent in the products they offer and theactivities in which they engage. Such identification stems from a careful review of the existing and potential credit risk characteristics of the product or activity.24.Banks must develop a clear understanding of the credit risks involved in more complex credit-granting activities (for example, loans to certain industry sectors, asset securitisation, customer-written options, credit derivatives, credit-linked notes). This is particularly important because the credit risk involved, while not new to banking, may be less obvious and require more analysis than the risk of more traditional credit-granting activities. Although more complex credit-granting activities may require tailored procedures and controls, the basic principles of credit risk management will still apply.25.New ventures require significant planning and careful oversight to ensure the risks are appropriately identified and managed. Banks should ensure that the risks of new products and activities are subject to adequate procedures and controls before being introduced or undertaken. Any major new activity should be approved in advance by the board of directors or its appropriate delegated committee.26.It is critical that senior management determine that the staff involved in any activity where there is borrower or counterparty credit risk, whether established or new, basic or more complex, be fully capable of conducting the activity to the highest standards and in compliance with the bank’s policies and procedures.III.Operating under a Sound Credit Granting ProcessPrinciple 4: Banks must operate within sound, well-defined credit-granting criteria. These criteria should include a clear indication of the bank’s target market and a thorough understanding of the borrower or counterparty, as well as the purpose and structure of the credit, and its source of repayment.27.Establishing sound, well-defined credit-granting criteria is essential to approving credit in a safe and sound manner. The criteria should set out who is eligible for credit and for how much, what types of credit are available, and under what terms and conditions the credits should be granted.28.Banks must receive sufficient information to enable a comprehensive assessment of the true risk profile of the borrower or counterparty. Depending on the type of credit exposure and the nature of the credit relationship to date, the factors to be considered and documented in approving credits include:•the purpose of the credit and sources of repayment;•the current risk profile (including the nature and aggregate amounts of risks) of the borrower or counterparty and collateral and its sensitivity to economic and market developments;•the borrower’s repayment history and current capacity to repay, based on historical financial trends and future cash flow projections, under various scenarios;•for commercial credits, the borrower’s business expertise and the status of the borrower’s economic sector and its position within that sector;•the proposed terms and conditions of the credit, including covenants designed to limit changes in the future risk profile of the borrower; and•where applicable, the adequacy and enforceability of collateral or guarantees, including under various scenarios.In addition, in approving borrowers or counterparties for the first time, consideration should be given to the integrity and reputation of the borrower or counterparty as well as their legal capacity to assume the liability. Once credit-granting criteria have been established, it is essential for the bank to ensure that the information it receives is sufficient to make proper credit-granting decisions. This information will also serve as the basis for rating the credit under the bank’s internal rating system.29.Banks need to understand to whom they are granting credit. Therefore, prior to entering into any new credit relationship, a bank must become familiar with the borrower or counterparty and be confident that they are dealing with an individual or organisation of sound repute and creditworthiness. In particular, strict policies must be in place to avoid association with individuals involved in fraudulent activities and other crimes. This can be achieved through a number of ways, including asking for references from known parties, accessing credit registries, and becoming familiar with individuals responsible for managing a company and checking their personal references and financial condition. However, a bank should not grant credit simply because the borrower or counterparty is familiar to the bank or is perceived to be highly reputable.30.Banks should have procedures to identify situations where, in considering credits, it is appropriate to classify a group of obligors as connected counterparties and, thus, as a single obligor. This would include aggregating exposures to groups of accounts exhibiting financial interdependence, including corporate or non-corporate, where they are under common ownership or control or with strong connecting links (for example, common management, familial ties).5 Banks should also have procedures for aggregating exposures to individual clients across business activities.31.Many banks participate in loan syndications or other such loan consortia. Some institutions place undue reliance on the credit risk analysis done by the lead underwriter or on external commercial loan credit ratings. All syndicate participants should perform their own due diligence, including independent credit risk analysis and review of syndicate terms prior to committing to the syndication. Each bank should analyse the risk and return on syndicated loans in the same manner as directly sourced loans.32.Granting credit involves accepting risks as well as producing profits. Banks should assess the risk/reward relationship in any credit as well as the overall profitability of the5Connected counterparties may be a group of companies related financially or by common ownership, management, research and development, marketing or any combination thereof. Identification of connected counterparties requires a careful analysis of the impact of these factors on the financial interdependency of the parties involved.。
风险管理法则-Principles of Risk Management
Increasing risk
Partial risk covered by External Risk Reduction Facilities
© ABB - Page 7
Risk reduction achieved by all protective systems & External Risk Reduction Facilities
How often can it happened what will be the effect (consequence) if it does ?
and
© ABB - Page 4
Functional safety
Risk receptors/Impact
Personnel Environment Financial
Process Design
Risk
Other Risk Reduction, Such as Alarming, and Exception Procedures
Safety Instrumented System
Tolerable Level of Risk
(Defined by user per application)
All significant forms for harm must be considered to properly measure risk
© ABB - Page 12
Functional safety
Expression of Consequence
Measure the risk depend on two factors:
Mechanical equipment like reliefe valve, non return valve.
国标风险管理原则指南
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ICH-Q9质量风险管理
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HARMONISATION OF TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR REGISTRATION OF PHARMACEUTICALS FORHUMAN USE人用药注册技术要求国际协调会议ICH Harmonised Tripartite Guideline人用药注册技术要求国际协调会议三方协调后的指南Quality Risk Management质量风险管理Current Step 4 version现行第四步版本dated 9 November 20052005 年十一月 9日This Guideline has been developed by the appropriate ICH Expert Working Group and has been subject to consultation by the regulatory parties, in accordance with the ICH Process. At Step 4 of the Process the final draft is recommended for adoption to the regulatory bodies of the European Union, Japan and USA.本指南由人用药注册技术要求国际协调会议专家工作组根据人用药注册技术要求国际协调会议程序开发并提交各方的药政部门咨询。
根据人用药注册技术要求国际协调会议程序第四步，推荐给欧盟、日本和美国药的政部门采用的最终文本。
Document History文件历史Having reached Step 4 of the ICH Process at the ICH Steering Committee meeting on 9 November 2005, this guideline is recommended for adoption to the three regulatory parties to ICH在 2005 年 11 月 9 日的人用药注册技术要求国际协调会议上，本指南已经通过人用药注册技术要求国际协调会议第四步程序，本指南已经推荐给人用药注册技术要求国际协调会议三方的药政部门采用。
101风险管理准则
101风险管理准则
101条风险管理准则，是风险和保险管理国际协会1983年年会通过的。
一般准则包括：
1.一个组织的风险管理规划方案必需配合企业之整体目标，且应随
着目标之改变而改变。
2.假如要安稳地经营（亦即免除相当程度的经济萧条，破产或产品
市场转换之冲撃）您的风险管理方案最好能够更具冒险性及成本最低性。
3.不要冒自己所不能够承担之风险。
4.切勿冒因小利而受大害之风险。
5.多加考虑损失发生之可能性。
6.必需要有明确之风险管理目标且此目标需与企业目标一致。
7.风险管理部门是属服务部门，因此该部门对企业利润之回馈应以
其执行能力之高低为认定之基础。
8.对任何重大之风险仅以控制对策或理财对策处理是不够的，必需
将此两类对策做适当比例正确之搭配始可。
风险辨认衡量准则包括：
1.评估财务报表有助于辨认和衡量风险。
2.使用流程图分析有助于辨认一个供货商所引发之风险。
针对药品生产理解并应用QRM全-精选
什么时候需要QRM
• 当我们需要作出会影响患者的决定，没有 明确的答案，也没有法规规定时
是否有法规要求
• 青霉素和非青霉素厂房分开 • 无菌生产的洁净度要求 • 对起始物料和产品留样的要求
Use of QRM
Use QRM
NO
是否影响患者健康？
YES
是否有明确的解决 措施？
YES
NO
NO 法规是否有明确 YES
针对药品理解并应用QRM
深圳九新药业有限公司 徐影
目的
• 根据ICH Q9，理解基于风险的科学方法来管理“药品” 产品的生产
• 学习如何将质量风险管理用于决策 • 理解QRM如何应用及适用范围
2
风险管理概念的介绍
华润医药集团有限公司
风险管理：一个组织对风险的指挥和控制的 一系列协调活动(ISO 3100:2009)
• 风险管理指对系统运用的质量管理政策、程序和 方法进行风险评价、控制、沟通和回顾
7
TERMINOLOGY 术语
• 危害源：潜在产生危害的根源或状态 • 危害事件：由危害源引起的可能产生危害的情景 • 原因：可能发生危害事件的理由。实际上这些原因可能是因果
链上的其他危害源
• 可测定性：对可能引起危害情形的测定能力。
华润医药集团有限公司
• 风险管理应用于各个领域
• 保险：风险管理对保险业是非常重要的，保险公司考 虑每一个可获得的可计量因素从而开发高或低风险 特征的保险，风险的水平决定了保险的费用。保险 公司对保险人及保险对象会收集大量的信息
• 项目：每个项目都有风险，项目经理试图排序风 险以便对风险进行管理。风险包括项目延迟，预 算超支，项目不能达到标准。要想确定风险的排
企业风险管理中英文对照外文翻译文献
企业风险管理中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Risk ManagementThis chapter reviews and discusses the basic issues and principles of risk management, including: risk acceptability (tolerability); risk reduction and the ALARP principle; cautionary and precautionary principles. And presents a case study showing the importance of these issues and principles in a practical management context. Before we take a closer look, let us briefly address some basic features of risk management.The purpose of risk management is to ensure that adequate measures are taken to protect people, the environment, and assets from possible harmful consequences of the activities being undertaken, as well as to balance different concerns, in particular risks and costs. Risk management includes measures both to avoid the hazards and toreduce their potential harm. Traditionally, in industries such as nuclear, oil, and gas, risk management was based on a prescriptive regulating regime, in which detailed requirements were set with regard to the design and operation of the arrangements. This regime has gradually been replaced by a more goal-oriented regime, putting emphasis on what to achieve rather than on the means of achieving it.Risk management is an integral aspect of a goal-oriented regime. It is acknowledged that risk cannot be eliminated but must be managed. There is nowadays an enormous drive and enthusiasm in various industries and in society as a whole to implement risk management in organizations. There are high expectations that risk management is the proper framework through which to achieve high levels of performance.Risk management involves achieving an appropriate balance between realizing opportunities for gain and minimizing losses. It is an integral part of good management practice and an essential element of good corporate governance. It is an iterative process consisting of steps that, when undertaken in sequence, can lead to a continuous improvement in decision-making and facilitate a continuous improvement in performance.To support decision-making regarding design and operation, risk analyses are carried out. They include the identification of hazards and threats, cause analyses, consequence analyses, and risk descriptions. The results are then evaluated. The totality of the analyses and the evaluations are referred to as risk assessments. Risk assessment is followed by risk treatment, which is a process involving the development and implementation of measures to modify the risk, including measures designed to avoid, reduce (“optimize”), transfer, or retain the risk. Risk transfer means sharing with another party the benefit or loss associated with a risk. It is typically affected through insurance. Risk management covers all coordinated activities in the direction and control of an organization with regard to risk.In many enterprises, the risk management tasks are divided into three main categories: strategic risk, financial risk, and operational risk. Strategic risk includes aspects and factors that are important for the e nterprise’s long-term strategy and plans,for example mergers and acquisitions, technology, competition, political conditions, legislation and regulations, and labor market. Financial risk includes the enterprise’s financial situation, and includes: Market risk, associated with the costs of goods and services, foreign exchange rates and securities (shares, bonds, etc.). Credit risk, associated with a debtor’s failure to meet its obligations in accordance with agreed terms. Liquidity risk, reflecting lack of access to cash; the difficulty of selling an asset in a timely manner. Operational risk is related to conditions affecting the normal operating situation: Accidental events, including failures and defects, quality deviations, natural disasters. Intended acts; sabotage, disgruntled employees, etc. Loss of competence, key personnel. Legal circumstances, associated for instance, with defective contracts and liability insurance.For an enterprise to become successful in its implementation of risk management, top management needs to be involved, and activities must be put into effect on many levels. Some important points to ensure success are: the establishment of a strategy for risk management, i.e., the principles of how the enterprise defines and implements risk management. Should one simply follow the regulatory requirements (minimal requirements), or should one be the “best in the class”? The establishment of a risk management process for the enterprise, i.e. formal processes and routines that the enterprise is to follow. The establishment of management structures, with roles and responsibilities, such that the risk analysis process becomes integrated into the organization. The implementation of analyses and support systems, such as risk analysis tools, recording systems for occurrences of various types of events, etc. The communication, training, and development of a risk management culture, so that the competence, understanding, and motivation level within the organization is enhanced. Given the above fundamentals of risk management, the next step is to develop principles and a methodology that can be used in practical decision-making. This is not, however, straightforward. There are a number of challenges and here we address some of these: establishing an informative risk picture for the various decision alternatives, using this risk picture in a decision-making context. Establishing an informative risk picture means identifying appropriate risk indices and assessments ofuncertainties. Using the risk picture in a decision making context means the definition and application of risk acceptance criteria, cost benefit analyses and the ALARP principle, which states that risk should be reduced to a level which is as low as is reasonably practicable.It is common to define and describe risks in terms of probabilities and expected values. This has, however, been challenged, since the probabilities and expected values can camouflage uncertainties; the assigned probabilities are conditional on a number of assumptions and suppositions, and they depend on the background knowledge. Uncertainties are often hidden in this background knowledge, and restricting attention to the assigned probabilities can camouflage factors that could produce surprising outcomes. By jumping directly into probabilities, important uncertainty aspects are easily truncated, and potential surprises may be left unconsidered.Let us, as an example, consider the risks, seen through the eyes of a risk analyst in the 1970s, associated with future health problems for divers working on offshore petroleum projects. The analyst assigns a value to the probability that a diver would experience health problems (properly defined) during the coming 30 years due to the diving activities. Let us assume that a value of 1 % was assigned, a number based on the knowledge available at that time. There are no strong indications that the divers will experience health problems, but we know today that these probabilities led to poor predictions. Many divers have experienced severe health problems (Avon and Vine, 2007). By restricting risk to the probability assignments alone, important aspects of uncertainty and risk are hidden. There is a lack of understanding about the underlying phenomena, but the probability assignments alone are not able to fully describe this status.Several risk perspectives and definitions have been proposed in line with this realization. For example, Avon (2007a, 2008a) defines risk as the two-dimensional combination of events/consequences and associated uncertainties (will the events occur, what the consequences will be). A closely related perspective is suggested by Avon and Renan (2008a), who define risk associated with an activity as uncertaintyabout and severity of the consequences of the activity, where severity refers to intensity, size, extension, scope and other potential measures of magnitude with respect to something that humans value (lives, the environment, money, etc.). Losses and gains, expressed for example in monetary terms or as the number of fatalities, are ways of defining the severity of the consequences. See also Avon and Christensen (2005).In the case of large uncertainties, risk assessments can support decision-making, but other principles, measures, and instruments are also required, such as the cautionary/precautionary principles as well as robustness and resilience strategies. An informative decision basis is needed, but it should be far more nuanced than can be obtained by a probabilistic analysis alone. This has been stressed by many researchers, e.g. Apostolicism (1990) and Apostolicism and Lemon (2005): qualitative risk analysis (QRA) results are never the sole basis for decision-making. Safety- and security-related decision-making is risk-informed, not risk-based. This conclusion is not, however, justified merely by referring to the need for addressing uncertainties beyond probabilities and expected values. The main issue here is the fact that risks need to be balanced with other concerns.When various solutions and measures are to be compared and a decision is to be made, the analysis and assessments that have been conducted provide a basis for such a decision. In many cases, established design principles and standards provide clear guidance. Compliance with such principles and standards must be among the first reference points when assessing risks. It is common thinking that risk management processes, and especially ALARP processes, require formal guidelines or criteria (e.g., risk acceptance criteria and cost-effectiveness indices) to simplify the decision-making. Care must; however, be shown when using this type of formal decision-making criteria, as they easily result in a mechanization of the decision-making process. Such mechanization is unfortunate because: Decision-making criteria based on risk-related numbers alone (probabilities and expected values) do not capture all the aspects of risk, costs, and benefits, no method has a precision that justifies a mechanical decision based on whether the result is overor below a numerical criterion. It is a managerial responsibility to make decisions under uncertainty, and management should be aware of the relevant risks and uncertainties.Apostolicism and Lemon (2005) adopt a pragmatic approach to risk analysis and risk management, acknowledging the difficulties of determining the probabilities of an attack. Ideally, they would like to implement a risk-informed procedure, based on expected values. However, since such an approach would require the use of probabilities that have not b een “rigorously derived”, they see themselves forced to resort to a more pragmatic approach.This is one possible approach when facing problems of large uncertainties. The risk analyses simply do not provide a sufficiently solid basis for the decision-making process. We argue along the same lines. There is a need for a management review and judgment process. It is necessary to see beyond the computed risk picture in the form of the probabilities and expected values. Traditional quantitative risk analyses fail in this respect. We acknowledge the need for analyzing risk, but question the value added by performing traditional quantitative risk analyses in the case of large uncertainties. The arbitrariness in the numbers produced can be significant, due to the uncertainties in the estimates or as a result of the uncertainty assessments being strongly dependent on the analysts.It should be acknowledged that risk cannot be accurately expressed using probabilities and expected values. A quantitative risk analysis is in many cases better replaced by a more qualitative approach, as shown in the examples above; an approach which may be referred to as a semi-quantitative approach. Quantifying risk using risk indices such as the expected number of fatalities gives an impression that risk can be expressed in a very precise way. However, in most cases, the arbitrariness is large. In a semi-quantitative approach this is acknowledged by providing a more nuanced risk picture, which includes factors that can cause “surprises” r elative to the probabilities and the expected values. Quantification often requires strong simplifications and assumptions and, as a result, important factors could be ignored or given too little (or too much) weight. In a qualitative or semi-quantitative analysis, amore comprehensive risk picture can be established, taking into account underlying factors influencing risk. In contrast to the prevailing use of quantitative risk analyses, the precision level of the risk description is in line with the accuracy of the risk analysis tools. In addition, risk quantification is very resource demanding. One needs to ask whether the resources are used in the best way. We conclude that in many cases more is gained by opening up the way to a broader, more qualitative approach, which allows for considerations beyond the probabilities and expected values.The traditional quantitative risk assessments as seen for example in the nuclear and the oil & gas industries provide a rather narrow risk picture, through calculated probabilities and expected values, and we conclude that this approach should be used with care for problems with large uncertainties. Alternative approaches highlighting the qualitative aspects are more appropriate in such cases. A broad risk description is required. This is also the case in the normative ambiguity situations, as the risk characterizations provide a basis for the risk evaluation processes. The main concern is the value judgments, but they should be supported by solid scientific assessments, showing a broad risk picture. If one tries to demonstrate that it is rational to accept risk, on a scientific basis, too narrow an approach to risk has been adopted. Recognizing uncertainty as a main component of risk is essential to successfully implement risk management, for cases of large uncertainties and normative ambiguity.A risk description should cover computed probabilities and expected values, as well as: Sensitivities showing how the risk indices depend on the background knowledge (assumptions and suppositions); Uncertainty assessments; Description of the background knowledge, including models and data used.The uncertainty assessments should not be restricted to standard probabilistic analysis, as this analysis could hide important uncertainty factors. The search for quantitative, explicit approaches for expressing the uncertainties, even beyond the subjective probabilities, may seem to be a possible way forward. However, such an approach is not recommended. Trying to be precise and to accurately express what is extremely uncertain does not make sense. Instead we recommend a more openqualitative approach to reveal such uncertainties. Some might consider this to be less attractive from a methodological and scientific point of view. Perhaps it is, but it would be more suited for solving the problem at hand, which is about the analysis and management of risk and uncertainties.Source: Terje Aven. 2010. “Risk Management”. Risk in Technological Systems, Oct, p175-198.译文：风险管理本章回顾和讨论风险管理的基本问题和原则，包括：风险可接受性（耐受性）、风险削减和安全风险管理原则、警示和预防原则，并提出了一个研究案例，说明在实际管理环境中这些问题和原则的重要性。
简述保险计划管理应遵循的基本原则
英文回答：The principles underlying the management of insurance schemes are risk management, equity and efficiency. The principles of risk management require insurancepanies to take fully into account the risk characteristics of the insured person in the development of an insurance plan, to determine the insurance rate reasonably and to adopt effective risk management measures to safeguard the interests of the insured person. The principle of equity requires that insurancepanies treat all insured persons fairly, without discrimination on the basis of personal factors, and ensure equity in insurance schemes. The principle of efficiency calls for more efficient use of resources, lower management costs and better quality of services to best meet the needs of insured persons. These principles are the policy guidelines for the management of insurance schemes and are in line with the party ' s guidelines, guidelines and policies, reflecting the proper leadership of the party and the interests of the people ' s courtesies.保险计划管理应遵循的基本原则是风险管理原则、公平原则和效率原则。
项目风险管理的原则
项目风险管理的原则嘿，朋友！咱来聊聊项目风险管理的那些事儿。
你知道吗？项目就像一场冒险之旅，充满了未知和挑战。
而风险管理，就是我们在这场旅途中的指南针和保护伞。
风险，它就像个调皮的小鬼，时不时就冒出来捣乱。
要是咱们不提前防备，它能把整个项目搅得一团糟。
那怎么才能管好这些小鬼呢？这就得讲讲风险管理的原则啦。
首先，咱得有个全局观。
就好比下棋，不能只盯着眼前的这几步，得把整个棋盘都装在心里。
做项目也是一样，不能只看到当下的任务和进展，得把项目的前前后后、方方面面都考虑到。
从项目的启动，到执行，再到收尾，每个阶段都可能有风险潜伏着。
咱们得睁大双眼，一个都不放过。
再说说前瞻性。
这就像开车的时候要提前看远方，才能及时避开路上的坑洼。
在项目中，我们得提前预测可能出现的风险，不能等到问题已经出现在眼前了，才手忙脚乱地去应对。
比如说，市场需求突然变了，竞争对手出了新招，或者技术上遇到难题。
要是能提前想到这些，做好准备，那不就轻松多了？还有啊，风险管理得灵活应变。
这就像打游击战，敌人变了战术，咱们也得赶紧调整打法。
项目中的情况也是瞬息万变的，今天定好的计划，明天可能就不适用了。
所以，咱们得随时准备好改变策略，不能一根筋走到底。
另外，团队合作在风险管理中也至关重要。
一个人的力量毕竟有限，大家一起出谋划策，才能把风险看得更清楚，应对得更有效。
这就好比一群人一起抬重物，每个人都使把劲，就能轻松搞定。
再说说信息的重要性。
就像打仗要有准确的情报，做项目也得掌握充分的信息。
了解行业动态，掌握市场变化，清楚内部资源和能力，有了这些，我们才能更准确地判断风险，做出明智的决策。
最后，咱们得持续监控和评估风险。
这就像给身体做体检，定期检查，才能及时发现问题，解决问题。
项目进行的过程中，风险也可能会发生变化，新的风险可能会出现，原来的风险可能会变大或变小。
只有时刻保持警惕，才能让项目顺利进行。
总之，项目风险管理可不是一件简单的事儿，但只要咱们牢记这些原则，灵活运用，就一定能在这场冒险中乘风破浪，顺利到达成功的彼岸！你说是不是？。
风险管理-原则和指南
风险管理-原则和指南1范围本国际标准提供了风险管理的原则和通用性指南。
本国际标准可用于任何公共、私有或公有企业、协会，团体或个体。
因此，本国际标准不针对任何特定行业或部门。
注：为方便起见，本国际标准涉及的所有不同的用户以通用术语“组织”称谓。
本国际标准可用于整个组织的生命周期及广泛的活动，包括战略和决策、运营、过程、职能、项目、产品、服务和资产。
本国际标准可以应用于任何类型的风险，无论其性质及是否有积极或消极的后果。
尽管本国际标准提供了风险管理的通用性指南，但不意针对组织促进风险管理的统一性。
风险管理计划和框架的设计和实施需要考虑到特定组织的不同需求、特定目标，状况、结构、运营、过程、职能、项目、产品、服务、或资产以及展开的具体实践。
意在运用本国际标准来协调现有和将来标准的风险管理过程。
本标准提供了一个支持其他标准处理特定风险和行业风险的通用方法，而不是取代这些标准。
本国际标准不意针对认证意图。
2 术语和定义下列术语和定义适用本标准。
2.1 风险 risk不确定性对目标的影响注1：影响是与期待的偏差——积极和/或消极注2：目标可以有不同方面（如财务、健康安全、以及环境目标），可以体现在不同的层次（如战略、组织范围、项目、产品和过程）。
注3：风险通常以潜在事件（2.19）和后果（2.20），或它们的组合来描述。
注4：风险通常以事件（包括环境的变化）后果和发生可能性（2.21）的组合来表达。
注5：不确定性是指，与事件和其后果或可能性的理解或知识相关的信息的缺陷的状态，或不完整。
[ISO导则 73:2009, 定义1.1]2.2 风险管理 risk management针对风险指挥和控制组织的协调活动。
[ISO 导则 73:2009, 定义 2.1]2.3 风险管理框架 risk management framework提供在组织内设计、实施、监测（2.28）、评审和持续改进风险管理（2.2）的基本原则和组织安排的要素集合。
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Functional safety
Why does companies manage risk ?
Companies have a legal, moral and financial obligation to limit risk posed by their operation. Understanding the way this is expressed in a company helps to develop safety policy consistent with the way that company already works.
Increasing risk
Partial risk covered by External Risk Reduction Facilities
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Risk reduction achieved by all protective systems & External Risk Reduction Facilities
Risk Definition Measuring Risk Risk Tolerance Risk Reduction Safety Lifecycle and Risk Hazard Analysis Consequence and Likelihood
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Functional safety
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Functional safety
Measure Risk and Benefits
Both risk and benefits must be measured to intelligently determine what to do in virtually any situation Risk measurement must address both consequence and likelihood The consequence usually involve several forms of harm
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Functional safety
“External risk reduction facility”
External risk reduction facility are those measures to reduce or mitigate the risks which are separate and distinct from, and do not use, E/E/PE safety-related systems or other technology safety-related systems Example A drain system, a fire wall and a bund are all external risk reduction facilities
What is the nature of the risk ?
Fatality / Injury Permanent/Temporary Damage Financial Loss
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Functional safety
Individual Risk
Individual Risk:
Functional safety
What is Risk ?
Risk is a measure of the likelihood and consequence of an unwanted happening.
How often can it happened and what will be the effect (consequence) if it does ?
Prevention Concepts Taking action prior to the hazardous event taking place Mitigation concept Taking action after the hazardous event has taken place
What is Risk ?
What can happen ? Consequence * Likelihood (frequency) (10 people dead) * (every 200 years)
Calculated Process Risk
Process Design Other Risk Reduction, Such as Alarming, and Exception Procedures
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Functional safety
Levels of Risk and ALARP
Risk cannot be justified except in extraordinary circumstances Tolerable only if risk reduction is impracticable or if its cost is grossly disproportionate to the improvement gained
Low risk bound or tolerable region : 1*10-5 per year (1 / 100 000) High risk bound of tolerable region : 1*10-3 per year (1 / 1 000) The ALARP region (As Low As Reasonably Practicable) typically falls in between these bounds
Functional safety Engineering - Principles of Risk Management
Extended Automation System 800xA
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Functional safety
Principle of Risk Management
Functional safety
“Other technology safety-related system”
Other technology safety-related systems are safety related systems based on a technology other than electrical/electronic/programmable electronic Example A relief valve is another technology safety-related system
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Functional safety
Expression of Consequence
Measure the risk depend on two factors:
Who is being exposed to risk ?
Individuals Society Environment
Harm is effectively defined as the loss of benefits and thus brings benefits directly into the equation
All significant forms for harm must be considered to properly measure risk
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Functional safety
Basis for Risk Tolerance
Risky activities are tolerated because they provide benefits
Understanding both the risk and the benefits is critical to understanding what kind of risk can be tolerated in trade for what kind of benefits. There is no such thing as zero risk in the real world.
Mechanical equipment like reliefe valve, non return valve.
Fire pumps, foam systems, water curtains, deluge systems, ventilation emergency equipment and procedures
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Functional safety
Key terms and concepts “Risk”
Combination of the probability of occurrence of Reduce risk by: harm and the severity of that harm
Risk
Safety Instrumented System
Tolerable Level of Risk
(Defined by user per application)
Risk Reduction is the Highest Priority
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How often can it happened and what is the effect if it does ?
Build the lowest cost plant, keep operating budget as small as possible