1.What is Linguistics
1 Linguistics and Applied Linguistics
1 Linguistics and Applied Linguistics1.1Linguistics 语言学What is linguistics?(1)What is language?(2)What does a native speaker know about his language?(3)What are the essential defining characteristics of natural languages?(4)Do languages all share certain universal properties?What do linguists study?(1) Theory of language structure(2) Theory of language acquisition(3) Theory of language useHow do linguists study language？(1)collect a set of data relevant to a particular phenomenon,(2)formulate a hypothesis, test the hypothesis against further data,(3)modify the hypothesis and test it against yet more data，(4)build up a set of principles concerning language structure, language acquisition,and language use.Subfields of LinguisticsPhonetics语音学（发音学）Phonology音系学（语音体系）Syntax句法学Semantics语义学, Pragmatics语用学, Functions of Language语言功能diachronic linguistics历时语言学synchronic linguistics共时语言学Descriptive linguistics描写语言学prescriptive linguistics规定语言学Sociolinguistics社会语言学Psycholinguistics心理语言学Neurolinguistics神经语言学Computational linguistics计算语言学Anthropological linguistics人类语言学Philosophical Linguistics哲学语言学General linguistics普通语言学Cognitive linguistics认知语言学Beginnings of Modern LinguisticsSaussure’s distinction: langue and parole语言与言语（Swiss linguist）Chomsky’s distinction: linguistic competence and linguistic performance 言语能力与言语行为Hierarchical structure 层次结构structuralism and transformationalism 结构主义与转换论Cognitive linguistics and transformational linguistics认知语言学与转换语言学Cognition and linguistic competence认知与言语能力Cognitive linguistics认知语言学the experiential view 语言经验观the prominence view 语言突显观the attentional view 语言注意观(1) The bus crashed into the house.(2) The house was hit by the bus.1.2Applied Linguistics应用语言学The problem of the definitionCorder (1973):The application of linguistic knowledge to some object – or applied linguistics, as its name implies –is an activity. It is not a theoretical study. The applied linguist is a consumer, or user, not a producer of theories.(Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics) the study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems such as lexicography词典编纂, translation, speech pathology言语病理学. Applied linguistics uses information from sociology社会学, psychology心理学, anthropology人类学and information theory as well as from linguistics in order to develop its own theoretical models of language and language use, and then uses this information and theory in practical areas such as syllabus design大纲设计, speech therapy语言障碍矫正, language planning, stylistics文体学.Applied Linguistics as Problem-solvingApplied linguists try to offer solutions to “real-world problems in which language is a central issue” (Brumfit 1991).The responsibility of linguistics, as an academic discipline, is to study language as a system of human communication, build theories of language and offer models, descriptions and explanations of language. The responsibility of applied linguistics is not simply to apply linguistics but to work towards “relevant models” of language description (Widdowson 1980).Applied Linguistics and Foreign Language TeachingThe problem of finding solutions to the problems of language teaching and learningResearchqualitative and quantitative定性研究与定量研究1.3Corpora in Applied Linguistics数据库与应用语言学Corpus(1)For language teaching, corpora can provide information about how a languageworks.(2)Learners can explore corpora for themselves to observe shades of meaning and tomake comparisons between languages.(3)Translators can use comparable corpora to compare translation equivalents in twolanguages.(4)General corpora can be used to establish norms of frequency and usage againstwhich to measure individual texts.(5)Corpora can also be used to investigate cultural attitudes reflected in texts andliterary works as a resource for discourse studies.Types of CorporaSpecialised corpus 特殊数据库General corpus 普通数据库Comparable corpora 比较数据库Parallel corpora 平行数据库Learner corpus 学习者数据库Pedagogic corpus 教学数据库Historical or diachronic corpus 历时数据库Monitor corpus 监察数据库Technical TerminologyType类型Token记号Hapax只用过一次的字句Lemma词目word-form字语形成tag标记符parse解析annotate注释Design and PurposeSizeContentRepresentativenessPermanenceMethods in Processing Corpus InformationProducing concordance linesApplications of Corpora in Applied Linguistics(1)Corpora can be used in writing dictionaries and grammar books for languagelearners.(2)There is a growing concern in Applied Linguistics for the relation betweenlanguage and culture. Language transmits beliefs, attitudes, customs, behaviour, social habits, etc. of the members of a particular society.(3)Translation is an important application of corpora.Corpora and Language TeachingBy studying corpus data, he can answer questions about language himself and discover facts about the language he is learning from authentic examples.Corpus and Syllabus DesignThe syllabus designer collects pieces of authentic language that contain instances of the most frequent patterns of the most frequent words, then the materials writer devises ways of getting the learner involved in exploring the patterning of language in the corpus.Corpora and Learner LanguageA corpus can provide a rich resource for investigating learner language. Corporacomposed of the speech or writing of learners can give information about the difference between learners and between learners and native speakers.。
语言学复习重点
语言学复习重点文件排版存档编号：[UYTR-OUPT28-KBNTL98-UYNN208]C h a p t e r1绪论1. What is linguistics 什么是语言学Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2. The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology.（形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学） But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人类语言学） neurological linguistics, （神经语言学） mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics. （计算机语言学）3. Some important distinctions in linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay downrules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is adiachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There arestill many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.Langue and parole 语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes whatlinguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.is language 语言的定义Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Sapir uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition. Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution. Chomsky’s definition is quite different, it focus on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.5. Design features 语言的甄别性特征Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features, five of which will be discussed here.Arbitrariness 语言的随意性Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. It is not entirely arbitrary.Example: different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.Productivity 语言的创造性Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.Duality 语言的二重性The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meaning.Displacement 语言的移位性Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.Cultural transmission 语言的文化传递性While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, ., we were born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew. This indicates that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学1. The phonic medium of language 语言的声音媒介Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech ismore basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) . The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）.2．What is phonetics什么是语音学Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。
英语语言学第一章
functionalism & formalism
• functionalism:
study the forms of language in reference to their social function in communication.
• formalism:
study the abstract forms of language and their internal relations
made by Saussure in the early 20th century
competence & performance
competence underlying knowledge about the system of rules
performance the actual use of language in concrete situations
Message—Poetic
the addresser uses language for the sole purposes of displaying the beauty of language itself
Contact—Phatic communion
the addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships with the addressee
2. One of the main features of our human languages is arbitrariness. Can you briefly explain what this feature refer to? Support your argument with examples.
Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论(现代语言学).
Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论1. What is linguistics? 什么是语言学?1.1 definition 定义Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.语言学是对语言进行科学研究的学科。
Languages in general 针对所有语言而言A scientific study of language is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.语言进行科学地研究最根本的是要对语言材料进行系统的调查研究,并在语言结构的一般理论指导下进行。
The linguist has to do first is to study language facts, i.e. to see how language is actually used; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure.语言学家首先必须研究语言材料,即要观察一般情况下语言的使用方法,继而对语言的结构具体地提出一些假设。
A linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.一套语言学理论是说明语言的本质内容以及这些语言是如何发挥作用的。
1.2 The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.把语言学作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。
《简明英语语言学教程》导学手册
《英语语言学》导学手册程可拉主编英语语言学教学大纲一、教学目的和要求英语语言学是英语本科专业的自考课程。
本课程的目的是帮助学生系统地学习语言学基本理论知识和研究方法，为从事英语语言教学与研究打下良好的基础。
本课程教学的具体要求是：１．系统掌握语言学的基本理论和基本知识。
２．能应用语言学知识分析各种语言现象。
３．能应用语言学的基本理论来指导中学英语教学。
二、教学内容I. Introduction1. Linguistics1.1 What is linguistics?1.2 Linguistics vs. traditional grammar1.3 The scope of linguistics2. Language2.1 What is language?2.2 The defining properties of human languageII. Phonology1. The phonic medium of language2. Phonetics2.1 What is phonetics?2.2 The speech organs2.3 Narrow and broad transcriptions2.4 Some major articulatory variables2.5 Classification of English speech sounds3. Phonology3.1 Phonetics and phonology3.2 Phone, phoneme and allophone3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair3.4 Some rules of phonology3.5 Suprasegmental features---Stress, tone, intonationIII. Morphology1. Morphology1.1 Open classes and closed classes1.2 Internal structure of words and rules for word formation2. Morphemes---the minimal units of meaning3. Derivational and inflectional morphemes4. Morphological rules of word formation5. CompoundsIV. Syntax1. Syntax1.1 What is syntax?1.2 Sentence2. Structuralist approach2.1 Form classes2.2 Constituent structure2.3 Immediate constituent analysis2.4 Endocentric and exocentric constructions2.5 Advantage of IC analysis2.6 Labelled tree diagram2.7 Discontinuous constituents3. Transformational-generative grammar3.1 Competence and performance3.2 Criteria for judging grammars3.3 Generative aspect3.4 Transformational aspect3.5 Deep and surface structures4. The Standard Theory4.1 Components of a TG4.2 The base4.3 Transformations4.4 The form of T-rules4.5 The phonological component4.6 The semantic componentV. Semantics1. Semantics1.1 What is semantics?2. Some views on semantics2.1 Naming things2.2 Concepts2.3 Context and behaviourism2.4 Mentalism3. Lexical meaning3.1 Sense and reference3.2 Synonymy3.3 Polysemy and homonymy3.4 Hyponymy3.5 Antonymy3.6 Relational opposites4. Componential analysis4.1 Componets of meaning4.2 Meaning relations in terms of componential analysis5. Sentence meaning5.1 How to define the meaning of a sentence?5.2 Selectional restrictions5.3 Basic statements about meaning6. The semantic structure of sentences6.1 Extended use of componential analysis6.2 Prediction analysis6.3 Subordinate and downgraded predictions6.4 Advantages of predication analysisVI. Pragmatics1. What does pragmatics study?2. Speech act theory3. Principles of conversation3.1 The co-operative principle3.2 The politeness principleVII. Language change1. Introduction2. Sound change3. Morphological and syntactic change3.1 Change in “agreement” rule3.2 Change in negation rule3.3 Process of simplification3.4 Loss of inflections4. V ocabulary change4.1 Addition of new words4.2 Loss of words4.3 Changes in the meaning of words5. Some recent trends5.1 Moving towards greater informality5.2 The influence of American English5.3 The influence of science and technology6. Causes of language changeVIII. Language and society1. The scope of sociolinguistics1.1 Indications of relatedness between language and society1.2 Sociolinguistics vs. traditional linguistic study1.3 Two approaches in sociolinguistics2. Varieties of language2.1 Varieties of language related to the user2.2 Standard dialect2.3 Varieties of language related to the use3. Communicative competence4. Pidgin and creole5. Bilingualism and diglossiaIX. Language and culture1. Introduction2. What is culture?3. Language and meaning4. Interdependence of language and culture5. The significance of cultural teaching and learning6. Linguistics evidence of cultural differences6.1 Greetings6.2 Thanks and compliments6.3 Terms of address6.4 Colour words6.5 Privacy and taboos6.6 Rounding off numbers7. Cultural overlap and diffusion8. ConclusionX. Language acquisition1. Introduction1.1 Language acquisition1.2 The beginning of language1.3 Stages in first language acquisition1.4 Age and native language acquisition1.5 Common order in the development of language1.6 Different rate of language development2. Phonological development2.1 Regular sound development2.2 Mother and father words2.3 Grammatical development2.4 Vocabulary development2.5 Sociolinguistic development3. Theories of child language acquisition3.1 A behaviorist view of language acquisition3.2 A nativist view of language acquisitionXI. Errors analysis and second language acquisition1. Differences and similarities between first and second language acquisition2. The inadequacy of imitation theory3. Interference3.1 Phonological evidence3.2 Lexical evidence3.3 Grammatical evidence4. Cross-association5. Overgeneralization6. Strategies of communication7. Performance errors三、教学原则和方法１．启发式教学原则：教师积极引导学生理解分析问题，发挥学生的主观能动性，培养他们综合分析问题解决问题的能力。
语言学笔记
《简明英语语言学》笔记Chapter 1 IntroductionWhat is linguistics?●Definition: the scientific study of language.● A discipline that data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation;that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.●The scope of linguistics:✧General linguistics: study language as a whole✧Specific aspects:1)Phonetics: the study of sounds2)Phonology: how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning3)Morphology: how symbols are formed and combined to form word4)Syntax: study the rules of how to form grammatically correct sentence5)Semantics: the study of meaning6)Pragmatics: the study of meaning in the context of language use✧Interdisciplinary branches:1)Sociolinguistics2)Psycholinguistics3)Applied linguistics●Important distinctions✧Prescriptive and descriptive:1)Descriptive: Describe and analyze the language that people actuallyuse2)Prescriptive: Lay down rules for correct and standard behavior inusing language3)Modern language is mostly descriptive. Modern language, which isscientific and objective, describes language people actually use, be itcorrect or not.✧Synchronic and diachronic1)Synchronic: describe language at some point of time in history, al-ways in its current existence.2)Diachronic: the description of language as it changes through time; itstudies the historical development of language over a period of time.3)In modern linguistics, synchronic approach enjoys priority.✧Speech and writingSpeech is prior to writing in linguistics, for it is more natural and revealsmore true feature of language.✧Langue and parole1)Langue: abstract system shared by all members of language com-munity; it is the set of conventions and rules that language users haveabide by2)Parole: Concrete use of language.3)Saussure: 1) parole is simply a mass of linguistic language facts; 2)linguist should abstract langue from parole, i.e. to discover the regu-larities governing the actual use of language✧Competence and Performance-American linguist Chomsky1)Competence: knowledge of rules of language2)Performance: the realization of this knowledge in linguistic commu-nication3)The imperfect performance is caused by social and psychologicalfactors.✧Traditional grammar and modern linguistics1)Linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.2)Modern linguistics regard spoken language as primary.3)Modern linguistics does not force languages into Latin-basedframework.What is language?●Definition of language✧Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human com-munication.1)Language is a system, which means elements of language are com-bined according to rules.2)Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connectionbetween a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.3)Language is vocal because the primary medium for all language issound.4)Language is human-specific.●Design feature1)Arbitrariness: logical connection between meaning and sounds.While some words are motivated: the first are onomatopoeic words,such as rumble, crash, bang; the second are compound words, e.g.photocopy. This kind of words only make up small percentage ofvocabulary. The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistica-tion of language and make it possible for language to have an unlim-ited source of expressions.2)Productivity: language is productive or creative in that it makespossible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its us-ers.3)Duality: basic level: a structure of soundsHigher level: sounds of language can be rearranged intomorphemes and words4)Displacement: 不受时空限制的5)Cultural transmission: human have to be learned and taught beacquire language.●Functions of language✧Descriptive function: convey factual informationExpressive function: supplies informationSocial function: maintain social relations between people✧Structural linguist Roman JakobsonAddresser---emotive: addresser express his attitude towards thetopic or situationAddressee---conative: the addresser aims to influence addressee’sactionContext---referential: addresser conveys a message or informationMessage---poetic: use language to display the beauty of languageContact---phatic communication: it tries to establish or maintain in-terpersonal relationsCode---metalinguistic: make clear the meaning of language itself✧In early 1970 British linguist M.A.K. Halliday7 function in children.3 in adults:Ideational function: organize one’s experience, attitude, evaluation,feeling, and emotionsInterpersonal function: establish and maintain interpersonal rela-tionsTextual function: organize written or spoken English in such amanner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particularsituation in which they are usedChapter 2 PhonologyThe phonic medium of language✧Limited range of sounds constitute the phonic medium of language.✧The individual sounds within the range are the speech sounds.Phonetics●What is phonetics?✧Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it isconcerned with all the sounds that occurs in the world’s languages.✧Articu latory phonetics: studies the sounds form speaker’s point ofView, i.e. how the speaker uses his speech organs to articulate thesoundsAuditory phonetics: studies from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. howthe sounds are perceived by the hearerAcoustic phonetics: the way sounds travel by looking at the soundswaves.Chapter 4 SyntaxWhat is it?●Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules the govern the formation of sen-tences.Words categories●In traditional grammar, there are 8 categories (called parts of speech). Non-traditionalcategories as determiner (Det), degree words (Deg), and qualifier (Qua).●Two division✧Major lexical categories: the heads around which phases are built. Noun, verb, ad-jective, preposition.✧Minor lexical categories: determiner限定词, degree words, qualifier限定语, aux-iliary, conjunction.●Criteria：✧Meaning: 1) nouns often designate its entity; verbs often designate action, sensation,and states. 2) the property or attribute of a noun can be elaborated by adjectives,those of verbs, adverbs.Deficiencies: 1) some words do not have entity such as dilemma, friendship.2) some words belong to more than one categories3) words with same or similar meaning belongs to different catego-ries, e.g. be aware of a nd know✧Inflection: 1) noun → -s or –es indicating plural2)adjectives→-er or –est indicating comparative degree and superla-tive degree3)verb→-ing and –ed indicating progressive and past tenseDeficiency: some words do not take inflections✧Distribution: it is reliable, which indicates what type of elements can co-occur withcertain words.Noun co-appear with determiner, e.g. a girl, the penVerbs with auxiliary, e.g. should openAdjectives with degree words, e.g. very coolPhrase categories and their structure●XP ruleXP→Specifier ——head—— complementNP→(Det) N (PP) …VP→(Qual) V (NP) …AP→(Deg) A (PP) …PP→(Deg) P (NP) …●Coordination rule✧No limit on the number of coordinated categories prior to the conjunction.✧ A category at any level (head or XP) can be coordinated.✧Coordinated categories must be of the same type.✧The category type of coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of elementsbeing conjoined.✧Structure: X→X, X, X…Con XPhrase elements:●Specifiers✧Role：1) semantically, make more precise the meaning of head; 2) syntactically,mark the phrase boundary.●✧Provide information and location, attached to right of the head✧Monotransitive: open the doorDitransitive: send me the mailComlex transitive verbs: put it on the wall✧Complement clauseMiss Herbert believes that she will win.Matrix clause complementizer complement clause✧CP complement●Modifiers✧To modifier nouns →adj. phrases✧To modifier verbs →adv. Phrases and prepositional phrasesPosition of modifiersModifiers Positions ExamplesAP PP AdvP Precedes the headFollow the headPrecedes or followA very careful girlOpen with careRead carefully; carefully readSentences (the S rule)Inflp= (s)NP Inlf VP。
复习题及答案-语言学基本知识与技能
Chapter OneIntroductionI．What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. Linguistics studies not any particular language, but it studies languages in general. It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.II．The scope of linguistics1. Phonetics：The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics.2. Phonology: deals with how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.3. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged and combined to form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.4. Syntax:The combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules. The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies called syntax.5. Semantics: The study of meaning is known as semantics.6. Pragmatics: When the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of language use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.7. Sociolinguitics: The study of social aspects of languages and its relation with society form the core of the branch called sociolinguitics.8. Psycholinguistics relates the study of language to psychology.9. Applied linguistics: Findings in linguistics studies can often be applied to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications is generally known as applied linguistics.III. Some important distinctions in linguistics1. Prescriptive vs. descriptiveIf a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behaviour in using language, it is said to be prescriptive.2.Synchronic vs. diachronicThe description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.3. Speech and writingSpeech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.4. Langue and paroleThe distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure inthe early 20th century. Langue and parole are French words. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.petence and performanceThe distinction between competence and performance was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.6.Traditional grammar and modern linguisticsTraditional grammar refers to the studies of language before the publication of F. de Saussure’s book Course in General Linguistics in 1916. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.First, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary not the written.Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.IV. What is language?L anguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.Design features1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.3) DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means. This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and place. 5) Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis while the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.2.Functions of Language1)InformativeIt is the major role of language. The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite of social development.2)Interpersonal functionIt is the most important sociological use of language, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.Attached to the interpersonal function of language is its function of the expression of identity.3)PerformativeThis concept originates from the philosophical study of language presented by Austin and Searle, whose theory now forms the backbone of pragmatics.The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons as in marriage ceremonies, the blessing of children and the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.4)Emotive functionThe emotive function of language is one the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. e.g. God, my, Damn it...5)Phatic communionThe term originates from Malinnowski’s study of the functions of language performed by Trobriand Islanders. It refers to the social interaction of language.We all use small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day to maintain a comfortable relationship between people.6)Recreational functionNo one will deny the use of language for the sheer joy of using it such as a baby’s babbling.7)Metalingual functionOur language can be used to talk about itself. For example, we can use the word “book”to talk about the book.Chapter TwoPhonologyI.Speech production and perceptionA speech sound goes through a three step process. Naturally, the study of sounds is dividedinto three areas, each dealing with one part of the progress.1. Articulatory phoneticsIt is the study of the production of speech sounds.2.Acoustic phoneticsIt is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech.3.Auditory phoneticsIt is concerned with the perception of the sounds produced in speech.II.Speech organsSpeech organs are also known as vocal organs. They are those parts of the human bodyinvolved in the production of speech.Speech organs mainly consist of the vocal cords and three cavities which are the pharynx, the oral cavity and the nasal cavity.The vocal cords are in the larynx, the front part of which is called “the Adam ’s Apple.” III. ConsonantsClassification of English consonantsEnglish consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation.IV.VowelsClassification of English vowelsV owels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. V owels can also be distinguished according to the openness of the mouth: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels.• Nouns Adjectives • Lips Labial / Bilabial • Teeth Dental • Alveolar ridge Alveolar • Hard palate Palatal • Soft palate Velar • Uvula Uvular• Pharynx Pharyngeal • Tip Apical • Blade Laminal • Front Dorsal •Back Dorsal• Consonants Place • /p/ /b/ Bilabial • /t/ /d/ Tip-alveolar • /k/ /g/ Back-velar • /t ʃ/ /d ʒ/ Blade/front – palato-alveolar • /m/ Bilabial • /n/ Tip-alveolar • /ŋ / Back-velar • Consonants Place • /p/ /b/ Bilabial • /t/ /d/ Tip-alveolar • /k/ /g/ Back-velar• /t ʃ/ /d ʒ/ Blade/front –palato-alveolar• /m/ Bilabial• /n/ Tip-alveolar •/ŋ / Back-velarV. Phonology and phonetics1. Phonetics is concerned with the general nature of speech sound while phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.2. Phone, phoneme, and allophone– A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.– A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented orrealized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.–The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, thephoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark /l/, clear /l/, etc. which areallophones of the phoneme.3. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairIf the phonetically similar sounds are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast, e.g. /p/ and /b/ in /pit/ and /bit/.If they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution. For instance, the clear /l/ always occurs before a vowel while the dark /l/ always occurs between a vowel and a consonant, or at the end of a word. So the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution.When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. So in English, pill and bill are a minimal pair.4. Some rules in phonologySequential rules, Assimilation rule, Deletion rule5. Supra-segmental features—stress, tone, intonationStress:Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress.The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.Sentence stress refers to the relative force given to the component of a sentence. The part of speech that are normally stressed in an English sentence are nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns; the other categories of words like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs, prepositions, and conjunctions are usually not stressed.Tone:Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variation can distinguish meaning just like phonemes; therefore, the tone is a supra-segmental feature. The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in what we call tone languages. E.g. Chinese.Intonation:When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English.Chapter ThreeMorphologyI. Open class and closed classIn English, nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs make up the largest part of the vocabulary. They are the content words of a language, which are sometimes called open class words, since we can regularly add new words to these classes.The other syntactic categories include “grammatical” or “functional” words. Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronounces consist of relatively few words and have been referred to as being closed class words since new words are not usually added to them.II. Internal structure of words and rules for word formationMorphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.e.g. like—dislike order—disorder appear—disappear approve-–disapproveagree—disagree“dis-”is a prefix means “not”, and placed before a root-wordIII. Morphemes—the minimal units of meaningSome words are formed by combining a number of distinct units of meaning. The most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme.The following list shows that in English a single word may consist of one or more morphemes.One morpheme: desireTwo morphemes: desire + ableThree morphemes: desire + able + ityFour morphemes: un + desire + able + ityIn fact every word in every language is composed of one or more morphemes.Prefixes occurs only before other morphemes while suffixes occur only after other morphemes.IV. Derivational and inflectional morphemesIn English there are morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words. A verb, for example, is formed by adding –en to the adjective black—blacken, or by adding -ize to the noun computer—computerize.More examples: noun—adjective affection + ateAlcohol + ic-en, -ate, and –ic are thus called derivational morphemes, because when they are conjoined to other morphemes (or words) a new word is derived, or formed.Similarly, there are bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case, aspect and so on.Such bound morphemes are referred to as inflectional morphemes.V. Morphological rules of word formationThe ways words are formed are called morphological rules. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.Some of the morphological rules can be used quite freely to form new words. We call them productive morphological rules.Un + accept + able = un + adjective = not adjectiveVI. CompoundsAnother way to form new words, or compound words, to be exact, is by stringing words together, as shown in the examples below:Chapter FourSyntaxI. What is syntax?Synta x is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.II. CategoriesCategory refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.A fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.1. Word level categories are divided into two kinds: major lexical categories and minor lexical categories.2. Phrase categories and their structuresSyntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. In English syntactic analysis, the most commonly recognized and discussed phrasal categories are noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP) and prepositional phrase (PP).Whether formed of one or more than one word, they consist of two levels, Phrase level and word level as exemplified below.NP VP AP PP ←phrase level||||N V A P ←word levelPhrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following elements: head, specifier and complement. The word around which a phrase is formed is termed head. The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers. The words on the right side of the heads are complements.3 Phrase structure ruleThe special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule. The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP →(Det) N (PP) …VP →(Qual) V (NP) …AP →(Deg) A (PP) …PP →(Deg) P (NP) …The arrow can be read as “consist of ”or “branches into”. The parentheses mean that the element in them can be omitted and the three dots in each rule indicate that other complement options are available.4.XP ruleThe XP rule: XP →(specifier) X (complement)5. X¯ Theorya. XP → (Specifier) X¯b. X¯→ X (complement)The first rule stipulates that XP categories such as NP and VP consist of an optional specifier (a determiner, a qualifier, and so forth) and an X¯. The second rule states that an X¯consists of a head, X, and any complements.6. Phrase elementsSpecifierSpecifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, they help make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary. Specifiers can be determiners, qualifiers and degree words as well.ComplementsAs we have seen, complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implies by the meaning of the head. They are attached to the right of the head in English.The XP Rule (revised): XP → (Specifier) X (Complement*)This rule also captures the simple but important fact that complements, however many there are, occur to the right of the head in English.ModifiersModifiers specify optionally expressible properties of heads.Table 4-2 Modifier position in EnglishModifier Position ExampleAP Precedes the head A very careful girlPP Follows the head Open with careAdvP Precedes or follows the head Read carefully; carefully readTo make modifiers fit into phrase structure, we can expand our original XP rule into the following so that it allows the various options.The Expanded XP rule: XP → (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)This rule allows a modifier to occur either before the head or after it. Where there is a complement,a modifier that occurs after the head will normally occur to the right of the complement as well.7. Sentences (The S rule)The S rule: S →NP VPWhich combines an NP (often called the subject) with a VP to yield a sentence such as the one bellow.Many linguists nowadays believe that sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. They take an abstract category inflection (dubbed “Infl”) as their heads, which indicates the sentence’s tense and agreement.8. Deep structure and surface structureThere are two levels of syntactic structure. Te first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategories, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).The organization of the syntactic component of the grammar can be depicted below.The XP Rule↓DEEP STRUCTURE ←（Sub-categorization restricts choice of complements）↓Transformations↓SURFACE STRUCTUREChapter FiveSemanticsI. What is semantics?Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning. In our discussion, we will limit ourselves to the study o meaning from linguistic point of view.II. Some views concerning the study of meaning1 The naming theoryThe naming theory was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato, according to which the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.2 The conceptualist viewConceptualist view relates words and things through the mediation of concepts of the mind. This view holds that there is no link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. This is best illustrated by the classic semantic triangle or triangle of significance suggested by Ogden and Richards:3. ContextualismThe contextualist view of meaning is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context. The representative linguist of the view is Firth who is influenced by Molinonwsky and Wittgenstein.4. BehaviorismBehaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.” (Bloomfield, 1933) Behaviorism in linguistics holds that children learn language through a chain of “Stimulus-Response reinforcement”and the adult’s use of language is also a process of Stimulus-Response. For the theory, Bloomfield put forward the well-known formula:S →r …………………s →RHere S stands fro practical stimulus, r stands for the substitute reaction of speech, s stands for the substitute stimulus, and R stands for external practical reaction.III. Lexical meaning1. Sense and referenceSense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.2. Major sense relationsSynonymySynonymy refers to the sameness or closed similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.PolysemyWhile different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy.HononymyHononymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.HyponymyHyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.AntonymyThe term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning; words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.i. Gradable antonyms; ii. Complementary antonyms; iii. Relational opposites3. Sense relations between sentencesi. X is synonymous with Yii. X is inconsistent with Yiii. X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X)iv. X presupposes Y. (Y is a prerequisite of X)v. X is a contradictionvi. X is semantically anomalous.4. Analysis of meaningComponential analysis—a way to analyze lexical meaningComponential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. By componential analysis, linguist looks at each word as a bundle of different features or components.Prediction analysis—a way to analyze sentence meaningWhether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectionalrestrictions, i.e., constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.Chapter SixPragmaticsI. DefinitionPragmatics can be defined in various ways. A general definition is that it is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying and understanding meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.II. ContextThe notion of context is essential to the pragmatics study of language. Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him.III. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaningWhile the meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualized, that of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.IV. Speech act theory1 Austin’s model of speech actsSpeech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated wit the British philosophy John Austin in the late 50’s of the 20th century. This is a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. It aims to answer the question “What do we do when using language?”According to speech act theory, we are performing action when we are speaking. A speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking:locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.2. Searl e’s classification of speech actAccording to Searle, an American philosophy, speech acts fall into five general categories, i.e., there are five general types of things we do with language, Specific acts that fall into each type share the same illocutionary point, but differ in their strength.1) representatives: stating or describing, saying that the speaker believes to be true.2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something3. Principle of conversationPaul Grice’s idea is that in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. This general principle is called the Cooperative Principle.。
What is linguistics？什么是语言学
What is linguistics？1.1什么是语言学?1.1 What is linguistics? 1.1什么是语言学?1.1.1 Definition定义Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It tries to answer the basic questions “What is language?", “How does language work?"，and “What rules are there that govern the structure of language?”It probes into various problems related to language such as “What do all languages have in common?”, “What range of variation is found among languages?", “What makes language change?", “To what extent are social class differences reflected in language?", “How does a child acquire his mother tongue?"，and many others.Linguistics studies not any particular language English, Chinese, Arabic, and Latin, but it studies languages in general: It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, what the linguist has to do first is to observe and collect language facts, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. But the hypotheses thus formed have to be, checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation; that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by sometheory remain a muddled mass of things.语言学普遍被定义为对语言进行的科学研究。
《语言学导论》重点整理
《语⾔学导论》重点整理1 .An Introduction to Linguistics and language1. What is Linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It endeavors to answer the question--what is language and how is represented in the mind? Linguists focus on describing and explaining language and are not concerned with the prescriptive rules of the language.2. Basic criteria for doing Linguistics1. Objectivity2. Explicitness3. Rigorousness4. Adequacy3. The Scope of Linguistics(1)General Linguistics: the study of language as a wholePhonetics: the study of sounds in linguistic communicationPhonology: the study of the sound patterns of language. It is concerned with how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.Morphology : the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.4. The Scope of Linguistics (2): Syntax the study of sentence structure. It attempts to describe what is grammatical in a particular language in term of rules Semantics: the study of meaning.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in contextSociolinguistics: the study of social aspects of language and its relation with society.Psycholingustics:the study of language with relation to psychologyApplied linguistics: the study of applications of linguistics.5. Some distinctions in linguisticsPrescriptive vs.descriptiveSynchronic vs. diachronicSpeech and writingLangue and paroleCompetence and performanceTraditional grammar and modern linguistics(linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive; modern linguistics regards spoken language as primary, not the written; modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in that it does not force language into a Latin-based framework.)6. What is language?Language is not an abstract construction of the learned, or of dictionary-makers, but is something arising out of the work, needs, ties, joys, affections, tastes, of long generations of humanity, and has its bases broad and low, close to the ground. ? Walt Whitman7. The definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication8. Design features (Properties)Arbitrariness: vast majority of linguistic expressions are arbitraryProductivity: creativity or open-endednessDuality: double articulation(sounds and meanings)Displacement: eg. Santa Claus, Superman, dragonCultural transmission: meme, memics(Discreteness:the sounds used in language are meaningfully distinct. Eg. pack, back)9. AssignmentsComment on the definition of language.Summarize the design features of language.What is your understanding of synchronic study of language2.Chapter 2 Phonetics and phonology1. Phonetics: the sounds of languageThree branches of phoneticsArticulatory Phonetics发⾳语⾳学: the production of speech sounds.Auditory Phonetics听觉语⾳学: the study of the perception of speech soundsAcoustic Phonetics声学语⾳学: the study of the physical production and transmission of speech sounds.2. Organs of speech: 1.The pharyngeal cavity喉腔2.The oral cavity⼝腔3.The nasal cavity⿐腔3. Two kinds of transcriptionBroad transcription宽式标⾳: transcription with letter-symbolsNarrow transcription窄式标⾳: transcription with letter-symbols and the diacritics4. Classification of English consonants5. Classification of English vowels6. Phonology : the sound patterns of languageDifference Phone, phoneme, allophonePhonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair7. Phones, phonemes, and allophonesPhonology is the study of sound patterns of language( i.e. how sounds are arranged to form meaningful units) and the function of each sound. It reveals what are the possible combinations of sounds in a language and explains why certain words take the form they do.8. Phone ⾳素phone: the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speechi) phonetic unit ii) not distinctive of meaning iii) physical as heard or produced iv) marked with [ ]9. Phoneme ⾳位the minimal unit in the sound system of a language. With phonemes, we establish the patterns of organization within the infinitely large number of sounds. Each language can be shown to operate with a relatively small number of phonemes (15-80). No two languages have the same phonemic system.10. Phoneme ⾳位i) phonological unit ii) distinctive of meaning iii) abstract, not physical iv) marked with / /.11.Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs:1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different; 3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment. Minimal set: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etc.11. Allophone ⾳位变体: phonic variants/realizations of a phoneme12. Phonological rules:Phonological patterning is rule-governed. [blik] and [kilb], though not found in English, can be possible combinations, while [kbil] or [lkib] cannot. Sequential rules are those that account for the combination of sounds in a particular language. They are language-specific, as in thefollowing cases:* [tlait] [iltrit]13.Sequential ruleIf three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should follow the order/sequence below:a. The first phoneme must be /s/b. The second phoneme must be /p/, /t/ or /k/c. The third phoneme must be /l/, /r/, or /w/. spring, string, squirrel, split, screen14. Assimilation ruleA sound may change by assimilating/copying a feature of a sequential/neighboring sound, e.g. impossible, irresistible, illegal [in-]Question: What other examples?sink /since pan cake sun glasses five past seven has to15. Deletion ruleA sound may be deleted even though it may be orthographically represented.16.Stress, tone, and intonationSuprasegmental （超切分）phonology Suprasegmental phonemes:stress, tone and intonation17.Stress重⾳Word stress/sentence stress Primary stress/secondary stressStress of compounds: ‵blackbird / black ‵bird; ‵greenhouse / green ‵ houseSentence stress: Depending on the relative importance of the words; contrastive stress18. Tone (声调）Different rates of vibration produce different frequencies, which are termed as different pitches. Pitch variations are distinctive of meaning.In some languages like Chinese, pitch variations are called tones. Languages using tones are tone languages.19. Intonation（语调）When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence, they combine to become known as intonation.Three major types of English intonation: a. falling tone/tune b. rising tone/tune c. fall-rise tone/tune20. Assignments:Difference between phonetics and phonologyPhone, phoneme, allophonePhonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair3. Morphology（词法）1. Morphology is the study of word formation and structure. It studies how words are put together from their smaller parts and the rules governing this process.2. Two kinds of words1. Open class words: content words .e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs2. Closed class words: grammatical words or functional words. E.g. conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns Words can be related to other words, e.g. "happy" — "unhappy".The rules that relate such sets of words are called Word Formation Rules. Thus, the morphology containsfundamental elements – morphemes rules of combination -- Word Formation Rules4. MorphemesThe elements that are combining to form words are called morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning you can have in a language.we know three things about every morpheme:1. its meaning2. its form (the sounds that make it up)3. a rule of combination (put it before/after/inside the stem)5. A case: Unhappy Happier unhappier6. Bound and Free Morphemes" In the word doors" there are two morphemes: "door" and "-s".The morpheme "door" can be used by itself, so it is called a FREE morpheme.But the morpheme "s" cannot be used by itself: ? "How many doors did you shut?" "More than one." OK "s" Not OK Therefore, "-s" is called a BOUND morpheme.7. AffixesMorphemes added to free forms to make other free forms are called affixes. There are four principle kinds of affixes:1. prefixes (at beginning) — "un-" in "unable"2. suffixes (at end) — "-ed" in "walked"3. circumfixes (at both ends) — "en--en" in "enlighten" (These always seem to consist ofotherwise attested independent prefixes and suffixes.)4. infixes (in the middle) -- "-bloody-" in "inbloody- credible"8.Derivational morphemesDerivational morphemes may or may not change the category, or grammatical class of words.E.g. Noun--- Adjective affection + ate alcohol+ ic9. Inflectional MorphologyMorphology that interacts with syntax (sentence structure) is called INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY Some examples are: ? person? number? gender ? noun class ? case ? tenseInflectional morphemes never change the category. Inflectional morphemes do not change the "core" meaning of the word. Inflectional morphemes usually occur "outside" derivational ones. 10. A Rule for Forming some English Words 11. Compounds12. Other ways of Forming Words13. Word-formation:the creation of new words on the basis of existing structural devices in the language derivation compounding derivational affixation clipping, abbreviation, acronyms conversion* affixation * coinage: Ford, Kodak* compounding/composition: hot-line, keep-fit* conversion /functional shift : knee, cool, trigger, brake* derivation: alcoholic, affectionate* back-formation:edit, babysit, massproduce, laze* blending: smog, motel, globesity* shortening (clipped words, acronym) * borrowing: tea, algebra15. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ? Lab OED16. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ?lab babysit (from: babysitter)17. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ? institution-al skin-deep18. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ?to strength-en to house (e.g. this building houses 500 families)19. AssignmentsDistinguish the following terms: Open class words and closed class wordsBound morpheme and free morphemeInflectional morpheme and derivational morpheme List some rules of word formation 4. syntax1. Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. Syntactic rulesHow do we COMBINE WORDS to make SENTENCES? Syntax uses trees (just as in morphology) but the trees are built on WORDS instead of morphemes. Words are the fundamental units of sentences. The laws of combination for words are the syntactic rules.3. Sentence StructureWe know that there is structure in sentences separate from the meaning of the sentence because of the difference between "well formed nonsense" (1) and "total gibberish" (2) :(1) Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. (2) Green sleep furiously ideas colorless.Which sounds better ?4. Word-level categoriesMajor lexical categoriesN( Noun) book, boy V(Verb) run, buy A(Adjective) happy, heavyP (Preposition) about, in Minor lexical categories Det (determiner) the, a thisDeg (Degree word) quite, very Qual (Qualifier) often, always Aux(Auxiliary) must, should Con (Conjunction) and, but 5. Three criteria for judging the word’s categories1.meaning Noun—entity2.inflection -ed, -s3.distribution the girl Det+ N6. Phrase categoriesPhrases are constructed out of a "head" plus other material into:Noun Phrase (NP) Verb Phrase (VP) Adjective Phrase (AP) Prepositional Phrase (PP)7. Head, specifier, complementHead: the word around which a phrase is formedSpecifier: the words on the left side of the headscomplement: the words on the right side of the headsE.g. a touching story about a sentimental girl8. Phrase Structure RulesNP → (Det)N (PP) ? VP → (Qual) V ( NP) ? AP → (Deg)A (PP) ? PP → (Deg) P (NP)9. XP rule X= N, V, A or P XP →(specifier) X (complement)10. X – theory XP →(specifier) X X - → X(complement)11. Co-ordination rules X → X Con X12. XP rule (revised): XP →(specifier) X (complement ) Matrix clauseComplement phrase (CP) Complement clause Complementizers (Cs)13. ModifierAP PP AdvP The expanded XP rules XP →(spec)(Mod) X (complement*)(Mod)14. The S ruleS NP VPDet N V P Det N| | | | | |The cat is on the mat15. Transformational RulesOnce we have built a basic tree, we then might want to change it, for example to turn it into a question.1. John is going to school.2. Is John going to school?What happened between (1) and (2)? "Is" moved to the front. How did we make the yes/no question? What change did we make?16.Deep structure and surface structure:Deep structure is a level of syntactic representation that results from insertion of lexical items into the tree structure generated by the phrase structure rules.Surface structure is a level of syntactic representation that results from the application of whatever transformations are needed to yield the final syntactic form of the sentence.17. The organization of the syntactic componentThe XP ruleDeep structuretransformationsSurface structure18. Wh MovementMove the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentenceMove a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP19. Word OrderRecall that languages can choose the order of the constituents in a phrase structure rule. ? English: PP → P NP ? Japanese: PP → NP P20. SVOWe can say that the overall word-order in a simple sentence is Subject-Verb-Object or SVO.There are two choices for each rule:1. Sentence: S → NP VP S → VP NP2. Verb Phrase: VP → V NP VP → NP V21. AssignmentsDraw two possible trees for the sentence “The boy saw the man with the telescope. ”5. Semantics1. Semantics is the study of meaning.2. The Meanings of MeaningEveryday use and ambiguity of the word mean(ing)(1) Daddy, what does 'unique' mean? (2) When Mary talks about "her ex" she means me.(3) 'Purchase' means the same as 'buy'. (4) Gwailou means "foreign devil".(5) When he drinks it means he's depressed. (6) I didn't mean to hurt you.3. Ogden and Richards' The Meaning of Meaning (1923)sixteen different meanings of the words "mean/meaning" were distinguished. Here are some of them:John means to write. 'intends’A green light means go. 'indicates' Health means everything. 'has importance'His look was full of meaning. 'special import'What is the meaning of life? 'point, purpose'What does 'capitalist' mean to you? 'convey'What does ‘cornea‘(⾓膜)mean? 'refer to in the world'4. What does meaning mean in linguistics?It is the last kind of use that comes closest to the focus of linguistic semantics. In modern linguistics, the meaning is studied by making detailed analyses of the way words and sentences are used in specific contexts ("meaning" is not some kind of "entity" separate from language - any more than measures such as "height" or "length" have some kind of independent existence). This is an approach shared by a number of philosophers and psychologists. Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889- 1951), in particular, stressed its importance in his dictum: "The meaning of a word is its use in the language."5. 4 views concerning the study of meaningThe naming theory The conceptual theory Contextualism behaviorism6. The naming theoryPlato Words are names or labels for things.Limitations of the theory: it can be applicable to nouns only, but verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are not names or labels; imaginary things like “dragon”;abstract nouns like “joy”7. The conceptual theoryOgden & Richards' TriangleTHOUGHT (concepts, images, schemas)/ \(Sense) / \/ \(language) WORDS - - - - - - - - WORLD(things, situations)(Reference)Note: (i) Reference as an indirect relation(ii) Sense as a psychological notionWhat is the link between the language and concept?8. ContextualismLudwig Wittgenstein Malinowski J.R.Firth2 kinds of contexts: the situational context and the linguistic context9. BehaviorismBloomfield 1926, 1935 Behaviorism vs. mentalismHuman and animal behaviorStimulus and responseS -> r ... s -> R Jack and Jill10. Lexical meaningSense and referenceSense refers to the meaning of a Noun Phrase which determines its referent;Reference refers to that part of meaning of a Noun Phrase which is its referent.Sense is abstract and de-contextualized;Reference is concrete and contextualized.11. sense relations between words1.synonymy2.polysemy3.homonymy4.hyponymy5.antonymy11.1. synonymytwo words, same meaning never complete; tendency toward divergence,e.g small - little, but cf. small change and little sistera) dialectal synonymsb) stylistic synonymsc) synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningd) collocational synonymse) semantically different synonyms11.2. polysemyone word, many meaningseye 'organ of sight', 'center of hurricane' , 'hole in needle'11.3.homonymydifferent words, same soundbear 'carry' bear 'furry creature' bare 'naked'cf. Homonymy, Homography: different words, same spelling bow 'knotted ribbon' bow 'front of ship'11.4.hyponymysuperordinate (hyponym) to subordinate Also: co-hyponymsProblematic superordinates:aunt - uncle > none sweet - sour - bitter > Tastes , but no Adj chair - sofa - couch > ? sitting furniture (Sitzm?bel) 11.5. antonymy(1) Gradable (scalar) antonyms: cold. . hot(2) Complementary antonyms: dead - alive(3) Relational opposites: teach - learn husband - wife12. six sense relations between sentencesa) X is synonymous with Yb) X is inconsistent with Yc) X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X)d) X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X)e) X is a contradiction?f) X is semantically anomalous?13. Analysis of meaningComponential analysisPredication analysisgrammatical meaningsemantic meaning13.1 Componential analysisFeatures in Semantic Theoryman = [+human] [+adult] [+male]woman = [+human] [+adult] [+female]girl = [+human] [-adult] [+female]boy = [+human] [-adult] [+male]stool = [+sitting] [+legs] [-back] [-arms] [+single person]chair = [+sitting] [+legs] [+back] [+/- arms] [+single person]sofa = [+sitting] [+/-legs] [+back] [+arms] [-single person] etccow = [+bovine] [+adult] [+female]ewe = [+ovine] [+adult] [+female] bull = [+bovine] [+adult] [+male]ram = [+ovine] [+adult] [+male] calf = [+bovine] [- adult]lamb = [+ovine] [-adult]But should calf = [+/-female] [+/-male] or simply unspecified?And what about: steer? = [+bovine] [+adult] [-male] [-female]13.2Predication analysisIt is proposed by G. Leech. In his framework of analysis, the basic unit is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of arguments and predicate. An argument is a logical participant in a predication. A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.14.Interdisciplinary nature of semantics (1)philosophy: definitions, truth, logiclinguistics: lexical, grammatical meaning; structural ambiguitypsychology: concepts, categorization, learninglaw: interpretation, entailment translation: translatability, paraphrasecomputer science: processing and representation of information15. Interdisciplinary nature of semantics(2)musicology: musical meaning (Joseph Swain: Musical Languages, 1997)anthropology: cultural meaning, relativityliterary criticism: interpretation, ambiguity, metaphorreligion (Anna Wierzbicka, What did Jesus mean?, 2001)16. Assignments:Summarize the four approaches to the studies on meaning.Specify the five major sense relations1.synonymy2.polysemy3.homonymy4.hyponymy5.antonymyDefine the following terms: componential analysis Predication analysis6 Pragmatics1. Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context2. Contextualist viewLudwig WittgensteinMalinowskiJ.R.Firth2 kinds of contexts: the situational context and the linguistic context3. Some issues in PragmaticsDeixis指⽰ Speech acts⾔语⾏为 Indirect language间接语⾔Conversation会话 Politeness礼貌 Cross-cultural communication跨⽂化交际Presupposition预设4. Pragmatics and Semanticsa There is continuum between Semantics (things that are true by theDEFINITIONS and RULES) and Pragrmatics (things that are true by virtue of the REAL WORLD Complementarism: semantics studies meaning in the abstract; pragmatics studies meaning in the context/use.5. Consider the following sentences:The rock ate my lunch. Semantically false, because "eat" requires anANIMATE subject.The giraffe ate the hyena. Grey area, does SEMANTICS include the concept VEGETARIANThe giraffe ate one hundred pounds of grass today.Pragmatics, how much DOES a giraffe eat in a day?6. ContextAccording to Firth, context includes the relevant features of participants: persons, personalities, the verbal and non-verbal action of the participants, the relevant objects and the effect of the verbal action. Hymes’ notion of context includes addressor, addressee, topic, setting, channel, code, message form, event, key and purpose.Shared knowledge7. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaningSentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. Utterance is the issuance in an actual context.The meaning of a sentence is abstract and decontextualized,while the meaning of an utterance is concrete and contextdependent.8. Speech Act TheoryAustin noticed that some sentences are special in that they DO things. One class is PERFORMATIVES. When spoken such sentences do the work:I (hereby) declare the fair open. ("hereby" is a good diagnostic of performatives)Performatives⾏事: Performatives were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Constatives⾔事: constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were thusverifiable9. Three kinds of actsLocutionary act⾔内⾏为: locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.Illocutionary act⾔外⾏为: an illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention. It is an act performed in saying something.Perlocutionary act⾔后⾏为: perlocutionary act is the act performed by saying something. 10. Searle’s classification of speech actsRepresentatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true;Directives: trying to get the hearer to do something;Commissives: committing the speaker himself to future course of action;Expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state;Declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something11. Principle of ConversationGrice discovered a number of conversational maxims (rules) that people generally obey.Two of them are: ? Be cooperative ? Be relevantThe following discourse represents a failure of cooperation:A: Do you know what time it isB: Yes.Or, if you know for sure that you're leaving on Tuesday it's misleading to say: "I'm leaving on Monday or Tuesday."12. Four maximsThe maxim of quantity The maxim of qualityThe maxim of relation The maxim of manner13. Conversational Implicatureconversational implicature: Conversational implicature occurs only when the maximsof Cooperative Principle are “flouted”. A: Do you know where Mr. X lives?B: Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.(said when it is known to both A and B that B has Mr. X’s address.)A: Would you like to come to our party tonight?B: I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well today.A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don’t you think?B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t they?(said when it is known to both A and B that it is entirely possible for B to make a comment on the hostess)A: Shall we get something for the kids?B: yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.(said when it is known to both A and B that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word“ice-cream”).14. Leech’s Politeness PrincipleTact maxim Generosity maxim Approbation maximModesty maxim Agreement maxim Sympathy maxim15. The 6 maxims of Leech’s PPtact generosityapprobation modestyagreementsympathy16. Tact Maxim:1. Minimize cost to other 2.Maximize benefit to other Generosity Maxim:1. Minimize benefit to self 2. Maximize cost to self Approbation Maxim: 1. Minimize dispraise of other 2. Maximize praise of other Modesty Maxim:1. Minimize praise of self 2. Maximize dispraise of self17. Agreement Maxim: 1.Minimize disagreement between self and other2.Maximize agreement between self and otherSympathy Maxim: 1. Minimize antipathy between self and other2. Maximize sympathy between self and other18. Politeness scale: DirectnessdirectCould you possibly answer the phone?Would you mind answering the phone?Can you answer the phone?Will you answer the phone?I want you to answer the phone.Answer the phone.indirect19. Politeness scale: Cost – benefitbenefitHave another sandwich.Enjoy your holiday.Look at that.Sit down.Hand me the newspaper.Peel these potatoes.Cost20. PresuppositionsStatements or questions that presuppose a related sentence. "Leading" questions or statements. "When did you stop beating your donkey?" presupposes:You stopped beating your donkey.You did beat your donkey.You beat something.You have a donkey...."I'll have some more coffee." presupposes that you have already had some.21. assignmentsSpeech act theorycoperative principleconversational implicature7. Language Change1. ReviewPrescriptive vs.descriptive (Chapter 1)The definition of language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication (Chapter 1) Word formation: affixation, composition, conversion, back formation, blend, shortening , coinage (Chapter 3) Contextualism (Chapter 5) Context (Chapter 6)2. All languages change through timeLanguages change in the phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon and semantic components of the grammar.3. The changes of language at different levels (1)Sound changeMorphological and syntactic changea) change in “agreement” ruleb) change in negation rulec) process of simplificationd) loss of inflections4. The changes of language at different levels (2)Vocabulary changea) addition of new words(coinage, clipped words, blending, acronyms, backformation, functional shift, borrowing)b) loss of wordsc) changes in the meaning of words (widening of meaning, narrowing of meaning,meaning shift)5. Some recent trendsMoving towards greater informalityThe influence of American EnglishThe influence of science and technologya) space travel b) computer and internet language c) ecology6. Causes of language changea) The rapid development of science and technology has led to the creation of many new words: fax, laser, telecomb) As more and more women have taken up activities formerly reserved for men, more neutral job titles have been created: chairman-chairperson, fireman-fire fighter.c) The way children acquire the language provides a basic cause of change.d) “economy of memory ” and “theory of least effort”. foe/foes, cow/cows (kine)cheap-cheaplye) other factors, e.g. elaboration of grammar7. SummaryThe linguistic change is complex.The linguistic change is gradual.The exact reasons for language change are still elusive and need to be further investigated. 8. Assignments1. Illustrate the vocabulary change with examples.2. What are the possible causes of language change?8. Language and Society1. The relatedness between language and societyLanguage is used to establish and maintain social relationship.The kind of language the users choose is in part determined by his/her social background.Language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social.2. Speech communityFor general linguists, a speech community is defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of a language.。
语言学第一单元
Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, for example, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition.
We know that words are organized into structures more than just word order.
The children watched [the firework from the hill ].
The children watched [the firework ] [from the hill ].
Language means not any particular language, but language in general.
Study doesn ’t mean learn but investigate or examine.
Scientific refers to the way in which the language is studied.
Sociolinguistics社会语言学
? Sociolinguistics is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community.
语言学资料 linguistics and language
Chapter 1 Linguistics and Language◆Teaching Objectives✓To know the scope of linguistics roughly✓To understand the definition, the design features and the functions of language in details✓To have some ideas about several important distinctions in linguistic study◆Time Arrangement✓Altogether 2 periods.1.1 What is Linguistics?1.1.1 Definitions of Linguistics (p.1)◆Linguistics is the science of language.◆Linguistics is the scientific study of language.◆Linguistics is a discipline that describes all aspects of language and formulatetheories as to how language works.◆In linguistics, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation. That is, atheory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without beingexplained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.◆The process of linguistic study: observing linguistic facts (displaying somesimilarities) & making generalizations → formulatinghypotheses based on the generalizations → testing thehypotheses repeatedly by further observations to fullyprove their validity → constructing a linguistic theory 1.1.2 The Scope of Linguistics (p.2)1.1.2.1 Main branches of linguistics (phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic &pragmatic)Phonetics –the study of human speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are made, transmitted and received, thedescription and classification of speech sounds, words and connectedspeech, etc.Phonology -- he study of sound pattering, the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllableMorphology – concerned with the internal organization of words.Syntax – the study of sentence structure, the arrangement of words.Semantics – the study of meaning.Pragmatics – the study of meaning in context.1.1.2.2 Macrolinguistics 宏观语言学(p.3)Linguistics is not the only field concerned with language. Language is not an isolated phenomenon, it’s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings. Therefore, the study of language has established close links with other branches of sciences or social studies, resulting in some interdisciplinary branches of linguistic study.Sociolinguistics – the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristicsof their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers.Psycholinguistics – the study about how humans learn language and the relationship oflinguistic behavior and the psychological processes in producing andunderstanding language.Applied linguistics – 1) the study of the application of linguistic theories and methods toother fields2) the application of linguistic theories, methods, and findings to thestudy of language learning and teaching.Neurolinguistics – the study of the function of the brain in language development and usein human beings, examining the brain’s control over the processes ofspeech and understanding.Anthropological linguistics – the study of variation and use in relation to the culturalpatterns and beliefs of human race; the study of therelationship between language and culture in a community,e.g. its traditions, beliefs, and family structure.Computational linguistics – the study of language using the techniques and concepts ofcomputer science, the basic goal of which is to “teach”computers to generate and comprehendgrammatically-acceptable sentences., including:Machine translation – (MT) the use of computer software to translate texts fromone natural language to another. At its basic level, MTperforms simple substitution of words in one naturallanguage for words in another.(Computer-aided) corpus linguistics – dealing with the principles and practice ofusing corpora in language study. Usually, a computercorpus is a large body of machine-readable texts.1.1.3 Some Distinctions in LinguisticsThese distinctions can help to understand the difference between modern linguistics and the linguistics before the 20th century and to gain a general understanding of the nature of linguistic inquiry and the aims and approaches in linguistics.The beginning of modern linguistics is marked by the publication of F.de Saussure’s book “Course in General Linguistics”in the early 20th century. Before that language had been studied for centuries in Europe by such scholars as philosophers and grammarians. The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar”.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.1.1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. Descriptive （p.3）---- purposes of prescriptive and descriptive linguistic studyPrescriptive: aim to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they shouldnot say; prefer absolute standard of correctness; rely heavily on rules ofgrammarDescriptive: aim to describe and analyze the language people actually use, be it “correct” or not---- transfer of attention:Earlier study: prescriptive, based on “high”(religious. Literary) written language,setting models for language users to followModern linguistics: mostly descriptive, more scientific and objective ---- difference (divergence) of opinion1.1.3.2 Synchronic vs. Diachronic (p.4)---- concept of synchronic and diachronicSynchronic study: the description of a particular state of a language at a single point oftimeDiachronic study: the description of the historical development of a language over aperiod of time---- transfer of attention:In the 19th century: primarily of the diachronic descriptionIn the 20th century: the priority of the synchronic description over the diachronic onebecause without the successful study on the various states of alanguage in different historical periods, it would be difficult todescribe the changes that have taken place in its historicaldevelopment1.1.3.3 Speech vs. Writing (p.4)---- transfer of emphasis:Traditional grammarians: overstress the importance of the written wordModern linguists: regard the spoken language as primary and maintain that writing isessentially a means of representing speech in another medium ---- blurred distinction between speech and writing with modern technology Public speeches written in advance and read out orally;Chatting on internet while typing on the computer screen;Reading in the form of moving text, line following line up the screen1.1.3.4 Langue vs. Parole (p.4)---- proposed by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th century---- concept of langue and paroleLangue Parole1) the abstract linguistic system shared by the realization of langue in actual useall the members of a speech community2) the set of conventions and rules which the concrete use of the conventions andlanguage users all have to abide by the application of the rules3) abstract, not the language people actually concrete, the naturally occurringuse language events4) relatively stable, do not change frequently vary from person to person, and fromsituation to situation---- transfer of attention in the linguistic study :langue parole in the latter part of the 20th century (recognizing varieties within languages, social and regional dialects, registers, styles, and so on) ---- objection to the distinction:Skinner from a strictly behavioristic point of view1.1.3.5 Competence vs. Performance (p.5)---- proposed by the American linguist Noam Chomsky in the late 1950’s and similar to Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole---- concept of competence and performanceCompetence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his languagePerformance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationAccording to Chomsky, a speaker has internalized a set of rules about his language,which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. Despite his perfectknowledge of his own langue, a speaker can still make mistakes in actual use, e.g.,slips of the tongue, and unnecessary pauses. This imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors such as stress, anxiety, and embarrassment.---- similar ideas possessed by Chomsky and SaussureBoth think that what linguists should study is the knowledge of language, langue orcompetence, the underlying system of rules that has been mastered by thespeaker-hearer. Although a speaker-hearer possesses the rules and applies them inactual use, he cannot tell exactly what these rules are. So the task of the linguists is to discover and specify these rules.---- difference between Chomsky’s distinction and Saussure’sSaussure: taking a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is socially shared, common knowledge, a matter of social conventions.Chomsky: examining language from a psychological point of view and competence isa psychological phenomenon, a genetic endowment in each individual, aproperty of the mind of each individual.1.1.3.6 Traditional grammar vs. Modern linguistics (p.5)◆modern linguistics ---descriptive;spoken language as primary ;not Latin-based framework◆traditional grammar ---prescriptive;written language as primary;Latin-based framework1.2 What is Language?1.2.1 Definitions of Languagep.7Some additional ones:Language is the most frequently used and most highly developed form of humancommunication we possess.语言是音义结合的词汇和语法的体系，是人类最重要的工具，是人类思维的工具，也是社会上传递信息的工具。
简明语言学期末整理
Chapter 1.1.1 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific科学的、系统的study of language.Linguistics studies not any particular language, but it studies languages in general.Why is linguistics a scientific study?Systematic Investigation of linguistic data, conducted with some general linguistic theories.1.3 Important distinctions in linguistics判断1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive规范性和描述性Descriptive---- describe / analyze the language people actually use.Prescriptive----lay down rules for “corr ect and standard” behaviour in using language. Descriptive vs. Prescriptive•Don’t say X.•People don’t say X.The distinction: Describing how things arePrescribing how things ought to beModern linguistics vs. grammarModern linguistics is mostly descriptive.Grammar: to set models for language users to follow.Modern linguistics is supposed to be scientific and objective and its task is to describe the language people actually use, be it "correct" or not.Modern linguists believe that whatever occurs in the language people use should be described and analyzed in their investigation.1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic同步性和历时性会定义Synchronic study---description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study---description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time)Synchronic approach enjoys priority over a diachronic one.Synchronic or Diachronic?1.The change of vocabulary since China’s reform and opening up.2.The study of Internet language in 21st century.3.Pejorative Sense Development in English.4.The Categories and Types of Present-day English Word-Formation.1.3.4. Langue and parole语言和言语会概念(F. de Saussure:1857--1913 )Langue---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole ---- the realization of langue in actual use.Langue is abstract. Parole is concrete.Langue is stable. Parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.What linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole.1.3.5 Competence and performance 会定义(Chomsky)Competence-----the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language Performance---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Similarity and difference between Saussure‟s distinction and that of ChomskySimilarity: both make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language.Difference: Chomsky’s competence-performance is from psychological point of view. Saussure’s langue-parole is from sociological point of view.1.3.6 Traditional grammar and modern linguistics 要懂！判断就是下面四个Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.1.2.2 design features of language 必须要会！Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g.“pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.Arbitrariness任意性Productivity/Creativity多产性Duality双重性Displacement位移性Cultural transmission 文化传播Arbitrariness----No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings.Onomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, …. Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang…)Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopy…Productivity/creativity----Peculiar to human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before, e.g. we can understand sentence like “ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”, though it does not describe a common happening in the world.A gibbon call system is not productive for gibbon draw all their calls from a fixedrepertoire which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible.The bee dance does have a limited productivity, as it is used to communicate about food sources in any direction. But food sources are the only kind of messages that can be sent through the bee dance; bees do not “talk”about themselves, the hives, or wind, let alone about people, animals, hopes or desiresDuality (double articulation)Lower level----sounds (meaningless)Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning)A communication system with duality is considered more flexible than one without it, fora far greater number of messages can be sent. A small number of sounds can be groupedand regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (words), and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. (we make dictionary of a language, but we cannot make a dictionary of sentences of that language.Cultural transmission----Language is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; rather than by instinct).Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All cats, gibbons and bees have systems which are almost identical to those of all other cats, gibbons and bees.A Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not mutually intelligible. This shows thatlanguage is culturally transmitted. That is, it is pass on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.The story of a wolf child, a pig child shows that a human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language.Chapter 2 phonology2.2 Phonetics2.2．1 What is phonetics?必须要会三个分支也要会Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language in isolation.It is concerned with production, transcription音译and classification of speech sounds.The production and perception of speech soundsSpeakerProduction Sound Waves Hearer Perception Articulatory Phonetics Acoustic Phonetics Auditory Phonetics发音语音学声学语音学听觉语音学（语音学的三个分支）2.2.3Orthographic正字法，拼字正确的representation of speech sounds - broad and narrow transcriptions 大致意思要懂Towards the end of 19th century, when articulatory phonetics had developed to such an extent in the West that scholars began to feel the need for a standardized andinternationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. Thus the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) came into being.Exercise: Transcription of speech wordsTask: Write the phonetic symbol for the first sound in each word according to your pronunciation.Example: zoo /z/ psycho /s/a. Judge / /b. Thomas / /c. Phone / /d. Easy / /e. Usual / /The two sounds /t/ in “Student ”are really the same?The first “t” is unaspirated (不送气)The second “t” is aspirated (送气的)./ s t j u: d ən th /The four sounds /l/ are the same?Leaf /li:f/; feel /fi:l/; build /bild/; health /helθ/Clear [l] dark [ l ] dental [l]The aspirated /h/, the dark / / are both calledDiacritics (变音符号)Two Transcriptions 严式标音记到什么程度，宽式记音记到什么程度要懂Broad transcription: The letter-symbols only.宽式标音/ /Narrow transcription: The letter-symbols+diacritics严式标音[]2.4 Classification of English Speech sounds 音素的分类要知道Vowels [元音]Consonants [辅音] 元音和辅音放一起叫做音段音位，语调，音调和重音叫做超音段音位The difference between consonants and vowelsV owels: with no obstruction through the speech organsConsonants: with obstruction through the speech organs2.2.4.1 Classification of English consonants 要知道辅音的发音分类有哪几种English consonants can be classified in two ways:1. manner of articulation根据发音方式来分类2. place of articulation. 根据发音部位来分类2.3 PhonologyThe difference between phonetics & phonology 明白各自是干嘛的Phonetics: Study sounds in isolation; one by one,phonetic features; language universalPhonology: Study sounds patterns to convey meaning; language specific2.3.2Phone, Phoneme and allophone 理解含义判断题Phone音系: 1) a phonetic unit 是语音学的一个片段2) not necessarily distinctive of meaning 不需要区分意思3) physical as perceived 物理上能感知4) marked with [ ]Phoneme音位: 1) a phonological unit 是音系学的一个片段2) distinctive of meaning 要区分意思3) abstract, not physical 抽象，不能物理上区分4) marked with / /Allophone音位变体Allophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.在不同的语音学环境中代表着一个音素StudentPhones: [t] [th]Phoneme: /t/Allophone: [t] [th]Exercise(How many phones, phonemes and allophones?)Pit Spit TipLeaf, Feel, HealthBut May Rest2.3.3 phonetic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair 要知道什么叫互补分布Complementary distributionComplementary distribution----allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts,e.g.dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p]. [t] [th] Two allophones2.3.4 some rules in phonology 3条规则要明白是什么意思判断题2.3.4.1 sequential rules 序列规则There are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. These rules are called Sequential rules (序列规则)1.What are possible sequences if 3 consonants cluster together at the beginning of a word?2.3.4.2 assimilation rule 同化规则The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. （同化规则）3. Give examples to show how the assimilation rule works in English.2.3.4.3 deletion rules 省略规则Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. Deletion /g/ occurs before a final nasal consonant. Sign design…比如l r 后面只允许出现元音这是什么规则在约束它是同化规则在约束它错@！应该是序列规则在约束它要知道序列规则该怎么写2.3.5 suprasegmental features ----stress tone声调intonation语调只需知道超音段音位包括哪些就可以了英语中tone算不算超音段音位？不算所谓是音位，需要能够区分意义5. List different types of stress patterns that can distinguish meaning. (Task)1)To distinguish some nouns from their related verbs.` import (n.) —im` port (v.)`record (n.) —re`cord (v.)2) To distinguish compounds from noun phrases.`hotdog (n.) — hot `dog (phrase)3)To distinguish the compound combinations of -ing modifiers and nouns and the phrasalcombinations of-ing forms for the action and nouns for the doer.`sleeping car (compound) —ֽsleeping `boy (phrase)4)To distinguish content words from function words in sentences.He is `driving my `car.5)To emphasize to a certain part of a sentence.I prefer `small apples, those are far too large.7. What is the difference between tone and intonation?1)Tone refers to pitch movement in spoken utterances that is related to differences in wordmeaning.2)Intonation refers to pitch movement in spoken utterances that is not related todifferences in word meaning.Chapter 3 morphology 形态学morphology 的概念要会3.1 Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules bywhich words are formed. 词的内部结构的学习和词形成的规则3.2 open class and closed class 开放词类和封闭词类需要注意既不是开放的也不是封闭的词Open class words----content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, e.g. beatnik(a member of the Beat Generation), hacker, email, internet, “做秀，时装秀…” in Chinese.Closed class words----grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns.封闭词类和开放词类就语法功能来说，词可分为：封闭词类（Closed Class）和开放词类（Open Class）。
语言学知识(专八)
语言学知识语言学是对语言的系统研究，对于一个学习英语的人来说，应该懂一点语言学的知识，它可以在理论上对学习语言有指导作用，有助于更好的学习语言，下面介绍一点语言学知识。
I. Introduction1. What is LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. What is Linguistics(语言学)Linguistics is the scientific study of language.3.Some Basic Distinctions(区分) in Linguistics3.1 Speech and WritingOne general principle(原则) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范畴) and uses that speech does not have.3.2 Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性)A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.3.3 Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) StudiesThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.3.4 Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔）early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue.3.5 Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).4.The Scope of LinguisticsGeneral linguistics is the study of language as a whole.Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language.Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages.Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes.Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics.Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts(概念) are applied, often with the aid of a computer.II. Phonetics(语音学）1. scope of phoneticsSpeech sounds may be studied from different angles, thus we have at least three branches of phonetics:Articulatory phonetics(发音语音学）we may examine the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate(协调）in the process.Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学）we may look into the impression a speaker makes on the hearer as mediated(调节）by the ear, the auditory nerve(神经）and the brain.Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）we study the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted（传送）between mouth and ear.2. The vocal organsThe vocal organs may be viewed as consisting of three parts, the initiator of the air-stream,(气流发生器官）the producer of voice（声音发生器官）and the resonating cavities.（声音共振器官）3. Consonants(辅音）Places of articulation(发音部位）: bilabial,(双唇）Labiodentals,（唇齿）dental,（齿）alveolar,（齿龈）retroflex,（卷舌）palate-alveolar,（上齿龈）palatal,（上颚）velar,（软腭）uvular,（小舌）glottal(声门）Manners of articulation: plosive,（暴破）nasal,（鼻音）trill,（颤音）lateral,（边音）fricative,（摩擦）approximant,（近似音）affricate（破擦）4. Vowels (元音）The classification of vowels: the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low), the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back), and the degree of lip rounding(rounded, unrounded)III. Phonology（音韵学）1. phonemes(音素）：a distinctive(有区别的）sound in a language.2. Allophones(音位变体）：The nondistinctive sounds are members of the same phoneme.3. Minimal pairs(最小对立体）：word forms which differ from each other only by one sound.4. Free variation (自由变异）：If two sounds occurring in the same environment(环境）, they does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word.5. Complementary distribution(补充分类）：Not all the speech sounds occur in the same environment. When two sounds never occur in the same environment6.Suprasegmental phonology(超音段音位）：the study of phonological properties(性质）of units lager than the segment-phoneme. They are syllable(音节），stress,（重音）word stress, sentence stress. pitch （音调）and intonation（语调）.IV. Morphology（词法）1. inflection(构形法）：the grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes.(屈折词缀）2. Word-formation(构词）：the processes(过程）of word variations signaling lexical relationships.（表明词法关系）They are compound(合成）and derivation (派生）.3. Morpheme(词素）：the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content.4. Allomorph(同质异象变体）：some morphemes have considerable variation, for instance, alternate shapes or phonetic forms.5. Types of morphemes: They are roots,(词根）affix（词缀）and stem（词干）.6. Lexicon(语言词汇）：in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary.7. Closed-class words(封闭性）and open-class words(开放性）：the former whose membership is fixed or limited and the latter whose membership is in principle(实际上）indefinite or unlimited.8. Word class(词性）：It displays a wider range of more precisely defined classes.9. Lexeme(词位）：the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units.10. Idiom(习语，成语）：Most phrasal lexemes are idioms. It is especially true for a sequence of words(词序）which is semantically（语义上）and often syntactically(句法上）restricted.（限制）11. Collocation(搭配）：the habitual(习惯的）co-occurrences （同时出现）of individual lexical items.V. Syntax (句法）1. Positional relation or word order（词序）：the sequential(顺序）arrangement of wordsin a language.2. Construction or constituent (句子结构）：the overall process of internal (内部）organization of a grammatical unit .3. Syntactic function(句法功能）：the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. The names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicates, modifiers,(修饰语）complements（补语）, etc.4. Category(范畴）：It refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. The categories of the noun include number, gender, case and countability.5. Phrase: a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clause.6. Clause: a group of words with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence.7. Sentence: It is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought.VI. Semantics1. Conceptualism or mentalism (概念主义）：Following F. De Saussure(索学尔）'s "sign" theory, the linguistic sign is said to consist of a signifier （所指）and signified（被指）, i.e., a sound image and a concept, liked by a psychological（心理的）"associative" bond.（相关了解）2. Mechanism(机械主义）：Some linguists, Bloomfield,(布鲁费尔德）for example, turned to science to counter（反）-act the precious theories and this leads to what call the mechanistic approach（方法）. The nature of this theory has nothing to do with the scientific study of mental phenomena.（智力现象）3. Contextualism （语境主义）：It is based on the presumption(假定）that one can derive meaning from or reduce it to observable context.4. Behaviorism (行为主义）：Behaviourists attempt to define (定义）the meaning of a language form as "the situation(情景）in which the speaker utters（说话）it and the response（反应）it calls forth in the hearer."5. functionalism (功能主义）：functionalists as represented (代表）by the Prague school（布拉格学派）linguists and neo-Firthian （新弗斯）linguists, approach the problem from an entirely new orientation（方法）. They argue（争辩）that meaning could only be interpreted （解释）from its use or function in social life.6. Sense relationships: While reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements, words, sentences, etc.,and the non-linguistic world of experience, sense relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the linguistic elements themselves. They include synonymy(同义词），antonymy(反义词）,hyponymy(下层次）Polysemy(一词多义）and Homonymy (同音异义词）7. Semantic analysis: It includes 1) componential（成分）analysis which defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.(意义成分）2) predication (表述）analysis in which the meaning of a sentence is not merely the sum of the meanings of the words which compose it. 3) relational components in which the semantic analysis of some words presents a complicated picture, because they show relations between two and perhaps more terms.VII. Language variation (语言变化）1. Lexical change(词汇的变化）：changes in lexis.2. Invention: (新造词）new entities.3. Compounding合成词）New words are sometimes constructed by combining two old words.4. Blending: (混合词）：It is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two roots are blended by joining the initial part of the first root and the final part of the second root, or by joining the initial parts of the two roots.5. Abbreviation or clipping缩写）A new word is created by cutting the final part or cutting the initial part.6. acronym取首字母的缩写词）It is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified (修饰）headword.7. metanalysis再分化）It refers to a process through which a division is made where there were note before.8. Back-formation逆构词）It refers to an abnormal(非正常）type of word-formationwhere a shorter word is derived by deleting(去掉）an imagined affix from a longer form already present in the language.9. Analogical creation:(类比造词）It can account for（说明）the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation(结合）of some English verbs.10. Borrowing（借用）：English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages.11. Phonological change(音变）：It is related to language variation in the phonological system of language. It includes loss,(省音）addition,（加音）assimilation,（同化）dissimilation.（异化）12. Grammatical change: Changes in both morphology（词法）and syntax（句法）are listed under this heading.13. Semantic change:(语义变化）It includes broadening,（语义扩大）narrowing,（语义缩小）meaning shift,（意义转化）class shift（词性转换）and folk etymology.（词源变化）14. Orthographic change ：(正字法）Changes can also be found at the graphetic level.[文档可能无法思考全面，请浏览后下载，另外祝您生活愉快，工作顺利，万事如意!]。
What is Linguistics
• This prescriptive tradition was to be followed first by Latin scholars in ancient Rome and then by the scholars of other European languages. They took up the Latin framework as the only correct way to prescribe grammatical rules of "correctness".
What is Linguistics
Definition
• Linguistics is the comprehensive and scientific study of language. • comprehensive: it embraces all aspects of human communication----from a description of the sounds of speech to the analysis of the way in which the full complexities of thought are expressed in spoken or written form.
• Linguistics is also scientific in its methodology. The work of linguists consists of collecting observable data about language, setting up hypotheses, testing the validity of them against the collected data and then decide accordingly either to reject these hypotheses or accept them as established theories.
语言学
I Introduction1. What is linguistics?Linguistics is the systematic/scientific study of language.study: investigate, examine, not learnscientific: based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure, the way in which it is studied.language(zero article): It implies that it studies not any particular language, but languages in general.What is the relationship between data & theory?▲In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation; that is, a theory without the support of data is hardly valid; data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.The process of study may be as follows:1) Certain linguistics facts are found to display some similarities, so generalizations are made about them.2) On the basis of these generalizations hypotheses are formulated to account for the facts. These hypotheses are tested by further observations.3) A theory is constructed about how language works.2. What is a linguist? What is the main task for him?A person who studies linguistics. He does not need to be able to use a large number of languages for communication purposes, but he should have a wide experience of different types of languages. His task is not to learn to use any particular language, but to study how each language is constructed, how it is used by its speakers, and how it is related to other languages. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from one social class to another, how it changes from one historical period to the next, and how children acquire their mother tongue. To sum up, his task is basically to study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built. To make his analysis as scientific as possible, he is usually guided by 4 principles.▲Consistency (一致性): there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement.▲Economy (经济性) : other things being equal, a shorter statement or analysis is preferred to a long or more involved one. The best statements are the shortest possible ones which can account most fully for all facts.▲Objectivity(客观性): a linguist should be as objective as possible in his description and analysis of data, allowing no prejudice to influence his generalization.▲Exhaustiveness(穷尽性): to gather all the materials relevant to one‘s investigation and give them an adequate explanation.3. What are the scopes of linguistics?▲Phonetics: the study of human speech sound▲Phonology: the sound pattering▲Morphology: the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed▲Syntax: the arrangement of sentences▲Semantics: the study of meaning▲Pragmatics: the study of how speakers use sentences to effect successful communication▲Psycholinguistics: the relationship between language & the mind▲Historic linguistics: the study of language change▲Sociolinguistics: the relationship between language & society▲Applied linguistics: the application of linguistic theories & principles to language teaching( narrow sense)▲Anthropological linguistics▲Neurological linguistics▲Mathematical linguistics▲Computational linguistics4. What are some important distinctions in linguistics?(重要区别)①Synchronic linguistics (共时语言学):the study of a language system at one particular point in time （研究特定时间的语言体系）Diachronic (historical)linguistics (历时语言学):an approach to linguistics which studies how a language changes over a period time（研究语言在一段时期内怎样变化）In modern linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one.e.g. The sound system of Modern British English②Prescriptive vs. descriptive( 规定性与描写性)▲The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things actually are.▲Do/Don‘t say X. (prescriptive)▲People do/ don‘t say X. (descriptive)Look at the following pairs of sentences:▲It is I. It is me.▲Who did you speak to?▲Whom did you speak to?▲I haven‘t done anything.▲I have n‘t done nothing.▲③Speech & writing5. Why do modern linguistics regard the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language?▲1) linguistic evolution; ( historically)▲2) daily communication; (function)▲3)acquisition of the mother tongue; ( genetically)▲4) features of human speech (authentic)▲④Langue & parole(语言与言语)Who made the distinction between langue and parole? And when?▲F. de Saussure ( a Swiss linguist) in the early 20th century.▲― if we could embrace the sum of word-images stored in the minds of all individuals, we could identify the social bond that constitutes language (langue). It is a storehouse filled by the members of a given community through their active use of speaking (parole), a grammatical system that has a potential existence in each brain, or, more specifically, in the brains of a group of individuals. For language is not complete in any speaker; it exists perfectly only within a collectivity. In separating language( langue) from speaking (parole) we are at the same time separating (1) what is social from what is individual; and (2) what is essential from what is accessory and more or less accidental.( ------Saussure 1959:13-14 ) ▲―如果我们能了解所有个人头脑中的语言形象，我们就能知道形成语言的社会因素。
linguistics
Chapter 1 Introduction1.1 What is linguistics?1.1.1 DefinitionLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.1) It tries to answer the basic questions asWhat is language?How does language work?What rules there are that govern the structure of language?2) It probes into various problems related to language such asWhat do languages have in common?What range of variation is found among languages?What makes language change?To what extent are social class differences related in language?How does a child acquire his mother tongue? ...3) Linguistics studies not any particular language, but it studies language in general.4) Linguistics is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.1.1.2 The scope of linguisticsPhoneticsPhonologyIndependent branches MorphologySyntaxSemanticsPragmaticsSociolinguisticsInterdisciplinary branches PsycholinguisticsApplied linguistics1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics1) prescriptive: aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in usinglanguageeg. Don’t say X.descriptive: aims to describe and analyze the language people usually useeg. People don’t say X.* Modern linguistics is mostly descriptiveIt aims to set models for language users to follow;It is supposed to be scientific and objective and its task is to describe the languagepeople use, be it correct or not.2) synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history, and mostlinguistic studies are of this type.eg. A Grammar of Modern GreekThe Structure of Shakespeare’s Englishdiachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time.3) speech and writing: two major media of communication4) langue: the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunityparole: the realization of langue in actual use“If we could embrace the sum of word- images stored in the mind of all individuals, we could identify the social bond that constitutes language (langue). It is a storehouse filled by the members of a given community through their active use of speaking (parole), a grammatical system that has a potential existence in each brain, or more specifically, in the brains of a group of individuals. For language (langue) is not complete in any speaker; it exists perfectly only within a collectivity. In separating language (langue) from speaking (parole) we are at the same time separating (1) what is social from what is individual; and (2) what is essential from what is accessory and more or less accidental.”— Saussure, 1959: 13- 14Saussure made this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simply a mass of linguistic facts, too varied and confusing for systematic investigation, and what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e. to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subject of linguistics.5) competence: the idea user’s knowledge of the rules of his language performance: the actual realization of his knowledge in linguistic communication.This is the aspect that linguists should study.—Chomsky, 1965: 36) traditional grammar and modern linguisticsLinguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammar, on the other hand, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its performance.Modern linguistics does not force language into a Latin-based framework.* It is generally believed that the beginning of modern linguistics was marked by the publication of F. de Saussure’s book “Course in General Linguistics” in the early 20th century.1.2 What is language?1.2.1 Definitions of language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols usedfor human communication.1) Language is a system: elements of language are combined according to rules;2) Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a3) Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound;4) Language is human-specific.1.2.2 Design features of language1) arbitrariness----By nature, there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds----exceptions: onomatopoeic words, some compound words* It makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2) productivity/creativity----It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. ----It is unique to human language.3) duality: Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or twolevels. It enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.----a structure of sounds (the lower or the basic level)----a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words (the higher level)4) displacement----Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.----It provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or space.5) cultural transmission: The details of any language system are not geneticallytransmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.1.2.3 Functions of language1) main functionsThe descriptive function: it is the function to convey factual information, which canbe asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. “TheSichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has eversuffered.”The expressive function: it supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences,prejudices, and values. “I will never go camping with theSimpsons again.”The social function: serves to establish and maintain social relations between people.“How can I help you, Sir?”2) Roman Jakobson: identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one ofthem to one language function.Addresser—Emotive (表情功能): The addresser expresses his attitude to the topicor situation of communication. “I hate whatever they are planning forme!”Addressee—Conative (意动功能、意欲功能、呼吁功能): The addresser aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways to thinking. “Whynot go and see another doctor?”Context—Referential (所指功能、指称功能、指向功能): The addresser conveys a message or information. “As far as I know, the earth’s resources arebeing astonishingly wasted.”Message—Poetic (组诗功能、娱乐功能): The addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself. “poetry”Contact—Phatic communication (寒暄功能): The addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships with the addressee. “Hi! Howare you this morning?”Code—Metalinguistic (元语言功能): The addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself. “Let me tell you what the word anorexiameans.”3) Halliday (systemic-functional grammar)(1) Getting to know you> Write down 3 statements about yourself, one of which is false!> You will then take turns to share these 3 statements in your group, and let your group members guess which statement is false, and why they think it is false.> Once everyone in the group has shared, decide on who has the most interesting statements.> This person will then have the privilege of sharing with the whole class.(2) The ideational function (概念功能): is to organize the speaker or writer’sexperience of the real or imaginary world.It is broader than descriptive functionabove, because it also includes theexpression of the speaker’s attitude,evaluation, his feelings and emotions.eg. Peter is a teacher.Peter played tennis yesterday.Peter enjoys travelling.Peter advises his students to study hard.The interpersonal function (交际功能): is to indicate, establish, or maintain socialrelationships between people. Itexpresses the speaker’s role in the speechsituation, his personal commitment andassessment of the social relationshipbetween the addressee and himself.eg. * Who is speaking/writing to whom? Is the relationship between themequal/unequal? What in the text tells us this?* Is the writer-reader relationship intimate/distant? How can we tell?* Is the speaker/writer expressing any kind of involvement/emotion towardsthe hearer/reader or the subject matter? How can we tell from the text?The textual function (语篇功能): is to organize written or spoken texts in such amanner that they are coherent withinthemselves and fit the particular situation inwhich they are used.In short: the textual metafunction of language allows us to organise ideas and meanings in a text, to signal prominence and connections in a text, and to signal how a message is structured.eg. lexical repetition—contentconjunction—logical relationship1.3 Assignments1. What are the design features of language?2. List the main functions of language and think of your own examples for illustration.3. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?。
英语专业,考研,期末,语言学必备
1. Course information and requirements
1. Instructor: Aimei (Grace) Chen gracechen89@ 2. Teaching Method: discussion and presentation. 3. Grading: Attendance (5%) Performance (presentation and participation) (15%) Mid-term paper(20 %); Final exam (60 %).
Syntax
is about principles of forming and understanding correct sentences.The form or structure of a sentence is governed by the rules of syntax, which specify word order, sentence organization, and the relationships between words, word classes and other sentence elements.
2. What is linguistics
1) Definition “Linguistics may be defined as the scientific study of language” (Lyons 1968: 1). This definition is well accepted because it pinpoints the object and methods of linguistics as a discipline.
Pragmatics
英语语言学中的一些基本定义
定义1.语言学Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.语言Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness 任意性Productivity 多产性Duality 双重性Displacement 移位性Cultural transmission 文化传递⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
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• Ferdinand de Saussure(斐迪南· 索绪尔), 德· Swiss linguist, the founder of modern linguistics. • <<Course of General Linguistics>> • It declares that linguistics is descriptive and all languages should be studied on equal terms. • It claims the priority of the spoken language.
The Scope of Linguistics
• intralinguistic relationship among different linguistic elements. • interlinguistic relation with the outside world.
The Birth of Modern Linguistics
• Linguistics is also scientific in its methodology. The work of linguists consists of collecting observable data about language, setting up hypotheses, testing the validity of them against the collected data and then decide accordingly either to reject these hypotheses or accept them as established theories.
What is Linguistics
Definition
• Linguistics is the comprehensive and scientific study of language. • comprehensive: it embraces all aspects of human communication----from a description of the sounds of speech to the analysis of the way in which the full complexities of thought are expressed in spoken or written form.
• This prescriptive tradition was to be followed first by Latin scholars in ancient Rome and then by the scholars of other European languages. They took up the Latin framework as the only correct way to prescribe grammatical rules of "correctness".
• Two complementary approaches of linguistic study by Saussure: • synchronic VS diachronic • diachronic → synchronic • a) no diachronic study of a language is possible without a series of synchronic study being made of the different stages of the language in its development. • b)the historical develpoment is clearly not relevant to an understanding of how any of the later system works. eg: in the study modern English,the knowledge of old English is unnecessary.
Thank you
• The tradition in language study originated from ancient Greece and Rome. It claimed that the best way to describe a language was to begin with a description of its words, and that the only language worth the scholar's attention was literary Greek of the highly educated. • It started by classifying words, and, as a result, the emphasis of their study was put on the written form.
• scientific: it deals with a specific body of material, language, as its subject matter and aims at building up a systematic theory of language at all levels. • Linguistics differs from other sciences in that it both uses language as the tool and has language as its object to study.