语用学期末论文
语用学期末论文
2014-2015学年第一学期语用学与英语教学课程考核（研究报告）题目：An analysis of Pragmatic Failure with Cross-cultural Communications学号（准考证号）：1230100054姓名：焦凯丽专业：英语(教法方向)年级：2012级学院：外国语学院完成日期：2015年 1 月10日IntroductionThe Cross-cultural Pragmatics is a relatively young linguistic branch compared with the Traditional Linguistics and Structural Modern Linguistics. It attaches great importance to the research of cross-cultural characteristics. And the cross-cultural pragmatic failure is a common phenomenon in cross-cultural communication process. This paper focus on the analyzing of different kinds of pragmatic failures in our cross-cultural communication, at the same time, giving reflections and feedbacks on our English learning and Language teaching. Being in the rapid developed century of our human society, we should heighten the awareness of appropriating use of pragmatic language in our cross-cultural communication.Part I Theoretical basisBefore Noam Chomsky, Traditional Linguistics and Structural Modern Linguistics regarded language as a system of completely self-sufficient blocking structure, which put an emphasis on the vision field of language researches on the description of linguistic entity and put the language teaching on a cultural vacuum to conduct a rigid practice. But this failed to attach the expected research on the Social culture which affects the language how it affects the construction, comprehension and expression. As a result, linguistic theories couldn't resolve realistic problems of language. And often communicators who have learned some basic knowledge such as phonetic, lexicon and grammar still couldn't carry out proper and effective communication. The birth of sociolinguistics breaks through the research restriction of traditional linguistics and pragmatics and structural. It deepens people’s realization to linguistic social nature and construct a high qualified platform for the study of the Intercultural Communication. However, all kinds of failure still occur in the intercultural communication which influences the quality of international communication because communications cannot master enough foreign knowledge or acknowledge the culture feature of foreign nation. So the research of pragmatic failure in the cross-cultural communication has become a problem of important theoretic meaning and realistic value in the contemporary linguistic study.Cross-cultural Pragmatics is a relatively young linguistic branch, growing out of pragmatics and comparative linguistics, and introducing cultural factors into the research scope of pragmatics. It attracted great importance to the research of cross-cultural characteristics. Cross-cultural pragmatics is the study of the use of second language in cross-cultural speech communication when the pragmatic problem occurs. The conception pragmatic of pragmatic failure was formally proposed by the famous British scientist Jenny Thomas in her thesis "Cross一Cultural Pragmatic Failure" in 1983 which established a theoretical framework for the analysis of pragmatic failure and cultural transfer. She defines pragmatic failure as "inability to understand what is meant by what is said." Thus, Cross-cultural pragmatic failurecan refer to the misunderstanding and even conflict arising in the communication process because of the hearer's failure to catch discourse implication of the speaker accurately and because of his following improper output of utterances, which may be proper in his culture. The pioneer study of pragmatic failure in China goes to He Ziran and his fraternity. In 1984, they launched investigation into pragmatic differences between English and Chinese in reference to Thomas theory, and made known their results of investigation together with explanations about pragmatic failure. Cross-cultural pragmatic failure is a common phenomenon in cross-cultural communication process, in this process, the speaker disobeys the communication standard and social customs, ignores hearer's identity or status, harms the special cultural value of target language, causes the breaking off or failure of communication, makes communicating obstacles, then communication cannot achieve the expected results. Though there is no grammatical error, the wrong way of speaking or the improper performance makes the communication lose the expected effect.Part II Case studiesThere are many kinds of pragmatic failure in our cross-culture communication. First is about the phonetic pragmatic failure. A teacher who teach Chinese in England recalled that, ”My student, John is a typical English gentleman. When we walk down stairs, he always said that '请小心裸体（楼梯），下流，一起下流（下楼）吧。
英语语言学教学的运用关系论文(共3篇)
英语语言学教学的运用关系论文（共3篇）本文从网络收集而来，上传到平台为了帮到更多的人，如果您需要使用本文档，请点击下载按钮下载本文档（有偿下载），另外祝您生活愉快，工作顺利，万事如意！第1篇：浅析英语语言学语言能力与语言运用的关系传统的英语教学是将结构主义作为其行为的指导与准则，进而在语言的听说读写训练上更加注重学生的听、读和写上的内容的熟练掌握，进而对于学生的说的方面的重视不够，进而对于语法知识的僵化性的强调，对于学生语言学习的交际能力以及知识的变通能力没有给予足够的重视，进而忽略了美国文化背景以及语言的交流方面。
这就使得学生虽然能够更好的掌握英语语法和听力读写的能力，但是在实际的英语交流中却像是哑巴一样，想要表达却是不知道如何表达。
教师作为学生语言学习的重要桥梁首先就需要明确语言能和语言运用之间的关系，进而改变传统僵化的教学模式，进而不断提高课堂效率。
一、英语语言学语言能力和语言运用分析由于生活环境和知识发展水平以及认知程度的不断变化使得语言学家对于语言能力以及语言运用上的定义就有一定的出入。
在二十世界发展的早期，著名的语言学家索绪尔曾经对于“语言”和“言语”之间的概念进行了辨析，进而提出了语言与语言的管理存在很大的关系，也就是说语言能力是对于词汇、发音以及语法等硬性知识的掌握而进行的概括，并且语言可以被看作是言语在实际的社会活动之中的一种交流媒介，这是不经受人的意志上的支配，而是社会人员的一种基础的社会心理现象；但是言语则是对于语言的实际性运用，是每一个人的自由性的活动，其行为是受到自身的意志的支配，进而支配其在社会生活中能够运用语言的知识和语言的规则。
相反，通过对于言语的记录就能够实现对于语言的基本机构和形态的分析来举一反三的总结出该语言的实际使用规则。
语言并不是只是依靠后天的学习就能够获得的，还需要人类在先天就与之而来语言的学习能力的刺激才能够达到，这种能力由于后天的生活环境的影响就会使其内在的知识结构发生很大的改变，进而出现了所谓的语言能力和语言运用的区别。
英语语用学论文
The Cooperative Principle of Pragmatics:An Analysis of the Verbal Humour in the Sitcom Home with KidsSince the language was born, the research of it has never interrupted. Humor is the spice of our lives, leave it the life will be boring. Pragmatics is a main branch of Linguistics, with the development of pragmatic theory, linguists and hobbyists from many angles analysis on verbal humor and achieved fruitful results.While cooperative principle, as one of the most important pragmatic principle, makes a systemic study about language use and lays a solid foundation for later development of pragmatics. The violation of cooperative principle can often generate conversational implicature or achieve certain communicative effects. On the basis of previous humour and pragmatic theory research, I will analysis from the point of the cooperative principle of those verbal humour dialogue in the sitcom "Home with Kids", which reflects the daily life of a rebuilt family and attracts many Chinese audiences by its creating writing, good acting as well as its wonderful transcripts.1. Four Maxims of the Cooperative PrincipleIn 1975, the language philosopher H. P. Grice published a seminal article entitled “The Cooperative Principle” which created quite a stir in the linguis tic world and generated a large number of linguistic publications that are built on Grice's postulates.According to Grice, in conversational exchange, people usually try to reach a common goal by mutual efforts or at least make the conversation develop in the direction of their expectation. To achieve this, people need to cooperate with each other. Grice' theory of the cooperative principle explains how it is possible for the speaker to convey more than what is literally said and foe the hearer to understand.The four maxims of CP are Quantity Maxim, Quality Maxim, Manner Maxim and Relation Maxim. The maxim of quantity has two sub-maxims that require the cooperativespeaker to say as much as but no more than is required for his particular purposes in the talk exchange. The maxim of quality also has two sub-maxims, which demands that the speaker say only what he believes to be true and for which he has sufficient evidence. The maxim of relation urges the speaker to make his contribution relevant to the communication context. The maxim of manner requires the speaker to be methodical and to avoid ambiguity, prolixity, and obscurity. In short, as Grice put it for the cooperative principle, "make yourconversational contribution such as is required,at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged". The cooperative principle is the foundation of pragmatic interpretation of humor, of which the flouting of maxims plays a very important role.2. Floutings of CP Maxims and Humor ProductionIn actual conversation, a participant may deliberately flout CP maxims for some reason or special need. As an important category of non-observance of the conversational maxims, a flout is distinguished by deliberately triggering the hearer's search for an implicature. The speaker employs this way seemingly against the cooperative principle to reinforce the communicative effect. In this way the speaker can make his conversation humorous and thus produce the effect of humor. In fact, flouting of the CP is often seen in Chinese sitcoms. Of course, sitcom writers also deliberately flout the principle in order to achieve humorous effects.2.1 Flouting the Quantity MaximWhen a speaker offers more or less information than is required by the situation with the intention of generating an implicature, he flouts the maxim of quantity. Look at the following example:(1 (In Episode 093, Liu Xing goes to Internet café and Liu Mei keeps asking what he did there.Xing: You'd better not interfere with my business from now on!(以后我的事情你少管 .Mei: What did you say? I don't interfere with your business? Why didn't you say it when I breast-fed you? Why didn't you say it when you were sick? Why didn't you say it when you fell to the ground?Why didn't you say it when you couldn't walk? You don't want me to interfere with you now, because you are grown up and can do whatever you want? (你说什么呢 ? 再说一遍 ! 我少管 ? 你小时候喝奶的时候怎么不说 ? 小时候生病的时候怎么不说呀 ? 摔跟头时候怎么不说呀 ? 学会走路时候怎么不说 ? 这时候让我少管。
我的语言学概论期末论文
我的语言学概论期末论文终于写完了，那个辛苦啊！一次又一次的修改，我体会到努力的快乐，做好一件事是不容易的，昨天刚交了，今天就发在博客上，作为一段记录一个回忆，七月继续加油。
浅谈礼貌原则与英语学习摘要:“礼貌原则”是语用学中的一个指导成功交际的重要原则,它显示了一个人的受教育程度，教养和素质。
不同的语言环境中，同样的语言有可能有礼貌和不礼貌之分别。
英语学习者掌握英语语言的礼貌原则是有必要的，这对是否能进行成功的交际起着重要的作用。
关键词:礼貌原则〈politeness principle〉英语学习〈English study〉日常交际<daily communication> 语用学〈Pragmatics〉前言：英语学习的根本目的是培养语言的交际能力。
而语言表达是否得体是衡量一个人语言交际能力高低的一项主要指标。
礼貌作为人们交际活动的基本准则之一，被认为是人类文明进步的标志。
礼貌原则的正确使用，能在交际中取得最佳效果。
本文将从礼貌原则的概念，从语用学角度的把握和在英语学习日常交流中的实际应用几方面对英语中的礼貌原则作简略的分析。
一．礼貌原则的概念和从语用学角度的把握礼貌原则是语用学所研究的内容之一。
礼貌体现出人们对他人“面子”的意识，在语用学中，“面子”被称其为自身的公众形象（public self-image）。
（Leech.1994）也就是说，作为说话人，你说的话要达到如下几个效果：既要明确清晰的表达你想表达的意思，又要让对方，即听话人听了觉得舒服痛快，还要让在场的其他人觉得你是一个有礼貌有教养有素质的人。
尤其是在一些气氛紧张严肃容易引起争执或翻脸的场合，说出去的话既能保全他人的颜面，不至于双方都下不来台，又能提升你自己的公众形象，这是一种艺术，需要在不断地与人交流中去体会和积累。
对英语中礼貌原则的分析，语言学家Leech认为：委婉的话语是建立在礼貌这一文化因素上。
（Leech.1994）在语用学的框架内，英语的礼貌原则一般可以分为如下六类：1．1得体原则(tact maxim).即少让别人吃亏，多让别人得益。
语用学论文
Comparative Analysis on deictic expressionsin Chinese and EnglishIntroductionThis paper has discussed the deixis in English and Chinese. The deixis in English is divided in to five categories: person deixis, time deixis, p lace deixis, discourse deixis and social deixis. We just analysis person deixis and time deixis .It has also illustrated through the typical examples the concrete usage of the deixis in the deictic context. Deixis is one of the most important tasks in the pragmatic research. It is because the linguistic phenomenon "deixis" exists in linguistic language that it has good reason s to show the close relations between language and the environment in which language is used.Deixis is a technical term(from Greek verb ‘deknum’, meaning “show, point , indicate .”) which means “pointing” via language. Any linguistic form used to accomplish this ‘pointing ’ is called a deictic expression. It is used to indicate the function or property that certain words, such as personal and demonstrative pronouns, place and time adverbs and others have in language.Levinson contends that deixis generally works in an egocentric way. That is, unless otherwise stated:The central person is the speaker, the central time is the time at which the speaker produces the utterance, the central place is the speaker’s location at utterance time or CT, the discourse centre is the point which the speaker is currently at in the speaker’s social status and rank, to which the status or rank of addressees or referents is relative. (Levinson, 1983:64)Comparative analysis on deictic expressions in Chinese and English.Person deixisPerson deixis indicates the role of participants in communication. It is expressed through the use of personal pronouns or ‘pronominals’as linguists call such as I and you , the speaker (I) and the addressee (you ).Pronominals or personal pronouns may fall into three groups, namely,the first person, the second person and the third person.As for the first person, person deixis encodes a distinction between the singular and plural. For example, in Chinese northern dialect, “wo men” is usually singular in meaning with reference to speaker(s) only while “zan men” is often plural in meaning with reference to both speakers and addressees. However, in modern English, there is only one word for “we”.If we are carefully enough, we shall notice that in some languages, the category of plural notion is not applied to the first person in the same way as it is to the person. Some languages even make a distinction between‘we–inclusive –of-addressee and ‘we-exclusive-of-addressee.’Such distinction may not be common in English, but dose exist in the contraction of ‘‘let’s’ and some other circumstances when reference to context is necessary. For example:1) Let us try again.2) Let’s go to the cinema.“Let us” in 1) is “we-exclusive-of-addressee” and is singular in meaning. While “let’s” in 2) is “we–inclusive –of-addressee”. It refers to both the speaker and addressee and is plural in meaning.As for the second person, Chinese has two different sets of pronouns , an informal one for use when talking to friends and a more formal one or honorific one used for showing respect to the addressees who are older or more important than the speaker, to show the distinction between the singular and plural. For example, there is a distinction between “ni” ,“ni men” and “nin”. The last is used when we are talking to people who are older or more important than us.In English, however, there is no such a distinction; “you” is used for both the singular and plural and is the only form that people use to refer to an addressee or addressees. In both spoken and written English , the second person pronoun “you” can be used to refer to anyone as in the following examples:You will never be successful until you do your best.As a matter of fact, only the first person and the second person are actually participating in the drama.The third person is defined negatively as neither the first nor the second, and dose not correlate with any positive participant role. Normally the third person pronoun is indicating neither the speaker/speakers nor addressee/addressees.The speaker and the addressee are necessarily present in the speech situation, whereas other persons and things to which reference is mademay be absent from the situation, they may be left unidentified. Time deixisTime deixis is a group of words that indicate time. Different language has different lexical means of expressing the concept of time. Time deictic expressions include time adverbs such as “this”, “last”, “next”, “week”, “month”, “year”, “now”, “then”, ”ago”, “later”“yesterday”，“today”, “tomorrow” and tense system.Pragmatic study of time deixis concerns the specification and understanding of temporal points relative to the time at which communication takes place. Like person deixis, time deixis also takes into account a point of origin or the base point.Due to the search for the point of view regarding time (or time origin) in understanding time deictic information, pragmatists have made a distinction between coding time (CT: the time when a message is formed) and receiving time (RT: the time when a message is received).Though making a list of time deixis in one language is relatively simple, the use of time deixis, however, is not always so straightforward.The topic of time deixis has been complicated by the interaction between its calendric and non-calendric.“Now” The time deixis “now” indicates two different time spans . One is the time at which the speaker is producing the utterances while the other is “the time which spans from CT (including CT) to a certain period after the CT. For example:I am working on a new project now.I’ll see you today“Then” contrasts with “now’ and indeed can be understood as “not now” so mean both past and future time. For example:I will have finished my university life thenAnother very important time deictic is the tense system. In fact, almost every sentence makes a reference to an event time. Often this event time can only be determined in relation to the time of the utterance. For example:1) China will hold the Olympics games in Beijing.2) China held the Olympics games in Beijing.3) China held the Olympics games in Beijing in 2008.Languages in the world differ in pre-emptive deictic terms for the days. For example, English has only a three-number set of pre-emptiveterms (“yesterday”, “today”, “tomorrow”); Mandarin Chinese has five (“qian tian”, “zuo tian”, “jin tian”, “ming tian”, “hou tian”) and so on.SummaryDeixis presents and shows the property of all pragmatic language use -----that of relying on the speaker ----hearer setting up a common context to which a very wide range of language uses can be interpreted.In this paper, we have briefly compared the differences of person deixis and time deixis in Chinese and English. At the same time, we also have briefly examined of pragmatic functions of some deictic items such as I, here, now, etc. We figure out the importance of the common and the difference in different language. We assume the addressee’s knowledge of the speaker’s identity (in the case of place deixis) in order to identity and understand the deictic information conveyed by these lexical items in communication.In the whole process, we have gradually come to realize that the literal meanings and the referents of deictic items are different in different countries and languages and may vary under different contexts. So it’s very important for us to analysis the deixis in varied perspectives providing different countries’ culture backgrounds.。
跨文化期末论文--语用
淮阴工学院课程论文（2010-2011学年第二学期）论文题目: 美国语言文化与汉语言文化之间的对比分析课程名称：跨文化交际任课老师：杨琴姓名: 曹丽亚班级: 食品1092班学号:美国语言文化与汉语言文化之间的对比分析摘要英汉两种语言在语用方面存在的差异是生活中常碰到的问题。
语用即语言使用，它充分考虑语境和意义，研究的是交际过程中语言意义的表达和理解，主要是一种言语行为的研究。
利用对比分析的方法,对英汉语用在指示、言语行为、会话结构等不同方面进行比较,同时阐述语用学理论的发展，最终推动跨文化交际的发展。
关键词英汉，语言使用，对比分析，言语行为1引言通过对比不同语言的不同方面可以揭示语言之间的相似相异性。
对英汉语言对比进行概述，并找出两种语言间的语用差异将对跨文化交际学习产生深厚影响。
如今，语用学已经被公认是语言学研究的一个不可缺少的分支了，但当初语言使用的研究一直排斥在语言研究的范围之外，而且被看成是一种非科学的研究。
语用研究的崛起过程可以粗略地归纳为形态——句法——语义——语用这样几个发展阶段。
如今英汉语用对比研究有了新的发展，在不断前进，但没有形成一个理想的理论框架。
2指示2.1 指示的语用含义指示是语用学中的一个重要问题，正由于语言中存在指示这一语言现象，才充分说明了语言和使用语言的语境之间有密切关系。
“指示”这一术语指的是在语言活动中，对参与者所谈及的人物、地点和事件等要作出确切的理解都必须把它和语境联系起来。
在英语中，主要有人称代词、指示代词、定冠词以及一些表示地点和时间的副词，如here ,there ,now ,then等一旦离开语境，它们的意义就无法确定。
2.2 英汉语用在指示类型中的相同点时间指示、方位指示是普遍存在于任何一种语言里的词项。
在交际中，指示词所提供的信息对确切理解话语无疑是十分重要的，看下面的这个例子：I will be here again in half an hour. 若脱离了语境孤立地看这句话，可以说它没有传递任何信息，因为我们无法知道谁将在什么时间再一次到什么地方来。
Pragmatic Politeness语用学论文
Pragmatic Politeness in Chinese and American CulturesChangcheng常程Class 4, Grade 2009No. 200905140401The School of Foreign LanguagesChina West Normal UniversityA Paper for PragmaticsJune 2012Pragmatic Politeness in Chinese and American Cultures Abstract:This paper studies pragmatic politeness in both Chinese and American cultures. It gives a general idea of some pragmatic knowledge of politeness and comparisons of Chinese and American ways of expressing politeness in different situations. In brief, the findings in this paper support the view that politeness varies quite different in different cultures. By understanding this, we can communicate better with foreigners and get a better understanding of our own culture.In this paper I would focus the study of politeness in Chinese and American cultures.Firstly，I will explain some famous pragmatic theories on politeness of China and foreign countries, like Confucius, Gu Yueguo, Levinson and Goffman. Secondly, I‟ll do some comparisons on different aspects of pragmatic politeness between China and the U.S. There‟re greetings,giving and receiving compliments, during a meal, usage of euphemisms, and misunderstanding responses. In the end, I‟ll draw a conclusion and list the referent resources I‟ve used.Key words: linguistic,pragmatic,politeness,Chinese,American,cross-cultural communicationPoliteness can be understood as a social phenomenon. It is a tool to develop good interpersonal relationships. People live in society, they communicate in certain manner of politeness. But people in different culture have different understanding of being polite thus confusion and misunderstanding occurs on cross-cultural communications. Therefore, we have to study the differences in different cultures so that we can avoid misunderstanding and behave ourselves in appropriate ways in any condition.Pragmatic theories on politeness:In Chinese culture:Confucius (B.C. 551-479), who lived at a time when the slavery system had disintegrated and there were constant wars between feudal states; the former aristocratic social hierarchy was shattered and chaos reigned over the land. To reform the society, Confucius advocated the restoration of “li”(礼) or politeness. which referred to the social politeness and the order of the slave society of the Zhou Dynasty (周礼).To Confucius, it was the model of an ideal society. Restoring li, it was necessary to put each individual in his place according to his social position. Confucius set much store by zhengming (正名)because he thought, if names are not called, speech cannot be used appropriately, thus li cannot be restored, and principle cannot be maintained.Modern Chinese Politeness can be realized in a number of ways, among which the use of language is an important one. With the development of Confucius theory and pragmatic theories, more and more attention has been paid to the ways in which language is used to show politeness and also the difference between different languages and cultures.Prof. Gu Yueguo, a scholar of Beijing Foreign Studies University, has traced the origin of the concept of politeness in the Chinese culture, and has also formulated a different set of politeness maxims, which he thinks are more suitable to Chinese. Theories in foreign countries:“Face theory” was put forward by Brown and Levinson, which is based on the face concept raised by Goffman. According to Goffman, “face” is a thing of communicators who all have to pay attention to. It is just like “mianzi”(面子) in Chinese culture.I f one wants his face cared for, he should care for other people‟s face. They also hold the view that the problem for any one is the internal aggression while retaining the potential for aggression in internal social control, and especially in external competitive relations with others. Politeness presupposes that potential for aggressionas it seeks to disarm it, and makes possible communication between potentially aggressive parties.Another influential theory concerning politeness is Leech‟s Politeness Principle. Leech places PP as a member of a set of principles which he called Interpersonal Rhetoric; other important principles within Interpersonal Rhetoric include theCo-operative Principle and the Irony Principle.These principles do not provide the main motivation for talking, but serve as regulative factors to ensure that once conversation is under way, it will not follow a fruitless or disruptive path. Instead of basing his theory on the concept of face, Leech patterns on Grice‟s CP and divides the PP into a number of maxims.Comparison:Greeting:Greeting is an important part of speech communication. Along with the constant increasing knowledge of people, greeting is characterized by fashion and costume.In 1990, an American complained, “I‟m tired of nosy Chinese! Every time I come in or go out, they ask, …Going to work?‟ …Coming home?‟ …Going shopping?‟ …Eaten yet?‟”I looked around furtively then whispered, “Do you know why they ask me so many questions?”He looked surprised and whispered back, “No. Why?”“Because they report to the Communists on us.”“Really?” His eyes widened as paranoia took a toehold.“Not really,” I said, laughing. “That‟s just how Chinese greet one another!”(From Dr. Bill Brown)In this story, we can know that Americans usually greet people with a simple “H i” or “Good Morning” or “Nice weather today!” But Chinese, we say with “Ni Hao”(How are you?) and we ask what you are doing. And unlike Americans, who don‟t want an honest answer to “How are you?” Chinese do expect an answer.To show care and concern for others is considered as a polite act. The Chinese think that they are being polite by showing concern for the other person, and asking all these questions will help build intimacy between themselves. But American s would feel that person is invading their privacy.Giving and Receiving Compliments:When we listen to people speak a foreign language that we understand, we notice that the native speakers of that language use words and phrases in a manner different from what we are used to. In American English, for example, people say “Thank you” frequently. A word for “thank you” exists in almost every language, but how and when it is used is not always the same. In Chinese language, we do not thank people for trivial as well as important or unusual favors. For Americans, this expression is used as a polite response to different kinds of favors and compliments, and is often automatic.When being complimented, an English-speaking person would readily accept the compliment by saying something like “Thank you” to show his appreciation of the praise, but a Chinese speaker would try to deny the truth of the compliment. They both are being modest and they both think they are behaving properly. The English speaker is being polite to the extent that by accepting and showing appreciation of the compliment, he avoids hurting the positive face of the person who makes it; the Chinese speaker is showing modesty by denigration himself, ignoring the factuality of the compliment paid to him. As has been mentioned, self-denigration has been at the core of the Chinese concept of politeness for over two thousand years, the Chinese, in order to show modesty, will go to such lengths as to underrate what he himself has achieved and deny the truth of a complimentary remark.Sometimes, American repeat the sentence hundreds of times a day.“Have a good flight?” “Not at all bad, thank you.”“You are a beautiful woman.” “Thank you”“And your name, sir?” “Hare.”“Thank you. We‟ll see you tomorrow at 8then.”We can easily notice how often Americans use the expression “thank you”. A customer, after paying $100 for a meal in a restaurant, says, “thank you” to the person who hands him he bill. In response to “ I like the color of your car.”, an American might answer “thank you” In both of these cases, no great favor or compliment was extended, yet “thank you” was the most frequent response. While Americans say “thank you” readily whene ver possible, either for a trivial compliment or for a big favor they received, their Chinese counterpart tend to keep the heavy word of thanks in their hearts and leave it unsaid. They would try to look for a chance to do something for the helper in return. They think the heartfelt gratitude is not worth mentioning. On the other hand, if you repeat your gratitude orally, the people would think that you treat him as an outsider. They think it as their obligation to give you a hand whenever you have trouble and turn to him for help. He regards it as his honor and pleasure to be helpful. It‟s universal both in America and in China on this point. During a meal:In American family, people usually say fewer words when they‟re eating than Chinese do. They may pray before the meal and say “help yourself” if there‟s a guest. During the meal they may discuss something interesting and less serious.A:“How was your school day?”B:“Not bad, just a little bit boring.”A:“How‟s your work?”C:“Good. My boss forgot to take toilet paper so he couldn‟t come out until I came. God, he was so embarrassed and he said thanks. That was the first time he‟d said …thanks‟ to someone, can you believe it?”After the conversation, people continue to eat in pleasant mood. They like easy and quiet atmosphere while eating.In China, people prefer annoying and fun atmosphere during dinner, especially with friends. If the table is too quiet and gentle, they may feel uncomfortable. They tell jokes, gossip others, argue the latest news, etc.Euphemisms in Different Cultures:Euphemism is the substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant. For instance, we refer to "die" as” pass away”.It‟s rude of one to violate a taboo either in language or in culture both Chinese and American cultures.Take the word “old” as an example.In America, people like to be energetic and young. Almost everyone wishes to stay young forever. And being old lay the concept of sick, incompetent and lazy to Americans. So there is no American who prefers to be considered as old, which means useless and a burden to his or her family as well as to the society.In China, we love and respect the old much more than the Americans do. We often leave the seats to the old people in a bus, and it is considered as polite and a good virtue and the elderly people will accept, take it for granted and say “thank you”. But in the U.S., a person will get angry if he was offered a seat on a bus because of he is regarded as old. He thinks he is far from being incapable of taking care of himself, and thus other people‟s offer of seat is an insult to him.Chinese culture respects the old and treats “being old” as a symbol of wisdom, forgiveness, experienced, and kindness. Therefore, old people are respected in the family and in the society. Then the word lao (old) in Chinese are used to modify these people. It is not a taboo, but a respectful addressing word to show esteem to the addressee, such as laoshi (teacher), laoban (boss), laozong (general manager). The addressee is not necessarily old in age and Chinese people merely attempt to show their respect and politeness in this way. Some people refer to their friends in the way of adding “lao” in front of their last names, like “lao Zhang”, “lao Wang”. They express intimacy to the addressee. Sometimes Chinese call foreigners “laowai” just to show our friendliness, not because of their age or appearance. . Misunderstanding responses:Let‟s see the dialogue that follows.A: You‟ve got a nice coat.B: Thank you. My sister bought it for me in Beijing. Do you like it?A: Oh, yes. It looks fine and I appreciate the pretty color.B: Well, if you really like it, I‟ll ask my sister to buy one for you too.The A in the dialogue compliments B‟s coat just to show his or her friendliness and begin a conversation, but B misinterprets A‟s intention as desiring to buy a same coat. As a result, A is embarrassed and the conversation can hardly continue. Chinese rarely use such sente nce pattern as “I like your….” for fear of being misunderstood as admiring the things other possesses. Moreover, it is very common for a man to commend a pretty woman in American culture, but he may offend a Chinese girl by saying, “You are a se xy girl.” She would feel kind of insulted by such a compliment that is barely accepted for her owing to Chinese culture.The function of an apology is to make up for rude words or acts, and it serves as a remedy to recover the harmonious relationship. How to make and accept an apology is a very important part in the pragmatic politeness. When someone says sorry, we should not say “It doesn‟t matter.” in English in response as we do in Chinese. We should say, “That‟s all right”, “That‟s OK.”, or “No problem.” When our work gets compliment from others, we tend to say, “It‟s nothing.” and “You flatter ed me.” or “Never mind.” to show our modesty. But in English, “Never mind.” is used to comfort the interlocutor as a means of showing politeness.Therefore, we should know more about the differences between Chinese and American culture, so that we can try to avoid misunderstandings, which are usually caused by pragmatic mistakes in mutual communication.ConclusionTo conclude, I‟d like to say that pragmatic politeness exists with different manners in different cultures. We need to distinguish the contrary aspects of Chinese and American cultures in order to deal with the awkward situations that related to pragmatic politeness. Only in this way can we avoid misunderstandings in thecross-cultural communication and become a master of words.References:George Yule：Pragmatics 上海外语教育出版社，2000；Gu, Yuehuo：Politeness Phenomenon in Modern Chinese 1990；Leech, G. Principles of Pragmatics 1983；维基百科语料收集：(1) The performative hypothesis:1) Clean up this mess!2)Thereby order you that you clean up this mess.(2) Performative and constative:1)I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth.2)I promise to finish it in time.(3) Strategies: Come on go to the party. Everyone will be there. We will have fun.(4) Spatial deixis: I am not here now.Temporal deixis: 1) I live here now. 2)I lived there then.(5) Names and referents 1) Can I borrow your Shakespeare？2) Yeah, it‟s over there on the table.(6)The role of co-text1)The cheese sandwich is made with white bread.2)The cheese sandwich left without paying.(7) The role of co-text:Man: Does your dog bite?Woman: No.(The man reaches down to pet the dog. The dog bites the man‟s hand.) Man: Ouch! Hey! You said your dog doesn‟t bite.Woman: He doesn‟t. But that‟s not my dog.(8) A positive politeness strategy:1) A. How about letting me use your pen?B. Hey, buddy, I‟d appreciate it if you‟d let me use your pen.2)Hi. How‟s it going? Okay if I sit here? We must be interested in the same crazy st aff. You take a lot of notes too, huh? Say,do me a big favor and let me use one of yo ur pen.(9)Regularity :Ifoundan old bicycle lying on the ground. The chain was rusted and the tires were flat.(10) Presupposition:1)A. Mary‟s dog is cure.B. Mary has a dog.B is the presupposition of A2) He stopped smoking.B. He smoked once.B is the presupposition of A。
逻辑语用学 课程论文
硕士研究生课程论文论文标题逻辑语用学探析学院人文学院专业逻辑学班级 2009 级学号 2009020018学生姓名桂卫教师王向东2010-1-13逻辑语用学探析摘要：本文在语用学的基础之上，简要介绍逻辑语用学的定义及研究逻辑语用学的哲学意义。
逻辑语用学不仅扩大了言语行为理论的研究领域，扩充了人们对语言表达意义的理解，而且还揭示出语言中所蕴含的理性——交往理性，进而拓展了生活世界理论研究的内容。
关键词：语用学、逻辑语用学、言语行为一：语用学简介语用学研究在不同语境中话语意义的前当地表达和准确地理解，寻找并确定使话语意义得以恰当地表达和准确地理解地基本原则和准则。
语用学于20世纪70年代于西方诞生，其是从研究符号与符号解释者的关系发展到不仅研究如何使用语言，还特别注重研究如何理解语言，研究如何从字面意义去理解其中的蕴含意义，成为一门新兴的认知学科。
语用学从说话人和听话人的角度，把人们使用语言的行为看作各种规约制约的社会行为，研究特定情景中的特定话语，从而发现语用规律。
它不是从语言系统内部(语音、语法、语义)去研究语言本身表达的意义，而是根据语境研究话语的真正含义，解释言下之意、弦外之音。
其研究的主要内容包括：语境、指示词语、会话含义、预设、言语行为、会话结构六个方面。
语用学研究语言的应用和理解，重在理解，重在语言的使用时，很注意语言的策略和场合要求向对方做出顺应，而在研究理解时十分注意交际的认知关系。
但在整个交际活动过程中，语用学既研究编码，也研究解码过程，更侧重于研究在不同的语言环境中如何理解和运用语言。
语用学的研究方法可分为三种不同的类型：①纯语用学：也叫形式语用学，是语言哲学领域的重要研究内容之一，他研究语用学的形式和范畴，是研究语用学形式化的最适宜方法。
②描写语用学：致力于描写人的来自经验的有关自然语言的运用原则，分析自然语言怎样跟语境相联系，关注人们为达到特定的交际意图在一定的语境中恰当地使用语言和准确地理解话语的语用能力。
语用预设研究论文语用学论文的角度
语用预设研究论文语用学论文的角度一、语用预设三、语用预设在话语交际中的作用1.改变、否定语义预设。
语用预设不仅比语义预设更灵活，而且能进一步改变甚至否定语义预设。
如：（1）Policeman：WheredidyouputthemotorbikeSupect：Ididnottealanymotorbikeatall.警察的问话里有一个语义预设“Yougotthemotorbike.”（你手头有这辆车），在审讯语境下，这无疑意味着嫌疑人“偷”了这辆车，这是警察故意设置的语用预设，目的是诱使嫌疑人承认并说出其所在，只是对方察觉到了这一用心，直截了当地推翻了这一语用预设——“我根本就没偷过车”。
既然没偷，当然不知其所在了。
因此，语用预设在特定的场合中可改变语义预设所含的意思。
语用预设涉及说话人的态度和意图（何自然，1998），说话人完全可以按照自己的意图巧妙地预设不利于对方的事态，再加上预设的隐蔽性，听话人不易识别说话人的别有用心，一不小心就会陷入其设好的圈套。
听话人要识破对方的意图，则要透过其语义层面的普通预设来把握其真正的语用预设。
语境中的语言因素和语境中的非语言因素都可导致语义预设的改变或否定。
预设对语境因素的这种敏感性表明了其语用性质（何兆熊，2000：297），因此很难把它作为一种纯粹的语义关系来研究，必然要从语用的角度来分析。
2.消除语句歧义。
许多语句从单纯的语义学角度看往往不止一种解释，存在语义歧义，但在一定的语境中，交际双方拥有共同的相关背景知识，往往不需要额外的解释就能使意思唯一确定，说话人对共享的语境知识的预设简化了交际言语，而交际对方完全能理解说话人的“不言而喻”。
如：（2）Thetallmanandthewomanleft.从语义角度看，这是一个歧义句，tall只修饰man呢还是修饰两者man和woman？事实上双方都明白当时在场的只有man是高个子，因此不可能产生理解上的歧义，也就不需要刻意的解释和说明了。
语用学论文关于会话含意理论分析
The Theory of Conversational Implicature in Wong's Talk ShowAbstract: talk show is used to describe that one is eloquent, and his utterance is so uncommon that he could win applause from the crowd. In the West, talk show is a kind of program, and it also could be a hosting style. The corpus of this article is a 15-minute talk show performances of the Chinese Americans Jeo Wong at the annual meeting in the United States in March 2010, and the American President and the media representatives throughout the country attend this meeting. This article aims to use the cooperative principle and the maxims to analyze the characteristics of his talk show discourse, and to make people have a better understanding of his talk show performances.Key words: talk show; conversational implicature；cooperative principle；maxim摘要：“脱口秀”是形容人的口才很好，说出的话非常有吸引力，而且谈吐不俗，博得众人的喝彩。
英语语用学学科论文
连云港师范高等专科学校英语语用学学科论文班级：12英教专科一班姓名：余王丹学号：1221013125摘要：本文主要从语用学的角度对语言交际中的礼貌现象进行了研讨，以旨更全面地展示语用礼貌观。
本文共分四部分：一、礼原则的由来；二、礼貌原则的解析；三、礼貌策略；四、礼貌原则的应用。
加深对礼貌原则的理解可以有助于提升自身的语用能力。
关键词：语用学礼貌原则教学应用一、礼貌原则的由来(一)礼貌的界定在众多关于礼貌的各种文献中，围绕“礼貌”一词进行的研究主要有五个方面，具体如下：(1)礼貌是人们在交际中的一种现实目的(Politeness as areal-world goa1)。
人们在说话过程中运用礼貌原则的目的就是取悦他人。
(2)礼貌是一种敬重(Politeness as the deference)。
(3)礼貌是一种语体(Politeness as the register)。
语体是指“与社交语境有关的系统化变体”(Lyons，1977)。
或者指在一定场合下人们说话或写作时的语言变化(Holliday，1978)。
(4)礼貌是一种话语表层现象(Politeness as an utterancelevel phenomenon)。
该观点认为，礼貌是一种表层语法编码，该观点主要是离开语言运用的实际环境去研究礼貌问题。
(5)礼貌是一种语用现象(Politeness as a pragmatic phi—nominee)。
该观点在语用学界已经成为人们的一种共识。
总之．在语用学领域，人们关心的不是说话人是否真正对他人友善，而是他说了什么，以及他的话语对听话人产生了什么影响。
把礼貌看成敬重、语体，是一种社会语言学现象，不属于语用学的范围，而把礼貌看成一种话语表层现象，就是脱离了语境去谈礼貌，这是一种超理想化的理论，因为语言形式是和语境、说话人和听话人之间的关系紧密联系的。
（二）礼貌原则提出的必要性在英语语用学习领域中，提及言语行为理论(Speech Act Theory)．人们会很自然地联想到美国语言哲学家格赖斯(H．P．Grieve)的会话含义学说(Convocational Implicate)，即为了保证会话的顺利进行，谈话双方必须共同遵守一些基本原则，尤其是用来解释会话结构的“合作原则”(Cooperative Principle)。
语用学论文
浅议会话原则小教文2010 雷运友201013404129摘要：会话原则是指人们在会话中，交谈双方共同遵守的保证会话得以顺利进行的一些基本准则。
会话原则包括合作原则以及礼貌原则。
格赖斯的合作原则至今仍是十分有影响力的语用学理论，而礼貌原则理论是继合作原则理论之后提出来的，布朗与列文森沿用了格赖斯的合作原则理论框架，主张将言语礼貌作为合作原则的补充，也是格赖斯“会话含义”学说的发展。
本文就合作原则与礼貌原则谈谈自己对语用学中会话原则的认识。
关键词：会话原则合作原则会话含义礼貌原则一、引言在人们的日常生活中，语言是人们沟通的桥梁，当人们之间互相交流时便产生了会话，为了使会话得以顺利的进行，人们不得不遵守着某些准则，或有时故意、不得不违反这些准则来达到人们交流的目的。
由此，便产生了语用学中所要研究的会话原则。
二、格赖斯(H.P.Grice)的会话合作原则美国语言哲学家格赖斯(H.P.Grice )认为,语言交流受一定条件的制约,交流的主体为了保证会话目的的实现,必须遵守一些基本原则,特别是“合作原则”( cooperative principle)。
即人们的言语交际总是互相合作的,会话主体都怀着互相理解、共同配合的愿望,因此,他们都遵守着某些合作的原则,以求实现有效交流的共同愿望。
亦或是故意违反这些合作原则来促使交际默契及交际的生动性。
（一）合作原则的具体内容是四条准则：1、适量原则，要求信息适量，不多也不少，即“说多少”的问题。
——所说的话应包含交谈目的所需要的信息，而不应包含超出需要的信息。
2、真实原则，要求尽量说真话，即“说什么”问题。
——不说自知是虚假的话，不说缺乏足够证据的话。
3、相关原则，要切题，即“为什么说”问题。
——要求所说的话与话题相关，对别人提出的问题不能避而不谈，或者答非所问。
4、方式原则，要求表达的方式要清楚明白，即“如何说”问题。
——避免晦涩、杂乱、歧义，要简练，井井有条。
以上四条准则描述了一个合理、有序的会话过程。
语言学论文-语用学
语言学论文-语用学Comparison between Chinese and EnglishIdiomsAbstract: Idioms exist in both Chinese and English, and they have been used frequently for a long time. Furthermore, idioms are fixed phrases extracted from language over long time of usage. Although they are formed in short phrases, for example idioms known as “成语” in Chinese, which has only four or eight letters, their meanings are exuberant and connotative. Therefore, the analysis of the idiom’s usage and the cultural differences it reflects is significant to every language learner and translator.Key words: idiom; culture;comparison; differences1 Theoretical Foundation of the Idiom1.1 Definitions of Chinese IdiomsAccording to “Modern Chinese Dictionary”, “Cheng yu”is fixed phrases or short sentences which are concise, having been accepted by common people through years of usage.According to “Cihai”, “Shuyu”(Idiom) is fixed phrases or sentences of a language, which cannot be modified arbitrarily. It must be interpreted as a semantic unit. It includes set phrases, proverbs, maxims, locutions and two-part allegorical sayings, etc.1.2 Definitions of English Idioms“Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture”has two definitions of idiom: (1) a phrase which means something different from the meaning of the separate words from which it is formed; (2) the way of expression typical of a person or a group in their use of language (Summers P., 1998: 657).“Th e New Oxford English Dictionary”defines that idiom is:(1) a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; (2) a form of expression natural to a language, person, or a group of people (Pearsall J, 2001:908).1.3 The Rhetoric of IdiomsIdiom is the distillate of the nation language abstracted bypeople during a long practice. There are three main features of idiom rhetoric: abundant comparisons, vivid words and lively contrasts.First, simile is a direct comparison, in which subject, reference and indicator of resemblance are all present. Such as the Chinese idiom “轻如鸿毛” and the English idiom “as light as a feather”.Second, metaphor—use of a word or phrase to indicate something different from the literal meaning. For example, the Chinese idiom “口若悬河”，it doesn’t mean the river hang on the mouth, but means someone who speaks eloquently and volubly.Third, metonymy—means correspondence or partial similarity between two things that are compared. For instance, “犬马之劳”means to sever somebody faithfully like the dog or the horse. “be in the pipeline”means that if a plan is in the pipeline, it is being developed and will happen in the future.Fourth, analogy is to compare two things or people so that differences are made clear. “口蜜腹剑”literally means someone is honey-mouthed but dagger-hearted. That is to say the person is treacherous and hypocritical. “To bite the hand that feeds one”also uses the contrast. It means to treat someone badly who has helped you in some way.F ifth, exaggeration such as “垂涎三尺” exaggerated means a drool with great envy. “A stream of tears”means someone is really heart-broken.is revealed, like the denotative meaning of words, especially for those culturally-loaded words like idioms. Idioms have a close relationship with the culture to which it is attached that they truly reflect the values and philosophy of life of the people in that culture and are rich in cultural connotations.Comprehension of the Exotic IdiomsThere are some exotic idioms in the Chinese idioms. Such as “以眼还眼”comes from the English idiom “an eye for an eye”. This idiom which comes from the Bible means that if someone does something wrong, they should be punished by having the same thing done to them. And another Chinese idiom “诺亚方舟”, “Noah’s ark” also comes from the Bible.The English idiom “An Achilles’heel” means a small fault in a person or system which might cause them to fail. This idiom is from Greek mythology. Achilles was a man who was killed when he was injured on his heel, because this was the only part of his body where he could be harmed.Therefore, idioms can be an effective tool of learning culture. And learning culture items like idioms can be one of the good examples to learn both language and culture simultaneously. Learning idioms can also make us learn more about the knowledge of cultural background.2 Compare Chinese Idioms with English Idioms2.1 Similarities between Chinese and English IdiomsAs human civilization has developed in a similar way, both English and Chinese idioms are similar in basic moral concepts and value viewpoint, which has formed a common base for both cultures. Their similarities are as follows: First, in both English and Chinese we have alike idioms to express the hard-working, brave and indomitable human nature and the good will and forgiveness. Also there are many idioms in both languages to praise the pi oneering spirit. For example, “既往不咎, Let bygones be bygones”, “心安理得, Have peace of mind”, “有志者，事竟成, Where there is a will, there is a way”, “有始有终, From beginning to end”, etc. Second, those idioms in both English and Chinese to expr ess verities are same. Such as “眼见为实, Seeing is Believing”,etc. Third, the same imagination in both English and Chinese has the same comparison in the idiom. For instance, “轻如鸿毛, As light as a feather”, “冰清玉洁, Be as clear as crystal”, etc.The above similarities are essential to the intercultural communication. Different cultures may conflict in many aspects, but must agree on basic morals and value points. Only by agreeing on basic morals and value points, can cultural conflicts be limited in a tolerable level and intercultural communication carried out.2.2 Differences between Chinese and English Idioms2.2.1 Differences in Animal-related IdiomsAnimals are friends of human. They have so many links withhuman beings and human languages. Before the arrival of modern civilization, sometimes even today, the basic necessities in human life such as food, clothing and transportation and so on are obtained directly or indirectly from various animals. Among all kinds of animals, dogs are particularly valuable in protecting property, finding things and hunting quarries. Pigeons have long been used to deliver messages. Of course, some animals can also do harmful things to human beings, such as wolf, mice, etc., but no matter what they do, whether good or bad, animals are closely related with the daily life of human beings including everyday speech and animal-related idioms are come into being.Dog in most of the English idiom symbolizes the lay folk as “guy”. There is no d erogatory sense in it, such as “a lucky dog 幸运儿”, “love me, love my dog 爱屋及乌”, “help a lame dog over a stile 助人渡过难关”, etc. Of course, there is a little derogatory sense of dog used in idioms to describe the useless, woeful thing. For example, “ a dog in the manager 占着位子不做实事”, “ lead a dog’s life 过着可悲的生活”, etc. On the contrary, in Chinese idiom dog is used to describe beggarliness. Therefore, most of the dog related Chinese idiom is derogatory, like “狗急跳墙—a cornered be ast will do something desperate”, “狗尾续貂—a wretched seq uel to a fine work, incongruous”, “蝇营狗苟—shamelessly seek personal gain”, and others like “狗血喷头，狗仗人势，狗咬狗” etc.Differences in Color-related IdiomsThere are many idioms related to color both in Chinese and English, such as black (黑) and white (白); Black actually is the complete absorption of all light, while white is opposite to black. Therefore, in idioms Black and White also stand on two extreme points. As the original meaning of the black and white, they have the same expression in both Chinese and English idioms, such as “black and white 黑白分明”, “in black and white 白纸黑字”, “turn black into white 颠倒黑白”, etc. But there are some differences in their transferred meaning.In English idiom, black is used to describe atrocity, death and ominous thing, l ike “black sheep 害群之马”, “a black day 不吉利的日子”, etc. But sometime black also has a commendatory usage, such as “a business in the black 盈利的事业”. White in English idiom means chastity, integrity and elegance, for instance “a white lie 善意的谎言”, “the white day 良辰吉日”, and they have the “ white wedding”.In Chinese idiom, black is only used to describe incorrect, bad and criminal thing, for example, “心黑手狠—heartless and cruel”, etc. White in Chinese idiom is unlike its using in English idiom. It represents dreariness, poor and bereavement, for example, “白手起家—start something from scratch”, “一穷二白—poor and blank”, “红白喜事—wedding and bereavement”, etc.(潘红, 2005:209)Differences in Numeral-related IdiomsNumber, as an important part of language, is embodied withdifferent cultural background. Idioms with numbers are the central core and cream of languages, reflecting the wisdom of human kind. They have strong ethnical, historical and regional colors, reflecting the culture difference of different nationalities.To analysis numbers in both Chinese and English idioms, I find that the substantive meaning of number in both Chinese and English idioms is same. For example, “一心一意—whole-heartedly”, “one thing leads to another—一环扣一环”. Furthermore, in English idioms most of the numbers, except the number three and seven, are used as a substantive. It’s the biggest difference between Chinese and English numeral-related idiom. Because expect the substantive meaning of numbers in Chinese idiom, there are many abstractive meaning of numbers used in Chinese. First, the abstractive meaning of number in Chinese always expresses “more”or “less”. For example, one, half and “寸” are used to express “less”, like “一无所长—have no special skill”, “手无寸铁—unarmed”, etc. While three, five, six and nine are used to express “more”, nothing to say hundred and thousand, such as “三头六臂，三令五申，成百上千”, etc. Second, the numb er ten and one sometimes means “whole or all”, such as “十全十美—be perfect in every way”, “一如既往—just as in the past”. Third, two numbers in the same idiom usually express a transformation or a proportion, such as “三长两短—unforeseen accidents”, “十拿九稳—be very sure of success”, “百无一是—have no merits at all”. Fourth, some idioms arecustomarily be used, such as “一退六二五—deny all responsibility”and “不管三七二十一—regardless of the consequences”.(吕叔湘, 2002: 198) They are come from the custom of the counting frame which we used in ancient for counting numbers.In summary, from what is discussed above, we know that numbers play important roles in human cultures. They have strong connotations in both English and Chinese cultures.2.2.4 Differences in Mythology-related IdiomsThere are numerous idioms related to myths in English and Chinese. In English idioms, idioms of mythical origins are mainly from Greek and Roman mythology, which originating from their worship of the nature by Greek and Roman ancestors. Similarly, in Chinese idioms, mythology is generally of Chinese origin. These idioms reflect the formation of Chinese Culture in the primitive stage. They show a full scope of primitive recognition of the world.Take “dragon 龙”for example, dragon is a frequenter in both Chinese and English Myths, so there are many mythical idioms related to dragon. However, the associated meaning of dragon and 龙are opposite. In English, dragon connotes “a terrible fire-breathing monster”or “a giant that eats man”. According the famous legend “Beowulf”, a dragon that had three heads and could breathe fire guarded treasure for the “devils”. So dragon is always associated with devil. In the medieval times,“dragon”was associated with “sin”and it was the symbol of “heresy”. Nowadays, there is the idiom “chase the dragon—means take drugs”, so we can see how evil the dragon is in the westerners’ view.The opposite associated meaning of dragon in Chinese is always a commendatory. First, we see dragon is the totem of the Chinese people. We call ourselves the descendants of dragon proudly, such as “龙的传人”and “龙子龙孙”. Second, dragon in Chinese is associated with “emperor”, because emperors always name themselves as “真龙天子—the god’s son not the devil’s”. Third, dragon is associat e with “talent”, such as the id iom “龙生龙子，虎生豹儿—means talented perso n’s descen dants must be prominent”. Fourth, dragon is also associated with "good luck and success", such as “龙凤呈祥—means good luck”, and “望子成龙—means people hope their children can get success”, etc.3: ConclusionThrough the comparison between Chinese and English Idioms, their differences and similarities are obvious. This is meaningful and helpful for every language learners and users.References:[1] Alfred Lord Tennyson. Poems [M].Cambridge Press.2001.[2] Nida nguage,culture and translation [M].ShanghaiForeign Language Education Press,2000.[3]Pearsall J. The New Oxford English Dictionary [M].Oxford University Press,2001.[4] Summers P. Longman Dictionary of English Language andCulture[M].Longman Press,1998.[5] 辞海编辑委员会.辞海[M].北京:商务印书馆,1989.[6] 胡文仲.英美文化辞典[M].上海:外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.[7] 李娅玲.英语成语中色彩词汇的文化特征[J].怀化师专学报,1999(12).[8] 吕叔湘.现代汉语大辞典[M].北京:商务印书馆,2002.[9] 潘红.英汉国俗词语例话[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社, 2005.。
语用学论文 Pragmatic Vagueness in Verbal Communication
Pragmatic Vagueness in Verbal CommunicationAbstract:Pragmatic vagueness is a common phenomenon in verbal communication. Combined with the existing achievements, the thesis attempts to analyze the phenomenon of pragmatic vagueness, pragmatic vagueness as a strategy in verbal communication and its pragmatic functions in verbal communication from the perspectives of cognitive pragmatics and sociolinguistics, in English examples, in order to prove the necessity of pragmatic vagueness as a communicative strategy. That is, for its pragmatic functions, the communicators make widely use of pragmatic vagueness in order to realize their communicative intentions and achieve successful communication.Key words: pragmatic vagueness, pragmatic functions ,strategyⅠ. IntroductionAs the research on pragmatics is deepened, many scholars conducted research on pragmatic vagueness. Pragmatic vagueness is an important pragmatic strategy. The research on pragmatic vagueness in verbal language is intriguing, realistic and useful. Verbal language is not only useful for its parishioners but also for English learners.In daily communication, people sometimes use precise language to express their ideas, but more often people prefer to use vague language to convey information. Vagueness is completely intrinsic in human language and the frequent use of hedges just fully testifies this inborn nature of language. The use of hedges is a common phenomenon in language communication. Therefore, the appropriate use of hedges in interaction can enhance the expressive force and communicative effect of language, making the expressions more natural, decent, polite, flexible, and effective. Moreover, the right use of hedg es can send people’s emotion and ideas more properly thereby helps to maintain a good interpersonal relationship between the two parties in communication and achieve the communicative goal successfully.Ⅱ. Pragmatic VaguenessCommunication falls into three categories in terms of conversational analysis: literal talk, loose talk and metaphorical talk. Indeed, most people’s conversation in daily life is loose in verbal communication, to some extent, carrying approximation,fuzziness, generality, ambiguity, ambivalence. In addition, daily conversation usually carries connotative expression such as metaphor, meiosis, irony and hyperbole. (He Ziran, 2000:8) The peripherical meaning or range error manifested in pragmatics is called generality or vagueness. (He Ziran, 1990:8) From what these scholars discussed above, we know that pragmatic vagueness in communication is very important.(a)Being a strategy of communication, pragmatic vagueness relies on various linguistic structures to realize its functions. Thus, the addressor needs to manipulate her language so as to choose a proper linguistic structure which can carry out her strategy. Through careful observation of the data, we generalize three ways of linguistic manipulation involved in the strategy of pragmatic vagueness, namely, enhancing the context-dependency of the utterance, broadening the interpretative range of the utterance, widening the distance between the idea and its way of expression. Furthermore, some specific linguistic devices are included in each category. Thus, the variability of pragmatic vagueness is demonstrated through its ways of linguistic manipulation.Ⅲ.Pragmatic Vagueness as a Strategy in Verbal CommunicationAs we all know, verbal communicative activities requires linguistic technique and diction of words. Due to different ideology and value, there are always different views on the same issue which is a common phenomenon. Therefore, verbal language is a vital strategy to achieve success in communicative activities.Vagueness is a traditionally focused topic of the study of epistemic theory as well as semantic theory about which there have appeared a large quantity of articles, and among which semantic factors are highly involved and consequently cognitive factors are seldom taken into account. Couched within Sperber and Wilson’s (1986/1995) Relevance Theory, the thesis makes the claim that pragmatic vagueness is a linguistic choice and a communicative strategy chosen by interlocutors to achieve optimal relevance.(b) The author, based on the relevant discussions on vagueness at home and abroad in recent years, makes a systematic analysis of pragmatic vagueness in the new light of cognitive pragmatics with passing comments on the limitations of the explanations provided by epistemic theory,semantic theory, speech act theory and Co-operative Principle. Linguistic devices at different levels such as phonology, lexicon, rhetoric and speech act work as pragmatic vagueness triggers to facilitate the search for optimal relevance. The conclusion is that pragmatic vagueness conforms to the Principle of Relevance in that it can achieve the greatest cognitive effects with the least processing efforts. The communicative functions of pragmatic vagueness include giving right amount of information, expressing the addresser’s propositional attitude, manipulating the focus of the addressee’s attention and achieving humorous and polite effects. Appropriate use of pragmatic vagueness as a communicative strategy is of positive significance to the development of learners’pragmatic competence and the avoidance of pragmatic failure.IV. Communicative functions of vaguenessLanguage is for communication, whereas vagueness may lead to better communication. Using vagueness can avoid being presumptuous in language communication. When we have to touch some topics that are unpleasant, we tend to choose more vagueness expressions to refer to those painful topics so as not to hurt the hearer’s fee ling. We can find the theoretical foundation for this motivation in Leech’s Politeness Principle. Vagueness just minimize the impoliteness and maximize the politeness in communication. The functions of vagueness are in agreement with those of Politeness Principle too, as they both offer more benefit to the hearer and leave more cost to the speaker, with the purpose that both of the two sides will feel respected and have favorable impression of each other. As politeness is usually regarded as the manifestation of human civilization, euphemism is one of the most effective strategies to display politeness while modulating interpersonal relationship in human communication.SubstitutionAccording to the definitions of vagueness and we know that a great number of English vagueness serve as the substitutions for verbal taboos. The term taboo ( ta meaning “mark”, boo meaning “exceedingly”) of Polynesian origin denotes anything linguistic and nonlinguistic, which is prohibited or forbidden.(c) Taboo refers to the situation in which a word or name can be used in a community only under special conditions, whether only by certain persons or only in certain circumstances. Just as violating a cultural taboo can be quite offensive, so is it with a verbal taboo in pressc onferences. The “word” has been and continues to be in most societies perceived as a powerful instrument that may evoke evil spirits, make bad things happen and instigate to violence and revolution and numerous other activities. While taboo of words occurs when a particular topic is considered valid for discussion, vagueness expression or terms are required. Diplomatic vagueness has a very serious reason for being. They can conceal the things people fear most —death, the dead or the supernatural. Euphemisms can also eliminate unhappiness, embarrassment and fear etc. so as to relieve people psychologically.PolitenessPoliteness is another very important function that vagueness serve in social life. “Some of the vagueness is used to avoid crudeness and indecency for the sake of a polite conversation”. (d) Grice formulated Cooperative Principle of utterance in which the Maxim of Manner was defined as “Be perspicuous and specific; To avoid obscurity; To avoid ambiguity; To be brief and to be order ly.”(e)The roundabout nature of vagueness goes against the Maxim of Manner, which can only be fairly explained well by Leech’s Politeness Principle “Approbation Maxim: minimize dispraise of other, maximize praise of other”. (f) In other words, euphemisms are to minimize impolite expressions and maximize polite expressions.DisguiseBesides the two functions of vagueness mentioned above, there is still another one more important function at work in vagueness communication, namely, the Disguise Function. Here we mean that because of the vagueness of, vagueness it has become a very important tool for political leaders or the diplomats or statesmen to distort the facts or and present a false picture of peace and prosperity and to beautify whatever the authority have do ne. For example, in the Iraq War, they use “Operation Iraqi Freedom” for beautifying their military invasion, “possible movement” refers to military attack, “air operation” or “air strikes” for air attack, “enter the war” to show their reluctance to fight the war etc.(g) and we may find many such kind of these vagueness in press conferences. The most important and ultimate function or purpose of the use of diplomatic vagueness in press conferences is to disguise or beautify their invasive essence or other evil actions or the separation of words from truth. In American and British societies nowadays, diplomatic vagueness are always purposely devised to disguise scandals in wars and politics, deliberately invented to beautify lowly occupations and excessively inflated to promote sales in advertisement.V. ConclusionAs we stated earlier, vagueness is one of the important and universal linguistic phenomena. Due to the special characteristics like substitution, indirectness etc. it is becoming one of the main communicative approaches. The thesis has attempted to study the vagueness expressions used in the question-answer patterns from the perspective of pragmatics.The article is an overview of the functions and communicative functions of vagueness, and from the pragmatic analysis of the materials, it can be seen clearly that the use of vagueness basically violate the Quality Maxim, the Quantity Maxim, and the Manner Maxim of the Cooperative Principle and the frequency of violating the Quality Maxim is the highest among the three ones. That is to say, the vagueness used in the question-answer patterns generally does not violate the Relation Maxim of the Cooperative Principle.There is an old saying in English: Necessity is the mother of invention. The creation of vagueness also cannot depart from people’s needs of them. People need vagueness for social communication, to vagueness the taboo, to show their politeness and to disguise. As a sociolinguistic phenomenon, the formation of vagueness is the result of the combination of various social psychological factors and pragmatic factors.Studies on vagueness from a pragmatic perspective reveal how vagueness flout the Cooperative Principle so as to obey the Politeness Principle in communication and how factors from their socio cultural and communicational context influence their application in communication. Any change of one or more factors of a communication event, will have an effect on our decision of whether to use vagueness. The expressive vagueness plays a non-fungible role in communication. It is vagueness that makes language more powerful, magical and pleasant. People’s speech does reflect their background, their activities, and the values they hold, therefore, we can learn much about the English people by looking at their use of vagueness. The studies on English vagueness can not only help to develop intercultural communicative competence, but also enlighten English language learning and teaching. Therefore, multidisciplinary, multi-angle, and multi-level studies on vagueness are necessary for English learners to understand the English history and society and communicate with native English speakers better. There are still a lot in this field waiting to be explored, and vagueness deserve more attention and comprehensive studies.References:1.Brown, P and Levinson,S.1978. “Universals in language Usage: Politeness Phenomena”. In Goody, E, N. (ed.): Questions and Politeness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 56-310.2.Channell, J. 1994 Vague Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.3.Ellis, R. 1985. Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.4.Grice, H. P. (1975). Logic and conversation. In Cole, P＆Morgan, J, L, (eds,) Syntax and Semantics, V ol, 3: Speech Acts. New York: Academic Press.5.Hubler, A. 1983. Understatements and Hedges in English. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA:John Benjamins. /koff, G. 1972. “Hedges: A Stu dy in Meaning Criteria and the Logic of Fuzzy Concepts”. Papers from the Eighth Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society 1972. 183—228 Reprinted in: Journal of Philosophical Logic. 1973.4: 2.458—508.Corpus(a) Daily conversation usually carries connotative expression such as metaphor, meiosis, irony and hyperbole. (He Ziran, 2000:8) The peripherical meaning or range error manifested in pragmatics is called generality or vagueness. (He Ziran, 1990:8) (b) Cou ched within Sperber and Wilson’s (1986/1995) Relevance Theory, the thesis makes the claim that pragmatic vagueness is a linguistic choice and a communicative strategy chosen by interlocutors to achieve optimal relevance.(c) The term taboo ( ta meaning “mark”, boo meaning “exceedingly”) of Polynesian origin denotes anything linguistic and nonlinguistic, which is prohibited or forbidden.(d)Some of the vagueness is used to avoid crudeness and indecency for the sake of a polite conversation.(e) Be perspicuous and specific; To avoid obscurity; To avoid ambiguity; To be brief and to be orderly.(f) Approbation Maxim: minimize dispraise of other, maximize praise of other.(g) I n the Iraq War, they use “Operation Iraqi Freedom” for beautifying their military inva sion, “possible movement” refers to military attack, “air operation” or “air strikes” for air attack, “enter the war” to show their reluctance to fight the war etc.。
语用学论文
这是一个文明的社会，人类拥有一门充满魅力和艺术的技能——语言。
语言是人与人交流中不可缺少的重要工具。
在我们的衣食住行中，没有一样是可以离开语言的沟通与表达的，从而语言成为一门技巧。
语言可以传递信息，可以交流感情，掌握良好的语言技巧，我们可以抒发我们的感情，可以赢得良好的人际关系，可以得到别人的理解和尊重……从而语言成为一门学问。
正确恰当的语言交际中，应该遵守“合作原则”，“礼貌原则”这两大原则，遵循四条准则，即：量准则、质准则、关系准则、方式准则。
在此，我想浅谈一下“礼貌原则”。
什么是礼貌？礼貌通常被理解为说话人为了达到某一目的，如增加或维护交际双方的和睦关系而采取的措施。
表达礼貌的主要手段之一就是语言的运用。
语言学家Leech提出礼貌原则的六大准则，包括得体准则，慷慨准则，赞扬准则，谦逊准则，一致准则，同情准则。
所谓得体准则，就是要求我们交流时少让别人吃亏，多让别人得益。
交流时，应以说话人身份为出发点，注重交流对象，注意场合。
很亲近的同学、朋友间聊天可以是“臭小子，你怎么不来看我”、“二货，你怎么这么傻啊”，但是若对于长辈或上司，应表现出敬重，如“王主任，早上好！”、“韩教授，久仰大名啊！”同学聚会、好友闲谈时可以开玩笑、调侃。
若在会议等正式场合一定要注意措辞。
慷慨准则就是让我们尽量少让自己得意，多让自己吃亏。
适当的时候，跟人交谈，多开开玩笑自嘲一下自己，会让自己更具有亲和力，更容易被人接受。
同样的表达两个没有可比性，“你怎么能跟我比？”和“我怎么能跟你比？”所包含的感情色彩完全不同，后者是把对方捧上一个台阶，而前者相反。
每个人都希望得到赞扬，“你的衣服真漂亮！”“好久不见，越来越年轻了。
”“你家儿子真聪明。
”简单的一句赞美，却能让人心头甜蜜，促进人际关系。
学会发现美，发现别人优点，懂得赞美别人。
可以说中国人是向来很谦虚，中国传统文化正可以体现出“谦逊准则”，我们称自己为“鄙人”“在下”，称自己的妻子“贱内”，称自己的儿子“犬子”，而对别人，则是“尊姓大名”，“令堂身体可好”“您老贵庚”我们都希望被人接受和认可，受到他人尊重，一致准则要求我们尽量减少分歧，增加一致。
语用学论文
指示语是语用学研究的一个重要方面，它主要研究如何运用语言形式表示语境特征以及如何依靠语境来分析理解话语，它是语言和语境之间关系最明显、最直接的语言反映。
指示语一般分为五类，即人称指示、时间指示、地点指示、语篇指示和社交指示。
人称指示语是指对编码于言语活动中的参与者或相关角色的符号指称，它般可分为三类：第一人称指示，包括说话人；第二人称指示，包括听话人；第三人称指示，既不包括说话人，也不包括听话人。
一般来讲，人称指示语在使用中严格遵守其语法准则，有着人称数量和性质的区别：即第一人称指代说话人，第二人称指代听话人，第三人称指代二者以外的人.例如(1)我是北方人。
(2)你是南方人。
(3)他走了。
例(1)—(3)中的“我”、“你”、“他”分别指代说话人、听话人和二者以外的人。
我们把这种严格遵守人称指示语的分类，并且与现实所指目标之间有着严格的对应关系的用法，称作人称指示语的常规用法第一人称指示一、第一人称的常规用法汉语中第一人称指示语主要有我/咱、我们/咱们，咱/咱们多用于口语中.例如(4)我喜爱古典音乐，(5)我们是外语学院的。
在例子（4）、（5）中“我”、“我们”指的就是言语行为的说话者本人。
二、第一人称的非常规用法1、第一人称单数指代第一人称复数(6)我校于上星期圆满举办了校运会。
(7)咱家可漂亮了。
(8)还我青岛，还我河山。
例子(6)中的“我”是表达“我们”的意思，我们学校与上星期圆满举办了校运会，个人代表集体。
例(7)“咱”是表示“咱们”，包括听话者，拉近彼此之间的距离。
例(8)中“我”实指“我们”，不仅简洁明了、朗朗上口，还增加了气势。
这种单数代指复数的用法，使句式更简洁，更有韵律感。
2、第一人称复数指代第一人称单数(9)刚才聆听了以上专家的发言，我们感觉受益匪浅。
(10)咱们对股票这玩意一窍不通。
(11)我们认为，可争论的不是语法事实，而是语法体系。
(12)我们在文中提出的观点，还不够成熟。
语用学论文
语用学作业修辞中的反语“修辞”一语通常有两种含义：一是指修辞现象本身，一是指修辞学。
作为修辞现象，如上所述，它是一种伴随语言运用活动的客观存在。
作为修辞学，它是关于修辞现象的学问，是对于修辞这种客观对象的主观认识。
反语是一种修辞格，用以表达说话人的某种主观情态意义：讥讽、蔑视、不赞、戏谑、愤怒、威胁等等。
汉语修辞学对反语的解释一般为：借助语言环境，运用与说话人本意相反的词语或句子来表达本意。
一般而言，反语有表里两层意义，表面上一层是词语本身固有的，而骨里的一层是由它的特定上下文所赋予的，而作者或说话人真正的表达意图就在骨子里这层意义上。
因此反语常被用于讽刺和自嘲，它是一种富有幽默感或精妙的挖苦或自嘲的表达方式。
适当地将其运用于文学作品或日常会话中可以因其独特的艺术魅力使语言变得更为深刻，富有感染力。
关于反语的分类有多种不同的标准。
常见的有按意义分类：即反意正说，正意反说；有按功能分类：即褒贬反语、讽刺反语、趣味反语、亲热反语和强调反语；按语言形式分类：有词语反语、情景反语和引语辞反语等等。
不同的分类标准自然各有侧重，各有所长。
下面我们就按意义分类探究下反语的作用。
(一)反意正说，即以褒代贬的反语。
例（1）：张三的确是个好朋友。
如果说话者被自己的朋友张三出卖而说出这样的话，这句话就明显可以看出事不与事实相符的，说话者想要表达的真实命题其实是与话语相反的：“张三实际上不是好朋友。
”因此，听者必须顺话反听或反话顺听才能理解言者的真实交际意图。
例（2）：妈妈叫儿子去把自己烂糟糟的房子收拾好，但儿子一直沉浸在连环画中没理会。
过了一会，妈妈发现儿子的房子还是老样子，有些生气地对儿子说：“这房间真是干净极了！”很显然，妈妈的话语使用了反语，因为她说的与真实的情况相矛盾，她当然不会认为自己的真正意思就是她所说的字面含义。
按照这个逻辑，如果一句话的直义是真实的，它就不是反语；反之，如果直义与事实相悖，它就是反语。
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2014-2015学年第一学期语用学与英语教学课程考核（研究报告）题目：An analysis of Pragmatic Failure with Cross-cultural Communications学号（准考证号）：1230100054姓名：焦凯丽专业：英语(教法方向)年级：2012级学院：外国语学院完成日期：2015年 1 月10日IntroductionThe Cross-cultural Pragmatics is a relatively young linguistic branch compared with the Traditional Linguistics and Structural Modern Linguistics. It attaches great importance to the research of cross-cultural characteristics. And the cross-cultural pragmatic failure is a common phenomenon in cross-cultural communication process. This paper focus on the analyzing of different kinds of pragmatic failures in our cross-cultural communication, at the same time, giving reflections and feedbacks on our English learning and Language teaching. Being in the rapid developed century of our human society, we should heighten the awareness of appropriating use of pragmatic language in our cross-cultural communication.Part I Theoretical basisBefore Noam Chomsky, Traditional Linguistics and Structural Modern Linguistics regarded language as a system of completely self-sufficient blocking structure, which put an emphasis on the vision field of language researches on the description of linguistic entity and put the language teaching on a cultural vacuum to conduct a rigid practice. But this failed to attach the expected research on the Social culture which affects the language how it affects the construction, comprehension and expression. As a result, linguistic theories couldn't resolve realistic problems of language. And often communicators who have learned some basic knowledge such as phonetic, lexicon and grammar still couldn't carry out proper and effective communication. The birth of sociolinguistics breaks through the research restriction of traditional linguistics and pragmatics and structural. It deepens people‟s realization to linguistic social nature and construct a high qualified platform for the study of the Intercultural Communication. However, all kinds of failure still occur in the intercultural communication which influences the quality of international communication because communications cannot master enough foreign knowledge or acknowledge the culture feature of foreign nation. So the research of pragmatic failure in the cross-cultural communication has become a problem of important theoretic meaning and realistic value in the contemporary linguistic study.Cross-cultural Pragmatics is a relatively young linguistic branch, growing out of pragmatics and comparative linguistics, and introducing cultural factors into the research scope of pragmatics. It attracted great importance to the research of cross-cultural characteristics. Cross-cultural pragmatics is the study of the use of second language in cross-cultural speech communication when the pragmatic problem occurs. The conception pragmatic of pragmatic failure was formally proposed by the famous British scientist Jenny Thomas in her thesis "Cross一Cultural Pragmatic Failure" in 1983 which established a theoretical framework for the analysis of pragmatic failure and cultural transfer. She defines pragmatic failure as "inability to understand what is meant by what is said." Thus, Cross-cultural pragmatic failure can refer to the misunderstanding and even conflict arising in the communication process because of the hearer's failure to catch discourseimplication of the speaker accurately and because of his following improper output of utterances, which may be proper in his culture. The pioneer study of pragmatic failure in China goes to He Ziran and his fraternity. In 1984, they launched investigation into pragmatic differences between English and Chinese in reference to Thomas theory, and made known their results of investigation together with explanations about pragmatic failure. Cross-cultural pragmatic failure is a common phenomenon in cross-cultural communication process, in this process, the speaker disobeys the communication standard and social customs, ignores hearer's identity or status, harms the special cultural value of target language, causes the breaking off or failure of communication, makes communicating obstacles, then communication cannot achieve the expected results. Though there is no grammatical error, the wrong way of speaking or the improper performance makes the communication lose the expected effect.Part II Case studiesThere are many kinds of pragmatic failure in our cross-culture communication. First is about the phonetic pragmatic failure. A teacher who teach Chinese in England recalled that, ”My student, John is a typical English gentleman. When we walk down stairs, he always said that '请小心裸体（楼梯），下流，一起下流（下楼）吧。