法律英语13课
Criminal law法律英语刑法 PPT课件
- Felony – murder重罪—谋杀罪
Manslaughter
- Voluntary manslaughter自 愿性非恶意杀人，故意杀 人 （比如激情犯罪crime of passion）
- involuntary homicide过失 杀人
Step 16 :Sentencing (three different types may be used)
Step 17 :Appeals
American criminal law classification
美国刑法种类
• 1.Criminal ACTS endangering degree（犯罪行为危害程度）： felony（重罪），misdemeanor(轻罪）
Step 1 :The Reported Crime (or “known offense”)
Step 2 :Prearrest Investigation (include three basic groups)
Step 3 :Arrest
Step 4 :Booking Step 5 : Post-Arrest Investigation (will vary with the fact situation)
My lecture topics ：
Death penalty sentencing plot
（死刑的量刑情节）
Basic situation
• American criminal law no specific reflect about the death penalty sentencing system, but the scope of the basic limit first-degree murder just executed, considering the consequences of a murder. Other must try to give every opportunity decreases victimised suspects miscalculation.
法律英语核心教程 (第一册)unit-13
Unit 13Legal Environment of BusinessText I Government Regulation of BusinessDictionary Workbyword, ruthless, unscrupulous, tycoon, aggressive, profiteer, altruistic, terse, hovering, undercut, dubious, crafty, latitude, intervene, abuse,, empower, unconstitutional, interpret, interstate, intrastate,Pre-reading Questions1.What is government regulation of business?2.Why is government regulation necessary to business?3.How does the government exercise its regulatory power over business?Historical Evolution of Government Regulation1It’s important to understand that regulation hasn’t always been with us. Relatively speaking, it’s a rather novel idea if one takes the long historical view. America’s founders believed in a laissez-faire1–or “hands-off” –approach to the regulation of business. Business leaders took care of business, politicians took care of government, and the two groups left each other alone. Caveat emptor2, “let the buyer beware,” was the byword of the marketplace in the 1800’s. Moreover, there was little room for “friendly competition” in nineteenth century business transactions. With limited markets, hard-to-get supplies, and few production shortcuts, the business that hoped to survive often felt pressured into taking a fairly ruthless approach –wiping out competitors wherever opportunity permitted and taking full advantage of consumers not sufficiently wily to protect their own interests.2But by the late 1800s, too many competitors and consumers had fallen victim to unscrupulous business practices. Public opinion turned decidedly against the business tycoons, and this new philosophical tone set the stage for more aggressive laws3that sought to intervene in the marketplace. Despite widespread public support, however, early efforts at reform were not as successful as advocates had hoped. It was not until the late 1930s that it became generally accepted by lawmakers and the courts, that the Constitution did allow Congress fairly wide in in regulating commerce.3 In fact, today’s ongoing di scussions about the proper amount of governmental regulation are only the latest round in a debate – and, at times, fight – that is unlikely to end. Typically, business leaders insist that government interference does more harm than good. But many workers and citizens point to abuses of the past and present as proof of the dangers of unregulated industry. In general, legislators and federal agencies now tryto balance the ideal of the free marketplace with the less altruistic realities of human nature.4 Most observers these days agree that some form of government control is necessary. But where and how to apply that control has never been an easy issue to resolve. Few persons want to return to the days in which consumers took their chances in a marketplace where profiteering was an integral part of shrewd business management; yet, at the same time, almost no one favors the insufferable hovering of a government that involves itself in even the least important decisions.The Sources of Government Regulatory Power5 City, country, state, and federal administrative agencies together have created a web of regulations that govern how and under what circumstances a company is allowed to transact business, sell securities, set loan terms, ship freight, use resources, hire and fire employees, compete with rival firms, or negotiate labor contracts. You name it, and there’s probably some type of regulation to govern it.6 The government derives most of its power to regulate business from the U.S. Constitution’s “comme rce clause4,” which states that “The Congress shall have power … to regulate commerce among the several states.” This clause – together with the Constitution’s Article I, Section 8, which empowers Congress to levy taxes – are the twin pillars on which government regulation rests.7 The terse phrase among the several states allows some latitude in interpretation, and this has resulted in changes over time in the allowable scope of government control. At various points in its history, the commerce clause has been given a narrow interpretation; at other times, the interpretation has been considerably more extensive. At the heart of the issue is the debate over what constitutes interstate commerce (from inter, meaning between) versus intrastate commerce (from intra, meaning within). If the Supreme Court5interprets “interstate” commerce to include only the transportation of goods from one state to another, this is quite different from an interpretation that considers “interstate” commerce to be business practice s in one state (that is, intrastate) that affects business practices in another state. This distinction between intra-and inter state commerce is critical because the commerce clause allows Congress to regulate only that commerce that is among the several states.The Early Years of Regulation8 Early in the nineteenth century, the Supreme Court interpreted the commerce clause very broadly, giving the government power to regulate not only commerce that passed between states, but also “local” transactions that in some way “affected” interstate commerce. But this broad interpretation had little impact, since Congress left business pretty much alone to do as it wanted; the fact that the Supreme Court would permit broad regulation made little difference. As we noted earlier, however, by the end of the Civil War, workers and social advocates became increasingly upset with the overreaching practices of business, and Congress became more involved in attempting to regulate business practices. The passage of laws outlawing child labor andsixteen-hour workdays were major examples of this initial regulation.9 As Congress began to intervene in business practices this way, however, the Supreme Court also began to re-evaluate its interpretation of the commerce clause. It came to believe that federal power could only extend to those business transactions that in fact moved from one state to another – only these transactions met the definition of interstate commerce. It concluded that all other business transactions –even if their influence extended beyond a state’s boundaries – were part of intrastate commerce and, as such, beyond the reach of the federal government to regulate. So, ironically, as Congress became interested in passing regulatory law, the Supreme Court came to see those efforts as potentially unconstitutional. This conflict between what the public and Congress wanted and what business and the Supreme Court said the Constitution would allow continued until the late 1930s. But around that time, the Supreme Court again re-evaluated its interpretation of the commerce clause and concluded that Congress had the power to regulate any transactions by businesses that organized themselves on a national scale, not just those transactions that crossed state lines.The Current Regulatory Environment10 Today, the Supreme Court continues to reflect this broader reading of the commerce clause6, bringing it in line with the opinions held by the earliest Supreme Court views. Put simply, the current view is that the federal government can constitutionally not only regulate commerce that passes through or is transacted across two states, but also commerce that affects business in other states. Let’s consider an example to see how this works.11 Let’s say that Sharpe, a street vendor of chocolate-chip cookies, uses some questionable business practices to undercut his competitors in the Seattle business district cookie market. At this point, he is probably violating only local fair-business ordinances. But suppose Sharpe instead distributed packages of cookies to be sold in Seattle supermarkets. If Sharpe’s dubious practices are cutting into national markets, Sharpe may be charged with violating federal regulations –even though his is not a national company. Similarly, when business booms and Sharpe expands to form Northwest Cookies, a larger interstate company, he must either abandon his crafty methods of competition or risk running afoul of federal regulations. (1,156 words) Notes1. laissez-faire: let (people) do (as they choose). [尤指对商业活动的]自由放任的、不干涉的原则It’s a motto of 18th century French economists who protested excessive government regulation of industry. See: 1) the reaction against free trade and laissez-faire economy 2) a central position between laissez-faire and a planned economy2. Caveat emptor: Let the buyer beware. （购者当心，指货物出门概不退换原则）I t’s a maxim of the common law expressing the rule that the buyer purchases at his peril. Implied warranties in the sale of personal property are exceptions to the rule thus expressed. The maxim is applicable to salesof real estate in respect of conditions of the premises open to observation. The doctrine of the maxim applies in its utmost vigor and strictness to judicial sales, so that the purchaser takes upon himself the risk of finding outstanding rights that could have been asserted against the parties to the proceedings and which necessarily affect the title conveyed to him.3. more aggressive laws: referring to the multitude of laws, acts and statutes enacted in the late 19th century and also in the 20th century, for instance, the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890, the Clayton Act in 1914, the Federal Trade Commission Act, the Consumer Credit Protection Act, the Consumer Product Safety Act, the Clean Air Act, etc., to regulate business practices and protect customers and the environment, which are more forceful or threatening.merce clause: Art. 1, §8, cl. 3 of the United States Constitution which gives Congress exclusive powers to regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes. 美国宪法商业条款5. the Supreme Court: the highest of the three-tier American federal court system. Established by the US Constitution, the Supreme Court is made up of nine justices and has both original and appellate jurisdiction. It also has the final responsibility for interpretation of the Constitution and federal statutes. 最高法院6. broad reading of the commerce clause: an interpretation of the meaning and extent of the commerce clause, which suggests an extensive scope of the commerce clause.Language Points1.With limited markets, hard-to-get supplies, and few production shortcuts, the business thathoped to survive often felt pressured into taking a fairly ruthless approach –wiping out competitors wherever opportunity permitted and taking full advantage of consumers not sufficiently wily to protect their own interests. (paragraph 1)Pay attention to the use of the verb-ing forms: wiping out competitors and taking full advantage of consumers. They are gerunds used here in apposition to the preceding noun phrase a fairly ruthless approach.2.It was not until the late 1930s that it became generally accepted by lawmakers and the courtsthat the Constitution did allow Congress fairly wide latitude in regulating commerce.(paragraph 2)Pay attention to the sentence pattern “It is/was not until … that + S + V”. It means the same as “S + do/does/did not +V + until …”. Hence, this sentence can be revised as: It didn’t become generally accepted by lawmakers and the courts until the late 1930s that the Constitution did allow Congress fairly wide latitude in regulating commerce.The pronoun it that follows the connective that is a nominal subject, standing for the real subject -- the noun clause that the Constitution did allow Congress fairly wide latitude in regulating commerce, which comes in the end of the sentence.3.Typically, business leaders insist that government interference does more harm than good.(paragraph3)Pay attention to the clause that follows the connective that. It’s a noun clause. A noun clause usually functions in the sentence as subject, object, prepositional object, or in apposition to the subject or object. There are other noun clauses in the text.4.It concluded that all other business transactions –even if their influence extended beyond astate’s boundaries –were part of intrastate commerce and, as such, beyond the reach of the federal government to regulate. (paragraph 9)Such here refers to the previous statement all other business transactions –even if their influence extended beyond a state’s boundaries –were part of intrastate commerce, and the insertion as such means because of this.5.Put simply, the current view is that the federal government can constitutionally not onlyregulate commerce that passes through or is transacted across two states, but also commerce that affects business in other states. (paragraph 10)Put simply here is a parenthetical phrase, meaning “to be put in short or to sum up”.6. Similarly, when business booms and Sharpe expands to form Northwest Cookies, a largerinterstate company, he must either abandon his crafty methods of competition or risk running afoul of federal regulations. (paragraph 11)Pay attention to the collocation risk running afoul of federal regulations. The verb risk is usually followed by a gerund or a noun. The collocation means to run the risk of getting into conflict with federal regulations.ComprehensionQuestions about the text1.What is a laissez-faire economy?2.What is the nature of government regulation of business in America?3.Why was there little room for “friendly competition” in the 19th century businesstransactions?4.Where does the government’s power to regulate bus iness mainly come from?5.What is the most satisfactory government regulation as history shows?6.What is the scope of government regulation in U.S. business?7.Was the Congress’ power to regulate business challenged in the 19th century?8.What is the difference between interstate commerce and intrastate commerce?9.What was the conflict between what the public and Congress wanted and what business andthe Supreme Court said the Constitution would allow, which went on until the late 1930s?10.What was the Supreme Court’s interpretation of the Congress’ power to regulate business inthe 19th century and what is its current position?VocabularyWrite out the word or phrase according to the explanation provided:A Ba.r________ 1. to control, direct, or to replace confusion with orderb.s________ 2. fixed or controlled by lawc.a________ 3. statement which is not supported by proof, that someone has donesomething bad or criminald.e________ 4. the gradual change and developmente.c________ 5. an agreement reached in a way that is acceptable to both sides of theconflict or lawsuitf.p________ 6. the approval of a law, statute, or act by a legislatureg.r_________ 7. the action of resolving somethingh.i________ 8. the definition or explanation of a term or clause in the statutei.a_______ 9. a method of doing something or dealing with a problemj.i_______ 10. a person who comes between two people or groups of peoples, esp. inorder to bring them into agreementk.d_______ 11. clear differencel.a_______ 12. a person who speaks for or supports an idea, way of life, etc.m.a________ 13. the settling of an argument by the decision of a person or group thathas been chosen by both sidesn.t________ 14. the doing or performing of trade, including the purchase, sale,exchanging, leasing, and distribution of commoditieso.s________ 15. having the highest position, in terms of power, importance, orinfluenceParaphraseParaphrase the following sentences from the text:1.In general, legislators and federal agencies now try to balance the ideal of the free marketplacewith less altruistic realities of human nature. (para. 3)2.Few persons want to return to the days in which consumers took their chances in a marketplacewhere profiteering was an integral part of shrewd business management; yet at the same time, almost no one favors the insufferable hovering of a government that involves itself in even the least important decisions. (para. 4)3.But this broad interpretation had little impact; since Congress left business pretty much alone todo as it wanted; the fact that the Supreme Court would permit broad regulation made little difference. (para. 8)4.But suppose Sharpe instead distributed packages of cookies to be sold in Seattle supermarkets;if Sharpe’s dubious practices are cutting into national markets, Sharpe may be charged with violating federal regulations – even though his is not a national company. (para. 11)Useful Phrases and Collocationsleave sb/sth alone, wipe out, take (full) advantage of, fall victim to sth, set the stage for, balance sth with sth else, take (one’s) chances, involve oneself in, compete with rival firms, derive (sth) from, empower sb to do sth, allow some latitude in, result in, at the heart of the issue, consider sth to be, in some way, be involved in, outlaw child labor, intervene in, beyond the reach of, bring sth in line with, be charged with, run afoul ofExercisesI. Blank fillingFill in the blanks with the proper phrases given below. Add words and/or change the form of the given words when necessary.leave sb/sth alone, take an approach, take (full) advantage of,fall victim to sth, involve oneself in, allow some latitude in,make little difference, bring sth in line with, run afoul of sth, result in1.At a time, a lot of people complained that the administrative agencies _______ ______________almost all business activities, making it hard to conduct business.2.As our country is approaching its accession to the WTO, we have to ___________________________ the international norms.3.When you open up a business in a new market, you have to ___________________.4.In the initial years of the reform and opening-up some people ______________ the loosegovernment regulation and accumulated a lot of wealth.5.In market economy companies should ___________________ running their own business.6.His own carelessness ___________ his injuries, so he couldn’t expect any remedy from theemployer.7.At a time businesspeople wanted the government _______________, but customers complainedabout the abuses as a result of lack of government regulation.8.Before Congress granted the government with regulatory power in business many customers________________ immoral business practices.9.Nowadays business managers have to study laws in order to prevent their businesses from________________ government regulations.10.Whether the government curbs smoking by levying heavier tax on tobacco or not___________________ to him as he has quit smoking.II. Error correction1.Public opinion turned decidedly against the business tycoons, and this new philosophical toneset the stage for less aggressive laws that sought to intervene in the marketplace.2.Today’s ongoing discussions about the proper amount of governmental regulation are only thelast round in a debate – and, at times, fight – that is unlikely to end.3.Business leaders insist that government interference does more harm than good, but manyworkers and citizens point to abuses of the past and present as proof of the dangers of regulated industry.4.Most observers these days agree that some form of government control is necessary, but whereand how to apply that control has always been an issue to resolve.5.Since Congress left business pretty much alone to do as it wanted, the fact that the SupremeCourt would permit broad regulation made a little difference.6.If Sharpe’s dubious practices are cutting in to national markets, he may be charged withviolating federal regulations – even though he is not a national company.7.The parties whose dispute is solved through mediation are more unlikely to be able to workconstructively within the agreement.8.Almost no one favors the insufferable hovering of a government that involves itself in even theleast momentous of decisions.9.At the heart of the issue is the debate in what constitutes interstate commerce versusintrastate commerce.10.At this point, Sharpe is probably violated only local fair-business ordinances.III. GrammarA.The following exercises are about noun clauses. Choose the most appropriate answer from theoptions provided to complete the sentences:1.The truth _______ the US is a country with rule of law is known to all of us.a. ifb. whetherc. thatd. which2.______ the customer will win the lawsuit against the seller remains a question.a. Thatb. Whetherc. Ifd. What3.______ the government should apply its regulatory power in business relationshipshas never been an easy issue to resolve.a. Whetherb. Ifc. Whyd. How4.The lawyer has not answered my question ________ I can count on some remedyfor the damage.a. whetherb. whenc. whered. why5.His success is due to _________ he had been working hard.a. thatb. the fact whichc. the fact thatd. the fact of6.Mr. Cooper looked rather depressed. Do you know ________ trouble was?a. hisb. why hisc. how hisd. what his7.When dealing in a litigious environment, you cannot take ________ approach youprefer.a. whatb. whateverc. whicheverd. whosever8._______ worries us a lot is what the world will be like in the future.a. Thatb. Whichc. Whod. What9.I’m not sure ________ the U.S. antitrust law should be enacted.a. ifb. whetherc. whend. why10.He is concerned about ________ judge will preside over the court hearing.a. whichb. whatc. whose thatB. Complete the sentences by translating the expressions in the brackets:1.The States retain the exclusive power to regulate intrastate commerce – economic activities thathave no significant effect on commerce outside their own borders, while____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________ ________ (联邦政府单独享有调解美国所有的涉外贸易和州际贸易活动的权力).2.Many people who favored increased regulation of business felt that the courts and legislatures_____________________________________________________________________________________________________ (不太适应处理我们所处的不断变化的环境中出现的复杂问题).3.The Federal Trade Commission Act, which created one of the most active and controversialfederal administrative agencies and _______________________________________________________________________(赋予它调解竞争性商业活动的广泛权限), is a good example of the feder al government’s extensive regulation of business.4.The large number of injuries caused by defective consumer products _________________________________________________________ (导致了国会于1972年通过了《消费品安全法》).5.The equality of the sexes is literally applied so that a law is unconstitutional when it gives towomen a protection or an advantage _____________________________________________ (而不给予从事同种工作的男子).IV. ClozeWhy Is Government Regulation Necessary?The Industrial Revolution changed the nature of American society. Before the Civil War, more than 80 percent of Americans were self-employed, and the small proprietorship was the 1________ form of business organization. Many forms of organization were objects of public 2 _ Labor unions were treated as criminal conspiracies, and even corporations were viewed with some suspicion.The 3 of corporate power and the abusive activities of the large industrial combines and trusts after the Civil War became subjects of major public concern, producing a public outcry for federal action. Congress responded by 4 the Interstate Commerce Act in 1887 and the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890.In addition, life was becoming more 5 . New forms of human activity that presented a need for regulation were (and are today) 6 on an almost daily basis. Ever-expanding scientific knowledge also continued to increase our understanding of the effects of our behavior on each other and on the environment.This tremendous growth of government regulation, while it has no doubt produced many 7_____ social benefits, has also produced considerable public dissatisfaction. We all regularly hear complaints about government “red tape”* and bureaucratic inefficiency. Some commentators argue that the costs associated with complying with government regulations are a 8 contributor to spiraling inflation. Others complain that 9 a business is becoming more and more difficult in an environment of increasing and sometimes 10 regulations. Regulatory agencies are criticized as being inefficient and overzealous on the one hand and “captive” tools of industry on the 11.Despite current 12 disenchantment with regulation, however, it is probably fair to say that regulation is here to stay. Today, we are witnessing a “13” movement aimed at reducing numerous “friendly” regulations that in the past operated to shield some businesses from the forces of competition. In other areas, conflicting or 14_________ regulations may need to be reworked. Nonetheless, as long as the United States continues to be a highly complex and industrialized society, 15 will be an important fact of life.*red tape: forms and routines followed in official business; the protective helmet of bureaucracy.V. Translation1. In the eyes of many observers, administrative agencies like the Federal Trade Commission, theSecurities and Exchange Commission, and the Environmental Protection Agency form an unofficial fourth branch of government with the authority to enact rules and regulations (quasi-legislative power) and the power to hold hearings to determine whether those rules have been violated (quasi-judicial power).2. Every person who shall monopolize, or attempt to monopolize, or combine or conspire with anyother person or persons to monopolize any of the trade or commerce among the several states, or with foreign nations, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor.3. By the middle of the 20th century, realizing that business needs had been given too muchpreferential treatment –often at the expense of consumers’ rights, consumer activists bega n to convince local, state, and federal governments to pass laws that would re-evaluate priorities and give consumers the protection they needed and deserved.4. 中国宪法明文规定：中国政府鼓励外商来华投资并依法保护外国企业和个人的合法权益。
法律英语课件 (13)精品教育文档
Impeachment
House of Representatives vote a bill of impeachment. 众议院投票通过弹劾议案
Senate , with the Chief Justice of the United States presiding at the trail. 在参议院，由首席大法官主持审判
委任的官员应该让任命他们的人或机构满 意。如果他们的政绩令人不满意，他们就 会被撤职。
Exception
Justices of the Supreme Court and other federal judges
2019/11/10
Lifetime appointment
法律英语
15
Ballot box
2019/11/10
法律英语
13
Elected officials must stand for reelection at periodic intervals, when their records are subject to intensive public scrutiny.
选举产生的官员要接受定期重新选举， 其政绩要受到公众全面监督。
2019/11/10
法律英语
10
Final authority is vested in the American people. 最终权力属于美国人民 …change the fundamental law
amending the Constitution 修改宪法
drafting a new one 起草新宪法
8
Part One: The constitution as supreme law
法律英语教程(宋雷著)中文译本
法律英语教程——宋雷著唐碧清译Lesson 1 法律体系的基础A.主要分类法律是一国公民借以规范（regulate）他们与其他公民以及与国家发生关系的行为的规则总称（the set of rules）。
英国没有成文的规则总称，一项行为是否被认为与法律相符（in conformity with）由有关法律依据（authority）加以权衡。
也许是制定法（statutes）（比如说王室公告或者议会法令），法学家的论述（像英格兰的布莱克斯通或者苏格兰的stair），或者既决判例的汇编（reports of decided cases）。
如果这些都不符合情况，法官会通过分析以往在相似情形下作出的判决来做出他自己的判决。
法律的基础，按照历史的顺序是：（a）普通法（common law）（b）判例法（case law）（c）制定法普通法：当英国的法律体系开始成形时，法官被委派执行（administer）“法律和王国的习惯”。
他们在普遍习惯的基础上制定他们自己的规则和原则；这类法律被称为“普通法”，与特别法或者特殊法形成对照，比如说教会法或者地方习惯。
苏格兰的普通法与英格兰以及威尔士的普通法非常不一样，因为古老的差别被1707年的联合法保存着，在这种情况下保留了它自己的法律体系。
普通法的特征是它成长于法律人所记载的司法判决，而不是基于确定的制定法（enactment）。
它通过审查过去在相同情形下作出的判决，通常被称为“判例”（precedent），从而得到执行，并且在此基础上得到普遍适用的判决。
判例法：判例法是普通法随着时间的发展而引起的（bring about）。
汇编存在于首创的案例中有记录的对律师有意义的关键点（reports exist of leading cases raising points of interest to lawyers）。
这些汇编记载了法院发现的事实，提出的争论以及法官作出判决的法律依据。
法律英语(Legal+English)(第二版)
法律英语（Legal English）（第二版）法律出版社，2003年•北京何家弘Lesson One Legal System1. 公诉制度 public prosecution2. 普通法系 common law legal system3. 判例法case law4. 成文法（制定法） written law (statutory law)5. 遵从前例 stare decisis6. 判例汇编 reports7. 有约束力的法律解释binding interpretation8. 法学方法论 legal methodology9. 颁布•••为法律be decreed10. 巡回法官itinerant judges11. 英国皇家法院 English Royal Court12. 令状，法院令状writ13. 诉讼请求的强制执行 enforcement of a claim14. 追诉权 recourse15. 牛津条例Provision of Oxford16. 本案令状writ upon the case17. 诉讼行为forms of action18. 衡平法 equity law19. 公平且善良 ex aequo bono20. 特定履行（实际履行）方式之救济relief in the form of specific performance21. 大法官法院 Court of Chancery22. 补偿性损害赔偿金 compensatory damages23. 强制令the injunction24. 衡平法准则 maxims of equity law25. 法律概念 legal concept26. 不动产real property/ real estate/ immovable property/ realty27. 民事诉讼 civil suit28. 衡平法院 Chancery Court29. 财产法上的所有权分割 division of title in the law of property30. 先例 precedents31. 普通法系the Common Law Legal Family/ the English Law Legal Family/ the English-American Law Legal Family32. 大陆法系 the Roman Law Legal Family/ the Civil Law Legal Family/ the Continental Law Legal Family33. 五月花号公约the Mayflower Compact34. 制宪会议 the Constitutional ConventionLesson Two Legal Profession1. 法律职业/律师职业 the bar法官职业 the bench2. 律师协会 The Bar Association3. （律师）执业 practice law4. 执业律师 practicing lawyer5. 出庭辩护/代理诉讼 advocacy6. 法律咨询 counseling7. 法律文件的起草 drafting of legal instruments8. 法律文件 legal instruments9. 单独执业者single/individual practitioner10. 合伙关系 partnership11. 薪水律师 salaried lawyer12. 律师业务 law practice13. 专职法律顾问 house counsel/corporate counsel（公司或团体法律顾问）14．辩护人/律师 advocate15. 私人开业 private practice16. 州检察官/律师 state prosecutor/state attorney17. 地区检察官/律师 district attorney18. 起诉检察官/公诉律师 prosecuting attorney19. 检察系统prosecutorial system20. 联邦检察官 federal prosecutor21. 地方检察官 local prosecutor22. 助理检察官 assistant prosecutor23. 检察行业prosecutorial profession24. 个人尊严 the integrity of the individual25. 机会均等equality of opportunity26. 职业道德规范 ethics codes27. 听证会hearings28. 社区法律服务community legal services29. 单人开业 solo practice30. 律师/法律工作者（美国）attorney/attorney-at-law/counsellor/counsellor-at-law31. 律师（英国）barrister/solicitorLesson Three Legal Education1. 法律博士 Juris Doctor(JD)我国现称“法律硕士”并有新名“Juris Master(JM)2. 法学硕士 Master of Laws(LLM)3. 法学博士 Doctor of Juridical Science(SJD)4. 法律文书写作 legal writing5. 批评性思维 critical thinking6. 案例教学法 case method7. 苏格拉底式教学法 socratic method8. 讲演式教学法lecture method9. 美国律师协会认可的法学院 ABA accredited law schools10. 案情摘要briefs11. 模拟法庭 moot court12. 模拟审判 mock trial13. 课程指南 curriculum guide14. 刑事司法 criminal justice15. 自由资本主义laissez faire/lesei’ feə/Lesson Four Judicial System1. 联邦法院federal courts2. 联邦法院的组成：联邦最高法院the Supreme Court13个联邦上诉法院 Courts of Appeals95个联邦地区法院 District Courts此外还有：索赔法院 the Court of Claims关税法院 the Customs Court关税及专利上诉法院the Court of Customs and Patent Appeals等联邦特别法院 special courts3. 各州法院系统一般包括三级法院：基层法院多称为审判法院 Trial Court或巡回法院 Circuit Court中级法院多称为上诉法院 Appellate Court or Court of Appeals高级法院多称为最高法院 Supreme Court许多州也有一些专门法院：遗嘱检验法院 Probate Court青少年法院 Juvenile Court家庭关系法院 Court of Domestic Relations小额索赔法院 Small Claims Court4．联邦和州最高法院法官称为大法官 Justice上诉法院和审判法院的法官则称为法官 Judge有些基层法院的审判人员还称为治安法官 Justice of the Peace或司法官 Magistrate5. 美国联邦最高法院首席大法官 Chief Justice其他8人称大法官 Associate Justice6. 巡回法官Circuit Judge7. 合议庭Collegiate Panel/Collegiate Bench8. 诉讼当事人 litigant9. 司法管辖区 judicial district10. 案件数量caseload11. 联邦巡回法院 the Federal Circuit12. 复审案件 review a case13. 复查判决 review a decision14. 特别法庭 tribunals15. 死刑 capital punishment/death penalty16. 调案复审令writ of certiorari17. 具有开业律师资格be admitted to practice law18. 职业法官 career judiciary19. 民众选举 popular vote20. 现任法官 sitting judges21. 严重不端行为 gross misconduct22. 正式诉讼 formal proceedings23. 负民事责任incur civil liability24. 美国律师协会的“法官行为准则”The American Bar Association’s Code of Judical Conduct25. 私人开业律师 private practitioner26. 重罪felony27. 轻罪misdemeaner28. 审查案件的事实并作出判决 review the facts of a case and render a disposition29. 终审法院 court of last resort30. 司法巡回区judicial circuit31. 保释金 bond32. 预审听证 preliminary hearings33. 杀人 homicide34. 强奸 sexual assault35. 累犯 repeat offenders36. 惯犯 habitual offenders37. 驳回上诉 deny the petition for appeals38. 发回重审remand the case back to the lower court for reconsideration39.行使广泛的自由裁量权 exercise wide discretion overLesson Five Constitution1. 法律分类 classification of law2. 普通法Common Law衡平法 Equity3. 实体法 substantive law程序法 procedural law4. 公法public law私法private law5. 联邦条例 Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union(1977年，美国联邦会议通过，美国最早的宪法性法律文件)6. 宪法修正条款amendments7. 人权法案 the Bill of Rights（美国1787宪法前十条修正条款的合称）8. 宪法至上原则 doctrine of constitution supremacy9. 基本法 fundamental law10. 通过投票选举来表示其意思 express their will through the ballot box11. 严重不法行为 extreme misconduct12. 渎职行为 malfeasance13. 弹劾程序 process of impeachment14. 第二条第四款 article II, section415. 弹劾案 bill of impreachment16. 众议院 House of Representatives17. 参议院 Senate18. 严厉措施 drastic measure19. 众议院司法委员会House Judiciary Committee20. 生效 enter into force21. 无效 have no force22. 司法解释 judicial interpretation23. 叁权分立 separation of powers24. 制衡原则 checks and balance25. 滥用职权 excesses26. 行政法令合条例 executive acts and regulations27. 马伯里诉麦迪逊案 case of Marbury vs Madison28. 司法审查原则the doctrine of judicial review29. 合宪性 constitutionality30. 酸度测试/严格检验 acid test31. 否决 veto32. 特赦grant pardons for33. 拨款 appropriate funds for34. （法规、条约等的）序言、导言preamble35. 联邦条例 Articles of Confederation36. 权力的滥用 excessive power37. 英国普通法中的“自然正义原则”principles of “Natural Justice” under British Common Law。
法律英语_教材汉翻英答案(完整版)
《法律英语》课后“汉翻英”答案 (完整版)Lesson One1）Common law is the law developed by judges through decisions of courts and similar tribunals.2) Equity is a type of law that developed in parallel with common law since the end of the 14th century, which applies to civil cases and is one of the sources of the common-law system.3) In the U.S., one of the functions of the federal courts is to interpret federal statutes and the constitution.4) The civil-law system mainly prevails in continental Europe as well as other countries and regions heavily influenced by continental European countries.5) Before the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure was promulgated in 1938, the federal courts of the United States procedurally separated law and equity. Lesson Two1) Private law regulates the relationship between individuals whiles public law concerns the relationship between person (including natural persons and artificial persons) and the state.2) Codification is not the essential difference between the civil-law system and the common-law system.3) In many civil-law jurisdictions, precedents are not considered as binding.4) Domestic law is different from international law in that domestic law refers to the laws within a given state which regulates the acts of individuals and other legal entities within its jurisdiction.5) Substantial law refers to laws that define and recognize rights and obligations as well as duties and responsibilities while procedural law refers to laws that provides for the mechanism for the realization or performance of rights and duties as well as duties and responsibilities.Lesson Three1) In some countries alcoholic beverages are prohibited from being sold to children.2) Since the 1980s, China has set up and improved the employment service system, which includes employment introduction, employment training, unemployment insurance and employment services.3) Various forms of resistance to desegregation were prevailing in those years.4) It is unjust and unlawful to discriminate against people of other races.5) Just as individuals in a democratic country have equal voting rights regardless of whether they are rich or poor, powerful or weak, all countries in the General Assembly have the same voting rights.Lesson Four1) A crime is an act which may lead to the imposition of punishment.2) Some reports accused BP of criminal negligence in the oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico.3) Modern U.S. criminal law provides that there must be clear definition for all the constituting elements of each and every crime.4) Generally those who provide assistance to people in their criminal act are punishable as accessories or accomplices.5) Failure to act may be punished where the person is under a duty to act. Lesson Five1) Parties to a contract shall fully perform their obligations in accordance with the stipulations of the contract.2) A contract is an agreement between parties which creates, modifies or terminates a civil relationship. A contract established in accordance with law is protected by law.3) A citizen or a legal person shall bear civil liabilities for his failure to fulfill his contractual or other obligations.4) No modification or revocation of a contract may prejudice the parties’claims for damages.5) For a party’s non-performance or his performance unfaithful to the contractual stipulations, the other party to a contract is entitled to demand specific performance or other remedies, and also, compensation for the resulted losses.Lesson Seven1) One who is at fault for infringing upon the civil right or interest of another person shall be subject to the tort liability.2) Where a defective product causes any harm to another person, the manufacturer shall assume the tort liability.3) One who shall assume the tort liability for infringing upon the civil right or interest of another person, whether at fault or not, as provided for by law, shall be subject to the legal provisions in the tort law.4) Where a tort endangers the personal or property safety of another person, the victim of the tort may require the tortfeasor to assume the tort liability such as cessation of infringement, removal of obstruction and elimination ofdanger.5) A network user or network service provider who infringes upon the civil right or interest of another person through network shall assume the tort liability.Lesson Seventeen1) Before the judgment what is to be done is to dispose of the case, while after the judgment is rendered, all that remains to be done is to enforce it.2) If the matter involved in the appeal is of great importance, it ought to be submitted for review.3) There are exemptions from jury service for members of the legal profession, the police force, etc.4) Judges often require that the parties agree upon a schedule of issues so as to accelerate the trial process.5) In the High Court an official shorthand note is, unless the judge otherwise directs, taken of any evidence given orally in Court and of the summing up by the judge. Upon payment of the prescribed fee, a transcript can be made available.Lesson Eighteen1) The arbitration award shall be final and binding on both parties.2) The dispute shall be submitted for arbitration by a mutually nominated arbitrator.3) Where no settlement can be reached, the dispute shall be submitted for arbitration.4) Each party may also directly apply for arbitration to the Personnel Dispute Arbitration Commission.5) Traditionally, our contracts did not contain provisions for arbitration in a third country.。
高英第13课课件
高英第13课课件Lesson 13Britannia Rues the WavesAndrew Neilp. 231Britain’s merchant navy seldom grabs the headlines these days; it is almost a forgotten industry. Yet shipping is the essential lifeline for the nation’s economy. Ninety-nine percent of our trade in and out of the country goes by ship — and over half of it in British ships.Shipping is also a significant British success story. It earns over ￡1000 million a year in foreign exchange earnings: without our merchant fleet, the balance of payments would be permanently in deficit, despite North Sea oil. But, today this vital British industry is more in peril than ever before. On almost all the major sea routes of the world, the British fleet risks being elbowed out by stiff foreign competition.The threat comes from two main directions: from the Russians and the Eastern bloc countries who are now in the middle of a massive expansion of their merchant navies, and carving their way into the international shipping trade by severely undercutting Western shipping companies; and from the merchant fleets of the developing nations, who are bent on taking over the lion's share of the trade between Europe and Africa, Asia and the Far East -- routes in which Britain has a big stake.Today, the British fleet no longer dominates the high seas:our share of the world's merchant fleet has fallen from 40 per cent to around eight per cent. But, in terms of tonnage, the British merchant navy has continued to expand, it can now carry over two-thirds more than it could in 1914, and, almost alone among our traditional industries, shipping has remained a major success story.Unlike the rest of British industry, ship-owners invested big. In the early 1960s, the shipping companies cashed in on government grants and tax concessions. Between 1966 and 1976, British shipping lines invested at a rate of over ￡1 million a day. By the early 1970s, it seemed that, somewhere in the world, a new British ship was being launched every week. The result is that Britain has a very modern fleet: the average age of our merchant ships is only six years, and over half the fleet is under five years old. For some time now, British shipping managers have stayed ahead of the competition by investing in the most sophisticated ships.The other major factor which has played a key role in the dominance of the British merchant navy is an institution invented by the British well over 100 years ago: the "conference".In the middle of the 19th century, competition between sailing-ships and steamships became cutthroat, and price cutting ruined many long-established companies. So the ship owners got together to establish a more settled system, and they set up a system of price fixing. In other words, every possible type of cargo had a price, which all owners agreed to charge. It was, in fact, a cartel, though the British ship owners gave it the more dignified name of a "conference". The system has certainly stood the test of time. Today, there are about 300 conferences governing the trade-routes of the world,and the British still play a major role.By reducing competition, shipping conferences have taken some of the risk out of the dodgy business of moving goods by sea. They make it harder, perhaps, to make a big killing in good times, because you have to share the trade with other conference members. But they make it easier to weather the bad times, because there is no mad, competitive scramble for the available trade.By the early 1970s, bad times were just around the corner. The world shipbuilding boom reached its peak in 1973, but that was the year of the Arab-Israeli war, which was followed rapidly by the quadrupling of oil prices. By 1974, the industrialised world had begun its slide into the worst depression since the 1980s, and the shipping industry had entered its long years of crisis.The first to be affected were the oil-tanker fleets. As oil demand was cut back, charter rates plummeted, and the estuaries of the world became jammed with the steadily increasing numbers of mothball tankers. Norway and Greece suffered most. British ship owners had not become so involved in the tanker boom in the first place, so they were not so badly affected. By 1976, the slump had begun to bite into the bulk carrier trade. Bulk carriers are ships that carry dry cargo of one particular kind, such as sugar, coal or wheat, with iron ore being by far the most important. But with the world steel industry deep in the doldrums, who needed iron ore carriers? With its big bulk-carrier fleet, the British shipping industry now began to feel the pinch.Britannia ( n.) [poetic] Great Britain [诗]大不列颠rue ( v.) repent of；regret having entered into懊悔；抱憾Britannia Rues the Waves is a parody of Britain's proud boast, "Britannia Rules the Waves", a song much sung and played in the British Navy.industry ①Commercial production and sale of goods.产业，工业：商业性生产和货物销售②A specific branch of manufacture and trade 行业,制造业或商业的分支success storyan account of the achievement of success by someone or some enterprise; a person or thing that is very successful foreign exchange①Transaction of international monetary business, as between governments or businesses of different countries.国际汇兑：各国政府或商行间的国际金融业务交易②Negotiable bills drawn in one country to be paid in another country.外汇deficit ( n.) the amount by which a sum of money is less than the required amount亏损；赤字peril ( n.) exposure to harm or injury；danger (严重的)危险；冒险bloca group of countries in special allianceundercut (v．) sell at lower prices or work at lower wages than比以别人低的价格出售be bent on (doing) sth．be determined on 决心the lion's sharethe largest or best part of sth．when it isdivided最大最好的一份stakea share or an interest in an enterprise 股份：指企业的股份high seasThe open waters of an ocean beyond the limits of the territorial jurisdiction of a country 公海：一国领土管辖权以外的海洋的公共水域tonnage ( n.)the total amount of shipping of a country or port，calculated in tons (一国或一港口的)船舶总吨数cash in on sthtake advantage of or profit from sth．获得利益或利润tax concessionsa right or privilege granted by the government to be tax exempt（免除）launchTo put (a boat) into the water in readiness for use. 下水：使（船）下水以备使用institutionAn established organization or foundation, especially one dedicated to education, public service, or culture. 机构,组织或基金，特别是指为教育，公共服务或文化的目的而设立的机构sailing shiplarge wind-powered vesselcartel [kɑ:'tel] ( n.) an association of industrialists，business firms. etc．for establishing a national or international monopoly by price fixing 卡特尔，同业联盟dodgy ( adj.) unstable, unreliable不可靠的：不稳定的scramble ( n.) rough struggle；a disorderly struggle or rush 争夺，抢夺quadruple ['kw?drupl] ( v.) make or become four times as much or as many；multiply by four (使)成四倍depressiona protracted period in which business activity is far below normal and the pessimism of business and consumers is great.charterThe hiring of an aircraft, a vessel, or other vehicle 包租，包船，包机：出租飞机、轮船或其他交通工具plummet ( v.) drop drastically骤然跌落estuary ['estju?ri] ( n.) the wide part of a river where it nears the sea (江河入海的)河口mothball ( n.)① small ball of chemical pesticide used when storing clothing樟脑丸②the state of being stored，or kept in existence but not used封存保藏A tank ship, often referred to as a tanker, is a ship designed to transport liquids in bulk.slump ( n.) a decline in business activity，price，etc．(物价等)暴跌；(市场等)萧条Bulk cargo is commodity cargo that is transported unpackaged in large quantities. Bulk cargos are classified asliquid or dry.dry cargocommodities that are not liquidsdoldrums ['d?ldr?mz] ( n.) low spirits；dull，gloomy feeling 情绪低落，意志消沉；忧郁pinch ( n.) a painful，difficult circumstance困苦的处境，贫困的境地p. 234Even though the slump spread fast into most shipping sectors, the British fleet was still a long way from bankruptcy. The one area which has weathered the economic storms best is that controlled by the conferences: the scheduled freight-liner services -- and that is where Britain's fleet is strongly entrenched.Liner-freight vessels offer people who want to sendgoods by sea a regular, scheduled shipping service; they follow agreed routes, or‘lines’, and call at ports on agreed dates. For example, if I want to send a shipment of spare tractor parts from Taiwan to Bangkok, all I have to do is contact the Far East Freight Conference, and that will be able to tell me when the next liner ship will be calling at Taiwan, the exact date on which it will get to Bangkok, and the going freight rate. It is an ideal 'parcel' service for people with cargoes that are not big enough to make it worth chartering a whole ship.It is also a plus for the ship owners not to be dependent on only one customer. Liner ships carry all sorts of different cargoes -- mainly finished manufactured goods -- so, if there is a slump in one particular industry, provided there is still buoyancy in other industries, the liner fleets can still survive. That gives them a distinct advantage over oil tankers or bulk carriers, because thelatter are dependent on one or two basic raw materials. That is why Britain has remained relatively strong.Much of Britain's liner fleet rarely sees a British port. Our ships are extensive cross-traders; that is, they carry goods between foreign countries. British companies are big, for example, on the Japan-to-Australia run, and on the growing trade routes between the Far East and the Middle East, around the Persian Gulf. Until recently, those routes were highly profitable for the British companies, and a major source of foreign currency for Britain. They are also the routes on which the Third World and the Russians are out to make the biggest inroads.Most emerging countries in the Third World are out to carry a bigger share of their trade in their own ships. Developing countries regard a merchant navy as something of a status symbol -- the next thing to go for after a national airline. Singapore has expanded their fleet by 6000 percent in the last 15 years, India by 400 percent.The challenge from the Third World has always been foreseen by our shipping companies. P & O, for example, while still out to increase the total freight it carries, is planning for a gradual reduction in its percentage share of the trade with the new shipping powers of the Third World. But P & O has no intention of throwing in the towel. The key tactic behind its strategy of holding on to the richest slice of the trade has been to move up-market -- to go where the Third World cannot follow: into high-technology investment.Containers, for example, were an American invention, but it was British ship owners who put up the money to pioneer the international deep-sea container service. Containers save time, because the loading is done in the factory or warehouse, ratherthan on the dockside, and they are very secure against theft; except for a code number on the outside, there is no indication of what is inside the box. T o cash in on the container revolution, you need a sophisticated system of roads and railways, something that most Third World countries do not have: And container ships are expensive, around ￡50 million each.P & O's high-technology, high-investment strategy, however, is far from being the whole answer to the Third World threat. The developing countries are not out to compete with Western fleets by commercial means; they want to impose a set of rules which will guarantee them a major slice of the shipping trade. This demand has found official expression in the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, UNCTAD. The UNCTAD liner code lays down that between two trading partners, 80 per cent of the freight should be split equally between their respective merchant fleets. That leaves only 20 per cent to go into the numerous cross-traders, all fighting for a share, and it is on these cross-trades that British liner companies earn 40 per cent of their revenue. Not enough countries have ratified the UNCTAD code yet to bring it into force. But if it does become universal, it could strike a severe blow to Britain's liner trade.The Iron Curtain countries represent an even greater and more organised threat to the future of Britain's liner ships, and it is a threat that is much more difficult to counter.Russia has expanded its cargo-liner fleet far faster than the growth in either its own trade or world trade would justify. Today, it has the largest liner fleet in the world and another one million tons should come into service before 1980. And with its policy of excessively low freight rates, the Russian merchant navy hasalready made major inroads into Western trade.Russia now carries 95 per cent of its sea-borne trade with the EEC in its own ships. More important, it is biting deeply into the major cross-trading routes of the world. Eastern bloc countries -- Russia, with Poland and East Germany -- have already captured 20 per cent of the cargo traffic on the busy sea-lanes of the North Atlantic, almost 25 per cent of the trade between Europe and South America and just about the same percentage of the trade between Europe and East Africa.entrench [in'trent?] ( v．) establish securely 确保(地位等)going adj. Current; prevailing 现行的；流行的plusa favorable condition or factor 有利的情况或因素buoyancy ( n.) the property (as of price or business activity) of maintaining a satisfactory high level (物价)上涨的趋向；(生意)兴盛的趋向be out to attempt toinroad (usu．pl．) injurious intrusion on or into (通常为复数)损害，侵蚀something ofTo some extent 在某种程度上go forInformal To have a special liking for 爱好：对…特别喜欢, 努力获取Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company, a British shipping company founded in 1837throw in the toweladmit that one is defeated承认失败，认输tactican expedient (权宜之计) for achieving a goal; a maneuver.战术：为达到一个目标所采取的一项应急措施；一种策略strategyscience and art of using all the forces of a nation to execute approved plans as effectively as possible during peace or war. 战略：在和平或战争时期尽可能有效地利用一国的全部力量去实施核准的计划的科学与艺术container shipa cargo vessel specially designed and built for the carriage of cargo prepacked in containers.UNCTAD ['?nkt?d]United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, set up in 1964. UNCTAD is concerned with the fundamental problems affecting the trade of developing countries. It has its headquarters in Geneva.联合国贸易及发展会议revenue ['revinju:]n. the entire amount of income before any deductions are made总收入; 财政收入, 税收ratify v. approve and express assent 批准, 认可linerAn ocean liner is a ship designed to transport people from one seaport to another along regular long-distance maritime routes according to a schedule.Iron Curtain symbolized the ideological boundary dividing Europe into two separate areas from the end of World War II in 1945 until the end of the Cold War in 1991. On either side of the Iron Curtain, states developed their own international economic and military alliances:柏林墙EEC European Economic Community.p.237How can the Russians afford to undercut by up to 40 percent? Well, Soviet ships are not necessarily out to make a profit, in our sense of the word. The name of the game, for Russian ships, is hard currency. The Soviet Union is becoming more dependent on Western imports -- from grain to technology -- but the West will not accept roubles in payment. So Russia needs hard currencies, like the dollar, the mark or the yen, even sterling, to pay for its imports. It is these currencies Russian ships earn as cross-traders. It does not matter very much if they are operating at a loss; that can be made up by the Soviet government in roubles.But there is more to it than that for the Russians. The Soviet mercantile marine obviously acts as a support to the Soviet navy, very much as Western fleets used to do. But there are important differences. The Soviet merchant fleet, which has now been almost 20 years in growing, has developed the kinds of ships which would certainly expand the Soviet reach well beyond its perimeters. For example, much of the heavy equipment for theCubans and Angolans was brought in Soviet merchant ships. So this mercantile marine capability is certainly a great advance in the Soviet ability to project their power at some distance from their own frontiers.And this is also part of a general Soviet hydrographic policy to map the oceans of the world, to get to know the ports and, above all, to deepen contacts with the states with whom the Russians are developing close trading ties.How can Western ship owners react to undercutting of 40 per cent that would drive them out of business if they did the same?There is a limit, of course, to what any British government can do on its own. Shipping is an essentially international business, and Britain can only counter the challenges of the developing world and the Russians at an international level. But whom could we count on for support? The EEC is so divided about shipping that it is almost powerless to act. Take the challenge of the developing world. The French do not mind the UNCTAD code on liner shipping because it would help them to increase their share of the liner trade; the same is true for the Germans and the Belgians. So Britain cannot rely on concerted EEC action on that issue. As far as the Russians are concerned, Britain, along with West Germany and Denmark, has been calling for a coordinated response; the monitoring of Russian ship movements and restrictions on the number of Russian ships allowed to call at EEC ports. But, last June, the French, because of their Russian ties, blocked plans along these lines. It will be November before the question is considered again.British ship owners are so far happy with the strength of theBritish government attempts to force the EEC into action. They believe that the Trade Department, which looks after shipping, understands their problems. But they are far less sure about other government ministers, especially those in the powerful Industry Department, which oversees shipbuilding. Ship owners fear that saving jobs in Britain's ailing shipyards comes well before saving its merchant fleet.British shipyards are currently churning out 24 vessels for Poland. The Poles were lured to Britain by the gift of a￡28 million subsidy and the promise that British shipbuilders would raise all the credit; so while our shipping fleet is under attack from communist ships, our government is using British taxpayers' money to cut their shipbuilding costs. We are doing the same for developing countries' fleets. India is now a major Third World shipping power, yet Britain is to build six ships for the Indians -- for nothing.In the end, British companies could be driven out of shipping altogether. Some, such as P & O, have already moved into other fields, from house building to oil. Smaller shipping lines do not have the resources to diversify. They face extinction. And when they go, so does a huge slice of the few traditional industries worth keeping.(from The Listener, August, 1978)up to as many asname of the game n. Slang The essential or indispensablepart or quality necessary for success of an activity or the fulfillment of a goal 事情的要点：为了某项活动或事业的成功基本的或必需的部分或特性hard currency n. 硬通货（货币）rouble ( n.) the monetary of the Soviet Union卢布(苏联货币单位)sterling ( n.) British money英国货币mercantile ['m?:k?ntail] ( adj. ) of merchants or trade；commercial商人的；贸易的；商业的perimeter [p?'rimit?] ( n.) the outer boundary of a figure or area；circumference周边；周围hydrographic [.haidr?u'gr?fik] ( adj.) of the study，description，and mapping of oceans，lakes，and rivers 水文学的,水文地理学的on one’s ownadv. 独自地, 独立地, 主动地concerted [k?n's?:tid]Planned or accomplished together 共同计划或完成的We made a concerted effort to solve the problem.我们一起努力解决了这个问题coordinate v. bring into common action 协调, 整合; 使一致blockTo stop or impede the passage of or movement through; obstruct妨碍，阻止；阻碍DepartmentA principal administrative division of a government政府部门：政府主要的行政部门shipyardA yard where ships are built or repaired船坞,建造或修理船只的工场, 造船厂；修船厂ailing (adj.) in poor health；sickly患病的churn outproduce a large quantity of sth．; produce in quantity without quality 大量生产出；大量地粗制滥造subsidymonetary assistance granted by a government to a person or group in support of an enterprise regarded as being in the public interest. 补助金：政府给予个人或团体被看作是有益于公众的事业的津贴diversify v.To spread out activities or investments, especially in business. 多样化：尤指在商业中从事多种活动或投资NOTES1) Britannia Rues the Waves: This is a parody of Britain's proud boast, "Britannia Rules the Waves"."Rule, Britannia" is a famous naval song much sung and played in the British Navy from the date of its first performance in 1740 to the present day, and generally recognized today as the official march of the Royal Navy. It was written by James Thomson and set to music by Dr. Thomas Arne (1740). The song runs like this:When Britain first, at Heaven's command,Arose from out the azure main,This was the charter of her land,And guardian angels sang the strain:Rule, Britannia! Britannia, rules the waves!Britons never shall be slaves.The author means that today, instead of ruling the waves, Britain is sorry that it has lost its dominance on the high seas.2) Andrew Neil: writing on industrial and labour affairs for the ‘Economist'3) North Sea Oil: oil produced from the British sector of the Continental Shelf under the North Sea. Oil was first discovered under the bed of the North Sea in 1970 and production began in 1975.4) tax concessions: a right or privilege granted by the government to be tax exempt5) depression: a protracted period in which business activity is far below normal and the pessimism of business and consumers is great. It is characterized by a sharp curtailment of production, little capital investment, a contraction of credit, mass unemployment and low employment, and a very high rate of business failures.6) doldrums: the belt of calm which lies inside the trade winds of the northern and southern hemisphere. This area, which lies close to the equator except in the western Pacific where it is south of the equator, had great significance during those years when the trade of the world was carried by sailing ships. The term is also used to signify a state of depression or stagnation, an analogy of the general depression of the crews of ships lying motionless while in the areas of the doldrums, unable to find wind to fill their sails.7) dry cargo: commodities that are not liquids8) liner: a ship belonging to a shipping company whichcarries passengers on scheduled routes. A cargo liner is a cargo-carrying vessel with accommodation for a few passengers.9) P & O: Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company, founded in 1840, world-wide passenger service10) container ship: a cargo vessel specially designed and built for the carriage of cargo prepacked in containers. With a standardized size of container, holding 18 tons of cargo, holds and deck spaces can be designed exactly to accommodate containers, leading to greater ease and efficiency in stowage and the eradication of much of the danger of the cargo shifting during heavy weather at sea.11) UNCTAD: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, set up as an organ of the UN General Assembly by a resolution of December 1964. UNCTAD is concerned with the fundamental problems affecting the trade of developing countries. It has its headquarters in Geneva.12) Iron Curtain: referring to the Soviet Union and the eastern European countries in the capitalist press, first used by Churchill in his speech at Fulton, Missouri, 5 March 1946: "From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. "13) EEC: European Economic Community, established by treaty signed at Rome March 25, 1957, effective January 1, 1958. EEC headquarters are in Brussels and it comprises a Council of Ministers, an executive Commission, and the Assembly and Court of Justice词汇(Vocabulary)Britannia ( n.) :[poetic]Great Britain or the British Islands[诗]大不列颠；不列颠群岛rue ( v.) :repent of；regret having entered into：wish nonexistent懊悔；抱憾deficit ( n.) :the amount by which a sum of money is less than the required amount亏空，亏损；赤字peril ( n.) :exposure to harm or injury；danger；jeopardy (严重的)危险；冒险undercut (v．) :sell goods more cheaply or work for smaller wages than(sb．doing the same)；sell at lower prices or work at lower wages than比以别人低的价格出售(商品)；索价低于他人tonnage ( n.) :the total amount of shipping of a country or port，calculated in tons(一国或一港口的)船舶总吨数cartel ( n.) :an association of industrialists，business firms. etc．for establishing a national or international monopoly by price fixing，ownership of controlling stock，etc．[经]卡特尔dodgy ( adj.) :[BrE] risky and possibly dangerous[英]冒险的；危险的scramble ( n.) :rough struggle；a disorderly struggle or rush 争夺，抢夺quadruple ( v.) :make or become four times as much or as many；multiply by four(使)成四倍；以四乘plummet ( v.) :drop drastically垂直落下；骤然跌落estuary ( n.) :an inlet or arm of the sea；the wide mouth of a river where the tide meets the current(江河人海的)河口，港湾moth-ball ( n.) :①marble-sized balls of naphthalene. stored with clothes (esp．woolens)to repel moths；②the state of being stored，or kept in existence but not used①樟脑丸；卫生球②封存；保藏slump ( n.) :a decline in business activity，price，etc．(物价等)暴跌；(市场等)萧条doldrums ( n.) :low spirits；dull，gloomy，listless feeling情绪低落，意志消沉；忧闷，忧郁，忧愁pinch ( n.) :a painful，difficult，or straitened circumstance困苦的处境，贫困的境地entrench ( v．) :establish securely(used in passive voice or with a reflexive pronoun)确保(地位等)；确立(用于被动语态或与反身代词连用)inroad ( n.) :(usu．pl．)injurious intrusion on or into；influence of one party that undermines that of another(通常为复数)损害，侵蚀buoyancy ( n.) :the property(as of price or business activity)of maintaining a satisfactory high level(物价)上涨的趋向；(生意)兴盛的趋向rouble ( n.) :the monetary of the former Soviet Union卢布(前苏联货币单位)sterling ( n.) :British money英国货币mercantile ( adj. ) :of or characteristic of merchants or trade；commercial商人的；贸易的；商业的perimeter ( n.) :the outer boundary of a figure or area；circumference周；周边；周围hydrographic ( adj.) :of the study，description，and mapping of oceans，lakes，and rivers，esp. with reference to their navigational and commercial uses水文学的；水文测验学的；水文地理学的(尤指水道测量学)ailing (adj.) :in poor health；sickly患病的；病痛的churn ( adj.) :(used in churn out)produce a large quantity of sth．; produce in quantity without quality；produce in a regular flow without much thought or expression，usu．with some abundance(用于churn out) 大量生产出；大量地粗制滥造；大量写出短语 (Expressions)be bent on(doing)sth．: be determined on(a coupe of action)决心采取(某行动)例： He is bent on winning at all costs．他决心不惜一切去争取胜利。
法律英语资料
Lesson One Legal systemPart one:Legal phrases1．Report (Law reports) 判例汇编：报道人reporter对于级别较高的法庭审理中的司法程序、案件事实陈述、当事人辩论、法庭判决及理由、法官的同意、反对意见等予以记载的出版物。
United States Reports 美国最高法院判例汇编2．United States Supreme Court / Supreme Court of the United States 联邦最高法院Chief Justice 首席大法官associate Justices大法官3．Case law : caselaw or case-law 判例法Case Law System 判例法系judge-made law法官造法Common law普通法local custom 地方习惯法statutory law /written law 制定法Anglo-American legal system英美法系civil law legal system/ continental law legal system大陆法系equity law横平法Chancellor’ court \ Equity’s court 衡平法院canon / church law教会法4．Writ令状Writs of right权利令状Prerogative Writs特权令状Original writs 诉讼开始令状Judicial writs司法令状Provision of Oxford 牛津条例Writ upon the Case个案条例5．stare decisis 遵循先例6．Court rules法院规则7．Direct sources 直接渊源Indirect sources 间接渊源8．Legal system 法律制度、法律体系9．Written constitution\ragid constitution 成文宪法/刚性宪法unwritten constitution\flexible constitution 不成文宪法/柔性宪法10.federal system 联邦制confeeral system邦联制11.itinerant judge巡回法官12.form of action诉讼形式13.Recourse to law诉诸法律14.jury trial\trial by jury陪审团审grand jury大陪审团lay people 外行bench trial法官审Verdict(award)陪审团的裁决General verdict 概括性裁断，即确定原告胜诉还是被告胜（civil cases）;被告有罪还是无罪（criminal cases）Special verdict特别裁断(few special cases）陪审团仅对案件中的特定事项进行裁决，而将对该事实适用法律的问题留给法官解决Unanimous verdict 一致裁断Majority verdict 多数裁断15．Real property \real estate \immovable property不动产movable property 动产Part two: Legal SayingEquity saying:Equity corrects error .Equity corrects a law which is too board in that particular or in which it is defective .Equity doesn’t make the law , but assists the law .Equity acts in personam .Chancellor’s footLesson 2 Legal professionLesson 3 Legal EducationLesson4 Judicial SystemPart1:Legal Phrase:1.the Bar法律职业/律师职业Lawyer法律职业者2.ABA (American Bar Association )美国律师协会Attorney (counsellor)律师Attorney 检察官3.SJD (Doctor of Juridical Science)法学博士LLM(Master of Laws) 法学硕士JD (Juris Doctor) 法律博士Teaching methods :Lecture method , Case method ,Socratic methodTypes of lawyers in private practice :single practitioner / partnership / corporation4．House counsel/Corporate counsel 公司法律顾问5．independent counsel 独立检察官制度6．Double-track system双轨制court of appeals上诉法院trial court 审判法院/基层法院Federal district court 联邦地区法院Three-tiered model 三级模式7.Barrister(英)大律师solicitors（英）小律师Part 2:Uncomplimentary synonymsAmbulance chaserShysterPettifogger（pettifogging shyster）Philadelphia lawyerLegal eagleHired gunLip (mouthpiece)Part 3: Legal saying:saying: When the law is on your side, you pound on the law; when the facts is on your side ,you pound on the facts; when neither the law nor the facts is on your side , you pound on the table.Part 4: Court MovieTo killing a mocking bird, 1962 the Paper Chaser(1973)w(1980S)Movie:the practice(1990s)Lesson 5 ConstitutionPart1:Legal Phrase:1.Mayflower Compact五月花公约In the name of God, Amen.We whose names are underwritten, the loyal subjects of our dread sovereign Lord, King James, by the grace of God, of Great Britain, France and Ireland king, defender of the faith, etc., having undertaken, for the glory of God, and advancement of the Christian faith, and honor of our king and country, a voyage to plant .既是清教徒的自治公约,也是Plymouth殖民地的基本法规。
法律英语学习(英汉对照)
1. The National People’s Congress is the highest organ of state power. 全国人民代表大会是最高国家权力机关。
2. The judicial organs of China consist of people’s courts，people’s procurator and the public security departments. 我国的司法机关由人民法院人民检查院和公安部门组成。
3. In the application of the law all citizens are deemed as equals. 一切公民在适用法律上一律平等。
4. The criminal law is one of the basic laws of our country. 刑法是我国基本法之一。
5. Criminal responsibility shall be borne for intentional crimes. 故意犯罪应当负刑事责任6. In China，the principal penalties are p ublic surveillance，detention，fixed-time imprisonment，life imprisonment and death. 我国的主要刑罚是管制，拘役，有期徒刑，无期徒刑和死刑7. The court’s job is administering justice and upholding the law. 法院的任务是执行法律和维护法律。
8. The accused was declared innocent. 被告人被宣布为无罪。
9. The court acquitted him of a crime. 法院宣判他无罪。
10. The court pronounced the accused not guilty. 法院宣判被告无罪。
法律英语
1.a writ of execution
2.judgement creditor
3。garnishment
4.judgement debtor判决债务人
5.dispose of 处理
6.attachment财产保全
7.exempt from使。。。免受
8.set aside保全程序
20.federal question（jurisdiction）联邦问题（管辖权）
21.the us courts of appeals美国法院的上诉
22.the court of appeals for the district上诉法庭区
23.the court of appeals for the federal circuit联邦巡回上诉法院
erning law适用法律，准据法
23.the operation of the judicial process
司法过程的运行
lesson two
1.choice of law 法律的选择
2.multi—state transactions跨洲交易、事项
3.substantive rights实体权利
13.summons 传票
14.affirmative defense 积极抗辩
15.counter—claim 反诉
16.on one’s part就某人而言，在某人一方
17.give notice to 通知
18.under penalty of 违者以。。。惩治
19. in essence 实质上
4.choice of forum选择法院
法律英语(何家弘编-第四版)课文翻译(1-20课)
第一课美国法律制度介绍第一部分特征与特点美国既是一个非常新的国家也是一个非常老的国家。
与许多别的国家相比它是一个新的国家。
同时，它还因新人口成分和新州的加入而持续更新，在此意义上，它也是新国家。
但是在其它的意义上它是老国家。
它是最老的“新”国家——第一个由旧大陆殖民地脱胎而出的国家。
它拥有最古老的成文宪法、最古老的持续的联邦体制以及最古老的民族自治实践。
美国的年轻（性）有一个很有意思的特点就是它的历史肇始于印刷机发明之后。
因此它的整个历史都得以记录下来：确实可以很有把握地说，任何其它国家都没有像美国这样全面的历史记录，因为像在意大利、法国或者英国过去的传说中湮没的那样的事件在美国都成了有文字记载的历史之一部分。
而且其记录不仅全面，还非常浩繁。
不仅包括这个国家自1776年以来的殖民时期的记录，还有当前五十个州以及各州和联邦（nation）之间错综复杂的关系网络的历史记录。
因此，据一个非常简单的例子，美国最高法院判例汇编有大约350卷，而一些州的判例汇编也几乎有同样多的卷数：想研究美国法律史的读者要面对的是超过5000巨卷的司法案例。
我们不能说一个文件或几个文件就能揭示出一国人民或其政府的特性。
但如果横跨一百多年的千百万个文件敲出始终如一的音调，我们就有理由说这就是其主调。
当千百万个文件都以同样的方式去解决同样的中心问题，我们就有理由从中得出可以被称为国民特定的确定结论。
第二部分普通法和衡平法同英国一样，美国法律制度从方法论上来说主要是一种判例法制度。
许多私法领域仍然主要是由判例法构成，广泛而不断增长的制定法一直受制于有约束力的（解释制定法的）判例法。
因此，判例法方法的知识以及使用判例法的技巧对于理解美国法律和法律方法是极其重要的。
从历史的角度来看，普通法就是由英国皇家法院的巡回法官的判决所得出的普通的一般法——优于地方法。
采纳或执行某项诉讼请求是以存在法院令状这种特殊形式的诉为前提的，而这就使最初的普通法表现为由类似于古罗马法的“诉”所构成的体系。
法律英语汉译英(专业词汇部分)
法律英语汉译英（专业词汇部分）Unit One第一课美国联邦下的法律1.成文法statutory law★2.普通法common law3.判例法case law4.立法机构legislature5.法院court6.宪法Constitution7.立法权law-making power8.私法private law9.合同法contract law10.侵权法tort law11.商法business law12.公司法corporate governance law13.专利和版权patent and copyright14.合同/契约争议contractual disputes15.刑事案件criminal case16.民事案件civil case17.民事侵权诉讼civil tort actions18.家庭法family law19.法律选择choice of law20.多个司法管辖区multi-jurisdiction21.诉讼litigation/lawsui t/suit/action★22.实体权substantive right23.准据法/适用法applicable/governing/proper law★24.签订conclude25.证券欺诈案件 a case include claims of securities fraud26.履行perform27.履行地performance28.受理/处理案件to hear the case★29.原告plaintiff★30.被告defendant★31.与合同最密切联系most involved with the contract32.选择法庭choice of forum第二课双重法院体系1.司法的judicial2.初审法庭trial court3.终审法院court of last resort★4.上诉法院court of appeals5.上诉，申诉appeal…to6.证人witness7.证据evidence8.陪审团jury9.查明事实的人，事实发现者fact-finder10.上诉的，有权受理上诉的appellate11.遗嘱probate12.小额诉讼法院small claims court13.律师attorney14.程序procedure15.提出（申请）file★16.申请小额索赔file claims for small sums of money17.定罪conviction★18.仲裁人，公断人，裁决人arbiter19.最高法院the Supreme Court20.先例procedureUnit Two第一课抗辩制1.上诉人appellant2.被上诉人appellee3.诉由,案由cause of action★4.向某人提起诉讼，到法院告某人to bring an action/lawsuit against sb.5.第三那人被告third-party defendant6.庭审程序trial procedure★7.英美法系国家的司法程序Anglo-American judicial procedure8.认定事实find the fact9.证据submission10.抗辩制adversary system11.提起诉讼begin suit12.界定争议shape the issues13.出示证据produce evidence14.争议当事人parties to the controversy15.纠问的inquisitorial16.庭前调查pre-trial investigation17.大陆法传统civil law tradition18.庭辩风格style of presentation and argument19.有利害关系的当事人interested parties第二课开启一个诉讼1.起诉sue2.诉讼当事人litigant3.司法救济，救济；减轻，缓解relief4.提供法律救助to furnish a relief5.纠正，补偿redress6.诉诸法院bring to court★7.和解settlement★8.仲裁arbitration9.自力救济self-help10.搁置纠纷let matters rest11.损害赔偿damages★12.实际履行specific performance13.对事管辖权jurisdiction over the subject matter14.对人管辖权jurisdiction over the parties15.管辖权jurisdiction16.违约之诉damages for breach of contract17.法庭forum18.最低限度联系minimum contacts19.实体公正substantial justice20.审判地venue21.规定（援引法条）provide/read第三课诉状和对抗诉状的动议1.诉状pleading2.起诉状complaint3.向法院提交诉讼状或答辩状/办理立案to file a pleading/lawsuit with the court4.陈述，阐明to set forth5.书记员clerk6.传票summons7.出具传票to issue a summons8.向某人送达传票、起诉书、法律文书to serve a summons, complaint, legal document on sb.9.通知notify10.同意出庭an entry of appearance11.指控，声称allegation12.成为争议问题put in issue13.积极抗辩affirmative defense14.反诉counterclaim15.(用辩解)减轻extenuate16.未到庭，未履行义务to be in default17.驳回dismiss18.传票送达service of process/service of summons19.法律上的充分性legal sufficiency20. 提出异议，反对challenge第四课调查取证1.庭前取证，调查pre-trial discovery2.录取证词，宣誓证明depose3.证词笔录,书证deposition4.宣誓under oath5.书面质询written interrogatories6.人身伤害案件personal injury case7.保持中立take no part8.意外因素surprise element9.争议controversy。
法律英语参考译文 完整版Lesson1-16
咦它包括了大量不成文法而著称，反映了几个世纪以来，来源于法律工作者的判 决的判例。
（普通法）这一术语有三个重要的涵义。第一层涵义用以区别颁布具体法律 的权力：例如在美国，“法”通常由立法机关制定，“规章”由行政机关根据立法 机关规定的立法授权来颁布，而“普通法”的判决则是由讨论和判定法和规章间 细微差异的法院（或行政机构内的准司法法庭）作出。
因此，罗马法并没有控制整个欧洲，它是一种只有在当地习俗和法律于特定 问题缺乏恰当规定的时候才被适用的辅助性资源。然而，当地规则主要是一句罗 马法来诠释的，这导致罗马法仍然是主导法律。
超出罗马法这一基础的范围的第二大特征就是对已被采纳的罗马法的延伸 编纂，即把它纳入市民法典。作为对自然法和启蒙思想两者的表达，法典编纂的 观念在 17 到 18 世纪发展尤为迅速。那个世纪的政治思想被表达为民族观念。对 财产的保护和法治。那种理想需要通过法律的记录、法律的统一来形成法律的确 定行，因此，上述的罗马法和习惯的当地的法律的融合不存在了，而法律编纂的 前景可观，这对达成上述的政治理想的目的有促进作用。
法律是一个动态的过程。它是流动的、不断变化的并且持续扩展的。在一定 程度上，法律与语言近似。它包含规则并有一种模式，但是法律随着其使用超过 一段时间而改变。理解法律最好的方法是将法律体系视为一种过程——汇集社会 的需要和目标、并将其转化为行为公平和合理的一种方式。法庭通过司法判例来 反映控制力和重要的社会、经济、政治目标以及它们在运行过程中社会的需求。
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Lesson 1 law（法律）
每个政府都是它的人民的代表。法律也一样。一个社会的法律和法律体系反 映了人们的价值观。一个国家法律的公正以及它法律制度恰当地规定的法律范围 的正当，是人民开明、仁爱（人性）和文明程度的衡量标准。
法律英语课件
Lesson One Modern Legal Education1 French lawyers are trained in universities, and English barristers, on the other hand, enter the profession as members of one of four Inns of Court, which are combinations of a law school and professional organization法国律师是在大学里培养出来的，而英国的大律师是作为四大律师学院之一的成员进入律师这一行的，这些律师学院是由法学院和专业组织组成的。
2 Today, American legal education is almost uniformly postgraduate professional education at a formal law school, usually affiliated with a university. And a degree from an ap proved law school is common requirement for admission to the bar, although the apprenticeship route is still open, theoretically, in a number of states.今天，美国的法律教育几乎统一都是在正式的法学院进行大学后职业教育，这所法学院通常隶属于一个大学。
得到经美国律师协会批准的法学院的学位是进入律师行业的通常要求，尽管在理论上许多州仍允许存在经过学徒期成为律师这样的路径3 State university law school tend to concentrate on thetraditional law courses: contracts, torts, constitutional law, procedure, property, wills, trust and estates, corporation, partnerships, agency, international law, maritime law, labor law, administrative law.州立大学法学院往往注重传统课程：合同法，宪法，程序法，财产，遗嘱，信托和财产，公司，合伙，代理，国际法，海商法，劳动法，行政法。
《法律英语教案》课件
《法律英语教案》PPT课件一、教案概述本教案旨在通过学习法律英语，使学生能够理解和运用法律专业术语，提高法律文件阅读和翻译能力，了解基本的法律体系和法律原则。
培养学生具备一定的法律英语听说能力，以便在实际工作中能够熟练运用法律英语进行沟通和交流。
二、教学目标1. 知识目标：掌握一定数量的法律英语专业词汇；了解主要法律体系和法律原则；学会阅读和理解法律文件及合同。
2. 技能目标：能够运用法律英语进行日常沟通和交流；具备一定的法律英语翻译能力；能够分析和解决法律问题。
3. 情感目标：培养对法律英语学习的兴趣；增强学生的法律意识，提高法律素养。
三、教学内容第一单元：法律英语基础1. 法律英语概述2. 法律英语词汇特点3. 法律英语语法特点第二单元：法律体系与法律原则1. 主要法律体系简介2. 法律原则概述3. 法律原则在实践中的应用第三单元：法律文件与合同1. 法律文件的基本结构2. 法律文件常用条款3. 合同的订立与解除第四单元：法律诉讼程序1. 民事诉讼程序2. 刑事诉讼程序3. 行政诉讼程序第五单元：法律英语听说训练1. 法律英语日常用语2. 法律英语场景对话3. 法律英语听说技巧四、教学方法采用讲授法、案例分析法、情景模拟法、小组讨论法等相结合的教学方法，充分调动学生学习的积极性和主动性，提高学生法律英语实际运用能力。
五、教学评价1. 平时成绩：包括课堂参与、作业完成、小组讨论等，占总成绩的30%；2. 期中测试：包括词汇、语法、阅读理解、翻译等，占总成绩的30%；3. 期末考试：包括法律英语知识、实务操作、听说能力等，占总成绩的40%。
六、教学资源1. 教材：《法律英语教程》2. 辅助材料：法律案例、法律文献、法律英语词汇卡片3. 教学工具：PPT课件、投影仪、计算机、音响设备4. 网络资源：法律英语相关网站、论坛、在线词典七、教学安排1. 课时：48课时（每课时45分钟）2. 授课方式：每周两次课，每次课2课时3. 教学进度：按照教案安排进行，根据实际情况调整八、教学实践1. 法律英语角：组织学生进行法律英语角活动，让学生在实际交流中提高法律英语能力2. 法律英语竞赛：举办法律英语知识竞赛，激发学生学习兴趣，检验学生学习成果3. 法律案例分析：让学生分组分析真实法律案例，提高学生法律实务能力九、教学反思1. 定期对学生进行教学满意度调查，了解学生对教学方法的认可程度2. 及时收集学生反馈，针对问题调整教学方法和策略3. 加强师资培训，提高自身教学水平和能力十、教学总结1. 学期末组织学生进行法律英语知识测试，评估教学效果2. 总结教学经验，不断完善教学方法和手段3. 鼓励学生继续深入学习法律英语，为未来职业生涯奠定坚实基础重点和难点解析一、教案概述难点解析：确保教学目标符合学生的学习水平和期望，具备可操作性和可评估性。
《法律英语》知识点归纳
unit 1lesson11.A basic purpose of law in our society is to maintain order and to resolvedisputes. For this purpose we make laws to define our rights and duties and prescribe what we should and should not do.在我们的社会里，法律的一个基本目的是维持秩序、解决争议。
为此目的我们制定法律，以界定权利义务，规定我们应做什么不应做什么。
6.If deals with wrongful acts against a person or his property and is based on the theory that in a civilized society, people who injure others or their property must compensate them for their loss.它(侵权法)处理危害人身或财产的过错行为，它的理论依据是:在文明社会里,危害他人或他人财产者必须赔偿损失。
9.The phrase “sources of law”is used to describe methods and procedures by which law is created and developed,or the origin from which particular lawsderive their authority or coercive force. “法的渊源”这一术语用以描述法律形成和发展的方法和程序，或特定法律获取权威和强制力的源头。
T1.There are many ways to define law, but no single definition is completely satisfactory.w brings about changes in society, so it is an instrument of change.F5. Judicial decisions are an important source of law in France and Germany.w can be___defined___ in different ways according to its different __puqxjses____ .3. Even if the court ____imposes____ a fine （罚款）on him, the judgment will notbe ____enforceable_____ because he is too poor to pay.7. Substantive laws define rights while procedural laws ___establish,___ procedures by which rights are ___protected___ and enforced.9. Public laws ___affect,___ the public generally, while ___private___ laws deal with the relationship between___individuals___ 。
法律英语单词[带音标]
![法律英语单词[带音标]](https://img.taocdn.com/s3/m/7dad3c768762caaedc33d413.png)
法律英语单词[带音标]Lesson 1 Lawjustice ['dʒʌstis] n. 司法,正义,公正（上诉法庭的法官）enforce [in'fɔ:s] v. 执行（厉行,强迫）penalize ['pi:nəlaiz] v. 处罚（宣告有罪,使不利）anarchy n. 无政府状态（混乱）judicial [dʒu(:)'diʃəl] a.司法的（法庭的,公正的,审判上的）procedural [prə'si:dʒərəl] a. 程序的relief [ri'li:f] n.救济（减轻,解除）petition [pi'tiʃən] v. 请求remedy ['remidi] n. 救济equity ['ekwiti] n. 衡平法，公平plaintiff ['pleintif] n. 原告【defendant [di'fend?nt] n. 被告complaint [kəm'pleint] n. 诉状decree [di'kri:] n. 法令,判决jurisprudence [,dʒuəris'pru:dəns]n.（英）法律体系（法律学,法学）enact [i'nækt] v. 颁布（法律）statute ['stætju:t] n. 法令,法规antitrust a. 反托拉斯的ordinance ['ɔ:dinəns] n. 法令,条例dealings ['di:liŋz]n. 交易、行为senate ['senit] n. 参议院，上院Lesson 2 Legal Systemcodify ['kɔdifai, 'kəu-] v. 使法典化，法典，编纂democracy [di'mɔkrəsi] n. 民主（民主制,民主国家）precedent [pri'si:dənt] n. 先例,判例jurist ['dʒuərist] n. 法官，律师，法律学者delegation [,deli'geiʃən] n. 授权promulgate ['prɔməlgeit] v. 公布tribunal [tri'bju:nl, trai-] n. 法庭executive [ig'zekjutiv] a. 行政的statutory ['stætjut(ə)ri] a. 成文法的,法定的damages n. 损害赔偿金amendment n. 修正案trust [trʌst] n. 信托，托管财产injunction [in'dʒʌŋkʃən] n. 禁止令，禁令jury ['dʒuəri] n. 陪审团trial ['traiəl] n. 审判guarantee [,gærən'ti:] n. 保障,担保analogy n. 类推default [di'fɔ:lt] n. 不履约，不到庭investigate [in'vestigeit] v. 调查,侦查advocate ['ædvəkit] n. 辩护人，律师Lesson 3 Legal Educationprofessional [prə'feʃənl] n. 专业人员substantive ['sʌbstəntiv] a. 独立的,规定doctrine ['dɔktrin] n. 原则，学说jurisprudence [,dʒuəris'pru:dəns] n. 法理，法理学bar n. 律师业，律师pretrial [pri:'traiəl] a. 审判前的client ['klaiənt] n. 委托人counseling ['kaunsəliŋ]n. 咨询服务negotiation [ni,gəuʃi'eiʃən] n. 谈判,协商attorney [ə'tə:ni] n. (美) 律师，代理人prosecutor ['prɔsikju:tə] n. 检察官litigation [,liti'geiʃən] n. 诉讼discrimination [dis,krimi'neiʃən n. 歧视institution [,insti'tju:ʃən] n. 制度Lesson 4 Court Systemhearing ['hiəriŋ]n. 审判，听审，听证会accuse [ə'kju:z] v. 控告，控诉release [ri'li:s] v. 释放justice ['dʒʌstis] n. 正义,公正，上诉法庭的法官delinquency [di'liŋkwənsi] n.（青少年）不法行为,犯罪injury ['indʒəri] n.伤害appellate [ə'pelət] a. 控诉的,上诉的reversal [ri'və:səl] n. 撤销prosecution [,prɔsi'kju:ʃən] n.指控try [trai] n. 审判，审理discretion [dis'kreʃən] n.自由裁量权arbiter ['a:bitə] n. 裁决人Lesson 5 Constitutionconstitution[,kɔnsti'tju:ʃən] n.宪法abide [ə'baid] v. 遵守charter ['tʃɑ:tə] n.宪章,特许状legislate ['ledʒis,leit] v. 立法ratify['rætifai] v. 批准ultra vires ['ʌltrə] [拉] 超越权限，越权congress ['kɔŋgres] n. 国会justification [dʒʌstifi'keiʃ(ə)n] n. 理由judiciary[dʒu(:)'diʃiəri] n. 司法部门,法院系统regulate['regjuleit] v. 调整，控制convention [kən'venʃən] n.惯例legitimacy[l i'dʒitiməsi] n. 合法性，合理性supremacy n.最高权力unconstitutional a.不符合宪法的referendum [,refə'rendəm] n. 公民投票parliament ['pɑ:ləmənt] n. （英）议会prerogative [pri'rɔgətiv] a. (有)特权的n. 特权abolish[ə'bɔliʃ] v. 废止Lesson 6 Administrative Lawadministrative [əd'ministrətiv] a. 行政的investigatory[in'vestigeitəri] a. 研究的adjudicatory [ə'dʒu:dikeit] a. 裁判的delegate['deligit] v.赋予（权力）compensation [kɔmpen'seiʃən] n. 补偿,赔偿impartial [im'pɑ:ʃəl] a. 公平的,不偏不倚的govern ['gʌvən] v.控制，管理regulatory ['regjulətəri] a.制定规章的license ['laisəns] v. 准许，发给执照fine [fain] n. 罚款,罚金detrimental [,detri'mentl] a. 有害的Lesson 7 Criminal Lawomission [əu'miʃən] n.不作为,疏忽，失职liability [,laiə'biliti] n. 责任defence [di'fens] n. 辩护guilty ['gilti] a. 有罪的mens rea (拉)犯罪意图defendant [di'fend?nt] n. 被告actus reus (拉)具有犯罪意图的行为conduct ['kɔndʌkt, -dəkt] n. 行为circumstance ['sə:kəmstəns] n. 情况，情节manslaughter ['mæn,slɔ:tə] n.杀人，一般杀人罪，过失杀人(罪)assault v. 袭击,突袭misconduct [mis'kɔndʌkt] n. 不正当行为arson n. 纵火,纵火罪discharge [dis'tʃɑ:dʒ] v. 履行（职责）causation [kɔ:'zeiʃən] n. 因果关系,起因adjudication[ə,dʒu:di'keiʃən] n. 判决Lesson 8 Criminal Procedure Felony ['feləni] n. 重罪subpoena[səb'pi:nə] n. 传票custody ['kʌstədi] n. 羁押arrestee n. 被捕人contraband['kɔntrə,bænd] n. 违禁品,走私品search [sə:tʃ] n. 搜查prosecutor['prɔsikju:tə] n. 检察官complaint [kəm'pleint] n. 起诉书，正式指控information[,infə'meiʃən] n. 起诉书（检察官提交）indictment [in'daitmənt] n. 起诉书（大陪审团提交）warrant['wɔrənt] n.证明，逮捕证（令）detention[di'tenʃən] n.拘留accusatiory [ækju(:)'zeiʃən] n.指控的arraignment n. 提审，聆讯plea [pli:] n. 辩解，答辩discovery [dis'kʌvəri] n. 证据开示suppression [sə'preʃən] n. 排除（证据）incriminate[in'krimi,neit] vt. 控告probation[prə'beiʃən] n. 缓刑incarcerate [in'kɑ:səreit] n. 关押adversary ['ædvəsəri] n. 对抗,对手Lesson 9 Civil Procedurenegligent ly ['neglidʒənt] ad.过失地breach n.违背,不履行redress [ri'dres] n. 赔偿,救济perpetrator n. 犯罪者，作恶者Sue [sju:, su:] V. 提出诉讼，起诉Wrongdoer n. 做坏事的人suit ['lɔ:su:t, 'lɔ:sju:t] n. 诉讼,官司lawarbitration n. 仲裁,公断mediation [,mi:di'eiʃən] n. 调停,调解,仲裁vindicate ['vindikeit] v. 维护actionable a. 可提起诉讼的liable ['laiəbl] a.应负有责任的forum ['fɔ:rəm] n. 法庭venue ['venju:] n. 审判地,管辖地，法庭jury ['dʒuəri] n. 陪审团recover [ri'kʌvə] v. 重新获得deprivation [,depri'veiʃən] n. 剥夺,丧失tort n. 侵权，侵权行为prescribe [pris'kraib] v. 规定,命令plead [pli:d] v. 辩护,答辩Lesson 10 Tortswrong [rɔŋ] n. 坏事，错误，错事award [ə'wɔ:d] v. 判给tortuous a.侵权的deterrence n.威慑手段intent [in'tent] n. 意图presumption [pri'zʌmpʃən] n. 假定battery ['bætəri] n. 殴打，击打imprisonment [im'prizənmənt] n. 关押confine ['kɔnfain] v. 限制行动trespass ['trespəs] n.非法进入（私人领地）prima facie ['pri:mə] （拉）初步的，表面的effect [i'fekt] v.实现negligence ['neglidʒəns] n. 过失，过错bar v.阻止recovery [ri'kʌvəri] n. 恢复原状privity n.非当事人的利益Lesson 11 Contractbinding a. 有约束力的bilateral [bai'lætərəl] a. 双边的，双方面的unilateral ['ju:ni'lætərəl] a. 单方面的,单边的void [vɔid] a. 无效的voidable a.可撤销的offer ['ɔfə] n. 要约nullity ['nʌliti] n. 无效,无效行为rescind [ri'sind] v. 废除notary ['nəutəri] n. 公证人acceptance [ək'septəns] n. 承诺consideration [kənsidə'reiʃən] n. 约因，对价shareholder ['ʃєəhəuldə] n. 股东minor ['mainə] n. 未成年人deliver [di'livə] v. 递送,交付valid ['vælid] a. 有效的Lesson 12 Property Lawtenure ['tenjuə] n. (土地)使用和占有chattel ['tʃætl] n. 动产proprietary [prə'praiətəri] a. 所有的，私人拥有的confer [kən'fə:] v. 赠予alienable a.可让与的devolution [,di:və'l(j)u:ʃən] n. （财产）转移intestacy n. 未留遗嘱而死亡的dichotomy [dai'kɔtəmi] n.二分法fixture ['fikstʃə] n. 俯在不动产上的动产hereditament n.可继承的财产easement ['i:zmənt] n. 在他人土地上的通行权consensual [kən'senʃuəl] a. 在双方意愿下成立的disposition [dispə'ziʃən] n. 处置权，支配权beneficiary n. 受益人intestate [in'testeit] a. 未留遗嘱的execution [,eksi'kju:ʃən] n. 执行lease [li:s] n.租借，租约,租赁物tenent n.承租人consumerism [kən'sju:məriz(ə)m]n.保护消费者权益运动，用户至上主张Lesson 13 Law Of Corporationtoll [təul] n. (通行)税,费monopoly [mə'nɔpəli] n. 垄断lobby ['lɔbi] v. 游说议员investor [in'vestə] n. 投资人concern [kən'sə:n] n. 公司，商店charter ['tʃɑ:tə] n. 营业执照campaign [kæm'pein] n. 竞选活动incorporate [in'kɔ:pəreit] n.设立法人组织capital ['kæpitəl] n.资本,资金stance [stæns] n.态度，立场stock [stɔk] n. 股票entity ['entiti] n. 实体assets n. 财产merge [mə:dʒ] v. 合并vest [vest] v. 赋予（权利或权力）transferability [-,fə:rə'biliti] n. 可转让性Lesson 14 Intellectual Propertycommerce['kɔmə(:)s] n. 商业confidential[kɔnfi'denʃəl] a. 机密的patent['peitənt, 'pætənt] n. 专利copyright ['kɔpirait] n. 版权,著作权trademark['treidmɑ:k] n. 商标assign v. 转让bequeath v. 遗赠account[ə'kaunt] v. 解释exclusive [iks'klu:siv] a. 独占的，排他的exploit [iks'plɔit] v.使用,利用remit[ri'mit] v. 移交的事物，移转database ['deitəbeis] n. 数据库claimant['kleimənt] n. （根据权利）提出要求者infringe [in'frindʒ] v. 侵犯interim ['intərim] a. 临时的incentive [in'sentiv] a. 刺激，诱因contest['kɔntest] v.争辩，争夺pend[pend] v. 待决Lesson 15 International Lawmunicipal [mju(:)'nisipəl] a.国内的,仅用与municipal lawsovereignty ['sɔvrinti] n. 主权,主权国家blend [blend] v. 混合discrete [dis'kri:t] a. 不连续的convention[kən'venʃən] n. 国际公约justifiable ['dʒʌstifaiəbl] a. 正当的observance[əb'zə:vəns] n. 遵守,惯例supranational[,sju:prə'næʃənl] a. 超国家的arbitral a. 仲裁的ad hoc a.(拉)专门的，临时的diplomatic [,diplə'mætik] a. 外交的，老道的elaboration [i,læbə'reiʃən] n. 苦心经营vitality [vai'tæliti] n. 活力,生命力regime[rei'ʒi:m] n. 政体,政权制度Lesson 16 Evidenceverdict ['və:dikt] n. 裁决advocate['ædvəkit] v. 证明，辩护conjecture [kən'dʒektʃə] v.&n. 推测inference ['infərəns] n. 推论，推断supposition [,sʌpə'ziʃən] n. 假定competency['kɔmpit(ə)nsi] n. 作证能力，作证资格ruling ['ru:liŋ] n. 判决relevancy ['reləvənsi] n. 相关性mandatory ['mændətəri] a. 强制性的admissibility n. 可采用性material [mə'tiəriəl] a. 实质性的，重要的eyewitness['aiwitnis] n. 目击证人testimony['testiməni] n. 证人证言confession [kən'feʃən] n. 供认，供述，坦白fraudulent ['frɔ:djulənt] a. 欺诈的,欺骗的。
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法律的成本与拖延是每个法律系统都有的长期不满因素。
最近的《1990年联邦民事司法改革法》向我们展示出解决这一永恒难题的无能性；它既反映出立法会减少成本和延迟的野心，又反映出其制定者缺乏对这一野心实践出来的现实考虑。
我们现在只有司法改革举措的微薄结果。
尽管基于该法令颁布的地方法规出台了一些创新政策，获取了微薄回报，但没有大幅度地降低诉讼成本，解决案件裁决的拖延。
然而，民诉制度却因电脑芯片的发明而掀起了根本性的改变。
信息的数字化为长久挑战我们的难题提供了解决技术。
事实上，技术发展出的数字化削弱了很多，或者可能是多数，民事诉讼实践的基础，这些实践基础不仅存在于美国，自民诉发端起就存在于任何地方。
产生预料之外后果的法律注定导致现有问题的解决产生或暴露新的问题，因此无根据的乐观总是不合适的。
但是现在可以合理地期盼彻底的改革或将带来彻底的回报。
谈起二十一世纪总能使我们的政客愉悦，好像它是与二十世纪不同的地方。
对于我们的法院来说，它可能的确不一样。
半个世纪后，《1990年联邦民事司法改革法》的徒劳可能会被看成通过绝境的道路，这个绝境是我们朝圣者去往“合法”所在的天堂的途中所必须经历的。
本文推测了当我们最终离开现在的困境而到达天堂的时候，天堂会如何出现。
I.简要概括三个世纪的司法改革要正确看待数字化带来的影响这一问题，有人会说在我们联邦的历史里，大概有关于民诉的六个观点至关重要。
第一，有观点认为——这一观点来自十八世纪的启蒙运动——案件应根据事实和法律来裁判，而非像马上长枪比武或相扑这两种源于解决纠纷的运动那样依靠当事人代表的技能或运气，也不是普通法程序的文字游戏：这个来自启蒙运动的观点被马克思韦伯着重赞扬过。
第二，十九世纪中期有个被视作为事实程序的改革在这个国家被David Dudley Field 和其他杰克逊拥护者推广，推广者希望可以通过快速认定事实争议点来简化民诉程序，继而降低成本和拖延性。
这个改革很快被律师的规避挫败，律师们将事实程序变成不过是成本与拖延的另一个代名词与制度。
尽管能通过对抗制程序获得信息，很多诉讼当事人还是会在庭审遭遇突袭，而其他当事人则面临参与庭审的困难。
第三，二十世纪有将适用于英国衡平法的证据开示机制进行扩展，以求在庭审前调查和揭示证据。
针对此改革的运动由charles clark及其同事推动，他们起草了1938年颁布的《联邦民事诉讼规则》。
他们的希望是通过在庭审前揭示证据来降低成本减缓拖延，从而鼓励基于对庭审结果的更好的预见性而产生的早期调解。
这项改革同样低估了律师的诉讼花招，后者找到了多种方法来滥用证据开示制度。
1980年，Powell法官出于这个考虑强烈批评了证据开示。
尽管他的评论对我来说似乎过度，但对于这一制度的确存在广泛的不满，因为一些律师拒绝遵守规则，而另一些则过度利用这一程序来给对手施加无意义的费用。
接下来的第四点是自1970年开始的案件程序管理观点。
这个观点认为法官通过介入庭前准备可以抑制昂贵又拖拉的诉讼花招。
法官的管理作用更清晰地近似于欧洲大陆的法官作用。
案件管理不仅给法官也给律师带来更多的工作，因此也许能降低成本。
如Judith Resnik 所观察的那样，似乎我们的法官比起管理案件，更多的时间是在管理律师。
与事实程序和证据开示一样，这个改革有时起作用，但效果并不显著。
另外两个观点有着古老的起源并不断再现，时不时被投入应用以期降低成本和拖延。
一个观点是将案件程序管理私有化，要求当事人参与事先调解或不具约束力的仲裁。
这种法院附设的替代性纠纷解决方法可能会让一些案件更早结案，使整体结案率少量增加，尽管一些当事人对庭审更有准备。
但是这种收益获得的代价是引入额外的程序步骤，这个步骤本身则会产生成本与案件拖延。
除了增加投入进该额外步骤的律师时间所需要的额外费用以外，也需要人付钱给调解员或仲裁员。
再一次地，成本在一些案件中得到了节约，但强制调解的净利益没有轻易得到显现。
最后，还有另一个关于转移成本以制止诉讼浪费的观点——这个观点长久适用于别的法律系统。
简言之，这个观点的理念是将市场经济规律附加于当事人之上，迫使他们预测诉讼前景时更为谨慎，避免产生不必要的费用，因为如果根据诉讼结果，预期效果所产生的费用不能被正当化的话，该费用将由当事人自己担负。
这个策略的问题是一些当事人比其他人更加易受该威慑效果的伤害，因此只对他们的辩护主张产生影响。
不过，这个观点同样也有一些积极的作用。
我最近曾指出该观点应被限制性采纳以纠正对证据开示的滥用。
另一个正在流行的古老的观点并非旨在改善司法程序，而是旨在通过合同约定适用替代法庭来避免司法程序。
当然，对于自由选择仲裁的当事人来说，他们之间的合作可能真会带来成本节约。
这可能一直都是事实。
但现有的倾向是通过执行格式合同中的仲裁条款来强迫仲裁，这实际上会导致成本与拖延的增加。
格式仲裁条款如今被广泛运用，个体之后如果起诉起草格式条款的“重复玩家”，其诉讼的价值会因该条款而被削弱。
回顾这些改革方案，人们没法被二十世纪末适用的改革方式对民诉案件的实质改善前景所鼓舞。
目前为止数字化技术在法律方面主要被资源丰富的出版商和私人律师应用以加强法庭辩护的效果。
对于这种应用的结果公众没什么理由可为之喝彩的。
律师和法官更容易获得法律权威资料，而陪审团有时会被多媒体的展示搞得眼花缭乱。
但是没有证据表明这些成果促成了对事实的更准确的洞察，对法律的更忠实的执行，或对成本与拖延的减少。
法官对于使用电子通信技术一直适当地保持谨慎。
直到1993年才有权利录制证词在联邦法院使用。
现在偶尔会利用卫星来传送直播证人证言。
一些法院正在尝试法院文件的电子报送。
但是，当事人依旧没有义务接受通过传真或电子邮件送达的文件。
这种谨慎是必要的，因为司法系统必须包容可能不是那么资源丰富的律师并迎合律师与诉讼当事人对送达的根深蒂固的预期。
另外，司法系统必定是受高龄的法官管理，这些高龄法官自然不善接受新的技术和行为模式。
因此，法院不可避免地属于能包容新环境的最晚的机构。
不过会有那么一天，技术的功用是如此明显，以至于自然与适当的机构惯性也不得不让步。
II.对未来改革的推测在本假想实验中，我假定除了技术导致的变化外，我们的法律文化没有其他基本变化。
因此，我预设我们的民诉目的将继续是权利的行使。
有人现在会听到关于这一启蒙运动风格的法院功能的绝望感想。
法院的职责有时会被认为不过是解决纠纷，会采取任何能有效停止争议的手段；这个观点是提倡替代性纠纷解决方法的基础，或者是侵权集团诉讼的集体调解的基础，这种调解不会去考虑个体的控诉实质。
我预设这种前启蒙运动的诉讼目的不会成为常规，我们会继续期待法庭通过将法律适用于事实上来裁判案件。
我还预设律师与当事人的作用不会发生基本改变。
如第一部分提到的那样，他们的作用转变得很慢。
在现在的实践中，将法律变为比赛的原始冲动依然可见，而诉讼中的这一戏谑元素可能永远不会被彻底消除。
但是尽管对抗制传统对其礼赞，好的政府需要继续减少律师通过妨碍民事正义来逃避法律对其客户的冲击的机会——一直减少到可行的程度。
而这一目标将继续与一些如武装的骑士或相扑选手那样参与不守规制的争斗的律师的冲动相冲突。
我还预设我们的法官将继续承担政治职能，我们将继续要求他们通过陪审团审判的方式与社会公众分享司法权力。
我不会停止思考未来司法机构彻底的改革会带来的显而易见的政治困难。
任何以图降低成本和拖延性的方案都会威胁既得利益，这些既得利益属于法律职业内部的人，他们对既有实务进行了智力、情感、专业方面的投入，也属于法律外部的人，他们的利益有时依靠成本和拖延来获得。
为了保护法律的腐败选区必然会产生妥协。
我为了专注于更长期的改革可能性而忽视这些困难。
我在这里忽略的还可能有适合社会心理学家关注的问题。
我毫不怀疑我接下来的描述会震慑到一些，或者是很多，读者；事实上，这样的描述也震慑到了我，而值得安慰的是我个人不会被要求参与人们期望能在天堂里看到的虚拟诉讼。
但是更适应数字化传输的下一代可能会意识到这样的法律程序与他们更相宜，他们甚至可能会被刺激到，因为那时的法庭至少会包含一些我预测的变化。
交代完这些预设和放弃权项后，我继续阐述。
但我的描述不会按照虚拟诉讼进展的时间顺序来进行。
这些诉讼步骤环环相扣，而庭审便是程序的核心。
因此我会首先思考数字化可能会如何修正针对事实的庭审。
之后我会思考数字化对阻止（而不仅仅是纠正）一审错误的上诉的影响，对虚拟庭审的筹备的影响，并最终思考对地域管辖权的影响。
针对每一部分，数字化的应用都意味着彻底的变革。
在一个以光速旅行的世界，庭审律师将更类似于好莱坞电影的制作人而不是好莱坞的影星。
在这些可能的推测中有（1）法律上不再有关于简易判决与审前判决的区别，（2）最终判决不再作为上诉前提条件，（3）能够亲身到达法院所在地不再作为决定对被告拥有管辖权的因素，（4）不再有当地法院职员的办公室。
可以预料的还有庭审法官裁量权的大量减少。
庭审将会更短更便宜。
上诉将会更快更便宜。
审前策略将会减少并更便宜。
地域管辖冲突将会不那么频繁。
A.虚拟庭审传统庭审开始被废弃。
我和妻子和现在配有装置能与相隔四个城市的孙子女们进行视频会议。
这个系统还远没有完美，但再过十年左右便能达到完美。
虚拟诉讼行为所需的硬件已经部分到位并很快会被完成，至少在美国是如此。
软件发展得很快，似乎没有不能克服的难题，不用律师和法官大量的经济投资便可对其进行完善。
这意味着因此不需要大量的花销，反正大笔花销也不可能会被支出。
鉴于以数字形式保存影像很容易几乎不需成本，并且其远距离传输可以即刻到达，再没有充足的理由来需要，期望，或者甚至允许大量证据以证人在法官、陪审团和律师都在的房间里提供个人证言的形式呈现。
一场庭审将普遍是一次电影展示。
确实，在自发性和证人与陪审团之间的人际交流方面会有所损失，但这些损失会被金钱、时间以及通过数字通信获取证言所带来的便利上的节省成本盖过。
当影像可以在几乎任何时间任何地点被制作出来，需要的时候便传播出去，不费力且传向哪里都几乎不需任何费用，人们不会愿意在特定时候旅行很远等待其他人的出现和可被利用。
为了保存法庭的权威性，在特殊场合可能永远需要当事人出庭并在传统的法庭内作证，或者甚至会强迫证人来这么做。
当一个案件涉及的风险大到足以批准这么做所增加的成本，当两个观察证人就某一关键争议点进行一场宣誓比拼的时候，可能会适合这么做。
在这种情况下，方便获得的态度证据也许可以被辩称为值得付出成本来获得。
但是陪审员们在记录证言的档案被播放的时候总能有机会观察证人的态度。
似乎至少有可能的是，当证言通过冷冰冰的屏幕接受观察的时候，被摒除的那部分态度证据是具有积极误导性的态度证据，因为那些导致我们被证人非理性吸引或对证人非理性厌恶的精神影响不会那么强烈。