大学思辨英语教程精读Unit教师用书
大学思辨英语教程精读3教师用书unit9
Unit 9 EducationUnit OverviewThe word "education" is derived from the Latin educare meaning "leading out" or "leading forth". This reveals one of the theories behind the function of education - of developing innate abilities and expanding horizons.The word 'education' is often used to refer solely to formal education. However, it covers a range of experiences, from formal learning to the building of understanding through day to day experiences. Ultimately, all that we experience serves as a form of education. Individuals can receive informal education from a variety of sources. Family members and society have a strong influence on the informal education of the individual.The goal of education is the transference of ideas and skills from one person to another, or from one person to a group. Current education issues include which teaching method(s) are most effective, how to determine what knowledge should be taught, which knowledge is most relevant, and how well the pupil will retain incoming knowledge. Educators such as George Counts and Paulo Freire identified education as an inherently political process with inherently political outcomes. The challenge of identifying whose ideas are transferred and what goals they serve has always stood in the face of formal and informal education.Text A“Hidden Curriculum” refers to the side effect of education -- lessons which are learned but not openly intended, such as the transmission of norms, values, and beliefs conveyed in the classroom and the social environment. In “The Hidden Curriculum – A Teacher’s View”, John Taylor Gatto, from his own perspective, discusses various side effects of education in details.Text BIn “Education and Inequality”, Samuel Bowles and Herbet Gintis argue more explicitly that American schooling has more to do with maintaining existing social hierarchy.Teaching objectivesThis unit is designed to help students develop their reading skills, communicative competence, critical thinking, intercultural reflection and abilities in autonomous learning in the following aspects.Reading skills:Distinguish between facts and opinionsMake appropriate inferences about what the author actually means to sayUse context to understand new meanings of familiar wordsCommunicative competence:Understand emotive tones when readingIllustrate one’s points with appropriate examplesIllustrate one’s points in a logical, structured mannerCritical thinking:Develop intellectual courage to express unpopular but rationally justified ideas Analyze and evaluate the author’s claims and arguments about the seven hidden lessonsView the issue of hidden curriculum from an alternative perspective and compare different perspectivesIntercultural competence:Identify similarities and differences between Chinese and American schoolingBe able to engage in self-reflection about education in ChinaTeaching strategiesText A discusses the “hidden curriculum” or side effects/problems in formal education from seven aspects – confusion, class position, indifference, emotional dependency, intellectual dependency, provisional self-esteem, and no place to hide. Since these problems are hidden in the formal curriculum and are discussed from the author’s own perspective, it would be rather difficult for students to fully understand these arguments. The teacher can start with the students’ own experiences in school in exploring each aspect. Students can also challenge the author’s views on this issue.Text B explores the general structure and trend of inequality in American education system and can serve as a supplementary reading to Text A. It will help the students to understand better the hierarchical structure in education that reinforces the inequality in the American society. The students can use the two texts in essay writing or presentation on the comparison between the American and the Chinese education.Further reading:Samuel Bowles; Herbert Gintis (2011). Schooling In Capitalist America: Educational Reform and the Contradictions of Economic Life. Haymarket BooksChristopher Winch and John Gingell (2008), Philosophy of Education: The Key Concepts (2nd edition). London: RoutledgeCoombs, P.H. (1985). The World Crisis in Education: A View from the Eighties. New York: Oxford University PressText APreparatory Work(1)Hidden curriculum is a concept that describes the often unarticulated and unacknowledged things that students are taught in school and is an important issue in the sociological study of how schools generate social inequality. For example, female students, students in lower-class families, or those belonging to subordinate racial categories, are often treated in ways that create or reinforce inferior self-images. They are also often granted little trust, independence, or autonomy and are thus willing to submit to authority for the rest of their lives. On the other hand, students who belong to dominant social groups tend to be treated in ways that enhance their self-esteem, independence, and autonomy and are therefore more likely to be successful.(2)Harlem is a large neighborhood in the northern section of the New York City borough of Manhattan. Since the 1920s, Harlem has been known as a major African-American residential, cultural and business center. For many decades, Harlem has been a center of controversy over the lower quality of public education in African American and lower-income communities in the United States. Hollywood is a neighborhood in the central region of Los Angeles, California. The neighborhood is notable for its place as the home of the U.S. film industry, including several of its historic studios. Its name has come to be a metonym for the motion picture industry of the United States. Hollywood is also a highly ethnically diverse, densely populated, economically diverse neighborhood and retail business district.(3)Assemblies are groups of people who have been elected to meet together regularly and make decisions or law for a particular region or country.Parents’ nights are evening events held in schools for parents to meet the teachers, peek into their children’s school performance and get acquainted with other parents. Staff-development days are days when staff are provided the opportunity to improve and increase their capabilities through education and training programs in the workplace, through outside organization, or through watching others perform the job. Staff development is also called professional development.A pull-out program is one in which gifted children are taken out of their regular classroom for one or more hours a week and provided with enrichment activities and instruction.(4)Main publications: Dumbing Us Down: The Hidden Curriculum of Compulsory Schooling (1992); The Underground History of American Education (2001).The problems:1.It confuses the students. It presents an incoherent ensemble of informationthat the child needs to memorize to stay in school. Apart from the tests andtrials, this programming is similar to the television; it fills almost all the "free"time of children. One sees and hears something, only to forget it again.2.It teaches them to accept their class affiliation.3.It makes them indifferent.4.It makes them emotionally dependent.5.It makes them intellectually dependent.6.It teaches them a kind of self-confidence that requires constant confirmationby experts (provisional self-esteem).7.It makes it clear to them that they cannot hide, because they are alwayssupervised.His proposed solution:He promotes homeschooling, and specifically unschooling and open source learning.Critical ReadingI. Understanding the text1.(1) Gatto addresses the unwritten aspects of schooling, that is, the attitudes, values, and unwritten rules of behavior that schools teach other than the formal curriculum. Clearly the hidden curriculum focuses on the structure of schooling rather than its content. The lessons are not explicitly taught, but are implicit in school procedures and organization.(2) The first lesson he teaches is confusion. Consequences: 1. Students leave school with only a vague memory of some superficial jargons derived from economics, sociology, natural science, rather than genuine knowledge and genuine enthusiasm.2. Students do not have any idea of the system of knowledge, because things taught are unrelated to each other, lacking in logical coherence and full of internal contradictions.(3) By class position, Gatto means class hierarchy. Schools teach students to accept the status quo (para.8: at least to endure it like good sports), to know their place within the class hierarchy (Para. 8: …the kids can’t even imagine themselves somewhere else…; You come to know your place.) and to defer to their betters (…I’ve shown them how to envy and fear the better classes and how to have contempt for the dumb classes.)(4) The rule of the class bell at the start and end of lessons teaches indifference, as it suggests that no lesson is ever so important that it can carry on after the bell sounds, so why care too deeply about anything?(5) Gatto says that by using stars and red checks, smiles and frowns, prizes, honors, and disgraces, he teaches students to surrender their will to authority figures. He will permit an act he deems legitimate and exercise discipline for behavior that threatenshis control.When free will appears, he will decide whether to grant it or deny it based on whether the students have displayed good behavior or not, and he may withdraw the privileges as he likes. In this way he conditions the students to depend on his favors.(6)Teachers make sure that students are intellectually obedient by punishing deviants who resist being told what to learn and to think. They make sure that students wait for experts to make decisions for them. They will not let students’ curiosity take important place in deciding what to learn and when to learn, only conformity. Teachers have tested procedures to break the will of those who resist and guarantee intellectual obedience.Clearly, students trained in this way will out to be lacking in independent thinking, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills, mindlessly obeying the rules and the authority figures.(7)Because if kids are fully self-confident, it will be difficult to make them conform, as they will always assert their individuality. Besides, the world wouldn’t survive a flood of confident people very long, either. Self-confidence jeopardizes social conformity and social order.Schools teach provisional self-esteem by convincing the kids that their self-respect depends on expert opinion. They should be constantly evaluated and judged by certified officials.(8)Students are evaluated by the casual judgment of certified officials in the form of report cards, grades, and records, in which self-evaluation never plays a role. Report cards, grades and tests drive home the idea that children should not trust themselves or their parents but should instead rely on the evaluation of experts. They also help to create a perpetual feeling of dissatisfaction that a parent may have with the child, which clearly works to the advantage of the school.(9)The last lesson taught is that being under constant surveillance is normal. By way of homework, and by encouraging parents to file reports about their own children, the effect of surveillance is effectively transferred to the home environment. The effect of this “all-time” surveillance is that children lose their freedom and free time to learn something unauthorized from a father or mother, by exploration or by apprenticing to some wise person in the neighborhood.(10)“A different way” could mean unschooling or homeschooling.II. Evaluation and exploration(1)Gatto definitely means what he says by the “seven lessons”. The general tone isstrongly critical. Whether he goes to an extreme depends on personal view (with textual evidence). In fact, conflict theorists constantly stress that the hidden curriculum helps to perpetuate social inequalities. For example, in their highlyinfluential study of education in the U.S., Bowles and Gintis (1976) argued that a hidden curriculum exists within education systems, through which pupils learn discipline, hierarchy and passive acceptance of the status quo. Though Gatto did not take Marxist perspective, he reached a similar conclusion. In fact, one of the most controversial theorists to explore the consequences of the hidden curriculum is Austrian anarchist, Ivan Illich (1926-2002). He argued that schools, like prisons, have become custodial organizations because attendance is compulsory and young people are therefore ‘kept off the streets’ between early childhood and their entry into work. Since schools do not promote equality or the development of individual creative abilities, why not do away with them altogether in their current form? Illich advocated what he called the deschooling of society.(2)The answer depends on students’ individual understanding. The following two paragraphs (one from our text and the other from the original text) can be used to provide a hint to the students. Ask them to comment (whether they agree or not). What big ideas are important to little kids? Well, the biggest idea I think they need is that what they are learning isn’t idiosyncratic—that there is some system to it all and it’s not just raining down on them as they helplessly absorb. That’s the task, to understand, to make coherent.Meaning, not disconnected facts, is what sane human beings seek, and education is a set of codes for processing raw data into meaning. Behind the patchwork quilt of school sequences and the school obsession with facts and theories, the age-old human search for meaning lies well concealed. This is harder to see in elementary school where the hierarchy of school experience seems to make better sense because the good-natured simple relationship between “let’s do this” and “let’s do that” is just assumed to mean something and the clientele has not yet consciously discerned how little substance is behind the play and pretense.(3)Despite controversy over standardized tests, most schools in the United States use them for tracking. Tracking supposedly helps teachers meet each student’s individual needs and abilities. However, one educational critic, Jonathan Kozol (1992), considers tracking an example of “savage inequalities” in American school system. Most students from privileged backgrounds do well on standardized tests and get into higher tracks, where they receive the best the school can offer. Students from disadvantaged backgrounds typically do less well on these tests and end up in lower tracks, where teachers stress memorization and put little focus on creativity. The result is that students from lower social classes and minority groups are clustered in the lower tracks and complete fewer years and lower levels of school.Tracking can help match instruction with students’ abilities, but rigid tracking can have a powerful impact on students’ learning and self-concept. Young people who spend years in higher tracks tend to see themselves as bright and able; students in lower tracks end up with less ambition and low self-esteem.The negative effects of tracking can be reduced if the system of placement is flexible, allowing students to be placed in different tracks by subject matter and ensuring reevaluation of students frequently so that they are not locked into placements. (4)Reinforcing the existing social inequalitya)Through hidden curriculum, schools teach obedience to authority and conformityto mainstream norms, reinforcing acceptance of the status quo.b)Some students receive elite educations and others do not in part because of class,race, and gender differences. Because elite schools are very expensive and highly selective, elite members of society have the most access to them.c)Most schools in the U.S. practice tracking, sorting students into different groupsaccording to past academic achievement. Studies found that higher-income students tend to be in higher-track classes and lower-class and minority students in lower –track classes. It was further discovered that higher-track students were taught “a more independent type of thinking – self-direction, creativity, critical thinking, pursuing individual assignments, and active involvement in the process of learning.” By contrast, lower-track students were taught “a more conforming type of classroom behavior– working quietly, punctuality, cooperation, improving study habits, conforming to rules and expectations, and getting along with others.”Higher-income students were, in effect, taught to be high-paid professionals, while lower-class and minority students were taught to become low-paid manual workers.A path to upward social mobilityAmerican sociologist, Talcott Parsons, argued that a central function of education was to instill in pupils the value of individual achievement. This value was crucial to the functioning of industrialized societies, but it could not be learned in the family. A child’s status in the family is ascribed – that is, fixed from birth. By contrast, a child’s status in school is largely achieved, and in schools children are assessed according to universal standards, such as exams. According to Parsons, schools, like the wider society, largely operate on meritocratic basis: children achieve their status according to merit (or worth) rather than according to their sex, race or class. Though Parson’s view has been subject to much criticism, it is believed by some functionalist theorists that schooling increases meritocracy by rewarding talent and hard work regardless of social background and provides a path to upward social mobility.(5)Functional and conflict theorists view hidden curriculum in a different light. For functionalists, it is through the hidden curriculum that students learn the expectations, behaviors, and values necessary to succeed in school and society. For conflict theorists, the hidden curriculum serves to differentiate social classes: more is expected of members of elite classes, and they are given greater responsibility and opportunities for problem solving that result in higher achievement, whereas non-elite schools stress order and discipline over achievement obey.Although some behavioral norms such as conformity and obedience are essential for occupational success, in a classroom that is overly focused on obedience, students will be conditioned to remain quiet rather than creative. In our age of computers and other electronic technology, critical thinking, analytical skills and creativeness may be more important than conformity and obedience. So in regard to hidden curriculum, we should consider both its positive and negative sides.(6) The question is open to answer.(7)Advantages:a)Their curriculum—although it includes the subjects that are required by thestate—is designed around the students’ interests and needs.b)Homeschoolers receive intense, one-on-one teaching.c)Contrary to stereotypes, homeschooled children are not isolated. As part of theireducational experience, their parents take them to libraries, museums, factories, and nursing homes. Moreover, they develop social skills by associating with people of different ages and backgrounds rather than mostly with their peers. Disadvantage:a)Without official transcripts, home-schooled children may have some difficultiesbeing admitted by colleges.b)Home schooling reduces the amount of funding going to local public schools,which ends up hurting the majority of students.(8) one or the other; or both“The one continuing purpose of education, since ancient times, has been to bring people to as full a realization as possible of what it is to be a human being. Other statements of educational purpose have also been widely accepted: to develop the intellect, to serve social needs, to contribute to the economy, to create an effective work force, to prepare students for a job or career, to promote a particular social or political system…The broader humanistic purpose includes all of them, and goes beyond them, for it seeks to encompass all the dimensions of human experience.” —Arthur W. Foshay, “The Curriculum Matrix: Transcendence and Mathematics,” Journal of Curriculum and Supervision, 1991Maslow describes the self-actualized person as having full use and exploitation of talent, capacities, potentialities, etc. Every person is unique. Every person has individual needs, desires, dreams, hopes, fears, and aspirations. Every person is limited in his capacities, but it is not the job of the school to try and diagnose these capacities by means of some curve of normality and thereby deprive any person of the chance to develop those capacities to less than the maximum. The needs of the individual being paramount, it is conclusive that we must approach education with a school program that is geared to the needs, interests, and abilities of each of the students. This is exactly what is necessary: a separate curriculum for each studentwithin the school, a personalized program of study for each student.Language EnhancementI. Words and phrases1.(1)装配(n)(2)与会者，（为某一目的）聚集在一起的人(3)议事机构(4)集会，集合(n)(5)监控，管理(v.)(6)〔动用警察或军队〕对〔某地区〕实施管制，维持治安(v.)(7)供应，供给(n)(8)准备，防备(n)(9)（协议或法律中的）规定，条款(10)使习惯，使形成条件反射(11)影响(v.)(12)保养，养护(v.)(13)病弱者，伤残者(14)无根据的，无道理的(15)（法律上）无效的，作废的英文版本答案：(1)Used in “assembly line”, which refers to a system for making things in a factory inwhich the products move past a line of workers who each make or check one part(2) A group of people who have gathered together for a particular purpose(3) A group of people who are elected to make laws for a particular country or area(4)The right of any group to meet together in order to discuss things(5)To make sure that a particular set of rules is obeyed(6)To go around a particular area to make sure that nobody is breaking the lawthere(7)The act of supplying sb with sth that they need or want(8)Preparations or arrangements made to deal with sth that might or will happen inthe future(9) A condition in an agreement or law(10)To train sb/sth to behave in a particular way or to become used to a particularsituation(11)To have an important effect on sb/sth; to influence sb over a period of time sothat they do certain things or think in a particular way(12)To bring into a proper or desired state(13)A person who needs other people to take care of them, because of illness thatthey have had for a long time(14)Not based on all the facts, and therefore not correct(15)Not legally or officially acceptable2.(1) C (2) B (3) C (4) A (5) D(6) B (7) C (8) C (9) B (10) C3.(1) deem/consider(2) consider/deem (3) regarded/considered (4) reckoned (5) regarded(6) considered(7) intervened (8) interferes/intrudes (9) interfere (10) intervene (11) interrupted(12) intruding(13) reputation (14) prestige (15) fame (16) prestige(17) vanish/fade (18) disappeared/vanished (19) fades (20) fade4.(1) hinted at (2) rained down on (3) entail (4) conditioned to (5) on the grounds (6) wrestle; into line (7) fobbed; off on (8) exhort (9) a testimony to (10) looked on II. Sentences and discourse1.(1)Anyway, it is not my concern whether streaming students can really accomplishwhat is intended or why parents would allow their children to be streamed. My responsibility is to make sure that the students contentedly stay in a class with other students who have more or less the same study abilities.(2)Although different ability classes are generally designed in such a way that 99%of the children are bound to stay in their assigned class, I still make an open effort to urge the children to strive for higher levels of success in tests, hinting that if they can achieve that, they might be transferred from the lower class to ahigher one as a reward.(3)Teachers will not approve students’ free will in matters beyond their knowledge.They will only give students privileges, which they can withdraw, depending on whether the students have displayed good behavior or not.(4)If you do not keep the kids fully occupied with their homework, they are likely todiverge from the goal of our school education.2.(1) In 1976 he was found to be suffering from a spinal disease which was unrelated to the accident but which rendered him totally unfit for work.(2) The soldiers rendered great sacrifices during the disaster relief and set examples which other relief teams would like to follow.(3) At first, there wasn’t much evidence in the case in his favor. But his lawyer was so experienced that by patient questioning he managed to elicit enough information from the eyewitness(es).(4) The solution to the drug problem is not legalization, which would only perpetuate the addiction and all the drug-induced diseases and accidents.(5) Some high schools now strive to increase the number of students taking such courses, and this nationally certified program has been rapidly growing in popularity.(6) The constitution provides that no organization or individual shall in any way compel voters to elect or not to elect any candidate.(7) The key to the problem lies in that extreme concentration of income is incompatible with real democracy.(8) Before deciding whether world population growth is a curse or a blessing, we have to ask ourselves whether an extra person added to the planet uses more or less resources than he or she creates.(9) I hinted at his imprudence and folly in dealing with interpersonal relationships, but he did not take my hint.(10) According to materialism, matter is the fundamental and consciousness is derived from the material world, not the material world from consciousness.4.即使在最好的学校，仔细考察其课程及排列，就会发现存在着缺乏连贯性和诸多内部矛盾的现象，庆幸的是，当学校将这种总是违反自然规律和次序的课程当成优质教育来哄骗学生接受时，孩子们并没有相应的语言能力来表述他们的惊恐和愤怒。
大学思辨英语教程精读1Unit2教师用书0809
大学思辨英语教程精读1Unit2教师用书0809Unit 2 Functions of languageOverviewTo further explore the nature of language, we naturally e to the question of what language is for. This unit deepens our understanding of the basics of language by offering refreshing ideas about language functions, which pave the way for the investigation of language in use, language evolution, language acquisition, and other important issues in linguistics.Text A Language is used for so many purposes (e.g., expressing feelings, providing information, and conducting social talking, to name just a few) that it is difficult for us to identify which one is its most basic (perhaps also its) original use. However, a careful examination of what language is good/bad at today can hopefully provide some useful clues to its basic function(s). Contrary to the mainstream assumptions, it has been observed that among its multiple purposes, language is good at interaction and persuasion but poor at information exchange.Text B The hammer (with an iron head and a handle) is shaped to fulfill its functions of pounding nails into and removing them out of wood. Likewise, the form of language is also motivated by its basic functions. As a form-function posite, a linguistic unit consists of two parts, the signifier and the signified. The bond between the two parts is both arbitrary and motivated. It is arbitrary because there is no inherent connection between the form of a sign and its meaning; it is motivated in the sense that the bond between the signifier and the signified is intentional instead of rigid or random.The two texts approach the same issue from differentperspectives. Text A discusses how the basic functions of a language can be traced in the development of language, while Text B focuses on the intriguing relationship between the form and the functions of language.Teaching objectivesThis unit is designed to help students develop their reading skills, municative petence, critical thinking, intercultural petence and abilities of autonomous learning in the following aspects.Reading skills: Distinguish between general and specific statements Scan for a global understanding of the textRead charts, graphs and tables to organize and interpret informationmunicative petence: Illustrate your points with appropriate examples Use figures of speech to help Illustrate your points Differentiate informative and affective uses of language Critical thinking: Evaluate the logical strengths of the a uthor’s evidence and support Organize and present your reasoning using diagrams Identify and critique assumptions behind statementsIntercultural petence Appreciate linguistic and cultural diversity Interpret language differences culturally Have curiosity in and be ready to explore other languages and cultures Teaching strategiesThe functions of language are an interesting yet rather difficult topic. T o arouse students’ interest, the teacher can start with a direct question “What do you think is the functi on of language?” or a more interesting one “In what way is language similar to a hammer?”The questions in Critical reading and Intercultural reflectionare mostly mini-research projects. To guarantee quality answers from students and to improve the classroom efficiency, it is re mended to divide the class into groups and assign different tasks to them in advance. Each group is required to do in-depth researches on a few of the questions.Further readings on functions of language: Jakobson, Roman. (1960). Closing statement: linguistics and poetics. In Thomas A.Sebeok (ed.). Style in Language, Cambridge, MA.: The MIT Press. 350-377. Halliday, M.A.K. (1973). Explorations in the Functions of Language. London: EdwardArnold. Coq, John P. (1955). The Function of Language. The Modern Language Journal, 39(4):177-180. Jackson, Howard & Peter Stockwell. (2011). An introduction to the nature and functionsof language. London & New York : Continuum.Preparatory work(1) Main publications:New media language. London and New York: Routledge, 2003. Words in the mind: An introduction to the mental lexicon. 3rd edition. Oxford and NewYork: Basil Blackwell, 2003. The Articulate Mammal: An Introduction to Psycholinguistics. 4th edition. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. The seeds of speech: Language origin and evolution. Cambridge, New York, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1996.Main research interests: 1) (Socio-)historical linguistics The description, implementation and causation of language change, with particular reference to current changes. 2) Language and mind Language acquisition, speech prehension, speechproduction, with particular reference to lexical storage and retrieval. 3) Language and the media The language used by the media, and the effect of the media on language, with particular reference to language change, language and power, the relationship of media language to language in literature.(2) The whole book consists of four parts, namely, Puzzles, Origin, Evolution, and Diffusion. Text A “What is Language for” is from the first part Puzzles. The other three questions addressed in this part are: How did language begin? Why do languages differ so much? and Is language an independent skill?Part 2, 'Origin', explores how language probably originated. Chapter 5 outlines the 'East Side story', which suggests that humans separated from apes when they were stranded on the east side of Africa, after the Great Rift Valley split the terrain. Humans were forced to live on their wits in a harsh landscape, and began to develop language. Chapter 6 examines the prerequisites for language, which are shared with our ape cousins: first, friendly involvement with others and a predisposition for grooming; second, an aptitude for tactical deception, or lying, which depends on 'a theory of mind', and an ability to understand the intentions of others. Chapter 7 considers the basic requirements for speech, many of which are also present in other primates. For example, sound-receiving mechanisms are shared with apes, yet sound-producing ones differ, perhaps because of our upright posture, which in the long run enabled humans to produce a range of finely tuned sounds. Chapter 8 notes that ontogeny, the development of the individual, only sometimes correlates with phylogeny, the development of the species. Two ways in which these coincided were the lowering of the larynx and the development of the 'naming insight', anunderstanding of the power of naming.Part 3, 'Evolution', examines how language might have evolved. Chapter 9 looks at ways in which words could have been bined. At first, many sequences were possibly repetitive and inconsistent. But gradually, strong preferences may have be e rules. These preferences were based on pre-linguistic 'mind-sets'. Chapter 10 looks at how language expanded and how it made use of the human body and its location in space for extending word meanings. The evolution of different parts of speech occurred probably via reanalysis: adjectives and prepositions both grew out of reinterpretation of nouns and verbs. Chapter 11 considers attachments to verbs. Verbs acquire attachments via grammaticalization, in which a full lexical item developed into a grammatical marker. Chapter 12 examines generativity, the use of finite resources to produce an infinite variety of sentences. Such structures arose from reanalysis of existing structures.Part 4, 'Diffusion', considers the spread of language over the world, and discusses why languages have not be e unlearnably different from one another. Chapter 13 outlines the route taken as humans moved out of Africa, and considered the possibility of reconstructing glimpses of language as it might have been more than 30,000 years ago. Chapter 14 examines the difficulties and frustrations of hunting for language universals. Chapter 15 points out that looking for constraints, things that languages don't do might be more enlightening. Implicational links, it notes, are important for keeping language in check. Such links are partially due to processing needs, but partly also to the overall structure of the system. Chapter 16 outlines the different ponents within the language system, and emphasizes that these interacted withthe usage of the system in a plex way.(3) John Locke, widely known as the Father of Classical Liberalism, was an English philosopher and physician. He was also memorized as one of the first British empiricists. His work greatly affected the development of epistemology and political philosophy. His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the United States Declaration of Independence.Major works: A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689) Two Treatises of Government (1689) An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1693)(4) Lord Byron’s (1788-1824) two best known long narrative poems are Don Juan and Childe Harold's Pilgrimage. His other major poems include: Prometheus, She walks in Beauty, When we Two parted, Darkness, and And Thou art Dead, as Young and Fair.(5) Bronislaw Malinowski (1884-1942) is remembered as the father of the functionalist school of anthropology and for his role in developing the methods and the primacy ofanthropological fieldwork as well. He first rose to prominent notice through his studies of Pacific Islanders, especially those conducted among the Trobriand Islanders whose marriage, trade and religious customs he studied extensively. His best known works include Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922),Crime and Custom in Savage Society (1926), The Sexual Life of Savages in North-Western Melanesia (1929), and the posthumously published Magic, Science, and Religion and Other Essays (1948).Malinowski helped develop the field of anthropology from a primarily evolutionary focus into sociological and psychologicalenquiries. Some of the noteworthy byproducts of his fieldwork in this direction include various evidence that debunked the Freudian notion of a universal Oedipal plex and evidence that showed that so-called primitive peoples are capable of the same types and levels of cognitive reasoning as those from more "advanced" societies. Malinowski's ideas and methodologies came to be widely embraced by the Boasian school of American Anthropology, making him one of the most influential anthropologists of the 20th century. Source: :// .nndb. /people/320/000099023/For more information about Malinowski, please refer to: Murdock, George(1943). Bronislaw Malinowski. American Anthropologist, 45:441-451. :// /doc/cc2245125.html,/ mittees/ missions/centennial/history/095malobit.pdfCritical readingI. Understanding the text1. Outlining Thesis: Among its multiple purposes, language is good at interaction and persuasion but poor at information talking.Part ParasMain ideaI 1 - 5 Introducing the question: what is language for?II 6 - 8 Multiple purposes: interpreting the questionIII 9 - 20 Answering the first question: what is difficult to express?IV 21-26 Answering the second question: what is language good at?V 27-28 Conclusion: questions related to the functions of languageWe would like to emphasize that what we have just provided is not the only answer to the outlining task. To start with, we can divide the text in different ways. For example, we can follow the traditional trichotomy and dividing it into introduction, main body and conclusion; we can also divide part III and part IV into further sections. The main idea of each part varies accordingly.2. prehension check (1) The transfer of information is not the only purpose of using language. In greetingsand some pointless chitchat, municators use language primarily, if not exclusively, for constructing or maintaining certain social relationship. Even when information is the major concern, the speaker and hearer must take into consideration some other factors, such as politeness and aesthetics (cf. Paras. 22-22). (2) In Paragraph 6, Aitchison divides the question “what is language for” into two sub-questions: “For what purpose did language develop?” and “For what purpose is language used nowadays?” Since there are so many purposes of using language and the original one is difficult to identify, she argues in paragraph 8 that we can find clues by looking at what language is good at and what it finds difficult to express. The rest of the text (paras.9-28) provides discussion about and answers to these two questions. (3) According to Aitchison, the list of language functions in paragraph 7 is not exhaustive, and it is not clear which one is the most basic. Aitchison discusses in some detail thefollowing four functions, providing information, expressing feelings, influencing others and social talking, which are roughly organized in the order of importance in the traditional view. (4) Aitchison suggests that the early functions of language can be traced in the way we use language today tosome extent. The assumption behind is that the origin of language is accountable in its early function(s) and that the early function(s) must be reflected in what language is good at today. In other words, if language was created to perform a particular function, it must still be good at it nowadays.II. Evaluation and exploration 1. Evaluating the text (1) Figure drawing(2) Exemplifying An utterance may serve more than one purpose simultaneously. Donking is used metalinguistically in example (6), but the whole sentence “Donking isn’t a word” is informative. We can provide information, express our feelings and initiate social talking by asking questions or giving mands.2. Exploring beyond the text (1) Some scholars believe that language facilitates thinking and that our thinking would be impossible without an inner language. In many cultures language is also used as a symbol of magic or as something that carries mysterious power (e.g., religious Taoism, couplets for Spring Festival). Different functions of language are not equally important. For example, the functions of municating and of facilitating thinking are more fundamental while those of religious use and word play are more derivative. (2) Generally speaking, there are two different views on the relationship between language and thinking. Some scholars claim that language restricts thinking. According to this view, people perceive the world through the language that they speak. It follows that people speaking different languages experience different worlds, just like people seeing different things with different eyes. Others believe that language and thinking are separate and should not be equated with each other. For example,even if a language does not have the word for chartreuse, people speaking the language can still perceive this color, think about it and even talk about it,using not a single word but a kind of paraphrase. (3) Some utterances may basically serve only one function. For example, people greet each ot her saying “Hi!” or “Morning!” to neighbors to maintain social connections; inchurch, the priest preaches a sermon to call for piety to the Lord. But more often than not an utterance and its context produce some “side effects” and serve different functio ns simultaneously. In saying “It’s gonna rain. You’d better take an umbrella.” to a lady, the speaker not only provides information about the weather, but also shows his/her concern toward the addressee and enhances the solidarity.(4) Language changes for different reasons, e.g., language users’ aversion to cliché and preference to creativity, language contact, language planning and so on. While some changes may not be directly related to functions of language, others are indeed motivated by certain functions of language. For example, neologisms related to science and technology emerge primarily because there is a need to talk about such new things. In this case the function of providing information requires the creation of some new words.(5) The best-know n examples for “phatic munion” in traditional Chinese society are probably greetings such as “吃了吗？(have you had your meal?)” and “去哪儿啊？(where are you going?)”. Neither is considered imposing or offensive because in traditional Chinese society, it is more important to show mutual concern than respect for privacy. The British follow a different tradition. Brown and Levinson (1987) recognize twosides of face, a positive one and a negative one. Positive face refers to “the desire to be appreciated and approved” and negative face “the freedom of action and freedom from imposition”. For Chinese people (especially in traditional society), negative face is not as important as positive face. The British, on the other hand, value negative face more than positive face.Language Enhancement I. Words and phrases 1. Word formation Part of speech: Nouns: Taking-off, air-traffic, take-off-point, non-reality, self-repetition, other-repetition Adjectives: non-existent Adverbs: half-wayLondon-York,two-thirds,real-life,Structure: Noun-noun: air-traffic, London-York, self-repetition, other-repetition Adjective-noun: real-life Cardinal-ordinal numeral: two-thirds Prefix-noun: non-reality Gerund-adverb: Taking-off Verb-adverb-noun: take-off-point2. Articles and prepositions (1)/ (2)/ (3) a, the, with (4) /, the (5) /, the, the, on, a3. Verbs and phrases (1) convey, handle (2) convey (3) transfer (4) coincide (5) collide (6) date back to (7) originate from II. Sentences and discourse 1. Paraphrasing (1) Even when language is used simply to transfer information, the accuracy of the information transferred is still unlikely to reach 100%. (2) Less affirmative claims about the purpose of language may be at least superficially more acceptable: when early people found that facial expressions and body movements could not fully express themselves, they invented language to municate their thoughts.(3) So long as the speaker is telling the truth, language is reasonably good at transferring simple pieces of factual information, such as “Bob is Petronella’s cousin.” (4) Even in cultures where lying is officially discouraged, people are still unwilling to tell the whole truth. A government official invented the phrase “being economic with the truth” to deny tha t he was lying. (5) According to George Orwell, political language is designed to beautify horrible things and to tell lies.2. Translation (1) 英国哲学家约翰·洛克在其颇有影响的著作《人类理解论》(1690)中指出，语言是一个伟大的传输渠道，人类通过这一渠道相互传达各自的发现、推理和知识。
大学思辨英语教程精读1unit1
Unit 1 Preparatory 1Preparatory 2 Preparatory 3Preparatory 4Preparatory 5 Understanding the textComprehensive questionsWords and phrases1. Word Formationnouns: unrest, unease, unbeliefverbs: untie, uncover, unearth, unbalance, unblock adjectives: unaccountable, unappreciated, unaccustomed, unworthy2. AntonymTranslation1 . Once we’ve learned a few thousand words, and learned the ways our language allows us to put them together into sentences, we can say things that nobody has ever said before.一旦我们掌握了数千个单词和语言所允许的将这些单词组合成句的方法，我们就可以说出别人从未说过的话。
2. When people use their faces or hands to show their feelings, they’re doing something that is very different from what they do when they speak, write, or use a deaf sign language.当人们用脸或手来表达情感的时候，他们所做的是一件与说话、书写或者使用聋人手语很不一样的事情。
3. Language allows us to talk about our experience ofthe world in a way that no other means of communication can.语言使我们能够以一种其他交际手段所不能比拟的方式谈论我们对世界的体验。
大学思辨英语精读备课Unit1
⼤学思辨英语精读备课Unit1Unit 1 Trust and CharacterText A Do You Like It Here? (The story was published in 1939)Words and phrases expected of students to understandphooey: int. (informal): used to express disgust or contempteyeshade: a visor worn on heard for protection against glareen suite: adj. adv. in or as a part of a setmake rounds of: to go from place to place (for inspection)bawl out (at sb)swing around: turn around (as if on a hinge or pivot)torture tactics:proceed: go onhalt: stop or pausethrow in: to insert or introduce into the course of somethinggratuitously：free of charge; (unnecessarily, without apparent reason) certified public accountant (CPA)peripatetic: walking or travelling abouton account of: because of, for the sake ofimposing: very impressivein some small measureabiding: lasting for a long time, enduringinstitute (a search)(turn)yellow: (slang) cowardlygivesb one’s word of honor: solemn promise, a verbal commitment agreeing to do or not to do sth. in the future Preparatory Work1.John O’Hara (1905-1970),a keen observer of social status and class differences,and wrote frequently about the socially ambitious. His father died at that time, leaving him unable to afford Yale, the college of his choice. By all accounts, this disappointment affected O'Hara deeply for the rest of his life and served to hone the keen sense of social awareness that characterizes his work. He worked as a reporter for various newspapers. He garnered much critical acclaim for his short stories, more than 200 of which, beginning in 1928, appeared in The New Yorker.In 1934, O'Hara published his first novel, Appointment in Samarra, which was acclaimed on publication. This is the O'Hara novel that is most consistentlypraised by critics. Ernest Hemingway wrote: "If you want to read a book by a man who knows exactly what he is writing about and has written it marvelously well, read Appointment in Samarra." Harold Bloom named it to the Western canon. On the other hand, writing in the Atlantic Monthly of March 2000, critic Benjamin Schwarz and writer Christina Schwarz claimed: "So widespread is the literaryworld's scorn for John O'Hara that the inclusion ... of Appointment in Samarra on the Modern Library's list of the 100 best [English-language] novels of thetwentieth century was used to ridicule the entire project."The epitaph on his tombstone, which he wrote himself, reads: "Better than anyone else, he told the truth about his time. He was a professional. He wrote honestly and well." Of this, Gill commented: "From the far side of the grave, he remains self-defensive and overbearing. Better than anyone else? Not merely better than any other writer of fiction but better than any dramatist, any poet, any biographer, any historian? It is an astonishing claim." (extracted from Wikipedia)John O'Hara2.A conversational style and dispassionate voice.3.Psychological bullying is often difficult to ignore. Bullies torment their victims in many ways. Tormenting them is not enough, they have to humiliate them and ridicule their victims as well. Bullies use words to destroy their victims, and these words can hurt worse than a physical blow. People often say, “Sticks and stones may hurt my bones, but words will never hurt”. In today’s society, this phrase is simply not true. Words do hurt, and they do destroy lives. Psychological bullying destroys the character of their victim. The bully makes the victim the center of his abuse. In other words, the bully takes his or her anger and frustration out on the victim.4. The Phi Beta Kappa key is one of this nation's most distinctive symbols and, in fact, traces its origins to the era of the American Revolution. Conceived in 1776 by a group of talented undergraduates at the College of William and Mary as an emblem of their secret "philosophical society," the key proclaims Phi Beta Kappa's centuries-old conviction that "The love of wisdom (is) the guide of Life." As the Society they created encompassed more of the nation's finest colleges and universities, its key became a universally recognized mark of academic achievement in the liberal arts and sciences.the third degree: a situation in which someone tries to find out information by asking you a lot of questionseg. If I'm even half an hour late she gives me the third degree.I got the third degree from my dad when I got in last night.give(someone) the lowdown on (something): To provide someone with specific or comprehensive details about someone, something, or some situation.eg. Give me the lowdown on what the boss is planning to do about the company's falling profits.I'm waiting for my brother to give me the lowdown on Geoffrey before I go on a date with him.There's been a shakeup in the company's upper management, but we won't know how we're affected until the boss gives us the lowdown.West Point: A US military installation in southeast New York on the western bank of the Hudson River north of New York City. It has been a military post since 1778 and the seat of the US Military Academy since 1802.Second Form: an English term for an equivalent of the 7th or 8th grade in American schools. (also see sixth form: the term refers to the final two years of secondary education in the education system of England and other commonwealth countries)day school:as opposed to a boarding school, it is an institution where children (or high-school age adolescents) are given educational instruction during the day, after which children return to their homes.boarding school:a school where some or all people study and live during the school year with their fellow students and possibly teachers and/or administrators. The word 'boarding' is used in the sense of "bed and board," i.e., lodging and meals. Many independent (private) schools in the Commonwealth of Nations are boarding schools. Boarding school pupils (a.k.a. "boarders") normally return home during the school holidays and, often, weekends, but in some cultures may spend the majority of their childhood and adolescent life away from their families. In the United States, boardingschools comprise various grades, most commonly grades seven or nine through grade twelve - the high school years.I Understanding the text1. Questions(1) a boarding school/prep (dormitory, a stepping stone to higher education)(2) Mentioned four times. First at the beginning. The dorm door had to be kept open during study period so that there was no knock (apparent reason and a convenient excuse. But in another sense, a suggestion of no privacy, convenient for Van Nessto look in (introduce the idea of “panopticon”). Then there’s the mention of Van Ness’s half-open door. His privilege, authority (needs to knock before being permitted to go in). After Roberts went in, he was ordered to close the door, an indication of Van Ness’s auth ority. Also a closed space might have some psychological impact on Roberts—getting him trapped. Finally at the end of the story. Roberts not sure whether to leave it open or to close it but decided to leave it open. The door symbolizes Van Ness’s power or authority. The act of Roberts’s leaving it open might be an indication of his attempt to challenge the authority, even though feebly.(3) Not really. He hated Hughes. Wearing eye-shade during study time. Van Ness making rounds of the rooms, meting out punishments.(4)manipulative, sadistic, self-important, pompous, sarcastic2. True or false(1)F(2)T(3)T(4)F(5)T3. Multiple choices(1) B (2) D(3) B(4) DII Critiquing the text(1)Roberts’s parents divorced when he was ten, moved a lot,had to go to manyschools, unpleasant experiences, lonely and without a sense of belongingVan Ness saw the boy as susceptible to moral corruption (dishonest, sneaky, unruly)(2) Self-important/smug, overbearing/sadistic, ,show-rather-than-telltechnique(3)Not easy for Roberts to detect Van Ness’s intentions,Van Ness using torture tactics, effective to some extent, making Roberts upset, baffled, and frustrated（4）By this time he had guessed what it was all about. Hewas relieved because he had a clear conscience. He didn’t have to lie when confronted with the question about the watch. Previously he probably did have to lie when saying he liked it here.（5）Van Ness was convinced that Roberts was the thief and expected that he would certainly deny his stealing the watch. He would think Roberts would be devastated by his interrogation and that was exactly what he wanted. He had everything under control.（6）The “bastard” could refer to Van Ness or Hughes. Roberts was angry at first, then he knew it was no use fighting back as he had learned it from his previous experiences. Things always ended like this.（7）The title: colloquial, dramatic. Turns out to be a malicious question.（8）Robert s’ point of view. If it were the first-person narration, the tone would be angry, it would be more about clearing the name, a case of being wronged.From Van Ness’s point of view, it would be about how he ran the school and how he would teach Roberts a moral lesson.Language EnhancementI Words and phrases1.(1) occupation(2) occupant (3) preoccupy(4) contempt(5) contemptible(6) contempt2. “peri-” :enclosing, encircling, or aroundperipheral; perinatal(relating to the period around childbirth); perimeter;periodic;periphrastic“-tic”: pertaining totherapeutic; static; paralytic; dramatic; pathetic3.(1) institute(2) urge(3)transfer(4) institute(5)transferred (6) urging4.(1) innate(2) intrinsic(3) inherent(4) scheme(5) tactic (6) strategy5.(1) in some measure(2) on account of(3) at any rate(4) all right (adv. meaning without doubt)(5) thrown in(6) go with(7) bawl out (8) throw inII Sentences and rhetoric1.Paraphrase（1）Well, tell me about your life before you decided to do us the honor of having you as a student here.（2）D on’t be too modest to suppress your desire to tell the good stuff about yourself.（3）Chicago, Illinois! Well, a bit of geographical knowledge for my benefit, right, Roberts? And free of charge.（4）But I swear, however difficult it is I’m going to find out who the thief is. 2.Translation(1)如果他在什么事情上要训斥你，⽆关紧要的事情，他会查看他带在⾝边的⼀张单⼦，然后他会到你房间⾥把你训斥⼀通，并告诉你会有什么相应的惩罚。
大学思辨英语教程精读教师用书
大学思辨英语教程精读教师用书集团档案编码：[YTTR-YTPT28-YTNTL98-UYTYNN08]U n i t3V e r b a l a n d N o n-v e r b a l C o m m u n i c a t i o nUnit overviewBoth Units 1 and 2 mention a key word “communication”.As Thomas Payne points out in Text B of Unit 2, most of us, linguists or non-linguists, have the common-sense notion that “the main purpose of human language is communication”. Thus to develop a deeper understanding of the nature and function of language, we need to take a close at human communication. This unit examines this topic from a cross-cultural perspective, illustrating the similarities and differences in verbal and non-verbal communication between different cultures, which lays a foundation for further exploration into the interface between language and culture in the following units.Text APeople in different communities demonstrate different perceptions and rules of both verbal and non-verbal communication. The way they interact is culturally relative in almost every aspect, including when to talk, what to say, pacing and pausing, listenership, intonation and prosody, formulaicity, indirectness, and coherence and cohesion.Text BSome non-verbal behaviors are practically universal and have the same meaning wherever you are (e.g., smiling and facial expressions of anger, surprise, fear, sadness, and so on). But for cultural and historical reasons, there have also developed great differences and variations in such aspects as eye contact, touch, gestures, and territorial space, etc. Without an awareness of respect and accommodation for people from a different background, these differences are likely to cause misunderstandings in cross-cultural communication.The two texts supplement each other in that Text A illustrates cross-cultural differences in both verbal and non-verbal communication while Text B focuses on non-verbal behaviors and addressesboth differences and similarities.Teaching objectivesThis unit is designed to help students develop their reading skills, communicative competence, critical thinking, intercultural reflection and abilities of autonomous learning in the following aspects.Reading skills:Use context to understand a new wordIdentify cohesive devicesPredict the content of an upcoming sentence/paragraphCommunicative competence:Develop a coherent and cohesive oral/written discourseUse topic sentences, supporting sentences and concluding sentences in presentations/essaysCommunicate constructively in team workCritical thinking:Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of personal experience as evidence in argumentationOrganize the arguments using an outlineNote and reflect on the differences between academic writing and everyday writingIntercultural reflectionIdentify similarities and differences in non-verbal communication across culturesBe aware of multiple levels of differences on which cross-cultural communication can falterInterpret communication behaviors from cultural and historical perspectivesTeaching strategiesNon-verbal communication and cross-cultural communication are both interesting topics in linguistics. The teacher can introduce the two texts by quoting anecdotes or relating to students’own experiences (question 5 in Preparatory work, p. 59). For students who lack experience of cross-cultural communication, the topic can be led in by discussions about inter-subcultural communication.Text A is a research articlefrom an academic journaland its structure and writing style are quite clear. It is recommended to draw students’ attention to the author’s logic (i.e., ways of arguing) and use of evidence in class. If well-planned, all the questions in Preparatory Work and Critical reading can be dealt with in some detail in class. The teacher can follow all the questions in Understanding the text to check students’ comprehension of the text, while the tasks in Evaluation and exploration can be divided and assigned to groups. For example, in Making an outline (p. 62), theteacher can divide the students into three groups, each responsible for one topic.For classical works in intercultural communication, please refer to: Hall, Edward T. (1955). The Anthropology of Manners.Scientific American,192: 85-89.Hall, Edward T. (1959). The Silent Language. New York: Doubleday.For more updated information, please find the following journals: Cross-Cultural Communication published by Canadian Academy ofOriental and Occidental Culture (CAOOC)Across Languages and Cultures published by AkadémiaiKiadóLanguage and Intercultural Communication published byRoutledge Journals, Taylor & Francis Ltd.Preparatory work(1)Academic interests: gender and language, interactionalsociolinguistics, conversational interaction, cross-cultural communication, frames theory, conversational vs. literary discourse, and new media discourse.Main publications:You Just Don't Understand: Women and Men in Conversation. New York: Morrow, 1990.That's Not What I Meant!: How Conversational Style Makes or Breaks Relationships. NY: William Morrow, 1986.Gender and Discourse. NY & Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994. Note: Outside the academic world Deborah Tannen is best known as the author of?a number of books on the New York Times best seller and she?is also a frequent guest on television and radio news and information shows.(2)Edward Sapir (1884–1939): an?American?anthropologist who is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in the early development of modern linguistics. His main interests are in the ways in which language and culture influence each other, the relation between linguistic differences, and differences in cultural world views. His most important contribution is what is known as the principle of?linguistic relativity?or the "Sapir-Whorf" hypothesis. John Joseph Gumperz(1922 –2013): an American linguist. His research interests include the languages of India, code-switching, and conversational interaction. Well-known for his contribution in interactional sociolinguistics and the "ethnography of communication",Gumperz’s research has benefitted such fields as sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, and linguistic anthropology.E. M. Forster (1879 –1970): an English novelist, short story writer, essayist and librettist. He is known best for his ironic and well-plotted novels examining class difference and hypocrisy in early 20th-century British society. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 13 different years.Robert Kaplan:An American?applied linguist. His research area covers applied linguistics, discourse analysis, language policy, language planning, and ESL/EFL Teaching. He is most famous for his contribution in Contrastive Rhetoric, a term he first coined in 1966. Kaplan has authored or edited 32 books, more than 130 articles in scholarly journals and chapters in books, and more than 85 book reviews and other ephemeral pieces in various newsletters, as well as 9 special reports to the U.S. government and to governments elsewhere.(3)Pragmatics is the systematic study of meaning dependent on language in use. Unlike semantics, which examines conventional meaning "coded" in a given language, pragmatics studies how the transmission of meaning depends not only on structural and linguistic knowledge (e.g., grammar, lexicon, etc.) of the speaker and the hearer, but also on the context of the utterance, any pre-existing knowledge about those participants involved, the inferred intent of the speaker, and other factors. Central topics of pragmatics include a speaker’s communicative intentions, the use of language that requires such intentions, context of use, the relation between the user of a linguistic form and the act of using the form, and the strategies an addressee employs to work out what the intentions and acts are.(4)Cohesion refers to the use of various phonological, grammatical, and/or lexical means to link sentences or utterances into a well-connected, larger linguistic unit such as a paragraph or a chapter. In other words, cohesion achieves well-connectedness by means of linguistic forms.Example: Mary is a secretary. She works in a law firm. Yan (2012) Coherence refers to the logical well-connectedness between different parts of a piece of spoken or written language, which distinguishes it from a random assemblage of sentences or utterances. Yan (2012) Formly?incohesive?discourse?may?be?coherent?through?common?sense,?cultural?background,?contextual?information,?imagination,?logical?assump tion,?etc.?Husband:?That’s?the?telephone.?Wife:?I’m?in?the?bath.?Husband:?OK.?(5)Pause is a temporary and brief break in the flow of speech, which is often classified into filled pause and unfilled or silent pause. The former is taken up or filled by a hesitation form like ah, er,and um. In contrast, the latter is not filled by a hesitation form. In other words, a silent pause is one where there is no vocalization.Critical readingI. Understanding the text(1) The main purpose of this article is to illustrate eight levels of cross-cultural differences in non-verbal aspects of communication. (2) We can understand the nature of language by observing it in communication and in contact with other systems of communication. (3) Pacing and pausing, listenership. In deciding when to talk and what to say, the speaker usually takes a conscious speech planning, yet in pacing and pausing and in showing listenership in a conversation, one does not need to stop and think for a decision. (4) Section 2.1 starts with a direct thesis statement. Then the author explains it with an expert’s (Scollon) research findings and examples.In section 2.2 the author raises a number of questions (in para 7, 9 and 11) and responds to them with relevant research findings (Goody’s as well as hers) and her own personal experience. Section 2.3 is also organized in the order of “question-answer”. Section 2.4 illustrates cross-cultural differences in listenership with two examples, gaze (paras 21 and 22) and loud responses (para 23), and then moves on to the conclusion (para 24). Section 2.5: example-discussion. Section 2.6: personal experience and a very brief interpretation. Section 2.7: the thesis (para 30 “how to be indirect is culturally relative”) and discussion about the cases of American-non-American differences (American men, women, Greek and Japanese). Section 2.8: definition and illustration.(5) The experience ina dinner party in paragraph 12 indicates that (1) people from different cultures not only differ in whether compliments should be accepted, rejected or deflected, but also in whichcompliments should be accepted/rejected/deflected; and (2) every culture has its own conventions about what to say on particular occasions, and without knowledge of these conventions, we can by no means appropriately interpret the messages in cross-cultural communication.In Para. 29, Tannenrefers to her first visit to Greece to exemplify the cross-cultural difference in formulaicity, i.e., what is novel and what is conventional in different languages.(6)Generally speaking, the eight levels are arranged in the orderof importance, from the core of verbal communication to more peripheral factors. The first three levels and the fifth level belong to what is said while the last three center on how it is said. The fourth level, listenership, is the only level examined from the perspective of the hearer.(7)As has been illustrated in part II, verbal communicationinvolves many hidden rules and conventions that vary from culture to culture. Since every individual has his/her own unique experience, education background,and beliefs, etc., no two interactants would share exactly the same communicative rules and conventions. In this sense all communication is cross-cultural. Summary writingWays of communication are culturally diversified in almost every aspect, from what to say to how to say it. When to talk (and when not to) is culturally relative. People from one culture may find a particular silent moment unbearable while it is deemed appropriate in another culture.What to say also differs greatly across cultures. Many of us consider raising questions asa natural or even basic part of daily communication, but in some cultures questions are perceived imposing and hence rarely asked. A certain degree of indirectness in communication is universal in all languages, but how to be indirect varies from culture to culture. American men value “sticking to facts” while Japanese and Arab often insist on elaborate “small talks”. Cross-cultural differences can also be observed in the different ways of showing listenership, control of pace and pause, use of conventional and novel language, and variation of intonation. Even when peopleare asked to describe or write about the same thing, their organization of a discourse will very likely differ in ways of establishing coherence and cohesion as Kaplan illustrated.II. Evaluation and exploration1.Evaluating the text(1)Personal experiences and anecdotes help elucidate abstract anddifficult terms and add to the vividness of the text. Controlled use of personal experience may also shorten the distance between the author and the reader. But the overuse and misuse of personal stories can also damage the objectivity and credibility of the argumentation.(2)Beside personal experience, Tannen mentions a lot of academicresearches (e.g. in para 4, 7, 8, 10, 21, 23, 38 and 39), which all add weight to her arguments.(3)It is obviously not an exhaustive list. Cross-culturalcommunication can vary at many other levels, e.g., proxemics and turn taking in a multiparty context.2.Exploring beyond the text(1)Questions for exploration1)There are altogether 16 questions which help structure the textin part two and they are not equally important. The question in para 2, for example, is a global one that covers all the eight sections in the main body, while the question in para 20, “Now how many milliseconds shall I wait?”, is just an example to illustrate why pacing and pausing is an automatic level.a. See above.b. The first question in para 7 is asked to introduce the topic of this section, what to say. It is a transition from section 2.1 to section 2.2.c. This is a rhetorical question requiring no answer. It is asked simply to reinforce our conviction that questions are basic to the educational setting, which forms a sharp contrast with the case of Gonjans.2) In all the known languages there are strategies of makingindirect requests/apologies/invitations/, etc. In a strict sense, the use of language is an indirect means to achieve communicative ends. How to be indirect differs from culture to culture. For example, in English a request is often put forward as a question of ability (Can you pass me the salt?).3) For example, introvert people may be more tolerant of silencein face-to-face verbal interaction while extroverts usually findsilence awkward and uncomfortable. This is primarily an interpersonal difference since in all cultures there are introvert and extrovert people.Gaze is another example. People with more aggressive personality usually hold longer and steadier gaze when they talk to others, while shy perpleare more likely to diverge in eye contact. Language enhancementI. Words and phrases1. Adverbs and prepositions(1) off; (2) out; (3) across; (4) away; (5) up; (6) between, for; (7) after; (8) out of, into; (9) off; (10) up; (11) out of2. Verbs(1) illustrate, vary, discussing, exemplifying, signaling, mean, say(2) vary(3) differ(4) illustrated(5) exemplifies(6) expounds(7) demonstrates(8) elucidate, interpret3.Words in contextOpen to discussion:To guess the meaning of a new word, one can first recognize its part of speech, analyze its word formation, identify its attitude if necessary, and then evaluate its meaning in the linguistic context. II. Sentences and discourse1.Paraphrasing(1)Athabaskan Indians consider that it is inappropriate to talk topeople they do not know. According to Scollon, this causes a strange effect when theAthabaskan Indians meet people from other cultures. The non-Athabaskans may want to make acquaintance with the Athabaskans by talking to them, but the Athabaskans will not talk to the non- Athabaskans before they become acquaintances. (2)Gonjans take it for granted that questions are always asked toachieve indirect functions, so they never ask questions for pure information.(3)The Americans usually take it for granted that in communicationpeople should be direct and say no more or less than needed, andthat what people say is exactly what they mean. This is especially true in business and education and applies more to American men than to women.(4)No two people have just the same cultural background. Therefore,all communication is cross-cultural to someextent. In this sense, understanding cross-cultural communication can help us understand the nature of language and tackle problems in the world, especially those caused by and related to the use of language, e.g.obstacles in foreign language teaching and learning.2.Translation(1)物理学家通过观察物质元素在不同环境中的表现及其与其他物质的相互作用来理解它们的本质。
大学思辨英语教程 精读1Unit 3教师用书
Unit 3 Verbaland Non-verbal CommunicationUnit overviewBoth Units 1 and 2 mention a key word “communication”.As Thomas Payne points out in Text B of Unit 2, most of us, linguists or non-linguists, have the common-sense notion that “the main purpose of human language is communication”. Thus to develop a deeper understanding of the nature and function of language, we need to take a close at human communication. This unit examines this topic from a cross-cultural perspective, illustrating the similarities and differences in verbal and non-verbal communication between different cultures, which lays a foundation for further exploration into the interface between language and culture in the following units.Text APeople in different communities demonstrate different perceptions and rules of both verbal and non-verbal communication. The way they interact is culturally relative in almost every aspect, including when to talk, what to say, pacing and pausing, listenership, intonation and prosody, formulaicity, indirectness, and coherence and cohesion.Text BSome non-verbal behaviors are practically universal and have the same meaning wherever you are ., smiling and facial expressions of anger, surprise, fear, sadness, and so on). But for cultural and historical reasons, there have also developed great differences and variations in such aspects as eye contact, touch, gestures, and territorial space, etc. Without an awareness of respect and accommodation for people from a different background, these differences are likely to cause misunderstandings in cross-cultural communication.The two texts supplement each other in that Text A illustrates cross-cultural differences in both verbal and non-verbal communication while Text B focuses on non-verbal behaviors and addressesbothdifferences and similarities.Teaching objectivesThis unit is designed to help students develop their reading skills, communicative competence, critical thinking, intercultural reflection and abilities of autonomous learning in the following aspects.Reading skills:Use context to understand a new wordIdentify cohesive devicesPredict the content of an upcoming sentence/paragraphCommunicative competence:Develop a coherent and cohesive oral/written discourseUse topic sentences, supporting sentences and concluding sentences in presentations/essaysCommunicate constructively in team workCritical thinking:Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of personal experience as evidence in argumentationOrganize the arguments using an outlineNote and reflect on the differences between academic writing and everyday writingIntercultural reflectionIdentify similarities and differences in non-verbal communication across culturesBe aware of multiple levels of differences on which cross-cultural communication can falterInterpret communication behaviors from cultural and historical perspectivesTeaching strategiesNon-verbal communication and cross-cultural communication are both interesting topics in linguistics. The teacher can introduce the two texts by quoting anecdotes or relating to students’own experiences(question 5 in Preparatory work, p. 59). For students who lack experience of cross-cultural communication, the topic can be led in by discussions about inter-subcultural communication.Text A is a research articlefrom an academic journaland its structure and writing style are quite clear. It is recommended to draw students’ attention to the author’s logic ., ways of arguing) and use of evidence in class. If well-planned, all the questions in Preparatory Work and Critical reading can be dealt with in some detail in class. The teacher can follow all the questions in Understanding the text to check students’ comprehension of the text, while the tasks in Evaluation and exploration can be divided and assigned to groups. For example, in Making an outline (p. 62), the teacher can divide the students into three groups, each responsible for one topic.For classical works in intercultural communication, please refer to:Hall, Edward T. (1955). The Anthropology of American,192: 85-89. Hall, Edward T. (1959). The Silent Language. New York: Doubleday.For more updated information, please find the following journals:Cross-Cultural Communication published by Canadian Academy ofOriental and Occidental Culture (CAOOC)Across Languages and Cultures published by AkadémiaiKiadóLanguage and Intercultural Communication published byRoutledge Journals, Taylor & Francis Ltd.Preparatory work(1)Academic interests: gender and language, interactionalsociolinguistics, conversational interaction, cross-cultural communication, frames theory, conversational vs. literary discourse, and new media discourse.Main publications:You Just Don't Understand: Women and Men in Conversation. New York: Morrow, 1990.That's Not What I Meant!: How Conversational Style Makes or Breaks Relationships. NY: William Morrow, 1986.Gender and Discourse. NY & Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.Note: Outside the academic world Deborah Tannen is best known as the author of a number of books on the New York Times best seller and she is also a frequent guest on television and radio news and information shows.(2)Edward Sapir (1884–1939): an American anthropologist who is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in the early development of modern linguistics. His main interests are in the ways in which language and culture influence each other, the relation between linguistic differences, and differences in cultural world views. His most important contribution is what is known as the principle of linguistic relativity or the "Sapir-Whorf" hypothesis.John Joseph Gumperz(1922 –2013): an American linguist. His research interests include the languages of India, code-switching, and conversational interaction. Well-known for his contribution in interactional sociolinguistics and the "ethnography of communication", Gumperz’s research has benefitted such fields as sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, and linguistic anthropology.E. M. Forster (1879 –1970): an English novelist, short story writer, essayist and librettist. He is known best for his ironic and well-plotted novels examining class difference and hypocrisy in early 20th-century British society. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 13 different years.Robert Kaplan:An American applied linguist. His research area covers applied linguistics, discourse analysis, language policy, language planning, and ESL/EFL Teaching. He is most famous for his contribution in Contrastive Rhetoric, a term he first coined in 1966. Kaplan has authored or edited 32 books, more than 130 articles in scholarly journals and chapters in books, and more than 85 book reviews and other ephemeral pieces in various newsletters, as well as 9 special reports to the . government and to governments elsewhere.(3) is the systematic study of meaning dependent on language in use. Unlike semantics, which examines conventional meaning "coded" in a given language, pragmatics studies how the transmission of meaning depends not only on structural and linguistic knowledge ., grammar, lexicon, etc.) of the speaker and the hearer, but also on the context of the utterance, any pre-existing knowledge about those participants involved, the inferred intent of the speaker, and other factors. Central topics of p ragmatics include a speaker’s communicative intentions, the use of language that requires such intentions, context of use, the relation between the user of a linguistic form and the act of using the form, and the strategies an addressee employs to work out what the intentions and acts are.(4)Cohesion refers to the use of various phonological, grammatical, and/or lexical means to link sentences or utterances into a well-connected, larger linguistic unit such as a paragraph or a chapter. In other words, cohesion achieves well-connectedness by means of linguistic forms.Example: Mary is a secretary. She works in a law firm. Yan (2012)Coherence refers to the logical well-connectedness between different parts of a piece of spoken or written language, which distinguishes it from a random assemblage of sentences or utterances. Yan (2012)Formly incohesive discourse may be coherent through common se nse, cultural background, contextual information, imagination, logical assumption, etc.Husband: That’s the telephone.Wife: I’m in the bath.Husband: OK.(5)Pause is a temporary and brief break in the flow of speech, which is often classified into filled pause and unfilled or silent pause. The former is taken up or filled by a hesitation form like ah, er,and um. In contrast, the latter is not filled by a hesitation form. In other words, a silent pause is one where there is no vocalization.Critical readingI. Understanding the text(1) The main purpose of this article is to illustrate eight levels of cross-cultural differences in non-verbal aspects of communication.(2) We can understand the nature of language by observing it in communication and in contact with other systems of communication.(3) Pacing and pausing, listenership. In deciding when to talk and what to say, the speaker usually takes a conscious speech planning, yet in pacing and pausing and in showing listenership in a conversation, one does not need to stop and think for a decision.(4) Section starts with a direct thesis statement. Then the author explains it with an expert’s (Scollon) research findings and section the author raises a number of questions (in para 7, 9 and 11) and responds to them with relevant research findings (Goody’s as well as hers) and her own personal experience. Section is also organized in the order of “question-answer”. Section illustrates cross-cultural differences in listenership with two examples, gaze (paras 21 and 22) and loud responses (para 23), and then moves on to the conclusion (para 24). Section : example-discussion. Section : personal experience and a very brief interpretation. Section : the thesis (para 30 “how to be indirect is culturally relative”) and discussion about the cases of American-non-American differences (American men, women, Greek and Japanese). Section : definition and illustration.(5) The experience ina dinner party in paragraph 12 indicates that (1) people from different cultures not only differ in whether compliments should be accepted, rejected or deflected, but also in which compliments should be accepted/rejected/deflected; and (2) every culture has its own conventions about what to say on particular occasions, and without knowledge of these conventions, we can by no means appropriately interpret the messages in cross-cultural communication.In Para. 29, Tannenrefers to her first visit to Greece to exemplifythe cross-cultural difference in formulaicity, ., what is novel and what is conventional in different languages.(6)Generally speaking, the eight levels are arranged in the orderof importance, from the core of verbal communication to more peripheral factors. The first three levels and the fifth level belong to what is said while the last three center on how it is said. The fourth level, listenership, is the only level examined from the perspective of the hearer.(7)As has been illustrated in part II, verbal communicationinvolves many hidden rules and conventions that vary from culture to culture. Since every individual has his/her own unique experience, education background,and beliefs, etc., no two interactants would share exactly the same communicative rules and conventions. In this sense all communication is cross-cultural.Summary writingWays of communication are culturally diversified in almost every aspect, from what to say to how to say it. When to talk (and when not to) is culturally relative. People from one culture may find a particular silent moment unbearable while it is deemed appropriate in another to say also differs greatly across cultures. Many of us consider raising questions asa natural or even basic part of daily communication, but in some cultures questions are perceived imposing and hence rarely asked. A certain degree of indirectness in communication is universal in all languages, but how to be indirect varies from culture to culture. American men value “sticking to facts” while Japanese and Arab often insist on elaborate “small talks”. Cross-cultural differences can also be observed in the different ways of showing listenership, control of pace and pause, use of conventional and novel language, and variation of intonation. Even when peopleare asked to describe or write about the same thing, their organization of a discourse will very likely differ in ways of establishing coherence and cohesion as Kaplan illustrated.II. Evaluation and exploration1.Evaluating the text(1)Personal experiences and anecdotes help elucidate abstract anddifficult terms and add to the vividness of the text. Controlled use of personal experience may also shorten the distance between the author and the reader. But the overuse and misuse of personal stories can also damage the objectivity and credibility of the argumentation.(2)Beside personal experience, Tannen mentions a lot of academicresearches . in para 4, 7, 8, 10, 21, 23, 38 and 39), which all add weight to her arguments.(3)It is obviously not an exhaustive list. Cross-culturalcommunication can vary at many other levels, ., proxemics and turn taking in a multiparty context.2.Exploring beyond the text(1)Questions for exploration1)There are altogether 16 questions which help structure the textin part two and they are not equally important. The question in para 2, for example, is a global one that covers all the eight sections in the main body, while the question in para 20, “Nowhow many milliseconds shall I wait”, is just an example to illustrate why pacing and pausing is an automatic level.a. See above.b. The first question in para 7 is asked to introduce the topicof this section, what to say. It is a transition from section to section .c. This is a rhetorical question requiring no answer. It isasked simply to reinforce our conviction that questions are basic to the educational setting, which forms a sharp contrast with the case of Gonjans.2) In all the known languages there are strategies of makingindirect requests/apologies/invitations/, etc. In a strict sense, the use of language is an indirect means to achieve communicative ends. How to be indirect differs from culture to culture. For example, in English a request is often put forward as a question of ability (Can you pass me the salt).3) For example, introvert people may be more tolerant of silencein face-to-face verbal interaction while extroverts usually findsilence awkward and uncomfortable. This is primarily an interpersonal difference since in all cultures there are introvert and extrovert people.Gaze is another example. People with more aggressive personality usually hold longer and steadier gaze when they talk to others, while shy perpleare more likely to diverge in eye contact.Language enhancementI. Words and phrases1. Adverbs and prepositions(1) off; (2) out; (3) across; (4) away; (5) up; (6) between, for; (7) after; (8) out of, into; (9) off; (10) up; (11) out of2. Verbs(1) illustrate, vary, discussing, exemplifying, signaling, mean, say(2) vary(3) differ(4) illustrated(5) exemplifies(6) expounds(7) demonstrates(8) elucidate, interpret3.Words in contextOpen to discussion:To guess the meaning of a new word, one can first recognize its part of speech, analyze its word formation, identify its attitude if necessary, and then evaluate its meaning in the linguistic context. II. Sentences and discourse1.Paraphrasing(1)Athabaskan Indians consider that it is inappropriate to talk topeople they do not know. According to Scollon, this causes a strange effect when theAthabaskan Indians meet people from other cultures. The non-Athabaskans may want to make acquaintance with the Athabaskans by talking to them, but the Athabaskans will not talk to the non- Athabaskans before they become acquaintances. (2)Gonjans take it for granted that questions are always asked toachieve indirect functions, so they never ask questions for pure information.(3)The Americans usually take it for granted that in communicationpeople should be direct and say no more or less than needed, and that what people say is exactly what they mean. This is especially true in business and education and applies more to American men than to women.(4)No two people have just the same cultural background. Therefore,all communication is cross-cultural to someextent. In this sense, understanding cross-cultural communication can help us understand the nature of language and tackle problems in the world, especially those caused by and related to the use of language, .obstacles in foreign language teaching and learning.2.Translation(1)物理学家通过观察物质元素在不同环境中的表现及其与其他物质的相互作用来理解它们的本质。
大学思辨英语教程 精读3教师用书unit11
Unit 11 Urbanization and the EnvironmentUnit OverviewUrbanization refers to the population shift from rural to urban "the gradual increase in the population of people living in urban areas", and the ways in which each society adapts to the change. It is predominantly the process by which towns and cities are formed and become larger as more people begin living and working in central areas. It is predicted that by 2050 about 64% of the developing world and 86% of the developed world will be urbanized. Notably, the United Nations has also recently projected that nearly all global population growth from 2017 to 2030 will be absorbed by cities, about 1.1 billion new urbanites over the next 13 years. Today, in Asia the urban agglomerations of Osaka, Karachi, Jakarta, Mumbai, Shanghai, Manila, Seoul and Beijing are each already home to over 20 million people, while Delhi and Tokyo are forecast to approach or exceed 40 million people each within the coming decade. Outside Asia, Mexico City, São Paulo, London, New York City, Istanbul, Lagos and Cairo are, or soon will be, home to over 10 million people each.Urbanization is not merely a modern phenomenon, but a rapid and historic transformation of human social roots on a global scale, whereby predominantly rural culture is being rapidly replaced by predominantly urban culture. Urbanization creates enormous social, economic and environmental changes, which provide an opportunity for sustainability with the “potential to use resources more efficiently, to create more sustainable land use and to protect the biodiversity of natural ecosystems.” Urbanization is relevant to a range of disciplines, including urban planning, geography, sociology, economics, and public health. Thus, it has not only brought benefits to the urbanites but also caused various problems such as traffic congestion, pollution, poverty and crimes that need to be addressed.Text AIn “Alternatives to Sprawl: Shaping Tomorrow’s Cities”, Marcia D. Lowe analyzes the causes of urban problems troubling the developed as well as the developing countries around the world, and provides alternative ways to urban development that would make cities more humane for future generations.Text BIn “ ‘Let Them Eat Pollution’ – Capitalism and the World Environment”, John Bellamy Foster argues that while developed countries have become richer, cleaner and safer, developing countries has become poorer, dirtier, and more dangerous, because of the Western transfer of its low-value-added pollution industries to the latter (even taking the developing countries as their rubbish dumping ground).Teaching objectivesThis unit is designed to help students develop their reading skills, communicative competence, critical thinking, intercultural reflection and abilities in autonomous learning in the following aspects.Reading skills:Distinguish between general and specific statementsCheck and monitor your comprehensionScan for required informationCommunicative competence:Illustrate your points in a logical, structural mannerAdopt and argue for a perspective in a pro-con debateDevelop a coherent and cohesive oral/written discourseCritical thinking:Evaluate the logical strengths of the author’s evidence and argumentsNote and reflect on the differences in urban designs across cultureUse different examples to support different aspects of an ideaIntercultural competence:Explore and interpret the differences between city designs across culturesAnalyze the strengths and weaknesses of the Chinese idea and practice of feng shui in comparison with modern scienceUnderstand the different perspectives between developed countries and developing countries concerning environmental pollution and its remedyTeaching strategiesText A discusses the trend of urbanization in the world and the problems rapid urbanization has caused. The author particularly focuses on the problems and remedies of city planning and urban design citing specific examples. The teacher can start with some questions concerning the problems of living in cities. Then he/she can ask the students to offer their ways of solving these problems. The teacher can also enhance the students’ cross-cultural perspective in comparing the issues analyzed in the text with the cases in China.Text B, as an additional reading, offers a critique on some Western economist’s view (from the World Bank) on the environmental issue against the background of globalization. Obviously the Western World has taken the advantage of the developing countries to get rich, and they also regard the developing countries as dumping ground for their industrial waste and pollutants. The teacher can encourage students to read it and reflect on the relationship between the developed countries and the developing countries in the process of globalization.Further reading:Paddison, Ronan (2001). Handbook of Urban Studies. London; Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE PublicationsLarice, Michael, and MacDonald, Elizabeth (20017), editors, The Urban Design Reader, Routledge, New York LondonLow, Nicholas. (2002). Global Ethics and Environment. Routledge ScienceText APreparatory Work(1)Shanty-town: A shanty town or squatter area is a settlement of improvised housing, called shanties or shacks, made of plywood, corrugated metal, sheets of plastic, and cardboard boxes. Such settlements are usually found on the periphery of cities, in public parks, or near railroad tracks, rivers, lagoons or city trash dump sites. Sometimes called a squatter, informal or spontaneous settlement, a typical shanty town often lacks proper sanitation, safe water supply, electricity, hygienic streets, or other basic human necessities.Metropolitan area: A metropolitan area, sometimes referred to as a metro area or just metro, is a region consisting of a densely populated urban core and its less-populated surrounding territories, sharing industry, infrastructure, and housing. Metropolitan areas include one or more urban areas, as well as satellite cities, towns and intervening rural areas that are socio-economically tied to the urban core, typically measured by commuting patterns.Smog: Smog is a type of air pollutant. The word "smog" was coined in the early 20th century as a portmanteau of the words smoke and fog to refer to smoky fog. Man-made smog is derived from coal emissions, vehicular emissions, industrial emissions, forest and agricultural fires and photochemical reactions of these emissions.Infrastructure: Infrastructure refers to structures, systems, and facilities serving a country, city, or area, including the services and facilities necessary for its economy to function. It typically characterizes technical structures such as roads, bridges, tunnels, water supply, sewers, electrical grids, telecommunications, and so forth, and can be defined as "the physical components of interrelated systems providing commodities and services essential to enable, sustain, or enhance societal living conditions."Commuting: Commuting is periodically recurring travel between one's place of residence and place of work, or study, and in doing so exceed the boundary of their residential community. It sometimes refers to any regular or often repeated traveling between locations, even when not work-related.Downtown: Downtown is a term primarily used in North America by English speakers to refer to a city's core (or center) or central business district (CBD), often in a geographical, commercial, or communal sense. The term is not generally used in British English, whose speakers instead use the term city center. The term is thought to have been coined in New York City, where it was in use by the 1830s to refer to the original town at the southern tip of the island of Manhattan. During the late 19th century, the term was gradually adopted by cities across the United States and Canada to refer to the historical core of the city (which was most often the same as the commercial heart of the city).Greenway: A greenway is "a strip of undeveloped land near an urban area, set aside for recreational use or environmental protection". However, the term can in fact include "a scenic road" and though many are in urban areas. A greenway is a trail (and sometimes a wildlife corridor), found in both urban and rural settings, that is frequently created, out of a disused railway, canal towpath, utility, or similar right ofway, or derelict industrial land.Urban sprawl: Urban sprawl or suburban sprawl describes the expansion of human populations away from central urban areas into low-density, monofunctional and usually car-dependent communities, in a process called suburbanization. In addition to describing a particular form of urbanization, the term also relates to the social and environmental consequences associated with this development. The term urban sprawl is highly politicized, and almost always has negative connotations. It is criticized for causing environmental degradation, and intensifying segregation and undermining the vitality of existing urban areas and attacked on aesthetic grounds. Traffic congestion: Traffic congestion is a condition on transport networks that occurs as use increases, and is characterized by slower speeds, longer trip times, and increased vehicular queuing. The most common example is the physical use of roads by vehicles. When traffic demand is great enough that the interaction between vehicles slows the speed of the traffic stream, this results in some congestion. Traffic congestion can lead to drivers becoming frustrated and engaging in road rage. (2)Town: A town is a human settlement larger than a village but smaller than a city. The size definition for what constitutes a "town" varies considerably in different parts of the world.City: A city is a large and permanent human settlement.] Although there is no agreement on how a city is distinguished from a town in general English language meanings, many cities have a particular administrative, legal, or historical status based on local law. Cities generally have complex systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage, housing, and transportation.Metropolis: A metropolis is a large city or conurbation which is a significant economic, political, and cultural center for a country or region, and an important hub for regional or international connections, commerce, and communications. The term is Greek and means the "mother city" of a colony (in the ancient sense). A big city belonging to a larger urban agglomeration, but which is not the core of that agglomeration, is not generally considered a metropolis but a part of it. Megacity: A megacity is usually defined as a metropolitan area with a total population in excess of ten million people. A megacity can be a single metropolitan area or two or more metropolitan areas that converge. As of 2015, there are 35 megacities in existence. The largest of these are the metropolitan areas of Tokyo and Shanghai, each of these having a population of over 30 million inhabitants, with 38.8 million and 35.5 million respectively. Tokyo is the world's largest metropolitan area, while Shanghai has the world's largest city proper population.Global city: A global city, also called world city or sometimes alpha city or world center, is a city generally considered to be an important node in the global economic system. The use of "global city", as opposed to "megacity", was popularized by sociologist Saskia Sassen in her 1991 work, The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo; although the term "world city", which refers to cities that control a disproportionate amount of global business, dates to at least the May 1886 description of Liverpool, by The Illustrated London News. More recently, the term has been described as beingsynonymous with a city's influence and 'financial capital', with other factors becoming less relevant. (3)City Location (continent/country)Population ImportanceSao Paulo Brazil, South America 11,244,369 the most populous city inBrazil, the Americas, and theSouthern HemisphereMexico City Mexico, North America 8.84 million Capital of Mexico, one of the most important financialcenters in the Americas.Seattle The United States, North America 684,451 Largest city in both the stateof Washington and thePacific Northwest region ofNorth America.New York United States, North America 8,550,405 The most populous city inthe United States, the centerof the New Yorkmetropolitan area, one of themost populous urbanagglomerations in the world,a global financial center.Shanghai China, Asia 24 million The most populous city inboth China and Asia as wellas the most populous cityproper in the world, a globalfinancial center, and atransport hub with theworld's busiest containerport.Bombay (Mumbai) India, Asia 18.4 million The most populous city in India and the ninth mostpopulous agglomeration inthe world, the wealthiest cityin IndiaParis France, Europe 10,550,350 The capital and mostpopulous city of France,known for its fashion andmuseums, the home of themost visited art museum inthe world, the LouvreLondon The United Kingdom, Europe 8,673,713 The capital and mostpopulous city of England,Great Britain, and the UnitedKingdom, a leading globalcity, one of the world’sleading financial centers.Critical ReadingI. Understanding the text 1.Part Paras.Main idea I. Background of urbanization in theworld1-3Urbanization and urban planning has profound impacts on human and environmental well-being II. Urban planning around the globe4-9Some cities are well planned (Paris and some English cities), some cities didn’t have a good plan (North America & Australia), andthe worst city planning is in the developingcountries.III. City planning as transportation planning 10-15 A city’s transport system functions better ifthings are closer to home. Antiquated zoninglaws need updating.IV. Increasing density and diversity 16-21 Integrate homes not only with workplacesbut with other amenities; allow homeownersto rent out small apartments within theirhouses; the example of Portland, OhioV. Room enough for all 22-24 Municipalities should enhance the supply ofaffordable housing by adopting controls thatpromote a mixture of housing types.(Portland)VI. Humane cities 25-30 Making urban areas more humane includesplanning the use of street space, holding thetraffic in check, creating and increasing“greenways”, and involving the public in theurban-planning process.VII. A groundwork for urban land-use policy31-37 Land-use should confine the developmentwithin existing boundaries so that cities canprotect both their own future and that of ruralareas. National funding support is needed forbetter urban planning in both developedworld and the developing world. 2.(1) City-planning has profound impacts on human and environmental well-being. Uncontrolled urban growth can destroy the natural resources and create social disparity. Thus the world needs an urban-planning ethic that is sensitive to these environmental and human dimensions.(2)Congestion and pollution from motor vehicles, a lack of affordable housing, andthe cancerous growth of blighted districts.(3)Western Europe has a long tradition of actively controlling land use so that thesmall amount of available space serves the public’s interest more than that of private developers. North America and Australia have the weakest planning traditions. Governments on these continents have done relatively little to guide development beyond separating industrial areas from those zoned for commerce and housing. Developing countries have the loosest controls over how cities develop. The enormous rapidly growing cites there are racked with pollution and rimmed by shanty-towns.(4)Compartmentalizing and zoning laws, which separate work place from livingquarters, have caused both waste of land in the environment and waste of time for the commuters. To solve these problems, city planning should focus on transportation planning, and a city’s transport system functions better if things are closer to home.(5)In well-established cities, dispersed areas can be made more compact by filling inunderused space to improve their land-use patterns.(6)These cities can also allow homeowners to rent out small apartments within theirhouses to increase housing density.(7)Portland is a rapidly growing city of roughly 500,000 people. Stead of giving in toever growing automobile dependence and sprawl, Portland has encircled itself with an Urban Growth Boundary beyond which new development is not allowed.Reinforced by zoning reforms, the Urban Growth Boundary allows Portland to grow quickly but compactly. The city has increased its housing density by encouraging a blend of mulit- and single-family homes in pleasant, compact pattern. Its vibrant downtown boasts green spaces. City officials welcome new office construction but restrict the amount of accompanying parking. As a result, in two decades, the volume of cars entering Portland’s downtown has remained the same even though the number of jobs there has increased by 50%.(8)Nearly every urban area has two faces—one well-housed and connected to avariety of services and amenities, and the other, ill-housed and excluded from many such opportunities. Governments can enhance the supply of affordable housing and promote a mixture of housing types to resolve the problem.(9)Many large cities are finding that the most transport-efficient land-use patterncombines a dense, well-mixed downtown with several, outlying, compact centers of activity—all linked by an extensive public transport system, for example Toronto and Vancouver in Canada. (para. 19) Instead of giving in to eve greater automobile dependence and sprawl, Portland, Ohio, USA has encircled itself with an Urban Growth Boundary beyond which new development is not allowed.(para.20) The city has increased its housing density by encouraging a blend of multi- and single-family homes in pleasant, compact pattern. It also welcomes new office construction but restrict the amount of accompanying parking. (para.21)(10)First, the general public and decision makers need better access to informationabout the characteristics of a community’s population and the possible consequences of various planning decisions. Second, cities and surrounding areas need a greater degree of regional cooperation to prevent land use in on jurisdiction from producing problems in others. Third, urban areas in virtually all countries need stronger support from their national governments, giving them budgetary power to plan their own long-term development strategies.II. Evaluation and exploration(1) Tentative answer: I basically agree with the author about this phenomenon based on two reasons – one is that many examples in developing countries (Mexico, Brazil, India, South Arica, Egypt) support this statement; the other is the root cause that the third world countries have experienced fast economic growth and urbanization (the big cities such as Mexico City and Bombay) but have not yet found time to address the unbalance of the polarization between the haves and have-nots. One of the few exceptions is China which has done relatively better job in this regard (large numbers of big cities emerging and absorbing labors from the rural areas and relatively balanced and equal development in housing and transport provision for all citizens) (2)Advantages: it’s more efficient and easier to organize and build working areas and resident areas separately (residents can be protected from possible risks and dangers from traffic and factories).Disadvantages: since resident areas are separated from the work place or factories, it takes a lot of time for the workers to commute between the two areas, and also it inevitably causes traffic congestion.(3)Summary: (1) Instead of giving in to ever greater automobile dependence and sprawl, Portland has encircled itself with an Urban Growth Boundary, an invisible line similar to England’s green belts, beyond which new development is not allowed.(2) The city has increased its housing density by encouraging a blend of multi- and single-family homes in pleasant, compact pattern, and therefore successfully controlled housing prices. (3) The city has also built or expanded green spaces in the downtown(city center).Chinese cities can definitely learn from these experiences and realize balanced development, however, each city has its own features (land forms, population size, industries, climate etc.) and it should not simply copy the Portland model but follow its principle of balanced and sustainable development.(4)“Making urban areas more humane includes planning the use of street space. In cities all over the world, automobile traffic needs to be held in check. Many European cities have redesigned roads in order to ‘calm’ traffic. Typically this entails reduced speed limits and strategically placed trees, bushes, flowerbeds, or play areas along or in the roadway—gentle inducements that make drivers proceed slowly and yield the right-of-way to pedestrians, cyclists, and children at play.” (para. 26)Yes, definitely, humane cities need to put the well-being of the pedestrians (who should equally follow the traffic rules) ahead of the drivers, and China’s bit cities need to improve in this respect (although the great number of people on the street makes it more difficult to realize). China’s big cities also have its own advantages inthe provision of public transport (buses, subways, and city-link trains) and workers should be encouraged to use it instead of driving cars to work.(5)Tentative answer: Singapore is a well-planned city with mature and developed business areas, clean and beautiful resident areas, advanced public transport system, reserved green land, and controlled private cars (As Singapore is a small island with a high population density, the number of private cars on the road is restricted so as to curb pollution and congestion. Car buyers must pay for duties one-and-a-half times the vehicle's market value, and bid for a Singaporean Certificate of Entitlement (COE), which allows the car to run on the road for a decade).These provide good principles and insights for China’s cities to learn from. You can compare these aspects with your own home city to find room for improvement.(6)Food for thoughts: Big cities can absorb and transform large number of the surplus labor in the rural areas, provide a lot of job opportunity, have high-quality resources in culture, education, health care, and recreational activities, but the drawbacks are higher cost of living (including house price), serious traffic congestion, a lot of noise and air pollution. Small and medium-sized cities are basically opposite to the big ones in the above mentioned respects.Tentative solution: small, medium and big cities are all needed in China because of their different functions, but they should be balanced in development –the number of mega cities like Beijing, Shanghai, Shenzhen, and Chongqing should be limited due to the huge pressure on environment (but they serve as political, business, or transport centers of the country or regions); medium cities should be encouraged for its ideal balance of population size and the environment; but small cities should not be neglected (they are the basis for the other two types).(7)Tentative answer: Major causes of traffic congestion and air pollution: too many private cars (causing both traffic congestion and air pollution), inadequate public transport capacity, manufacturing factories, traditional fuel burning for central heating in the winter, dust caused by construction sites.Solutions: control the number and use of private cars (through various means), develop public transport system, esp. subway, close down polluting factories, replace coal burning with natural gas in the central heating season, and reduce dust of construction sites.(8)Food for thought: you can discuss the problems from logical organization of the functional areas (such as teaching/learning area vs resident area vs dining area), clean environment and adequate infrastructure (green land, pond, sports center etc.), degree of convenience (distance between different areas), and then propose for improvement if there’re flaws.(9)Food for thought: with the rapid development such as online shopping and the service industry (some of its business such as translation, editing and designing) make it possible for the employees to work from home), where the employee live will be irrelevant to where the company he/she works for is located. This will give much more freedom for the employee to decide where he/she should live, and people will not crowd into big cities and suffer bad environment. Perhaps, small and medium cities as well as suburban areas of big cities with good environment will flourish.(10)This question is open. The reader can use what they have learned from this unit (general principles of balanced and sustainable development as well as specific measures to realize it) to evaluate the government’s plan.Language EnhancementI Words and phrases1.(1) C&E(2) B&C(3) D&F(4) D&F(5) C&E(6) B&E(7) B&C(8) C&F(9) A&D(10) A&D2.(1) through (2) at (3) by (4) for (5) to (6) on(7) with(8) on(9) by(10) in(11) until(12) to3.(1) yields to(2) range from(3) veered from(4) shuts out(5) excluded from(6) connect… to(7) rented out(8) react to(9) turn…into(10) draws on4.(1) met(2) controlling(3) separate…from(4)convert(5) addresses(6) strive for(7) confined(8) devote …to(9) fend off(10) facilitateII Sentences and discourse1.(1)Estimates from the UN show that the populations of Third World cities are nowdoubling every 10 to 15 years, and this is posing a serious challenge to governments’ efforts to provide clean water, sewerage, adequate transport, and other basic services.(2)Many of England’s urban areas are still circled by green belts intended to protectfarmland and prevent city sprawl; the tradition has been carried out according toa farsighted decree by Queen Elizabeth I in 1580.(3)Zoning codes restrict residential density by requiring each house to occupy itsown large lot, and this has forced development to use even greater tracts of open space.(4)These giant cities are racked with pollution and rimmed by shanty-towns. Theyhave become increasingly features of the developing countries.(5)However, it is impossible to stop further development because prohibitinggrowth in their own jurisdictions and communities simply shifts it to neighboring areas. In these areas, controls may be looser and policies may be more encouraging to further expansion.(6)Many neighborhoods serve merely as pathways for car drivers to pass through toother places.2.(1)The policies of reform and opening up initiated by Mr. Deng Xiaoping haveenriched millions of people in China.(2)The trend of global warming will endanger flora/plants and fauna/animals in boththe Arctic Circle and the Antarctic Circle.(3)The strategy of developing satellite towns is to prevent Beijing’s urbanconstruction from further sprawl.(4)In any urban area, high-end living quarters with low housing density always takeup more urban space or farmland.(5)Any urban planning has to reconcile the contradiction between communitydevelopment and traffic pressure.(6)You have no right to dictate me in this affair.(7)A person’s attitude determines his/her future.(8)No government can afford to ignore the existence of urban poverty.(9)Encouraging and promoting the development of economically affordable housingis one of the major measures adopted by governments of all levels to resolve the housing problem of low-income families.(10)The successive rise in real estate prices over the years has undermined thefoundation for sustainable development of the economy as a whole.3.一个城市对土地的利用方式比任何交通专家或工程师的计划和决策更能决定其交通系统的特点。
大学生思辨英语教程精读1unit11使用说明
大学生思辨英语教程精读1unit11学习建议《语言与文化》使用说明传统的高中英语教学往往以词汇、语法等语言知识的掌握和运用为最重要甚至是唯一的目标，本套教材的编写理念与此不同，既注重学科性，又强调思辨性，以培养学生的思辨能力、语言运用能力、跨文化能力、交际能力和自主学习能力为宗旨。
在教材编写过程中，课文遴选和练习设计都紧扣这五大能力的各项指标(详见学生用书的Map of the book)，因此，我们建议教师在学期之初即相应地引导学生改变传统的学习理念，并在授课中自觉地以提高这五项能力为教学目标。
《语言与文化》共15个单元，分为三个模块:语言、文化、语言与文化的界面，涵盖了语言的本质、功能、习得、语言与思维、语言与性别、语言与政治、语言与媒体、全球化、价值观、文化中心主义、跨文化交际以及非语言交际等语言、文化和交流领域的重要话题。
各单元均以话题导入开始，每个单元包括两篇课文和四个部分的练习。
其中，Text A和Text B围绕同一个主题，相辅相成。
起点较高、学有余力的班级可以深入探讨两篇课文，而学时较少或起点较低的班级可以重点讲解Text A，让学生自己阅读Text B。
Preparatory work主要为培养学生的自主学习能力服务，教师在每个单元授课前应具体、明确地指定学生应完成的资料查阅、准备性练习、对课文内容的思考以及分组进行的讨论和合作研究。
此外，为了培养学生的自主学习能力和习惯，本套教材全四册都没有提供生词表，学生在每个单元的预习过程中应该自主完成查阅生词的任务、制作个性生词表。
我们建议教师在学期之初即统一说明这项工作的完成方式和检查方式。
Critical reading是本教材最具特色也是最为重要的练习。
编者参照Paul & Elder的思辨模型和Delphi的CT模型将该练习分为两个部分:Understanding thetext和Evaluation and exploration，前者以引导学生在阐释、分析中深度理解课文为目标，后者则更加注重评价、解释、推理和反思，以培养更高层次的批判性思维。
大学思辨英语精读教程精读3 U1教师用书
Unit 1 Thinking SociologicallyUnit OverviewSociology is the scientific study of society, including patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and culture. It is a social science that uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about social order, acceptance, and change. In modern society, our life and work are closely related to other people, groups/organizations and institutions. Therefore everyone should have some fundamental knowledge of sociology, a discipline which explores the nature and characteristics of the relationship between individuals and society.Text AIn this introductory text, Leonard Cargan and Jeanne H. Ballantine provide broad and concise ideas about the links between sociology and individuals posing such questions for thought: What is sociology? What will I learn from studying sociology? Why should I take a sociology course? What work do sociologists do? How is sociology useful to me and to the world? In the words of the authors, sociology is “the broadest of the social sciences”; it “can give us an understanding of the social world” and “helps us have a deeper understanding of ourselves and our place in the world as well.” That is why we should study sociology.Text BText B is taken from The Sociological Imagination, a 1959 book by American sociologist C. Wright Mills published by Oxford University Press. In it, he develops the idea of sociological imagination, the means by which the relation between self and society can be understood. Mills felt that the central task for sociology and sociologists was to find (and articulate) the connections between the particular social environments of individuals (also known as "milieu") and the wider social and historical forces in which they are enmeshed. In writing The Sociological Imagination, Mills tried to reconcile two varying, abstract conceptions of social reality, the "individual" and the "society", and thereby challenged the dominant sociological discourse to define some of its most basic terms and be forthright about the premises behind its definitions. In 1998 the International Sociological Association listed the work as the second most important sociological book of the 20th century.The two texts both discuss the nature and features of sociology, the former introducing the general features of sociology while the latter focusing on the nature of the discipline of sociology (connection between the individuals and the society as a whole).Teaching objectivesThis unit is designed to help students develop their reading skills, communicative competence, critical thinking, intercultural reflection and abilities in autonomous learning in the following aspects.Reading skills:Scan for main ideasIdentify topic sentencesIdentify supporting detailsCommunicative competence:Use topic sentences and supporting details to organize presentation/essayIllustrate points with appropriate examplesCommunicate constructively in team workCritical thinking:Identify and examine unfounded assumptions concerning the benefits of studying sociologyInterpret and evaluate claims about sociologyDefine key theoretical concepts in sociologyIntercultural competence:Explain how one’s social environment shapes one’s values and behavior from a sociological perspectivesUnderstand the common influences globalization has on the lives of individuals of different culturesInterpret cultural differences from social and historical perspectivesTeaching strategiesIn this first unit, the teacher is advised to introduce the purpose and the whole structure of the whole book so that students may have an overall picture of the objectives and methods of learning.To start with, Text A covers the general features of sociology and the benefits of studying it. It is relatively easier both in language and content and therefore suitable for the main task of learning. Text B is a bit more challenging to students and requires efforts in further research and deeper understanding. It is suggested that Text B should be related to Intercultural Competence tasks (for students with better research and critical thinking abilities).Further reading:John J. Macionis, Sociology (10th Edition), Prentice Hall, 2004C. Wright Mills, The Sociological Imagination, Oxford University Press, 1961Peter L. Berger, Invitation to Sociology: A Humanistic Perspective, Anchor, 1963 Text APreparatory Work(1)Micro-level sociology: a b eMacro-level sociology: c d(2)Sociology is the study of social behavior or society, including its origins, development, organization, networks, and institutions. Like sociology, psychology, economics, history, demography are all related to the study of society and human activities. In this way they share similarities.The differences lie in the follows:●Psychology is the study of human behavior and mind, embracing all aspects ofconscious and unconscious experience as well as thought of the human beings.●Economics focuses on the behavior and interactions of economic agents andhow economies work, that is the economic activities of the human kind.●History is the study of the past events as well as the memory, discovery,collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of information about these events, particularly how it relates to humans.●Demography is the statistical study of populations, especially human beings.As a very general science, it can analyze any kind of dynamic living population,i.e., one that changes over time or space.(3) (open)Teaching suggestion:You can refer to the following textbooks:John J. Macionis & Nijole V. Benokraitis ed., Seeing Ourselves 7th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007)James M. Henslin ed., Down to Earth Sociology: Introductory Readings 14th ed. (New York: Free Press, 2007)(4) (open)Teaching suggestion:You can refer to the last two parts of the text: “What Work Do Sociologists Do” and “How is Sociology Useful to Me and to the World” (paragraph 19-26) for positive reasons.Negative reasons vary (why not choose a career related to sociology), for instance, no interest (in social sciences), character reasons (not cut out for dealing with people), and practical reason (no high pay).Critical ReadingI. Understanding the text1.Part Para(s). Main ideaI Introduction 1-2 Key topics to be coveredin the main partsII Defining sociology 3-6 Relationship with othersocial sciencesIII Contents of sociology 7-12 What will I learn fromsociologyIV Necessity of studying 13-18 What abilities willsociology sociology help youdevelopVI The job of a sociologist 19-23 Job potentials of asociology majorVII Conclusion 24-26 Summary of the usefulnessof sociology to individualsand the world2.(1) To emphasize the importance of sociology and arouse readers’ interest in (studying) sociology.(2) The intended audience of the essay are university and college students. The audience is young and curious about everything but needs some guide in choosing their courses in university study.(3) In Para. 7, Cargan and Ballantine try to demonstrate that sociology is based on systematic and objective study of human behavior.(4) They illustrate the difference between individual explanation and group explanation using divorce as an example. Individual explanation considers a divorceas a personal problem caused by conflict between the husband and wife within the family. Sociology can help us move beyond “individual” explanations to consider the social surroundings that influence the situation: economic conditions, disruptions caused by changing sex roles, and pressures on the family to meet the emotional needs of its members.(5) We can see that the first list of skills (sociology trains us in) is broader and more general category, and the second list of skills (employers look for) is the overlappingor subcategory of the former list. So we can simply put the skills of the second list into its respective categories in the first list (actually, some of the skills in the secondlist can be put into two or more general categories in the first list). Note: this is only one way of reorganize the two lists, and not necessarily the best one.●Ability to view the world more objectively: ability to plan effectively;self-confidence about job responsibilities; ability to listen to others;self-motivation; effective leadership skills●Tools to solve problems by designing studies, collecting data, and analyzingresults: ability to organize thoughts and information; ability to conceptualizeproblems clearly●Ability to understand group dynamics: ability to work with peers;self-motivation; ability to interact effectively in group situations; ability tolisten to others●Ability to understand and evaluate problems: effective problem-solving skills;effective leadership skills;●Ability to understand your personal problems in a broader social context:willingness to adapt to the needs of the organization; ability to handlepressureII. Evaluation and exploration(1) Yes. The title is a question to the key issue of sociology, which is very clear and focused. And the text provides and elaborates the answers to the key question “why study sociology”.(2) The introduction is very effective. It starts with six questions about sociology to arouse the readers’ interest or curiosity in this topic.(3) Subtitles in the text are effective and necessary in dividing the text into different but related parts so that the readers can have a clear structural framework about the organization of the text.(4) The benefits of taking sociology described in Para. 13 are grouped into a general list of five abilities/skills in paragraph 14 and 12 skills in paragraph 15. It is not necessary to use examples to illustrate every benefit mentioned in a long list. However, if the authors added some statistics to support the five categories, the argument would be more convincing.(5) The conclusion or statement that “sociology is the broadest of the social sciences” is reasonable. Cargan and Ballantine described the wide range of areas sociology covers, and other related disciplines that sociology overlaps with, such as social psychology, political sociology, anthropology, and social history.(6) Sociology not only covers vast areas of social studies, but also provides objective perspective and scientific methods in understanding the society and individuals. It also trains us in necessary life and work ability or skills in correctly dealing with issues and problems. In a word, sociology offers us a platform for critical thinking. (7) Sociologists probe into a social phenomenon/problem with scientific methods (group explanation instead of personal/individual one) that the next unit is to discuss in details (they include experiment, survey, participant observation/field work, and available data analysis).(8) Structural functionalism, or simply functionalism, is a framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. This approach looks at society through a macro-level orientation, which is a broad focus on the social structures that shape society as a whole, and believes that society has evolved like organisms. This approach looks at both social structure and social functions. Functionalism addresses society as a whole in terms of the function of its constituent elements, namely norms, customs, traditions, and institutions.●Conflict theories are perspectives in sociology and social psychology thatemphasize the social, political, or material inequality of a social group, that critique the broad socio-political system, or that otherwise detract from structural functionalism and ideological conservatism. Conflict theories draw attention to power differentials, such as class conflict, and generally contrast historically dominant ideologies. It is therefore a macro level analysis of society. Karl Marx is the father of the social conflict theory, which is a component of the four paradigms of sociology.●Symbolic interactionism is a sociological perspective which developed around themiddle of the twentieth century and that continues to be influential in some areas of the discipline. It is particularly important in micro-sociology and socialpsychology. Symbolic interactionism is derived from the American philosophy of pragmatism and particularly from the work of George Herbert Mead who coined the term and put forward an influential summary: people act toward things based on the meaning those things have for them, and these meanings are derived from social interaction and modified through interpretation.Utilitarianism is a theory in normative ethics holding that the best moral action is the one that maximizes utility. Utility is defined in various ways, but is usually related to the well-being of sentient entities. Originally, Jeremy Bentham, the founder of Utilitarianism, defined utility as the aggregate pleasure after deducting suffering of all involved in any action. John Stuart Mill expanded this concept of utility to include not only the quantity, but quality of pleasure, while focusing on rules, instead of individual moral actions.Language EnhancementI. Words and phrases1.(1) C&D (2) A&C (3) C&D (4) A&C (5) C&D(6) C&E (7) C&D (8) B&C (9) A&E (10) C&F2.（1）单日，单一天（2）单身汉（3）挑选出（4）独立地（只身）（5）通常的，常见的（6）共同的（7）（英国）平民院（下议院）（8）宣判有……罪（9）罪犯（10）逃跑（11）分解（12）闯入（13）中断、暂停（14）爆发（15）解体3.(1) major in (2) curious about (3) interact with (4) relate to (5) engage with(6) lead to (7) specialize in (8) conform to (9) based on (10) refrain from4(1) break away from (2) convict of (3) bond with (4) engages in (5) embark on (6) profit from (7) involved in (8) focus on (9) depended on (10) encounterII. Sentences and discourse1.(1)As you learn more about sociology, you will gradually find the links between itsindividual and separate parts and see the whole picture of sociology.(2)Sociologists’ interests will be immediately aroused by seeing any two or morepeople with close relationships.(3)You can ponder over the phenomenon that some societies allow and expectpremarital sex while others punish it with banishment and death.(4)Through systematic scientific study, sociologists can fully understand humanbehavior in groups, which is impossible through mere common sense.(5)Sociology can help us explain “individual” cases more insightfully by linkingthem with the crucial social conditions behind them.2.(1)He majored in chemistry when enrolled in university.(2)Terrorism poses a threat to many countries.(3)While studying overseas, you must interact more with the local people/natives.(4)The corruption of some of this country’s officials has sparked public resentmentand protest.(5)Due to his contribution to the company, he negotiated with his boss and renewedhis contract with better conditions.(6)At the age of 16, she published her first poem and embarked on her long journeyto literature.(7)In the process of translating the Chinese classic Journey to the West into German,he encountered many difficult problems.(8)After arriving in Britain, he took a whole month to adapt to the country’s rainyclimate.(9)Your company should engage more actively in the environmental projects of thegovernment.(10)T en years ago, he was convicted of robbery.3.社会学家们的不同兴趣促使他们研究许多不同的领域。
大学思辨英语教程精读1Unit10教师用书
大学思辨英语教程精读1 Unit 10 教师用书一、教学目标本教学单元旨在帮助学生：1.学习并掌握Unit 10中的重要词汇、短语和句型。
2.理解并分析Unit 10中的主要文本。
3.培养学生对文本进行思辨和批判性分析的能力。
4.培养学生运用所学知识进行口头表达和写作的能力。
二、教学内容本单元的教学内容分为以下几个部分：1. 词汇与短语本单元旨在帮助学生学习并掌握以下词汇和短语：•venture（冒险）•hazard（危险）•autonomous（自治的）•pervasive（普遍的）•privilege（特权）•embody（体现）•aspire to（渴望）•delicate balance（微妙的平衡）2. 语法与句型本单元的语法与句型主要集中在以下几个方面：•虚拟语气•比较级与最高级•定语从句3. 阅读与讨论本单元的主要文本为一篇关于网络隐私与权利的文章。
文本旨在引导学生思考和讨论以下问题：•网络隐私的重要性和困境。
•个人隐私权与国家安全之间的冲突。
•如何平衡个人隐私与公共安全的需求。
4. 口语表达与写作本单元的口语表达和写作活动旨在培养学生对所学知识的灵活运用能力，包括但不限于：•小组讨论：讨论网络隐私与权利的话题，并展开辩论。
•想象写作：以个人隐私为主题，写一篇短文，表达自己的观点和看法。
三、教学步骤本单元的教学安排如下：1. 词汇与短语学习•呈现新词汇和短语，并进行解释。
•运用不同的学习方法帮助学生掌握新词汇和短语。
•设置任务和练习，巩固学生的学习成果。
2. 语法与句型讲解•介绍本单元的语法和句型知识点。
•提供示例句子和练习，让学生熟悉和运用所学知识。
3. 阅读与讨论•带领学生一起阅读本单元的主要文本。
•引导学生理解和分析文本，并讨论相关问题。
•分组讨论，展开辩论，鼓励学生表达个人观点和看法。
4. 口语表达与写作练习•组织小组讨论，让学生在小组内展开辩论。
•布置想象写作任务，要求学生通过写作表达自己的观点和看法。
大学生思辨英语教程精读1unit11教师用书
大学生思辨英语教程精读1unit11教师用书Unit 1 1 Language and GenderOverviewFrom this unit on, we are turning our eyes to the interface bet ween language andculture. To start with, we will deal with the topic of language and gender in this unit.Text A discusses wh ether men and women talk differently. Instead of attempting ananswer to the question, Napoli challenges six common clai ms with more questions,arguing that all six claims are more a bout sociological factors than linguistic ones.Then she highlig hts the importance to distinguish between gender and sex an dsuggests the wide range of sociological factors that have to be included in systematicsociolinguistic studies to have a cha nce of getting reliable results.Text Bfocuses on how men and women are treated differently in the society and inour language. During a small working co nference, Tannen noticed the styled hair andthe carefully chos enmakeup, clothes and shoes of the other women participant s andthe “unmarked” look of the men participants. It occurr ed to her that the women didnot have the option of being unmarked in their appearance as the men had. Similarly,women are always marked in language as indicated in the titles and s urnames. This isstrange because biologically it is the male tha t is marked. Yet even writing aboutwomen and men may mar k T annen as a feminist rather than a writer.This unitmay serve as a starting point for further studies in la nguage andgender.Following the example of the texts, studen ts are invited to reexamine thebeliefs and phenomena that ar e usually taken for granted. In this process , they maynot only want to break down some stereotypes but also practice the s ystematic way todo so.Teaching Obj ectivesReading S kill sIdentify the structure of the textRelate new information to old informationChallenge popular claims on gender differences in languag e useControl variables in sociolinguistic studiesCompare the ways in which men and women use language and are depicted inl an g u ag eIntercultural C ompetenc eUnderstand the meaning of feminism in the Western conte xt Interpret gender differences from a cultural perspective Understand gender issues across cultures.。
大学思辨英语精读备课Unit1
Unit 1 Trust and CharacterText A Do You Like It Here? <The story was published in 1939> Words and phrases expected of students to understand phooey: int. <informal>: used to express disgust or contempt eyeshade: a visor worn on heard for protection against glareen suite: adj. adv. in or as a part of a setmake rounds of: to go from place to place <for inspection>bawl out <at sb>swing around: turn around <as if on a hinge or pivot>torture tactics:proceed: go onhalt: stop or pausethrow in: to insert or introduce into the course of something gratuitously：free of charge; <unnecessarily, without apparent reason> certified public accountant <CPA>peripatetic: walking or travelling abouton account of: because of, for the sake ofimposing: very impressivein some small measureabiding: lasting for a long time, enduringinstitute <a search><turn>yellow: <slang> cowardlygivesb one’s word of honor: solemn promise, a verbal commitment agreeing to do or not to do sth. in the futurePreparatory Work1.John O’Hara <1905-1970>,a keen observer of social status and classdifferences, and wrote frequently about the socially ambitious. His father died at that time, leaving him unable to afford Yale, the college of his choice. By all accounts, this disappointment affected O'Hara deeply for the rest of his life and served to hone the keen sense of social awareness that characterizes his work. He worked as a reporter for variousnewspapers. He garnered much critical acclaim for his short stories, more than 200 of which, beginning in 1928, appeared in The New Yorker.In 1934, O'Hara published his first novel, Appointment in Samarra, which was acclaimed on publication. This is the O'Hara novel that is mostconsistently praised by critics. Ernest Hemingway wrote: "If you want to read a book by a man who knows exactly what he is writing about and has written it marvelously well, read Appointment in Samarra." Harold Bloom named it to the Western canon. On the other hand, writing in the Atlantic Monthly of March 2000, critic Benjamin Schwarz and writer Christina Schwarz claimed: "So widespread is the literary world's scorn for John O'Hara that the inclusion ... of Appointment in Samarra on the ModernLibrary's list of the 100 best [English-language] novels of the twentieth century was used to ridicule the entire project."The epitaph on his tombstone, which he wrote himself, reads: "Better than anyone else, he told the truth about his time. He was a professional. He wrote honestly and well." Of this, Gill commented: "From the far side of the grave, he remains self-defensive and overbearing. Better than anyone else? Not merely better than any other writer of fiction but better than any dramatist, any poet, any biographer, any historian? It is an astonishing claim." <extracted from Wikipedia>John O'Hara2.A conversational style and dispassionate voice.3.Psychological bullying is often difficult to ignore. Bullies torment their victims in many ways. Tormenting them is not enough, they have to humiliate them and ridicule their victims as well. Bullies use words to destroy their victims, and these words can hurt worse than a physical blow. People often say, "Sticks and stones may hurt my bones, but words will never hurt". In today’s society, this phrase is simply not true. Words do hu rt, and they dodestroy lives. Psychological bullying destroys the character of their victim. The bully makes the victim the center of his abuse. In other words, the bully takes his or her anger and frustration out on the victim.4. The Phi Beta Kappa key is one of this nation's most distinctive symbols and, in fact, traces its origins to the era of the American Revolution. Conceived in 1776 by a group of talented undergraduates at the College of William and Mary as an emblem of their secret "philosophical society," the key proclaims Phi Beta Kappa's centuries-old conviction that "The love of wisdom <is> the guide of Life." As the Society they created encompassed more of the nation's finest colleges and universities, its key became a universally recognized mark of academic achievement in the liberal arts and sciences.the third degree: a situation in which someone tries to find out information by asking you a lot of questionseg. If I'm even half an hour late she gives me the third degree.I got the third degree from my dad when I got in last night.give<someone> the lowdown on <something>: To provide someone with specific or comprehensive details about someone, something, or some situation.eg. Give me the lowdown on what the boss is planning to do about the company's falling profits.I'm waiting for my brother to give me the lowdown on Geoffrey before I go on a date with him.There's been a shakeup in the company's upper management, but we won't know how we're affected until the boss gives us the lowdown.West Point: A US military installation in southeast New York on the western bank of the Hudson River north of New York City. It has been a military post since 1778 and the seat of the US Military Academy since 1802.Second Form: an English term for an equivalent of the 7th or 8th grade in American schools. <also see sixth form: the term refers to the final two years of secondary education in the education system of England and other commonwealth countries>day school:as opposed to a boarding school, it is an institution where children <or high-school age adolescents> are given educational instruction during the day, after which children return to their homes.boarding school:a school where some or all people study and live during the school year with their fellow students and possibly teachers and/or administrators. The word 'boarding' is used in the sense of "bed and board,"i.e., lodging and meals. Many independent <private> schools in the Commonwealth of Nations are boarding schools. Boarding school pupils <a.k.a. "boarders"> normally return home during the school holidays and, often, weekends, but in some cultures may spend the majority of their childhood and adolescent life away from their families. In the United States, boarding schools comprise various grades, most commonly grades seven or nine through grade twelve - the high school years.I Understanding the text1. Questions<1> a boarding school/prep <dormitory, a stepping stone to higher education><2> Mentioned four times. First at the beginning. The dorm door had to be kept open during study period so that there was no knock <apparent reason and a convenient excuse. But in another sense, a suggestion of no privacy, convenient for Van Ness to look in <introduce the idea of "panopticon">. Then there’s the mention of Van Ness’s half-open door. His privilege, authority <needs to knock before being permitted to go in>. After Roberts went in, he was ordered to close the door, an indication of Van Ness’s authority. Also a closed space might have some psychological impact on Roberts—getting him trapped. Finally at the end of the story. Roberts not sure whether to leave it open or to close it but decided to leave it open. The door symbolizes Van Ness’s power or authority. The act of Roberts’s leaving it open might be an indication of his attempt to challenge the authority, even though feebly.<3> Not really. He hated Hughes. Wearing eye-shade during study time. Van Ness making rounds of the rooms, meting out punishments.<4>manipulative, sadistic, self-important, pompous, sarcastic2. True or false<1>F<2>T<3>T<4>F<5>T3. Multiple choices<1> B <2> D<3> B<4> DII Critiquing the text<1>Roberts’s parents divorced when he was ten, moved a lot,had to go tomany schools, unpleasant experiences, lonely and without a sense of belongingVan Ness saw the boy as susceptible to moral corruption <dishonest, sneaky, unruly><2> Self-important/smug, overbearing/sadistic, ,show-rather-than-telltechnique<3>No t easy for Roberts to detect Van Ness’s intentions,Van Ness using torture tactics, effective to some extent, making Roberts upset, baffled, and frustrated〔4By this time he had guessed what it was all about. Hewas relieved because he had a clear conscience. He didn’t have to lie when confronted with the question about the watch. Previously he probably did have to lie when saying he liked it here.〔5Van Ness was convinced that Roberts was the thief and expected that he would certainly deny his stealing the watch. He would think Roberts would be devastated by his interrogation and that was exactly what he wanted. He had everything under control.〔6The "bastard" could refer to Van Ness or Hughes. Roberts was angry at first, then he knew it was no use fighting back as he had learned it from his previous experiences. Things always ended like this.〔7The title: colloquial, dramatic. Turns out to be a malicious question.〔8Robert s’ point of view. If it were the first-person narration, the tone would be angry, it would be more about clearing the name, a case of being wronged.Fro m Van Ness’s point of view, it would be about how he ran the school and how he would teach Roberts a moral lesson.Language EnhancementI Words and phrases1.<1> occupation<2> occupant <3> preoccupy<4> contempt<5> contemptible<6> contempt2. "peri-" :enclosing, encircling, or aroundperipheral; perinatal<relating to the period around childbirth>;perimeter;periodic; periphrastic"-tic": pertaining totherapeutic; static; paralytic; dramatic; pathetic3.<1> institute<2> urge<3>transfer<4> institute<5>transferred <6> urging4.<1> innate<2> intrinsic<3> inherent<4> scheme<5> tactic <6> strategy5.<1> in some measure<2> on account of<3> at any rate<4> all right <adv. meaning without doubt><5> thrown in<6> go with<7> bawl out <8> throw inII Sentences and rhetoric1.Paraphrase（1）Well, tell me about your life before you decided to do us the honor of having you as a student here.（2）D on’t be too modest to suppress your desire to tell the good stuff about yourself.（3）Chicago, Illinois! Well, a bit of geographical knowledge for my benefit, right, Roberts? And free of charge.（4）But I swear, however difficult it is I’m going to find out who the thief is.2.Translation<1>如果他在什么事情上要训斥你,无关紧要的事情,他会查看他带在身边的一张单子,然后他会到你房间里把你训斥一通,并告诉你会有什么相应的惩罚。
大学思辨英语教程 精读1课件Unit 2 Functions of Language
Background Knowledge
continued
Chapter 6 examines the prerequisites for language, which are shared with our ape cousins: first, friendly involvement with others and a predisposition for grooming; second, an aptitude for tactical deception, or lying, which depends on 'a theory of mind', and an ability to understand the intentions of others.
Unit 2 Functions of Language
Text A What Is Language for?
Jean Aitchison
Learning Objectives
Intercultural Competence
• Communicative Communicative Competence
• Intercultural Competence
• Appreciate linguistic and cultural diversity • Interpret language differences culturally • Have curiosity in and be ready to explore other languages and
1) How did language begin?
Part 2, ‘Origin’, explores how language probably originated. Chapter 5 outlines the 'East Side story', which suggests that humans separated from apes when they were stranded on the east side of Africa, after the Great Rift Valley split the terrain. Humans were forced to live on their wits in a harsh landscape, and began to develop language.
大学思辨英语教程 精读1 Unit6 教师用书 20150918
Unit6Cultural ValuesOverviewThis unit aims to help students understand the concept of cultural value and some key cultural values of the United States and compare them with Chinese cultural values. Culture is like an iceberg.The tip of the iceberg is the smallest part.Most of the iceberg is submerged.The same is true for a culture.That which you can easily see–the behavior of people–is the smallest part of culture.It is external while the greatest part,internal culture,is beneath the water level of awareness.It is inside people’s heads.This internal culture includes our way of thinking and perceiving.Most importantly,it contains the values and beliefs unconsciously learned while growing up in a particular culture.These values and beliefs determine most behaviors.Text AAs concepts of what is important and worthwhile,cultural values are abstract,but they are reflected by various aspects of daily life,e.g.clothing.In Text A,Fiske described a small study that he did with his students about a popular cultural product–jeans,and the underlying cultural values of the United States.He asked his students to write down the words they associated with jeans.By analyzing these notes,he found two clusters of meanings.The first group was community integrative and denied social differences.The lack of social differentiation reflects the paradoxical relationship between individualist freedom and community.The second group included natural and physical meanings and derived from the American West Myth.Fiske also analyzed how jeans were disfigured to express oppositional meanings.According to Fiske,the disfiguring of jeans reflected the paradoxical nature of popular culture.Text BText B deals with a key cultural value of the United States–individualism.According to Althen,“the most important thing to understand about Americans is probably their devotion to individualism.”He defines individualism as considering oneself as a separate individual who is responsible for his or her own situations in life and his or her own destinies rather than as members of a close-knit,interdependent family,religious group, tribe,nation,or any other collectivity.He then illustrates individualism with a wide range of examples,e.g.child rearing,college life,the different behaviors and thoughts between Americans and people of other social backgrounds and Americans’ideal person.In the end,Althen compares individualism and collectivism by listing the typical behaviors of each cultural value.The two texts both deal with cultural values of the United States but adopt different approaches.Text A describes a study of a particular cultural product or phenomenon–jeans and analyzes the underlying cultural values.Text B centers around a key cultural value and illustrate it with a wide range of phenomena.Text B may serve as acomplement to Text A,since the central topic of Text B–individualism–is also a concept analyzed in Text A(Paragraphs5-7).Teaching objectivesReading skills●Develop a coherent and cohesive discourse●Be aware of meanings expressed by non-verbal communication●Organize a group discussionCritical thinking●Clarify the meanings of the key concepts in an article●Analyze and improve a research design●Anticipate and address counter arguments that readers may haveIntercultural competence●Understand the meaning of popular culture across cultures●Be able to interpret American cultural products such as jeans●Be able to evaluate critically American and Chinese core valuesTeaching strategiesCultural value is an abstract concept and specific cultural values are also abstract. Therefore,it is important to understand cultural values in specific contexts and illustrate them with concrete phenomena or behaviors.To teach this unit,it is advisable to start with phenomena rather than concepts.Before learning Text A,you can ask students to examine their clothing and reflect upon the values underlying different clothing styles.As for Text B,you can ask students to imagine confronting the contexts discussed by the author in Chinese culture and discuss how they would behave in the contexts and what different values are underlying.This mini-lesson includes the definition,examples and importance of cultural value and the relationship between value,customs and culture:/academy/lesson/cultural-values-definition-examples-importance.html The following webpage lists some major American cultural values:/articles/culture.htmPreparatory work(1)John FiskeResearch interests:His areas of interest include popular culture,mass culture,media semiotics and television studies.Publications:He is the author of eight books,including Power Plays,Power Works (1993),Understanding Popular Culture[2](1989),Reading the Popular(1989),and the influential Television Culture(1987).Ideas and impact:Fiske's books analyze television shows as"texts"to examine the different layers of meaning and sociocultural content.Fiske disagrees with the theory that mass audiences consume the products that are offered to them without thought.Fiske rejects the notion of"the audience"which assumes an uncritical mass.He instead suggests"audiences"with various social backgrounds and identities enabling them to receive texts differently.(2)JeansHistory/invention:Often the term"jeans"refers to a particular style of pants,called"blue jeans,"which were invented by Jacob Davis in1871and patented by Davis and Levi Strauss on May20,1873.Manufacturing process:The manufacturing of jeans includes such techniques as dyeing, pre-shrinking and sandblasting.Various fits:Jeans come in various fits,including skinny,tapered,slim,straight,boot cut, cigarette bottom,narrow bottom,low waist,anti-fit,and flare.Famous brands:Top10brands of jeans are Levi’s,Diesel,Wrangler Jeans,True Religion, Lee Jeans,Calvin Klein,Pepe Jeans London,Armani Jeans,Killer Jeans and Nostrum Jeans.(3)Middle class vs.working classWestward movementDefinition:It’s also known as Westward Expansion.The expansion of the United States into the territory west of the Mississippi River began in1803when President Thomas Jefferson purchased the territory of Louisiana from the French government for$15 million.To Jefferson,westward expansion was the key to the nation’s health.By1840, nearly7million Americans–40percent of the nation’s population–lived in the trans-Appalachian West.Impact:Westward Expansion had far-reading impacts on the United States.It greatly increased the territories of the nation.The building of railways,discovery of gold mines anddevelopment of towns and cities attracted a great number of new immigrants from around the world.The industrialized towns forced people to live together and resulted in cultural interaction and mixture.Westward Expansion also resulted in Native Americans losing their native homelands and changing their culture to accommodate teachings from white settlers.While exploring the west frontiers,each family had its own wagon,ate alone and had a separate destination.To survive on the frontier the pioneers had to be very self-reliant and independent.These pioneer values were added to the European immigrant values to form the core cultural values of America.Related literary works:The spirits of frontier pioneers and cowboys enriched American Dream:pursuing personal success on the basis of hard work.The spirits were described, recreated and reinforced by some frontier novels.The most famous of the early19th century frontier novels were James Fenimore Cooper's five novels comprising the Leatherstocking Tales.These novels usually depict a cowboy hero.When Americans think of a cowboy,they picture a lone individual sitting on a horse out on the prairie.Cowboys never traveled in groups.They were men of action,self-reliant and independent individualists who survived without any help from anyone else.For Americans,the cowboy represents the dominant values of American society.(4)Popular cultureDefinition:Popular culture(or pop culture)is the entirety of ideas,perspectives,attitudes,images, and other phenomena that are within the mainstream of a given culture,especially Western culture of the early to mid20th century and the emerging global mainstream. History:According to sociologists,three early,significant popular-culture mileposts are,in chronological order,wedding ceremonies,music performed from written scores,and the establishment of fashion styles.Then,the Western world’s first pop culture“superstar”was probably William Shakespeare.His theater plays are timeless classics,but he wrote them for a mass audience,thus fulfilling pop culture’s requirement of art that is meant to be enjoyed by the masses.Shakespeare bridged pop culture and fine arts.Popular culture became global when the first explorers took to the seas or traveled overland routes to distant places.They were influenced by,and returned with,examples of other cultures’popular art,artifacts and customs,such as drinking coffee. Technological development and industrialization made possible for the mass to have sufficient time and resources to enjoy popular arts(especially theater,dance,music andmore recently movies and television).Compared with farmers,19th-century industrial laborers not generally work the dawn-to-dusk,seven-day-a-week schedules.This enabled them to enjoy entertainment venues and engage in hobbies,crafts and recreation outside their work lives.Technology also created new kinds of arts and items and made them available to everyone,not just the wealthy elite.Obvious examples that changed society significantly enough to alter the course of history are radio,television,motion pictures,amplified music,computers and the Internet.Aspects:Popular culture has two major categories,i.e.material elements(e.g.clothing and diet) and spiritual elements(e.g.literature,film,music and art).Critical ReadingI.Understanding the text.1.OutliningThesis:Jeans reflect the core values of American popular culture,including the freedom to be oneself,naturalness and physicalityPart Para(s).Main ideaI Introduction to the study Para1Jeans is a good topic about popular culture.Para2Functionality of jeans is not examined in the study.Para3The participants of the study,the students,are nota representative sample.Para4The students produced several clusters of meanings of jeans.IIThe first cluster of meanings Para5Jeans deny social differences and denote freedom. Para6The author disagrees with the psychologist and holds that clothes express social meanings.Para7Jeans reflect a paradox in American ideology,i.e.integrating individual differences in commonvalues.III The second cluster of meanings Para8Jeans deny social differences and denote physicality.Para9The physicality of jeans reflects naturalness andgender-neutrality.IV Jeans and Americanness Para10Jeans reflect Americanness and retains Americanness when incorporated into to othernational cultures.V Jeans and popular culture Para11Disfiguration of jeans reflects the self-contradiction of popular culture–when peopleresist something,what they resist is part of theirlife.prehension check(1)Because jeans might be the most popular cultural product.(2)Because the functionality of jeans relate to efficiency,while culture is notconcerned with efficiency but meanings,pleasures and identifies.(3)Jeans deny social differences because it transects almost every social category–gender,class,race,age,nation,religion and education.(4)In the article in The New York Times,the psychologist holds a different positionfrom Fiske.The psychologist suggests that jeans results in the freedom to hide oneself,i.e.to avoid any expression of mood or personal emotion.The author disagrees with this position for two reasons.First,this kind of freedom is not evident among his students;second,clothes are more normally used to convey social meanings than to express personal emotion or mood.(5)Individualism,i.e.the desire to be oneself does not mean the desire to befundamentally different everyone else,but rather to situate individual differences within communal allegiance.Jeans reflects this paradoxical relationship:people wear jeans to be oneself,but in the end they wear the same garment as everyone else.Refer to the following paragraph:A seemingly contradictory source of popular culture is individualism.Urbanculture has not only provided a common ground for the masses,it has inspired ideals of individualistic aspirations.In the United States,a society formed on the premise of individual rights,there are theoretically no limitations to what an individual might accomplish.An individual may choose to participate in all that is ‘popular’for popularity’s sake;or they may choose a course of action off the beaten track.At times,these‘pathfinders’affect popular culture by their individuality.Of course,once a unique style becomes adopted by others,it ceases to remain unique.It becomes,popular.Source:https:///issues/64/Pop_Culture_An_Overview(6)Jeans was invented in the process of the American Westward Movement and wasassociated with such values as freedom,naturalness,toughness,hard work, progress,development and above all Americanness.(7)According to Fiske,jeans is disfigured in some way to express oppositionalmeanings or gesture toward such social resistance.(8)Jeans also reflects the self-contradictoriness of popular culture.People disfigurejeans to express oppositional meanings,but by doing so they still wear jeans, which connote shared meanings.Therefore,it is not a complete rejection of the shared values.Similarly,in popular culture,what is resisted exists in the resistance.Popular culture resists unequal power distribution,but still it bears signs of power relations.II.Evaluation and exploration1.Evaluating the text(1)Definition of popular cultureThis activity encourages students to examine the author’s definition of a key concept in this article,i.e.popular culture and define the same term in different ways.In Paragraph11,the author indicates that“popular culture is the culture of the subordinated and disempowered”.This definition highlights the power relations in social system social experience.This definition seems to associate popular culture with lower class and oppose against official culture and high culture.Definition1:“The accumulated store of cultural products such as music,art,literature, fashion,dance,film,television,and radio that are consumed primarily by non-elite groups such as the working,lower,and middle class.”This definition is similar to that of Fiske’s in highlighting the power relations.Definition2:“A commercial culture,mass-produced for mass consumption by mass media.”This definition equates popular culture with mass culture,or the“popularity”of popular culture.Popular culture,by definition,requires that the masses—folks—be engaged in practicing and consuming it,thereby making it popular.Definition3:“The products and forms of expression and identity that are frequently encountered or widely accepted,commonly liked or approved,and characteristic of a particular society at a given time”.This definition highlights the conventionality of popular culture,i.e.popular culture is the shared by the majority of the society.“At a given time”points out the ever-changing feature of popular culture.(2)Jeans and popular cultureThis activity encourages students to examine the cultural values underlying jeans and illustrate the values with concrete examples.According to Fiske,what characterize jeans are the social meanings related to jeans, including lack of social differentiation,naturalness and physicality.(3)Generalizing findingsThis activity provides an opportunity to examine the methodology of Fiske’s study.In Paragraph3,Fiske makes it clear that his students are largely white,middle-class, young,and well-educated,so they are not a representative sample of the whole population,and so the meanings they make of their jeans cannot be extended to other groups.But,Fiske also points out that the process of making and communicating meanings is representative even though the meanings made by it are not.To make the meanings more generalizable,the study can be redesigned to include a variety of people and adopt more diverse methods to elicit their understanding of jeans. To choose participants of the study,a variety of categories can be considered,e.g.age,gender,educational background and occupation.Students can be encouraged to diversify the data-collecting methods.For example,you can show pictures of the same person wearing different styles of jeans and ask them their impression.(4)Values and classesParagraph2:The middle class is associated with office desk and wheeling and dealing, while the working class is associated with the dignity of labor.Paragraph5:In terms of individualism and freedom,there seems to be no social differentiation.Paragraph8:Fiske holds that his middle-class students are highly selective in aligning with the meanings of jeans.They align themselves with the dignity and productivity of labor rather than the subordination and exploitedness,which are likely to be associated with the working class.Paragraph9:Both the middle class and the working class aim at being recognized of physical prowess,but in different ways.The middle class get the recognition through sport while the working class through labor.(There is a saying assigned to a construction worker:干活就把身体练得棒棒的，还用去什么健身房？)(5)Americanness of jeansThis activity encourages students to explore the“exporting”of(American)cultural values.Fiske holds that jeans are seen as a unique and definitive American garment and retain the Americanness when being exported to other countries.In the process,American values are also exported.For example,in Moscow,jeans are seen as bearers of Western decadence and can be worn by the young as an act of defiance,as a sign of the opposition to social conformity.This is possible.Cultural products and behaviors imported from other countries can be seen as bearers of the exporting country’s values,especially when they are first imported.(6)CounterargumentThis activity encourages students to analyze the author’s strategy in dealing with counterargument.Fiske takes into account counterargument in Paragraphs5-7.In Paragraph5,Fiske described the first cluster of meanings of jeans,which gave people the freedom to be oneself,i.e.freedom from the constraints on behavior and identity.In Paragraph6,theauthor“invites”the counterargument from an article in The New York Times,which suggests that jeans’lack of differentiation results not in a freedom to be oneself,but the freedom to hide oneself.Why does Fiske“invite”the counterargument?Doesn’t that weaken his argument? Actually,no!It makes the argument stronger.This is because it gives Fiske the chance to respond to his reader’s objections before they have finished reading.It also shows that Fiske is a reasonable person who has considered both sides of the debate.Both of these make an essay more persuasive.In Paragraph6,Fiske rebuts the counterargument with two reasons:First,this kind of freedom is not evident among his students;second,clothes are more normally used to convey social meanings than to express personal emotion or mood.After that,Fiske furthers the counterargument and rebutting to reveal the paradox of freedom and individualism.2.Exploring beyond the text(1)Disfiguring jeansThis activity provides an opportunity to further explore different styles of jeans and the underlying meanings.Jeans can be disfigured in a variety of ways,e.g.tearing,cutting,ripping,holes and nails. Jeans also have various fits.As Fiske argues,disfiguring often expresses oppositional meanings.As for fits,it may be conventional for men to wear straight jeans and women to wear slim and tight jeans. However,things are changing now.Many boys may also wear very slim or even skinny jeans,while the so-called“boyfriend’s jeans”are also getting popular with girls.These nonconventional fits may express new ideas about sexuality(Refer to Paragraph9). (2)Analyzing notesTactics:It is advisable to ask students to write the notes before they read Text A. Otherwise they may be affected by the author’s analysis.Then after reading Text A,students can follow the author’s approach to analyze the notes,i.e.analyze and group the meanings associated with jeans.(3)Social categoriesThis activity provides an opportunity for students to further explore social category, another key concept in cultural studies.A society binds its members with shared values,but it also categorizes its member,i.e.dividing them into different groups in terms of a variety of categories,i.e.gender,race, ethnicity,occupation,class,age,marital status and religion.Different social categories form a complex network,so a person may belong to different groups in terms of different categories.These categories are like small pieces and putting them together results in a bigger picture of a person.Social categories impose constraints on people who bear these categories.For example,a married person is obliged to be faithful to the marriage in most cultures.(4)Social meanings of clothingBy doing this activity,students can further explore the cultural values underlying clothing. The following pictures might stimulate their interest in this topic:Though these pictures show an extreme example of cultural values underlying clothing, students’clothing may also produce some interesting findings:(1)Is there a student of an ethnic minority group wearing the costumes of his or her ethnic group?(2)Is there a girl dressed like a boy?(3)Is there a boy in an unconventional color for males?(4)Is there a student dressed in a traditional style?It is also possible to expand topic to cover hairstyle,body adornment and makeup.(5)Popular cultureThis activity encourages students to go even further in exploring popular culture and relevant cultural values.Popular culture has rich contents and involves almost every aspect of people’s daily life.Besides clothing,food and drinks is also an important aspect.A popular product in this aspect might be fast food restaurants, e.g.KFC and Macdonald’s.By definition,“fast food”highlights the values of speed,efficiency and standardization, which are highly prized by the American culture.Other cultures do not necessarily share these values.Some cultures prefer long lunch hours and they close their businesses during this time.With reference to food,many people prize the quality of the food,its unique preparations,and its unrushed consumption.In terms of social relationship,people may prefer a family-run restaurant run by people they personally know.(6)Cultural paradoxFiske holds that jeans reflect the paradoxical nature of individualism.Everyone wears jeans to be oneself but end up wearing the same clothe as others.For more information about the paradox of individualism,please refer to the following article:/sites/default/files/faculty/fischer/Fischer_Paradoxes%20of %20Individualism_2008.pdfParadoxical values are found within cultures.Every culture has its opposing values. Equality is an American core value,yet in the United States,there is a wide gap between rich and poor.Another interesting example is the coexistence of individual freedom and the need for belonging.It is found that there were some100,000associations and clubs in the United States.Seven of every10Americans belong to at least one club.It seems paradoxical that both freedom and belonging are strong values of a single culture.The explanation is that in an individualistic society where people want to“do thing their own way”and“go it alone,”people tend to become lonely if they don’t make an effort to belong.Paradoxical values also exist between cultures.The reverse of freedom-belonging paradox is found in Japan.In Japan,belonging is an integral part of society,and it takes an effort to behave in an individualistic way.However,there are many fewer clubs in Japan.Similarly,it is said that social media like Facebook facilitate making friends.However, according to some surveys,in the United States,Facebook increases feelings of loneliness.In other parts of the world,for example,in Asia and Africa,social media reinforce community feelings.Language enhancementI.Word and phrase1.Word formation(1)Pre:“before”or“in advance”More examples:Preview,prepare,predict,pre-school,pre-war(2)Trans:“across”,“beyond”or“from one to another”More examples:Transport,translate,transplant,transmit,transsexual,transcend, trans-Pacific,trans-racial(3)Sub:“under”,“branch”,“further”or“secondary”More examples:Submarine,sub-company,subdivide,subcommittee,subway(1)transplant(2)Pre-washed(3)subtract(4)suburban(5)subconscious(6)subtitle(7)transgenic(8)precook2.Preposition(1)with(2)with(3)on(4)within(5)with(6)to(7)with(8)into3.Hyphenated word(1)The rule:“verb-verb-ed”as an adjective,or past participle of“verb-verb”as averbMore examples:hustle-bustle,freeze-dry,stir-fry(2)The rule:“noun-verb-ed”as adjective,equivalent to a verb participle phrase,e.g.derived from BuddhistMore examples:Computer-aided,exam-oriented,student-centered,poverty-stricken,spoon-fed (3)The rule:“ad-noun-ed”as an adjectiveMore examples:Kind-hearted,sharp-minded,white-haired,able-bodied,many-sided,short-handed,strong-willed(4)The rule:“prefix-noun”as a nounMore examples:Non-smoker,semi-autobiography,co-author,vice-president,ex-wife(5)The rule:“Letter-noun”as a noun,with the letter indicating the shapeMore examples:U-turn,C-section,S-hook,V-neck,U-boat,T-bone,井田，十字路口，丁字路口，丁字裤，V-领，一字眉，八字眉II.Sentence and discourse1.Paraphrasing(1)Even if you want to be yourself,you don’t have to be totally different from others.Rather,you should follow the majority while keeping your individual differences. (2)Jeans were able to bear different meanings of the American work ethic for differentclasses.(3)By labor work,the working class gain physical skills.The middle class can gain thesame physical skills by doing sports.(4)Although the Western myth can be spread to other nations easily and can becomepart of the popular culture of these nations,the myth keeps its identity or features as an American myth.Thus,links can be built between American values and the popular consciousness of other nationalities.(5)Although some people wear torn jeans to express their opposition to the majority,they are still wearing jeans rather than a completely different kind of clothes.In other words,when they try to be different,they are wearing the same clothes as others.This shows a typical contradiction of popular culture–when people resist something, what they resist is part of their life or they are part of it.2.Translation(1)牛仔裤没有社会差异，给了人们自由可以“做自己”（而且我觉得在异常情况下还可以“隐藏自己”），这当然就指出了一个很深刻的悖论：一个人想做自己，结果却穿了和其他所有人一样的衣服，这只是深深植根于美国（以及西方）意识形态中的悖论的一个具体表现，这种意识形态就是：最普遍认可的共同价值就是个人主义。
2024版大学思辨教程精读4教学课件Unit
课程目的
通过本课程的学习，学生应该能够掌握 批判性思维的基本方法和技巧，学会独 立思考和分析问题，提高自己的学术素 养和创新能力。
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教材简介与特点
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教材简介
《大学思辨教程4》是一本专门针对 大学生思辨能力培养的教材，涵盖了 批判性思维、论证方法、逻辑谬误等 多个方面的内容。
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案例分析与实践应用
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案例分析目的与意义
提高学生分析问题和解决 问题的能力
通过案例分析，学生可以学会如何识别问题、 分析问题、提出解决方案，并培养批判性思维 和创新能力。
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加深对理论知识的理解和应 用
案例分析可以将抽象的理论知识与具体的实践情境相 结合，帮助学生更好地理解和应用所学知识。
常见问题
选题不当、文献综述不充分、研究方法不 合理、数据分析不深入、论文结构混乱、 语言表达不清等。
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解决方法
重新审视选题意义和价值，加强文献综述 的广度和深度，选择合适的研究方法和技 术，深入挖掘和分析数据，调整论文结构 和逻辑关系，提高语言表达的准确性和流 畅性。同时，多向导师和同行请教，积极 参加学术交流和讨论，不断提升自己的学 术素养和写作能力。
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思辨能力概述
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思辨能力定义及重要性
思辨能力定义
思辨能力是指对问题进行深入、全面、客观的思考和分析，形成独立、理性、 创新的观点和判断的能力。
思辨能力重要性
思辨能力是现代社会中不可或缺的重要能力，它有助于我们更好地理解和应对 复杂的社会现象和问题，提高我们的决策和创新能力，促进个人和社会的进步 和发展。
大学思辨英语教程 精读1Unit 4教师用书 20150918
Unit4Language LearningUnit overviewLanguage acquisition is one of the key issues for the study of language and it is closely related to the study of almost all aspects of language.How we acquire language seems to be a most straightforward question but actually no one can provide a definite answer to it.Exploring this question can help us better understand other issues about language.Text AIn Text A,Napoli provides two answers to the question in the title,“How do we acquire language?”.First,children acquire language step by step,gaining a certain skill in each step:recognizing the voices of their mother and other people, distinguishing the sounds of their mother tongue from other language,recognizing words,producing words,producing two-word phrases and producing sentences. However,it does not mean every individual child exactly follows this pattern.Second, language is acquired on the basis of Universal Grammar,which is exemplified by a variety of language acquisition phenomena:Children arrange words according to abstract innate linguistic principles;early utterances produced by small children have an innate structure;immigrants’children can distinguish grammatical and ungrammatical language us;while parents speak a pidgin language,children may develop a creole language,which has a coherent grammar;and children,especially twins,can develop a secret communication system conforming to UG.In conclusion, language acquisition is a natural process determined by the human biological and physiological make-up.Text BText B is focused on second language acquisition.The authors compare first language acquisition and second language acquisition.According to them,L2learners tend to have errors in pronunciation and grammar and usually cannot fully acquire the pronunciation and grammar of a second language.Though,they also share some features in common with L1learners in terms of work order.Then,the authors analyze the impact of L1on L2acquisition in terms of pronunciation,grammar and phonology.However,the difficulty in L2acquisition is caused by more factors than the interference of L1.In the end,the authors discuss the role of age in L2acquisition and challenges the Critical Period Hypothesis.The two articles focus on first language acquisition and second language acquisition respectively.After reading Text A,students can compare the differences between L1 and L2acquisition and discuss the impact of L1on L2acquisition.Teaching objectivesReading skills●Summarize the main idea of each paragraph●Identify topic sentences and key words●Identify supporting detailsCommunicative competence●Illustrate your points with appropriate examples●Use topic sentences and supporting sentences to organize your presentation/essay ●Use euphemisms for possibly impolite expressionsCritical thinking●Use different examples to support different aspects of an idea●Use observation and literature to collect first-hand and second-hand evidence●Critique a“popular”folk theory with exemplification and reasoning Intercultural competence●Be aware of the differences and similarities between English and Chineseeuphemisms●Compare the Chinese language and the English language in terms of L1and L2learning●Understand the effects of cultural differences on communication and languagelearningTeaching strategiesYou can arouse the students’interest in this topic by showing them the Nature vs. Nurture debate,which is controversial in not only language acquisition but also psychology,education,law and popular culture.There is no definite answer to this debate but every student may have his or her own answer.After learning this unit, they will get new evidence or examples to support their answer or they may simply change their view.For a detailed description of child language acquisition,you can refer to Chapter8in Towards an Understanding of Language and Linguistics(《语言学概论》)by Lan Chun.Other resources include:●A general introduction/language.html●Emphasis on nature vs.emphasis on experience/news/special_reports/linguistics/learn.jsp●Language acquisition nguage learning/inservices/language_acquisiti_vs_language_02033.phpPreparatory work(1)Language Matters:A Guide to Everyday Questions About LanguageThis activity aims to arouse students’interest in other everyday questions about language which they often take for granted.They can also learn to search for an academic monograph on the Internet.The twelve questions answered by the author in the book are:●Question1:How do we acquire language?●Question2:From one language to the next:Why is it hard to learn a secondlanguage?Why is translation so difficult?●Question3:Does language equal thought?●Question4:Are sign languages real languages?●Question5:Do animals have language?●Question6:Can computers learn language?●Question7:Whose speech is better?●Question8:Why do dialects and creoles differ from standard language?●Question9:Do men and women speak differently?And who cares?●Question10:English spelling is hard,and it makes learning to read hard.Shouldwe do anything about it?●Question11:Should the United States adopt English as our official language andoverhaul our educational system accordingly?●Question12:Does exposure to and use of offensive language harm children?The book can be found on ,which also provides the second edition of the book with15questions about language.(2)Small children learning languageThis activity provides an opportunity for students to reflect on their personal experiences of learning language and collect some real examples of language learning, which can be analyzed during the reading of Text A.Relevant cases can also be found on the Internet,for example:/s?__biz=MzA5MzUxNTQ3Nw==&mid=206097261&id x=1&sn=ff8cb7a4119c131e3773e9f7d58d2fa6#rd(3)Universal GrammarThis activity is of great importance for understanding the second part of Text A. Definition:Universal Grammar proposes that the ability to learn grammar andlanguage is hard-wired into the brain.It is shared by all human languages.Chomsky argued that the human brain contains a limited set of rules for organizing language. Key publications of Chomsky:●Syntactic Structures,London:Mouton,1957.●Current Issues in Linguistic Theory,The Hague:Mouton,1964.●Aspects of the Theory of Syntax,Cambridge:M.I.T.Press,1965.●Language and Mind,New York:Harcourt,Brace&World,1968.●Studies on Semantics in Generative Grammar,The Hague:Mouton,1972.●The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory,New York:Plenum Press,1975.●Lectures on Government and Binding:The Pisa Lectures,Dordrecht,Holland:Foris Publications,1982.●Some Concepts and Consequences of the Theory of Government and Binding,Cambridge:M.I.T.Press,1982.●Language and Thought,Wakefield,RI:Moyer Bell,1993.●The Generative Enterprise Revisited:Discussions with Riny Huybregts,Henkvan Riemsdijk,Naoki Fukui,and Mihoko Zushi,with a new foreword by Noam Chomsky,Berlin:Mouton de Gruyter,2004.For more information about Chomsky,please refer to the following website: /index.htm(4)Types of languageThis activity provides background information necessary for understanding different kinds of language mentioned by Napoli in Text A.Motherese/baby talk(Paragraph7):It is a nonstandard form of speech used by adults in talking to toddlers and infants.It features high pitch and special vocabulary,e.g. doggy for dog(Para.10),daddy for dad(Para.10),kitty for cat and wawa for water.A feature of baby talk in Chinese is reduplication,e.g.喝水水and吃饭饭。
最新大学思辨英语教程 精读1unit 3教师用书(0809)资料讲解
Unit 3 Verbaland Non-verbal CommunicationUnit overviewBoth Units 1 and 2 mention a key word “communication”.As Thomas Payne points out in Text B of Unit 2, most of us, linguists or non-linguists, have the common-sense notion that “the main purpose of h uman language is communication”. Thus to develop a deeper understanding of the nature and function of language, we need to take a close at human communication. This unit examines this topic from a cross-cultural perspective, illustrating the similarities and differences in verbal and non-verbal communication between different cultures, which lays a foundation for further exploration into the interface between language and culture in the following units.Text APeople in different communities demonstrate different perceptions and rules of both verbal and non-verbal communication. The way they interact is culturally relative in almost every aspect, including when to talk, what to say, pacing and pausing, listenership, intonation and prosody, formulaicity, indirectness, and coherence and cohesion.Text BSome non-verbal behaviors are practically universal and have the same meaning wherever you are (e.g., smiling and facial expressions of anger, surprise, fear, sadness, and so on). But for cultural and historical reasons, there have also developed great differences and variations in such aspects as eye contact, touch, gestures, and territorial space, etc. Without an awareness of respect and accommodation for people from a different background, these differences are likely to cause misunderstandings in cross-cultural communication.The two texts supplement each other in that Text A illustrates cross-cultural differences in both verbal and non-verbal communication while Text B focuses on non-verbal behaviors and addressesboth differences and similarities.Teaching objectivesThis unit is designed to help students develop their reading skills, communicative competence, critical thinking, intercultural reflection and abilities of autonomouslearning in the following aspects.Reading skills:Use context to understand a new wordIdentify cohesive devicesPredict the content of an upcoming sentence/paragraphCommunicative competence:Develop a coherent and cohesive oral/written discourseUse topic sentences, supporting sentences and concluding sentences in presentations/essaysCommunicate constructively in team workCritical thinking:Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of personal experience as evidence in argumentationOrganize the arguments using an outlineNote and reflect on the differences between academic writing and everyday writingIntercultural reflectionIdentify similarities and differences in non-verbal communication across culturesBe aware of multiple levels of differences on which cross-cultural communication can falterInterpret communication behaviors from cultural and historical perspectives Teaching strategiesNon-verbal communication and cross-cultural communication are both interesting topics in linguistics. The teacher can introduce the two texts by quoting anecdotes or relating to students’own experiences (question 5 in Preparatory work, p. 59). For students who lack experience of cross-cultural communication, the topic can be led in by discussions about inter-subcultural communication.Text A is a research articlefrom an academic journaland its structure and writing style are quite clear. It is recommended to draw students’ attention to the author’s logic (i.e., ways of arguing) and use of evidence in class. If well-planned, all the questions in Preparatory Work and Critical reading can be dealt with in some detail in class. The teacher can follow all the questions in Understanding the text to check students’ comprehension of the text, while the tasks in Evaluation and exploration can bedivided and assigned to groups. For example, in Making an outline (p. 62), the teacher can divide the students into three groups, each responsible for one topic.For classical works in intercultural communication, please refer to:Hall, Edward T. (1955). The Anthropology of Manners.Scientific American,192: 85-89.Hall, Edward T. (1959). The Silent Language. New York: Doubleday.For more updated information, please find the following journals:Cross-Cultural Communication published by Canadian Academy of Oriental and Occidental Culture (CAOOC)Across Languages and Cultures published byAkadémiaiKiadóLanguage and Intercultural Communication published byRoutledge Journals, Taylor & Francis Ltd.Preparatory work(1)Academic interests: gender and language, interactional sociolinguistics,conversational interaction, cross-cultural communication, frames theory, conversational vs. literary discourse, and new media discourse.Main publications:You Just Don't Understand: Women and Men in Conversation. New York: Morrow, 1990.That's Not What I Meant!: How Conversational Style Makes or Breaks Relationships. NY: William Morrow, 1986.Gender and Discourse. NY & Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.Note: Outside the academic world Deborah Tannen is best known as the author of a number of books on the New York Times best seller and she is also a frequent guest on television and radio news and information shows.(2)Edward Sapir (1884–1939): an American anthropologist who is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in the early development of modern linguistics. His main interests are in the ways in which language and culture influence each other, the relation between linguistic differences, and differences in cultural world views. His most important contribution is what is known as the principle of linguistic relativity or the "Sapir-Whorf" hypothesis.John Joseph Gumperz(1922 –2013): an American linguist. His research interests include the languages of India, code-switching, and conversational interaction. Well-known for his contribution in interactional sociolinguistics and the "ethnography of communication", Gumperz’s research has benefitted such fields as sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, and linguistic anthropology.E. M. Forster (1879 –1970): an English novelist, short story writer, essayist and librettist. He is known best for his ironic and well-plotted novels examining class difference and hypocrisy in early 20th-century British society. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 13 different years.Robert Kaplan:An American applied linguist. His research area covers applied linguistics, discourse analysis, language policy, language planning, and ESL/EFL Teaching. He is most famous for his contribution in Contrastive Rhetoric, a term he first coined in 1966. Kaplan has authored or edited 32 books, more than 130 articles in scholarly journals and chapters in books, and more than 85 book reviews and other ephemeral pieces in various newsletters, as well as 9 special reports to the U.S. government and to governments elsewhere./usia/E-USIA/education/engteaching/kap0299.htm(3)Pragmatics is the systematic study of meaning dependent on language in use. Unlike semantics, which examines conventional meaning "coded" in a given language, pragmatics studies how the transmission of meaning depends not only on structural and linguistic knowledge (e.g., grammar, lexicon, etc.) of the speaker and the hearer, but also on the context of the utterance, any pre-existing knowledge about those participants involved, the inferred intent of the speaker, and other factors. Central topics of pragmatics include a speaker’s communicative intentio ns, the use of language that requires such intentions, context of use, the relation between the user of a linguistic form and the act of using the form, and the strategies an addressee employs to work out what the intentions and acts are.(4)Cohesion refers to the use of various phonological, grammatical, and/or lexical means to link sentences or utterances into a well-connected, larger linguistic unit such as a paragraph or a chapter. In other words, cohesion achieves well-connectedness by means of linguistic forms.Example: Mary is a secretary. She works in a law firm. Yan (2012)Coherence refers to the logical well-connectedness between different parts of a pieceof spoken or written language, which distinguishes it from a random assemblage of sentences or utterances. Yan (2012)Formly incohesive discourse may be coherent through common sense, cultural backgr ound, contextual information, imagination, logical assumption, etc.Husband: That’s the telephone.Wife: I’m in the bath.Husband: OK.(5)Pause is a temporary and brief break in the flow of speech, which is often classified into filled pause and unfilled or silent pause. The former is taken up or filled by a hesitation form like ah, er, and um. In contrast, the latter is not filled by a hesitation form. In other words, a silent pause is one where there is no vocalization.Critical readingI. Understanding the text(1) The main purpose of this article is to illustrate eight levels of cross-cultural differences in non-verbal aspects of communication.(2) We can understand the nature of language by observing it in communication and in contact with other systems of communication.(3) Pacing and pausing, listenership. In deciding when to talk and what to say, the speaker usually takes a conscious speech planning, yet in pacing and pausing and in showing listenership in a conversation, one does not need to stop and think for a decision.(4) Section 2.1 starts with a direct thesis statement. Then the author explains it with an expert’s (Scollon) res earch findings and examples.In section 2.2 the author raises a number of questions (in para 7, 9 and 11) and responds to them with relevant research findings (Goody’s as well as hers) and her own personal experience. Section 2.3 is also organized in the or der of “question-answer”. Section 2.4 illustrates cross-cultural differences in listenership with two examples, gaze (paras 21 and 22) and loud responses (para 23), and then moves on to the conclusion (para 24). Section 2.5: example-discussion. Section 2.6: personal experience and a very brief interpretation. Section 2.7: the thesis (para 30 “how to be indirect is culturally relative”) and discussion about the cases of American-non-American differences (American men,women, Greek and Japanese). Section 2.8: definition and illustration.(5) The experience ina dinner party in paragraph 12 indicates that (1) people from different cultures not only differ in whether compliments should be accepted, rejected or deflected, but also in which compliments should be accepted/rejected/deflected; and (2) every culture has its own conventions about what to say on particular occasions, and without knowledge of these conventions, we can by no means appropriately interpret the messages in cross-cultural communication.In Para. 29, Tannenrefers to her first visit to Greece to exemplify the cross-cultural difference in formulaicity, i.e., what is novel and what is conventional in different languages.(6)Generally speaking, the eight levels are arranged in the order of importance, fromthe core of verbal communication to more peripheral factors. The first three levels and the fifth level belong to what is said while the last three center on how it is said. The fourth level, listenership, is the only level examined from the perspective of the hearer.(7)As has been illustrated in part II, verbal communication involves many hiddenrules and conventions that vary from culture to culture. Since every individual has his/her own unique experience, education background,and beliefs, etc., no two interactants would share exactly the same communicative rules and conventions.In this sense all communication is cross-cultural.Summary writingWays of communication are culturally diversified in almost every aspect, from what to say to how to say it. When to talk (and when not to) is culturally relative. People from one culture may find a particular silent moment unbearable while it is deemed appropriate in another culture.What to say also differs greatly across cultures. Many of us consider raising questions asa natural or even basic part of daily communication, but in some cultures questions are perceived imposing and hence rarely asked. A certain degree of indirectness in communication is universal in all languages, but how to be indirect varies from culture to culture. American men value “sticking to facts” while Japanese and Arab often insist on elaborate “small talk s”. Cross-cultural differences can also be observed in the different ways of showing listenership, control of pace and pause, use of conventional and novel language, and variation of intonation. Even when peopleare asked to describe or write about the same thing, their organization of a discourse will very likely differ in ways of establishing coherenceand cohesion as Kaplan illustrated.II. Evaluation and exploration1.Evaluating the text(1)Personal experiences and anecdotes help elucidate abstract and difficult terms andadd to the vividness of the text. Controlled use of personal experience may also shorten the distance between the author and the reader. But the overuse and misuse of personal stories can also damage the objectivity and credibility of the argumentation.(2)Beside personal experience, Tannen mentions a lot of academic researches (e.g. inpara 4, 7, 8, 10, 21, 23, 38 and 39), which all add weight to her arguments.(3)It is obviously not an exhaustive list. Cross-cultural communication can vary atmany other levels, e.g., proxemics and turn taking in a multiparty context.2.Exploring beyond the text(1)Questions for exploration1)There are altogether 16 questions which help structure the text in part two andthey are not equally important. The question in para 2, for example, is a global one that covers all the eight sections in the main body, while the question in para 20, “Now how many milliseconds shall I wait?”, is just an example to illustrate why pacing and pausing is an automatic level.a. See above.b. The first question in para 7 is asked to introduce the topic of this section,what to say. It is a transition from section 2.1 to section 2.2.c. This is a rhetorical question requiring no answer. It is asked simply toreinforce our conviction that questions are basic to the educational setting, which forms a sharp contrast with the case of Gonjans.2) In all the known languages there are strategies of making indirectrequests/apologies/invitations/, etc. In a strict sense, the use of language is an indirect means to achieve communicative ends. How to be indirect differs from culture to culture. For example, in English a request is often put forward as a question of ability (Can you pass me the salt?).3) For example, introvert people may be more tolerant of silence in face-to-faceverbal interaction while extroverts usually find silence awkward and uncomfortable. This is primarily an interpersonal difference since in all cultures there are introvert and extrovert people.Gaze is another example. People with more aggressive personality usually hold longer and steadier gaze when they talk to others, while shy perpleare more likely to diverge in eye contact.Language enhancementI. Words and phrases1. Adverbs and prepositions(1) off; (2) out; (3) across; (4) away; (5) up; (6) between, for; (7) after; (8) out of, into;(9) off; (10) up; (11) out of2. Verbs(1) illustrate, vary, discussing, exemplifying, signaling, mean, say(2) vary(3) differ(4) illustrated(5) exemplifies(6) expounds(7) demonstrates(8) elucidate, interpret3.Words in contextOpen to discussion:To guess the meaning of a new word, one can first recognize its part of speech, analyze its word formation, identify its attitude if necessary, and then evaluate its meaning in the linguistic context.II. Sentences and discourse1.Paraphrasing(1)Athabaskan Indians consider that it is inappropriate to talk to people they do notknow. According to Scollon, this causes a strange effect when theAthabaskan Indians meet people from other cultures. The non-Athabaskans may want to make acquaintance with the Athabaskans by talking to them, but the Athabaskans will not talk to the non- Athabaskans before they become acquaintances.(2)Gonjans take it for granted that questions are always asked to achieve indirectfunctions, so they never ask questions for pure information.(3)The Americans usually take it for granted that in communication people should bedirect and say no more or less than needed, and that what people say is exactly what they mean. This is especially true in business and education and applies more to American men than to women.(4)No two people have just the same cultural background. Therefore, allcommunication is cross-cultural to someextent. In this sense, understanding cross-cultural communication can help us understand the nature of language and tackle problems in the world, especially those caused by and related to the use oflanguage, e.g. obstacles in foreign language teaching and learning.2.Translation(1)物理学家通过观察物质元素在不同环境中的表现及其与其他物质的相互作用来理解它们的本质。
大学生思辨英语教程精读1unit11教师用书
大学生思辨英语教程精读1unit11教师用书大学生思辨英语教程精读1unit11教师用书Unit 1 1 Language and GenderOverviewFrom this unit on, we are turning our eyes to the interface bet ween language andculture. To start with, we will deal with the topic of language and gender in this unit.Text A discusses wh ether men and women talk differently. Instead of attempting ananswer to the question, Napoli challenges six common clai ms with more questions,arguing that all six claims are more a bout sociological factors than linguistic ones.Then she highlig hts the importance to distinguish between gender and sex an dsuggests the wide range of sociological factors that have to be included in systematicsociolinguistic studies to have a cha nce of getting reliable results.Text Bfocuses on how men and women are treated differently in the society and inour language. During a small working co nference, Tannen noticed the styled hair andthe carefully chos enmakeup, clothes and shoes of the other women participant s andthe “unmarked” look of the men participants. It occurr ed to her that the women didnot have the option of being un marked in their appearance as the men had. Similarly,women are always marked in language as indicated in the titles and s urnames. This isstrange because biologically it is the male tha t is marked. Yet even writing aboutwomen and men may mar k T annen as a feminist rather than a writer.This unitmay serve as a starting point for further studies in la nguage andgender.Following the example of the texts, studen ts are invited to reexamine thebeliefs and phenomena that ar eusually taken for granted. In this process , they maynot only want to break down some stereotypes but also practice the s ystematic way todo so.Teaching Obj ectivesReading S kill sIdentify the structure of the textRelate new information to old informationChallenge popular claims on gender differences in languag e useControl variables in sociolinguistic studiesCompare the ways in which men and women use language and are depicted inl an g u ag eIntercultural C ompetenc eUnderstand the meaning of feminism in the Western conte xt Interpret gender differences from a cultural perspective Understand gender issues across cultures.。
大学思辨英语教程精读Unit教师用书
大学思辨英语教程精读Unit教师用书U n i t3V e r b a l a n d N o n-v e r b a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n Unit overviewBoth Units 1 and 2 mention a key word “communication”.As Thomas Payne points out in T ext B of Unit 2, most of us, linguists or non-linguists, have the common-sense notion that “the main purpose of human language is communication”. Thus to develop a deeper understanding of the nature and function of language, we need to take a close at human communication. This unit examines this topic from a cross-cultural perspective, illustrating the similarities and differences in verbal and non-verbal communication between different cultures, which lays a foundation for further exploration into the interface between language and culture in the following units. Text APeople in different communities demonstrate different perceptions and rules of both verbal and non-verbal communication. The way they interact is culturally relative in almost every aspect, including when to talk, what to say, pacing and pausing, listenership, intonation and prosody, formulaicity, indirectness, and coherence and cohesion.Text BSome non-verbal behaviors are practically universal and have the same meaning wherever you are (e.g., smiling and facial expressions of anger, surprise, fear, sadness, and so on). But for cultural and historical reasons, there have also developed great differences and variations in such aspects as eye contact, touch, gestures, and territorial space, etc. Without an awareness of respect and accommodation for people from a differentbackground, these differences are likely to cause misunderstandings in cross-cultural communication.The two texts supplement each other in that Text A illustrates cross-cultural differences in both verbal and non-verbal communication while Text B focuses on non-verbal behaviors and addressesboth differences and similarities.Teaching objectivesThis unit is designed to help students develop their reading skills, communicative competence, critical thinking, intercultural reflection and abilities of autonomous learning in the following aspects.Reading skills:Use context to understand a new wordIdentify cohesive devicesPredict the content of an upcoming sentence/paragraphCommunicative competence:Develop a coherent and cohesive oral/written discourseUse topic sentences, supporting sentences and concluding sentences in presentations/essaysCommunicate constructively in team workCritical thinking:Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of personal experience as evidence in argumentationOrganize the arguments using an outlineNote and reflect on the differences between academic writing and everyday writing Intercultural reflectionIdentify similarities and differences in non-verbal communication across culturesBe aware of multiple levels of differences on which cross-cultural communication can falterInterpret communication behaviors from cultural and historical perspectives Teaching strategiesNon-verbal communication and cross-cultural communication are both interesting topics in linguistics. The teacher can introduce the two texts by quoting anecdotes or relating to students’own experiences (q uestion 5 in Preparatory work, p. 59). For students who lack experience of cross-cultural communication, the topic can be led in by discussions about inter-subcultural communication.Text A is a research articlefrom an academic journaland its structure and writing style are quite clear. It is recommended to draw students’ attention to the author’s logic (i.e., ways of arguing) and use of evidence in class. If well-planned, all the questions in Preparatory Work and Critical reading can be dealt with in some detail in class. The teacher can follow all the questions in Understanding the text to check students’ comprehension of the text, while the tasks in Evaluation and exploration can be divided and assigned to groups. For example, in Making an outline (p. 62), the teacher can divide the students into three groups, each responsible for one topic.For classical works in intercultural communication, please refer to:Hall, Edward T. (1955). The Anthropology of Manners.Scientific American,192: 85-89.Hall, Edward T. (1959). The Silent Language. New York: Doubleday.For more updated information, please find the following journals:Cross-Cultural Communication published by Canadian Academy of Oriental and Occidental Culture (CAOOC)Across Languages and Cultures published byAkadémiaiKiadóLanguage and Intercultural Communication published byRoutledge Journals, Taylor & Francis Ltd.Preparatory work(1)Academic interests: gender and language, interactional sociolinguistics,conversational interaction, cross-cultural communication, frames theory, conversational vs. literary discourse, and new media discourse.Main publications:You Just Don't Understand: Women and Men in Conversation. New York: Morrow, 1990.That's Not What I Meant!: How Conversational Style Makes or Breaks Relationships. NY: William Morrow, 1986.Gender and Discourse. NY & Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.Note: Outside the academic world Deborah Tannen is best known as the author of?a number of books on the New York Times best seller and she?is also a frequent guest on television and radio news and information shows.(2)Edward Sapir (1884–1939): an?American?anthropologist who is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in the early development of modern linguistics. His main interests are in the ways in which language and culture influence each other, the relation between linguistic differences, and differences in cultural world views. His most important contribution is what is known as the principle of?linguistic relativity?or the "Sapir-Whorf" hypothesis.John Joseph Gumperz(1922 –2013): an American linguist. Hisresearch interests include the languages of India, code-switching, and conversational interaction. Well-known for his contribution in interactional sociolinguistics and the "ethnography of communication", Gumperz’s research has benefitted such fields as sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, and linguistic anthropology.E. M. Forster (1879 –1970): an English novelist, short story writer, essayist and librettist. He is known best for his ironic and well-plotted novels examining class difference and hypocrisy in early 20th-century British society. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 13 different years.Robert Kaplan:An American?applied linguist. His research area covers applied linguistics, discourse analysis, language policy, language planning, and ESL/EFL Teaching. He is most famous for his contribution in Contrastive Rhetoric, a term he first coined in 1966. Kaplan has authored or edited 32 books, more than 130 articlesin scholarly journals and chapters in books, and more than 85 book reviews and other ephemeral pieces in various newsletters, as well as 9 special reports to the U.S. government and to governments elsewhere.(3)Pragmatics is the systematic study of meaning dependent on language in use. Unlike semantics, which examines conventional meaning "coded" in a given language, pragmatics studies how the transmission of meaning depends not only on structural and linguistic knowledge (e.g., grammar, lexicon, etc.) of the speaker and the hearer, but also on the context of the utterance, any pre-existing knowledge about those participants involved, the inferred intent of the speaker, and other factors. Central topics of pragmatics include a speaker’s co mmunicativeintentions, the use of language that requires such intentions, context of use, the relation between the user of a linguistic form and the act of using the form, and the strategies an addressee employs to work out what the intentions and acts are.(4)Cohesion refers to the use of various phonological, grammatical, and/or lexical means to link sentences or utterances into a well-connected, larger linguistic unit such as a paragraph or a chapter. In other words, cohesion achieves well-connectedness by means of linguistic forms.Example: Mary is a secretary. She works in a law firm. Yan (2012)Coherence refers to the logical well-connectedness between different parts of a piece of spoken or written language, which distinguishes it from a random assemblage of sentences or utterances. Yan (2012)Formly?incohesive?discourse?may?be?coherent?through?co mmon?sense,?cultural?background,?contextual?information,?imagination,?logical?assum ption,?etc.? Husband:?That’s?the?telephone.?Wife:?I’m?in?the?bath.?Husband:?OK.?(5)Pause is a temporary and brief break in the flow of speech, which is often classified into filled pause and unfilled or silent pause. The former is taken up or filled by a hesitation form like ah, er, and um. In contrast, the latter is not filled by a hesitation form. In other words, a silent pause is one where there is no vocalization. Critical readingI. Understanding the text(1) The main purpose of this article is to illustrate eight levels of cross-cultural differences in non-verbal aspects ofcommunication.(2) We can understand the nature of language by observing it in communication and in contact with other systems of communication.(3) Pacing and pausing, listenership. In deciding when to talk and what to say, thespeaker usually takes a conscious speech planning, yet in pacing and pausing and in showing listenership in a conversation, one does not need to stop and think for a decision.(4) Section 2.1 starts with a direct thesis statement. Then the author explains it with an expert’s (S collon) research findings and examples.In section 2.2 the author raises a number of questions (in para 7, 9 and 11) and responds to them with relevant research findings (Goody’s as well as hers) and her own personal experience. Section 2.3 is also organized in the order of “question-answer”. Section 2.4 illustrates cross-cultural differences in listenership with two examples, gaze (paras 21 and 22) and loud responses (para 23), and then moves on to the conclusion (para 24). Section 2.5: example-discussion. Section 2.6: personal experience and a very brief interpretation. Section 2.7: the thesis (para 30 “how to be indirect is culturally relative”) and discussion about the cases of American-non-American differences (American men, women, Greek and Japanese). Section 2.8: definition and illustration.(5) The experience ina dinner party in paragraph 12 indicates that (1) people from different cultures not only differ in whether compliments should be accepted, rejected or deflected, but also in which compliments should be accepted/rejected/deflected; and (2) every culture has its own conventions about what to say on particular occasions, and without knowledge of theseconventions, we can by no means appropriately interpret the messages in cross-cultural communication.In Para. 29, Tannenrefers to her first visit to Greece to exemplify the cross-cultural difference in formulaicity, i.e., what is novel and what is conventional in different languages.(6)Generally speaking, the eight levels are arranged in the order of importance, fromthe core of verbal communication to more peripheral factors. The first three levels and the fifth level belong to what is said while the last three center on how it is said. The fourth level, listenership, is the only level examined from the perspective of the hearer.(7)As has been illustrated in part II, verbal communication involves many hiddenrules and conventions that vary from culture to culture. Since every individual has his/her own unique experience, education background,and beliefs, etc., no two interactants would share exactly the same communicative rules and conventions.In this sense all communication is cross-cultural.Summary writingWays of communication are culturally diversified in almost every aspect, from what to say to how to say it. When to talk (and when not to) is culturally relative. People from one culture may find a particular silent moment unbearable while it is deemed appropriate in another culture.What to say also differs greatly across cultures. Many of us consider raising questions asa natural or even basic part of daily communication, but in some cultures questions are perceived imposing and hence rarely asked. A certain degree of indirectness in communication is universal in all languages, but how to be indirect varies fromculture to culture. American men value “sticking to facts” while Japanese and Arab often insist on elaborate “small talk s”. Cross-cultural differences can also be observed in the different ways of showing listenership, control of pace and pause, use of conventional and novel language, and variation of intonation. Even when peopleare asked to describe or write about the same thing, their organization of a discourse will very likely differ in ways of establishing coherence and cohesion as Kaplan illustrated.II. Evaluation and exploration1.Evaluating the text(1)Personal experiences and anecdotes help elucidate abstract and difficult terms andadd to the vividness of the text. Controlled use of personal experience may also shorten the distance between the author and the reader. But the overuse and misuse of personal stories can also damage the objectivity and credibility of the argumentation.(2)Beside personal experience, Tannen mentions a lot of academic researches (e.g. inpara 4, 7, 8, 10, 21, 23, 38 and 39), which all add weight to her arguments.(3)It is obviously not an exhaustive list. Cross-cultural communication can vary atmany other levels, e.g., proxemics and turn taking in a multiparty context.2.Exploring beyond the text(1)Questions for exploration1)There are altogether 16 questions which help structure the text in part two andthey are not equally important. The question in para 2, for example, is a global one that covers all the eight sections in the main body, while th e question in para 20, “Now how many milliseconds shall I wait?”, is just an example to illustrate why pacing and pausing is an automatic level.a. See above.b. The first question in para 7 is asked to introduce the topic of this section,what to say. It is a transition from section 2.1 to section 2.2.c. This is a rhetorical question requiring no answer. It is asked simply toreinforce our conviction that questions are basic to the educational setting, which forms a sharp contrast with the case of Gonjans.2) In all the known languages there are strategies of making indirectrequests/apologies/invitations/, etc. In a strict sense, the use of language is an indirect means to achieve communicative ends. How to be indirect differs from culture to culture. For example, in English a request is often put forward as a question of ability (Can you pass me the salt?).3) For example, introvert people may be more tolerant of silence in face-to-faceverbal interaction while extroverts usually find silence awkward and uncomfortable. This is primarily an interpersonal difference since in all cultures there are introvert and extrovert people.Gaze is another example. People with more aggressive personality usually hold longer and steadier gaze when they talk to others, while shy perpleare more likely to diverge in eyecontact.Language enhancementI. Words and phrases1. Adverbs and prepositions(1) off; (2) out; (3) across; (4) away; (5) up; (6) between, for;(7) after; (8) out of, into;(9) off; (10) up; (11) out of2. Verbs(1) illustrate, vary, discussing, exemplifying, signaling, mean, say(2) vary(3) differ(4) illustrated(5) exemplifies(6) expounds(7) demonstrates(8) elucidate, interpret3.Words in contextOpen to discussion:To guess the meaning of a new word, one can first recognize its part of speech, analyze its word formation, identify its attitude if necessary, and then evaluate its meaning in the linguistic context.II. Sentences and discourse1.Paraphrasing(1)Athabaskan Indians consider that it is inappropriate to talk to people they do notknow. According to Scollon, this causes a strange effect when theAthabaskan Indians meet people from other cultures. The non-Athabaskans may want to make acquaintance with theAthabaskans by talking to them, but the Athabaskans will not talk to the non- Athabaskans before they become acquaintances.(2)Gonjans take it for granted that questions are always asked to achieve indirectfunctions, so they never ask questions for pure information.(3)The Americans usually take it for granted that in communication people should bedirect and say no more or less than needed, and that what people say is exactly what they mean. This is especially true in business and education and applies more to American men than to women.(4)No two people have just the same cultural background. Therefore, allcommunication is cross-cultural to someextent. In this sense, understanding cross-cultural communication can help us understand the nature of language and tackle problems in the world, especially those caused by and related to the use of language, e.g. obstacles in foreign language teaching and learning.2.Translation(1)物理学家通过观察物质元素在不同环境中的表现及其与其他物质的相互作用来理解它们的本质。
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U n i t3V e r b a l a n d N o n-v e r b a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n Unit overviewBoth Units 1 and 2 mention a key word “communication”.As Thomas Payne points out in Text B of Unit 2, most of us, linguists or non-linguists, have the common-sense notion that “the main purpose of human language is communication”. Thus to develop a deeper understanding of the nature and function of language, we need to take a close at human communication. This unit examines this topic from a cross-cultural perspective, illustrating the similarities and differences in verbal and non-verbal communication between different cultures, which lays a foundation for further exploration into the interface between language and culture in the following units. Text APeople in different communities demonstrate different perceptions and rules of both verbal and non-verbal communication. The way they interact is culturally relative in almost every aspect, including when to talk, what to say, pacing and pausing, listenership, intonation and prosody, formulaicity, indirectness, and coherence and cohesion.Text BSome non-verbal behaviors are practically universal and have the same meaning wherever you are (e.g., smiling and facial expressions of anger, surprise, fear, sadness, and so on). But for cultural and historical reasons, there have also developed great differences and variations in such aspects as eye contact, touch, gestures, and territorial space, etc. Without an awareness of respect and accommodation for people from a different background, these differences are likely to cause misunderstandings in cross-cultural communication.The two texts supplement each other in that Text A illustrates cross-cultural differences in both verbal and non-verbal communication while Text B focuses on non-verbal behaviors and addressesboth differences and similarities.Teaching objectivesThis unit is designed to help students develop their reading skills, communicative competence, critical thinking, intercultural reflection and abilities of autonomous learning in the following aspects.Reading skills:Use context to understand a new wordIdentify cohesive devicesPredict the content of an upcoming sentence/paragraphCommunicative competence:Develop a coherent and cohesive oral/written discourseUse topic sentences, supporting sentences and concluding sentences in presentations/essaysCommunicate constructively in team workCritical thinking:Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of personal experience as evidence in argumentationOrganize the arguments using an outlineNote and reflect on the differences between academic writing and everyday writing Intercultural reflectionIdentify similarities and differences in non-verbal communication across culturesBe aware of multiple levels of differences on which cross-cultural communication can falterInterpret communication behaviors from cultural and historical perspectives Teaching strategiesNon-verbal communication and cross-cultural communication are both interesting topics in linguistics. The teacher can introduce the two texts by quoting anecdotes or relating to students’own experiences (question 5 in Preparatory work, p. 59). For students who lack experience of cross-cultural communication, the topic can be led in by discussions about inter-subcultural communication.Text A is a research articlefrom an academic journaland its structure and writing style are quite clear. It is recommended to draw students’ attention to the author’s logic (i.e., ways of arguing) and use of evidence in class. If well-planned, all the questions in Preparatory Work and Critical reading can be dealt with in some detail in class. The teacher can follow all the questions in Understanding the text to check students’ comprehension of the text, while the tasks in Evaluation and exploration can be divided and assigned to groups. For example, in Making an outline (p. 62), the teacher can divide the students into three groups, each responsible for one topic.For classical works in intercultural communication, please refer to:Hall, Edward T. (1955). The Anthropology of Manners.Scientific American,192: 85-89.Hall, Edward T. (1959). The Silent Language. New York: Doubleday.For more updated information, please find the following journals:Cross-Cultural Communication published by Canadian Academy of Oriental and Occidental Culture (CAOOC)Across Languages and Cultures published byAkadémiaiKiadóLanguage and Intercultural Communication published byRoutledge Journals, Taylor & Francis Ltd.Preparatory work(1)Academic interests: gender and language, interactional sociolinguistics,conversational interaction, cross-cultural communication, frames theory, conversational vs. literary discourse, and new media discourse.Main publications:You Just Don't Understand: Women and Men in Conversation. New York: Morrow, 1990.That's Not What I Meant!: How Conversational Style Makes or Breaks Relationships. NY: William Morrow, 1986.Gender and Discourse. NY & Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.Note: Outside the academic world Deborah Tannen is best known as the author of?a number of books on the New York Times best seller and she?is also a frequent guest on television and radio news and information shows.(2)Edward Sapir (1884–1939): an?American?anthropologist who is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in the early development of modern linguistics. His main interests are in the ways in which language and culture influence each other, the relation between linguistic differences, and differences in cultural world views. His most important contribution is what is known as the principle of?linguistic relativity?or the "Sapir-Whorf" hypothesis.John Joseph Gumperz(1922 –2013): an American linguist. His research interests include the languages of India, code-switching, and conversational interaction. Well-known for his contribution in interactional sociolinguistics and the "ethnography of communication", Gumperz’s research has benefitted such fields as sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, and linguistic anthropology.E. M. Forster (1879 –1970): an English novelist, short story writer, essayist and librettist. He is known best for his ironic and well-plotted novels examining class difference and hypocrisy in early 20th-century British society. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 13 different years.Robert Kaplan:An American?applied linguist. His research area covers applied linguistics, discourse analysis, language policy, language planning, and ESL/EFL Teaching. He is most famous for his contribution in Contrastive Rhetoric, a term he first coined in 1966. Kaplan has authored or edited 32 books, more than 130 articlesin scholarly journals and chapters in books, and more than 85 book reviews and other ephemeral pieces in various newsletters, as well as 9 special reports to the U.S. government and to governments elsewhere.(3)Pragmatics is the systematic study of meaning dependent on language in use. Unlike semantics, which examines conventional meaning "coded" in a given language, pragmatics studies how the transmission of meaning depends not only on structural and linguistic knowledge (e.g., grammar, lexicon, etc.) of the speaker and the hearer, but also on the context of the utterance, any pre-existing knowledge about those participants involved, the inferred intent of the speaker, and other factors. Central topics of pragmatics include a speaker’s communicative intentions, the use of language that requires such intentions, context of use, the relation between the user of a linguistic form and the act of using the form, and the strategies an addressee employs to work out what the intentions and acts are.(4)Cohesion refers to the use of various phonological, grammatical, and/or lexical means to link sentences or utterances into a well-connected, larger linguistic unit such as a paragraph or a chapter. In other words, cohesion achieves well-connectedness by means of linguistic forms.Example: Mary is a secretary. She works in a law firm. Yan (2012)Coherence refers to the logical well-connectedness between different parts of a piece of spoken or written language, which distinguishes it from a random assemblage of sentences or utterances. Yan (2012)Formly?incohesive?discourse?may?be?coherent?through?common?sense,?cultural?ba ckground,?contextual?information,?imagination,?logical?assumption,?etc.? Husband:?That’s?the?telephone.?Wife:?I’m?in?the?bath.?Husband:?OK.?(5)Pause is a temporary and brief break in the flow of speech, which is often classified into filled pause and unfilled or silent pause. The former is taken up or filled by a hesitation form like ah, er, and um. In contrast, the latter is not filled by a hesitation form. In other words, a silent pause is one where there is no vocalization. Critical readingI. Understanding the text(1) The main purpose of this article is to illustrate eight levels of cross-cultural differences in non-verbal aspects of communication.(2) We can understand the nature of language by observing it in communication and in contact with other systems of communication.(3) Pacing and pausing, listenership. In deciding when to talk and what to say, thespeaker usually takes a conscious speech planning, yet in pacing and pausing and in showing listenership in a conversation, one does not need to stop and think for a decision.(4) Section 2.1 starts with a direct thesis statement. Then the author explains it with an expert’s (Scollon) research findings and examples.In section 2.2 the author raises a number of questions (in para 7, 9 and 11) and responds to them with relevant research findings (Goody’s as well as hers) and her own personal experience. Section 2.3 is also organized in the order of “question-answer”. Section 2.4 illustrates cross-cultural differences in listenership with two examples, gaze (paras 21 and 22) and loud responses (para 23), and then moves on to the conclusion (para 24). Section 2.5: example-discussion. Section 2.6: personal experience and a very brief interpretation. Section 2.7: the thesis (para 30 “how to be indirect is culturally relative”) and discussion about the cases of American-non-American differences (American men, women, Greek and Japanese). Section 2.8: definition and illustration.(5) The experience ina dinner party in paragraph 12 indicates that (1) people from different cultures not only differ in whether compliments should be accepted, rejected or deflected, but also in which compliments should be accepted/rejected/deflected; and (2) every culture has its own conventions about what to say on particular occasions, and without knowledge of these conventions, we can by no means appropriately interpret the messages in cross-cultural communication.In Para. 29, Tannenrefers to her first visit to Greece to exemplify the cross-cultural difference in formulaicity, i.e., what is novel and what is conventional in different languages.(6)Generally speaking, the eight levels are arranged in the order of importance, fromthe core of verbal communication to more peripheral factors. The first three levels and the fifth level belong to what is said while the last three center on how it is said. The fourth level, listenership, is the only level examined from the perspective of the hearer.(7)As has been illustrated in part II, verbal communication involves many hiddenrules and conventions that vary from culture to culture. Since every individual has his/her own unique experience, education background,and beliefs, etc., no two interactants would share exactly the same communicative rules and conventions.In this sense all communication is cross-cultural.Summary writingWays of communication are culturally diversified in almost every aspect, from what to say to how to say it. When to talk (and when not to) is culturally relative. People from one culture may find a particular silent moment unbearable while it is deemedappropriate in another culture.What to say also differs greatly across cultures. Many of us consider raising questions asa natural or even basic part of daily communication, but in some cultures questions are perceived imposing and hence rarely asked. A certain degree of indirectness in communication is universal in all languages, but how to be indirect varies from culture to culture. American men value “sticking to facts” while Japanese and Arab often insist on elaborate “small talk s”. Cross-cultural differences can also be observed in the different ways of showing listenership, control of pace and pause, use of conventional and novel language, and variation of intonation. Even when peopleare asked to describe or write about the same thing, their organization of a discourse will very likely differ in ways of establishing coherence and cohesion as Kaplan illustrated.II. Evaluation and exploration1.Evaluating the text(1)Personal experiences and anecdotes help elucidate abstract and difficult terms andadd to the vividness of the text. Controlled use of personal experience may also shorten the distance between the author and the reader. But the overuse and misuse of personal stories can also damage the objectivity and credibility of the argumentation.(2)Beside personal experience, Tannen mentions a lot of academic researches (e.g. inpara 4, 7, 8, 10, 21, 23, 38 and 39), which all add weight to her arguments.(3)It is obviously not an exhaustive list. Cross-cultural communication can vary atmany other levels, e.g., proxemics and turn taking in a multiparty context.2.Exploring beyond the text(1)Questions for exploration1)There are altogether 16 questions which help structure the text in part two andthey are not equally important. The question in para 2, for example, is a global one that covers all the eight sections in the main body, while the question in para 20, “Now how many milliseconds shall I wait?”, is just an example to illustrate why pacing and pausing is an automatic level.a. See above.b. The first question in para 7 is asked to introduce the topic of this section,what to say. It is a transition from section 2.1 to section 2.2.c. This is a rhetorical question requiring no answer. It is asked simply toreinforce our conviction that questions are basic to the educational setting, which forms a sharp contrast with the case of Gonjans.2) In all the known languages there are strategies of making indirectrequests/apologies/invitations/, etc. In a strict sense, the use of language is an indirect means to achieve communicative ends. How to be indirect differs from culture to culture. For example, in English a request is often put forward as a question of ability (Can you pass me the salt?).3) For example, introvert people may be more tolerant of silence in face-to-faceverbal interaction while extroverts usually find silence awkward and uncomfortable. This is primarily an interpersonal difference since in all cultures there are introvert and extrovert people.Gaze is another example. People with more aggressive personality usually hold longer and steadier gaze when they talk to others, while shy perpleare more likely to diverge in eye contact.Language enhancementI. Words and phrases1. Adverbs and prepositions(1) off; (2) out; (3) across; (4) away; (5) up; (6) between, for; (7) after; (8) out of, into;(9) off; (10) up; (11) out of2. Verbs(1) illustrate, vary, discussing, exemplifying, signaling, mean, say(2) vary(3) differ(4) illustrated(5) exemplifies(6) expounds(7) demonstrates(8) elucidate, interpret3.Words in contextOpen to discussion:To guess the meaning of a new word, one can first recognize its part of speech, analyze its word formation, identify its attitude if necessary, and then evaluate its meaning in the linguistic context.II. Sentences and discourse1.Paraphrasing(1)Athabaskan Indians consider that it is inappropriate to talk to people they do notknow. According to Scollon, this causes a strange effect when theAthabaskan Indians meet people from other cultures. The non-Athabaskans may want to make acquaintance with the Athabaskans by talking to them, but the Athabaskans will not talk to the non- Athabaskans before they become acquaintances.(2)Gonjans take it for granted that questions are always asked to achieve indirectfunctions, so they never ask questions for pure information.(3)The Americans usually take it for granted that in communication people should bedirect and say no more or less than needed, and that what people say is exactly what they mean. This is especially true in business and education and applies more to American men than to women.(4)No two people have just the same cultural background. Therefore, allcommunication is cross-cultural to someextent. In this sense, understanding cross-cultural communication can help us understand the nature of language and tackle problems in the world, especially those caused by and related to the use of language, e.g. obstacles in foreign language teaching and learning.2.Translation(1)物理学家通过观察物质元素在不同环境中的表现及其与其他物质的相互作用来理解它们的本质。