最新外文文献中文版
中英文外文文献翻译中小企业财务风险管理研究
本科毕业设计（论文）中英文对照翻译(此文档为word格式,下载后您可任意修改编辑!)作者：Bernard G期刊：International Journal of Information Business and Management 第5卷，第3期，pp：41-51.原文The research of financial Risk Management in SMESBernard GINTRUDUCTIONSmall and medium sized enterprises (SME) differ from large corporations among other aspects first of all in their size. Theirimportance in the economy however is large . SME sector of India is considered as the backbone of economy contributing to 45% of the industrial output, 40% of India’s exports, employing 60 million people, create 1.3 million jobs every year and produce more than 8000 quality products for the Indian and international markets. With approximately 30 million SMEs in India, 12 million people expected to join the workforce in next 3 years and the sector growing at a rate of 8% per year, Government of India is taking different measures so as to increase their competitiveness in the international market. There are several factors that have contributed towards the growth of Indian SMEs. Few of these include; funding of SMEs by local and foreign investors, the new technology that is used in the market is assisting SMEs add considerable value to their business, various trade directories and trade portals help facilitate trade between buyer and supplier and thus reducing the barrier to trade With this huge potential, backed up by strong government support; Indian SMEs continue to post their growth stories. Despite of this strong growth, there is huge potential amongst Indian SMEs that still remains untapped. Once this untapped potential becomes the source for growth of these units, there would be no stopping to India posting a GDP higher than that of US and China and becoming the world’s economic powerhouse. RESEARCH QUESTIONRisk and economic activity are inseparable. Every business decisionand entrepreneurial act is connected with risk. This applies also to business of small and medium sized enterprises as they are also facing several and often the same risks as bigger companies. In a real business environment with market imperfections they need to manage those risks in order to secure their business continuity and add additional value by avoiding or reducing transaction costs and cost of financial distress or bankruptcy. However, risk management is a challenge for most SME. In contrast to larger companies they often lack the necessary resources, with regard to manpower, databases and specialty of knowledge to perform a standardized and structured risk management. The result is that many smaller companies do not perform sufficient analysis to identify their risk. This aspect is exacerbated due to a lack in literature about methods for risk management in SME, as stated by Henschel: The two challenging aspects with regard to risk management in SME are therefore: 1. SME differ from large corporations in many characteristics 2. The existing research lacks a focus on risk management in SME The following research question will be central to this work: 1.how can SME manage their internal financial risk? 2.Which aspects, based on their characteristics, have to be taken into account for this? 3.Which mean fulfils the requirements and can be applied to SME? LITERA TURE REVIEWIn contrast to larger corporations, in SME one of the owners is oftenpart of the management team. His intuition and experience are important for managing the company. Therefore, in small companies, the (owner-) manager is often responsible for many different tasks and important decisions. Most SME do not have the necessary resources to employ specialists on every position in the company. They focus on their core business and have generalists for the administrative functions. Behr and Guttler find that SME on average have equity ratios lower than 20%. The different characteristics of management, position on procurement and capital markets and the legal framework need to be taken into account when applying management instruments like risk management. Therefore the risk management techniques of larger corporations cannot easily be applied to SME. In practice it can therefore be observed that although SME are not facing less risks and uncertainties than large companies, their risk management differs from the practices in larger companies. The latter have the resources to employ a risk manager and a professional, structured and standardized risk management system. In contrast to that, risk management in SME differs in the degree of implementation and the techniques applied. Jonen & Simgen-Weber With regard to firm size and the use of risk management. Beyer, Hachmeister & Lampenius observe in a study from 2010 that increasing firm size among SME enhances the use of risk management. This observation matches with the opinion of nearly 10% of SME, which are of the opinion, that risk management is onlyreasonable in larger corporations. Beyer, Hachmeister & Lampenius find that most of the surveyed SME identify risks with help of statistics, checklists, creativity and scenario analyses. reveals similar findings and state that most companies rely on key figure systems for identifying and evaluating the urgency of business risks. That small firms face higher costs of hedging than larger corporations. This fact is reducing the benefits from hedging and therefore he advises to evaluate the usage of hedging for each firm individually. The lacking expertise to decide about hedges in SME is also identified by Eckbo, According to his findings, smaller companies often lack the understanding and management capacities needed to use those instruments. METHODOLOGY USE OF FINANCIAL ANAL YSIS IN SME RISK MANAGEMENT How financial analysis can be used in SME risk management? Development of financial risk overview for SME The following sections show the development of the financial risk overview. After presenting the framework, the different ratios will be discussed to finally present a selection of suitable ratios and choose appropriate comparison data. Framework for financial risk overviewThe idea is to use a set of ratios in an overview as the basis for the financial risk management.This provides even more information than the analysis of historicaldata and allows reacting fast on critical developments and managing the identified risks. However not only the internal data can be used for the risk management. In addition to that also the information available in the papers can be used. Some of them state average values for the defaulted or bankrupt companies one year prior bankruptcy -and few papers also for a longer time horizon. Those values can be used as a comparison value to evaluate the risk situation of the company. For this an appropriate set of ratios has to be chosen. The ratios, which will be included in the overview and analysis sheet, should fulfill two main requirements. First of all they should match the main financial risks of the company in order to deliver significant information and not miss an important risk factor. Secondly the ratios need to be relevant in two different ways. On the one hand they should be applicable independently of other ratios. This means that they also deliver useful information when not used in a regression, as it is applied in many of the papers. On the other hand to be appropriate to use them, the ratios need to show a different development for healthy companies than for those under financial distress. The difference between the values of the two groups should be large enough to see into which the observed company belongs. Evaluation of ratios for financial risk overview When choosing ratios from the different categories, it needs to be evaluated which ones are the most appropriate ones. For this some comparison values are needed inorder to see whether the ratios show different values and developments for the two groups of companies. The most convenient source for the comparison values are the research papers as their values are based on large samples of annual reports and by providing average values outweigh outliers in the data. Altman shows a table with the values for 8 different ratios for the five years prior bankruptcy of which he uses 5, while Porporato & Sandin use 13 ratios in their model and Ohlson bases his evaluation on 9 figures and ratios [10]. Khong, Ong & Y ap and Cerovac & Ivicic also show the difference in ratios between the two groups, however only directly before bankruptcy and not as a development over time [9]. Therefore this information is not as valuable as the others ([4][15]).In summary, the main internal financial risks in a SME should be covered by financial structure, liquidity and profitability ratios, which are the main categories of ratios applied in the research papers.Financial structureA ratio used in many of the papers is the total debt to total assets ratio, analyzing the financial structure of the company. Next to the papers of Altman, Ohlson and Porporato & Sandin also Khong, Ong & Y ap and Cerovac & Ivicic show comparison values for this ratio. Those demonstrate a huge difference in size between the bankrupt andnon-bankrupt groups.Therefore the information of total debt/total assets is more reliable and should rather be used for the overview. The other ratios analyzing the financial structure are only used in one of the papers and except for one the reference data only covers the last year before bankruptcy. Therefore a time trend cannot be detected and their relevance cannot be approved.译文中小企业财务风险管理研究博纳德引言除了其他方面，中小型企业(SME)与大型企业的不同之处首先在于他们的规模不同，但是，他们在国民经济中同样具有重要的作用。
美国农业合作社与农业产业化外文文献翻译中英文
美国农业合作社与农业产业化外文文献翻译中英文最新（节选重点翻译）英文Managing uncertainty and expectations: The strategic response of U.S.agricultural cooperatives to agricultural industrializationJulie HogelandAbstractThe 20th century industrialization of agriculture confronted U.S. agricultural cooperatives with responding to an event they neither initiated nor drove. Agrarian-influenced cooperatives used two metaphors, “serfdom” and “cooperatives are like a family” to manage uncertainty and influence producer expectations by predicting industrialization's eventual outcome and cooperatives’ producer driven compensation.The serfdom metaphor alluded to industrialization's potential to either bypass family farmers, the cornerstone of the economy according to agrarian ideology, or to transform them into the equivalent of piece-wage labor as contract growers. The “family” metaphor reflects how cooperatives personalized the connection between cooperative and farmer-member to position themselves as the exact opposite of serfdom. Hypotheses advanced by Roessl (2005) and Goel (2013) suggest that intrinsic characteristics of family businesses such as a resistance to change and operating according to a myth of unlimited choice andindependence reinforced the risk of institutional lock-in posed by agrarian ideology.To determine whether lock-in occurred, Woerdman's (2004) neo-institutional model of lock-in was examined in the context of late 20th century cooperative grain and livestock marketing. Increasingly ineffective open markets prompted three regional cooperatives to develop their own models of industrialized pork production. Direct experience with producer contracting allowed cooperatives to evade institutional and ideological lock-in.Keywords：Cooperatives，Agricultural industrialization，Agrarianism，Expectations，Family business，Family farming，Metaphors，Lock-inIntroductionRecent fluctuation in global financial markets led a panel of cooperative leaders to identify uncertainty as the primary managerial difficulty anticipated by cooperatives in the future (Boland, Hogeland, & McKee, 2011). Likewise, the 20th century industrialization of agriculture confronted cooperatives with the challenge of responding to an event they neither initiated nor drove. When the environment is highly uncertain and unpredictable, Oliver predicts that organizations will increase their efforts to establish the illusion or reality of control and stability over future organizational outcomes (Oliver, 1991: 170). This study argues thatcooperatives used two metaphors, “serfdom” and “cooperatives are like a family” to manage uncertainty by predicting industrialization's eventual outcome and cooperatives’ producer-driven compensation.These metaphors are agrarian. Recent research highlights the impact of agrarian ideology on cooperatives. Foreman and Whetten (2002: 623)observe, “co-ops have historically sought to reinforce the traditions and values of agrarianism through education and social interventions. Indeed, for many members these normative goals of a co-op have been preeminent.” These authors studied the tension within rural cooperatives produced by a normative system encompassing family and ideology and a utilitarian system defined by economic rationality, profit maximization and self-interest. They argue that this split in values implies that cooperatives are essentially two different organizations trying to be one. To capture the tension between these multiple identities, they focused on a potential family/business divide in cooperatives, basing this on a duality often noted in cooperative community and trade publications.The authors found that respondents wanted their local co-op to be more business oriented and at the same time, expected co-ops ideally (e.g., as an ideal organizational form) to be more family focused. These conflicting expectations suggested that multiple-identity organizations need to be assessed in terms of the individual components of their identity and the tension (or interaction) between them. Foreman and Whettenregard dual or multiple identity organizations as hybrids. There are consequences to hybridity: many members of a hybrid organization will identify with both aspects of its dual identity, “and thus find themselves embracing competing goals and concerns associated with distinctly different identity elements” (Foreman and Whetten, 2002). They conclude that competing goals and concerns foster competing expectations with consequences for organizational commitment (and I would add, performance).The split focus observed by Foreman and Whetten can be regarded as a contemporary expression of a value conflict beginning early in the 20th century over how production agriculture should be organized. Decentralized, autonomous, and typically small, family farmers used their skill at deciding the “what, when, where, how and why” of production and marketing to reduce the risk of being a price taker at open, competitive markets. Farmers also diversified the farm enterprise to spread price risk over several commodities. Corporate-led industrialized agriculture (integrators) by-passed both markets and independent farmers. Integrators coordinated supply and demand internally based on top-down administrative control over production and marketing decisions. They engaged in production contracting with growers who were held to competitive performance standards and paid according to their productivity. In contrast, family farmers were accountable only tothemselves.Study overviewFoss (2007) observes that the beliefs organizations hold about each other or the competitive environment are a key aspect of strategic management which have been understudied. Beliefs, which include norms and expectations, are important because they can be wrong. Cooperatives are often considered to have an ideological component but how such ideology develops and persists also has been understudied. This study addresses that gap by examining how agrarian language and assumptions shaped cooperatives’ reaction to 20th century agricultural industrialization. During this era, industrial methods transformed the production and marketing of processing vegetables, poultry, beef, and pork and were initiated for dairy and grains. An historical and institutional perspective is used to examine how two contrasting metaphors brought cooperatives to the brink of institutional lock-in. The study spans the entire 20th century from beginning to close.The study opens with a brief discussion of metaphors and norms then presents a theoretical model of lock-in. Discussion of the overarching role of agrarianism follows. Discussion then addresses why the cooperative alternative to corporate-led industrialization –the 1922 model developed by Aaron Sapiro –was not palatable to agrarian-influenced cooperatives (this section also definesagrarian-influenced cooperatives).Discussion then turns to considering how the disturbing implications of serfdom paved the way for the agrarian-influenced norm, “cooperatives as a competitive yardstick” and the cooperative metaphorical n orm, “cooperatives are like a family.” Producer expectations triggered by “serfdom” and “cooperatives are like a family” are addressed. Parallels are briefly drawn between neighborhood exchange in late 19th century rural California and behavior implied in “cooperatives are like a family.” Parallels are then drawn between family business traits and cooperative and producer experience in livestock and identity-preserved grain markets. This provides a foundation for examining in greater detail how well cooperative experience in pork and grains corresponded to Woerdman's four part model of lock-in (2004). Study conclusions and suggestions for future research follow.Importance of ideology, metaphor and normsEconomists have begun studying how cognition and discourse affect cooperative outcomes (Fulton, 1999). This study continues that line of inquiry by considering how a dominant ideology like agrarianism produced words and associations that, for most of the 20th century, arguably had a deterministic effect on farmer and cooperative perceptions of the future. Even today, few guidelines or predictions exist that suggest how organizations can manage ideological conflict (Greenwood, Raynard,Kodeih, Micelotta, & Lounsbury, 2011). Moreover, the difficulties of escaping a hegemonic ideology have seldom been recognized (Spencer, 1994).Metaphors are a pithy word or expression meant to evoke a comparison. They are used to understand one thing in terms of another (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980: 5). Understanding what metaphors represent and how they emerge and persist can offer a window into the salient factors influencing farmer and cooperative decision-making. Moreover, as in this text, metaphors “allow for the sorts of story in which overwhelming evidence in favor of one interpretation of the world can be repeatedly ignored, even though this puts the assets of the firm and the position of the decision-makers at extraordinary risk” (Schoenberger, 1997: 136).Much of what Pfeffer and Salancik (2003) say about norms also applies to how metaphors are used in this study. For example, these authors observe that an important function of norms is to provide predictability in social relationships so that each party can rely on the assurances provided by the other. Consequently, norms stress the meeting of expectations in an exchange relationship. Certainly, the metaphor, cooperatives are like a family, can be understood in the same manner. Defining norms as commonly or widely shared sets of behavioral expectations, Pfeffer et al. also indicate that norms develop underconditions of social uncertainty to increase the predictability of relationships for the mutual advantage of those involved. Once they cease to serve those interests norms break down.California's early industrializationIt seems reasonable to assume that agrarianism's belief in the pivotal importance of agriculture was shared to some degree by all U.S. cooperatives. However, unique features of California's agriculture, particularly in the Central Valley, predisposed it to industrialize some decades earlier than the Midwest, Great Plains, and Northeast (McClelland, 1997). The latter continued to rely on patriarchal family farm labor and so, for this paper, are assumed to represent the core domain of agrarian-influenced cooperatives. These areas lacked access to the supply of excess ethnic or minority labor which McClelland indicates prepared California for industrialization by 1910. Added to this advantage was California's legacy of estate or hacienda production which boosted cultural familiarity and acceptance of large scale production (Hogeland, 2010).In 1922, California attorney and cooperative organizer Aaron Sapiro combined elements of California experience into a model of cooperative organization and marketing popularly kno wn as “orderly marketing.” Sapiro began by extolling industrialization: “The factory system is recognized as the key to all forms of productive industries to-day all overthe world-except in agriculture… The farmer is the only part of modern industry… in which you have individual production” (Sapiro, 1993: 81).In general, Sapiro offered a cooperative alternative to producers’ tendency to dump excess supply from bumper harvests on the market. Instead, cooperatives should provide a home for the growers’ prod uct and use accumulated inventory to develop new products to stimulate consumer demand. Investing in processing or preservation technologies –canning, refrigeration and drying –would allow cooperatives to release excess production to the market in a prog ressive “orderly” manner.For example, by 1925 Sunkist growers had increased fruit utilization by transforming oranges from a single hand-held breakfast fruit to a glass of juice made from multiple oranges. The Sunkist extractor was specifically designed to use off-size fruit and wind-damaged fruit that would not sell as fancy Sunkist table fruit because all produced the same quality juice (Nourse, 1925). In 1922, Sun Maid scored a consumer success by packaging raisins in convenient snack-sized boxes called “Little Sun Maids” (Gary Marshburn, telephone conversation, July 24, 2008; Cotterill, 1984).The far-sighted orderly marketing norm anticipated the values of industrialized agriculture, urging cooperatives to guarantee supply through marketing contracts with some 85–95 percent of producer-members (Sapiro's recommended target). This commitmentcould propel the cooperative into being sole supplier of a particular specialty crop. (Such specialization was facilitated by California's geographically compact micro-climates).Sapiro's model provided a template for important 20th century specialty crop cooperatives outside of California, notably, Ocean Spray Cooperative (cranberries) and Welch's (Concord grapes). However, Sapiro's model represented a highly specialized, marketing-intensive cooperative that was conceptually and financially out of reach of the small family farmers in the Midwest, Great Plains, and the Northeast who produced fungible commodities like milk, meat and grains.6Cooperative philosopher and economist Edwin Nourse commented on cooperatives performing agricultural rationing such as orderly marketing:To be sure, a few cooperatives which stand in a class by themselves have already attained a degree of success comparable with the best achievements in industrial lines. But these are in comparatively small branches of specialized agriculture where economic organization was already on a high level. Before anything like the same result could be achieved in the great staple lines of production, where the demand for [price] stabilization is most acute, there would have to be a fair degree of concentration of executive responsibility in their operating organization (Nourse, 1930: 132).Serfdom's implicationsDuring the 1920s and 1930s –considered a “golden age” of agriculture – collective action surged. Rudimentary markets and chaotic distribution channels for basic commodities like milk, grain, and fruit provided new opportunities for cooperative marketing. Moreover, new antitrust legislation curbed many of the horizontally-integrated “trusts” dominating 19th century meat packing, oil, railroads and grain markets.Nevertheless, as early as 1922, Nourse saw emerging within agriculture market power so centralized and hierarchical it seemed feudal (Nourse, 1922: 589). Subsequently, the metaphor of “serfdom” was used throughout the 20th century by agrarian-influenced cooperatives to suggest how industrialization's contract production could reduce entrepreneurial and independent farmers to the equivalent of hired hands – so-called “piece wage labor.”In 1900, most counties could point to someone who started as a tenant or laborer and through hard work, luck, sharp dealing or intelligent cultivation, retired as a landlord owing several farms (Danbom, 1979: 7). In 1917, Ely introduced the concept of the ‘agricultural ladder’ as a model of occupational progression to farm ownership. The ladder showed how the agrarian virtue of hard work could allow a landless, unpaid family laborer to progress from being a hired hand and tenant farmer to an independent owner-operator (Kloppenburg & Geisler, 1985). Yet, the serfdom metaphor suggested just how tenuous such occupationalprogression could be.Late 19th century farmers formed cooperatives in response to market exploitation or failure. Although such exploitation affected farmer costs and returns, as a rule it did not impinge on farmers’ understanding of themselves as entrepreneurial and independent. Agrarian ideology lauded family farmers for taking on the risks of farming with a frontier attitude of self-reliance. Such farmers answered to no one except themselves. The small farmer was “first of all a self-directing individualist who could be counted on to resist with vigor the encroachments of outside authority” (Robinson, 1953: 69).Industrialized agriculture brought a new institutional logic to agriculture by putting efficiency and profitability first and using vertical integration to bypass farmers’ decision-making power over agriculture. Industrialization was market driven, seeking growth in identifying and satisfying consumer preferences. Research has indicated that the norms and prescriptions dictated by family logics are often at odds with the prescriptions dictated by markets (Greenwood et al., 2011).Power, reflected in ownership and governance arrangements, determines which logics will more easily flow into organizations and be well received (Greenwood et al., 2011). Family logics formally embedded into an organization's ownership structure are a very effective conduit for increasing familial influences within the organization. Not surprisingly,farmer-owned cooperatives believed they had a mandate to protect and foster family farming (Hogeland, 2006).中文管理不确定性和期望：美国农业合作社与农业产业化朱莉·霍格兰摘要20世纪的农业产业化使美国农业合作社面对很大的不确定性。
智能物流系统中英文对照外文翻译文献
智能物流系统中英文对照外文翻译文献智能物流系统在现代物流行业中发挥着重要的作用。
本文翻译了一篇关于智能物流系统的外文文献，提供了中文和英文对照的版本。
Title: A Translation of Foreign Literature on Intelligent Logistics SystemsAbstract:Introduction:Main Body:1. Definition of Intelligent Logistics Systems- 中文：智能物流系统是指应用人工智能和物联网技术，对物流过程进行智能化管理和优化的系统。
- English: Intelligent logistics systems refer to systems that apply artificial intelligence and Internet of Things technologies to intelligently manage and optimize logistics processes.2. Key Features of Intelligent Logistics Systems- 中文：智能物流系统的主要特点包括即时监控、自动化处理和智能决策等。
- English: The key features of intelligent logistics systems include real-time monitoring, automated processing, and intelligent decision-making.3. Benefits of Intelligent Logistics Systems- 中文：智能物流系统的应用带来了许多好处，包括提高运输效率、降低成本和减少错误率等。
- English: The application of intelligent logistics systems brings numerous benefits, including improved transportation efficiency, cost reduction, and error rate reduction.Conclusion:This translation provides an insight into the concept, functions, and benefits of intelligent logistics systems. Understanding these aspects is essential in harnessing the potential of such systems in the logistics industry.Reference:[Insert reference to the original foreign literature here]以上为智能物流系统中英文对照外文翻译文献的简要内容翻译。
外文文献及译文格式模版
附件3：（本科毕业论文）文献、资料题目：院专班姓名：张三学号：2001888888指导教师：张九光翻译日期：2005.6.30山东建筑大学毕业设计（或毕业论文，二选一）外文文献及译文，the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has been working to develop a new encryption standard to keep government information secure ．The organization is in the final stages of an open process of selecting one or more algorithms ，or data-scrambling formulas ，for the new Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) and plans to make adecision by late summer or early fall ．The standard is slated to go into effect next year ． AES is intended to be a stronger ，more efficient successor to Triple Data Encryption Standard (3DES)，which replaced the aging DES ，which was cracked in less than three days in July 1998．“Until we have the AES ，3DES will still offer protection for years to come ．So there is no need to immediately switch over ，”says Edward Roback ， acting chief of the computer security division at NIST and chairman of the AES selection committee ．“What AES will offer is a more efficient algorithm ．It will be a federal standard ，but it will be widely implemented in the IT community ．”According to Roback ，efficiency of the proposed algorithms is measured by how fast they can encrypt and decrypt information ，how fast they can present an encryption key and how much information they can encrypt ．The AES review committee is also looking at how much space the algorithm takes up on a chip and how much memory it requires ．Roback says the selection of a more efficient AES will also result in cost savings and better use of resources ．“DES was designed for hardware implementations ，and we are now living in a world of much more efficient software ，and we have learned an awful lot about the design of algorithms ，”says Roback ．“When you start multiplying this with the billions of implementations done daily ，the saving on overhead on the networks will be enormous ．”……山东建筑大学毕业设计（或毕业论文，二选一）外文文献及译文- 2 -准，以确保政府的信息安全。
家具设计中英文对照外文翻译文献
家具设计中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Researches and Development of InteractiveEducational Toys for ChildrenAbstract: For Oriented by the teaching philosophy "game based learning", this paper carried out an in-depth research on the interactive mode of children's educational toys. In the research process, it attempted to build a new immersed educational-game scenario for children by using the new interactive technology so as to inspire the children's interest in learning and exploration. The research object in this paper was an interactive educational toy-"funny tap" English learning machine for children. After integrating the design concept of this product from an industrial designperspective, we selected specific interactive technology and completed the engineering. Moreover, we have conducted tests of work principles and effect of usage based on the sample machine. The final result indicated that there is a promising and huge market potential to apply the new interactive technology to development of educational toys.Keywords: Interactive Educational Toys, Interactive Design, interactive mode1.INTRODUCTIONSince 1980s, human beings including the children have entered a digital age. Under the influence of the advanced information, early stage education machines, electronic building blocks, electronic wall charts, and other new toys have become children's new favorites. With the influence of the west teaching philosophy-"game based learning", parents are strongly agreed with such toys for children. These modern educational toys will become the mainstream of toy development due to their promotion of children's learning, practical ability, creativity and imagination.Interaction exists in all things contacted by humans, and interactive design emerged to design a kind of communication and dialogue between human and objects to minimize the "cognitive conflict". As a new design theory, interactive design has a wide range of applications in designing educational toys.2. THE PLAN AND BENEFITS OF THE INTERACTIVE MODE OFCHILDREN 'S TOYSThe rise of various digital technologies, such as voice recognition, 3D video, and virtual reality technology etc., gives new experience to people's perception. The author aimed to apply these new digital technologies to the researches of interactive educational toys design.The plan of the interactive mode of children's educational toys:2.1. Voice InteractionVoice interaction voice includes touch voice interaction, voice command interaction and intelligent voice interaction. Touch voice interaction and voice command interaction have been very common, such as electronic wall charts, televox;intelligent voice interaction is the author's aim to create a genuine dialogue between children and simulation toys through digital technology, to foster children's language ability, particularly in a family with only one child, the children need a "partner" to accompany them to learn and play with.2.2. Video InteractionVideo interaction can be divided into 2D image interaction and 3D video interaction. The former has been broadly used in toys, such as in multimedia courseware, image or video of horse will appear when referring to "horse"; 3D video interaction is the author's aim to apply 3D projection technology in the "play" process, for instance, when referring to a green grassland, a grassland projection will appear so that children feel like being on the grassland, which enhances children's learning experience; meanwhile, this enhanced emotional experience will prolong the memory retention time or even extend to a ultra- long-term memory.2.3. Narrative InteractionNarrative interaction is to conceive a story for the toy and offer a task role for children to make them participate in the story. The steps are shown in Figure 1:Fig. 1. The steps of narrative interactionBased on children's curiosity and imitation psychology as well as the investigation of the games, the author found the correct application of story interaction in educational toys can greatly mobilize children's learning enthusiasm, for example, we conceive an English learning process as treasure hunt activity. In this activity, the words are hidden in the treasure box, and children themselves are explorers, if they put one or a few words together, they will get a treasure box, and they can also make a competition with peers to get the treasure boxes. Through establishment of game theme, selection of roles, and plot development in the activities, children not only increase their knowledge of English, also learn how to get along with peers and develop good self-awareness.2.4. Web Virtual Reality InteractionWeb virtual reality interaction is virtual imaging through network connections, making you feel like your partners sitting, playing and learning with you, to deliberatethe loneliness in the contemporary families, and promote children's learning initiative in the competitive context.Psychological research shows that with respect to the learners, the learning behavior resulting in emotional pleasure experience will produce a positive emotional resonance, thereby enhancing the learners' learning initiative and enthusiasm. The realistic educational-game scenario created by interactive educational toys for children not only brings emotional pleasure experience to children so that learning is no longer boring for them with a purpose of mobilizing the enthusiasm of study and developing creative thinking, but also enhances children's social communication ability to help children establish good social character favorable for their life.3. DEVELOPMENT OF INTERACTIVE EDUCATIONAL TOY—"FUNNYTAP"Parents are head-ached on children's learning English, so we focus on developing an interactive English learning toy to help the children remembering words in game scenario and stimulate their interests in learning English, and training children's hand operation and brain coordination.The development practice procedure of interactive toy for children-"funny tap" is shown in Figure 2 as following:Fig. 2. The development practice procedure of "funny tap"3.1. The development process of interactive concept of interactive educational toy-"funny tap"It is the development process of "funny tap" interactive concept. After investigating the object group of children and parents about their needs of English learning machine, we summarized six key indicators such as security, fun and incentive. Here we mainly describe three models of interactions shaded in Figure 3.To meet the requirement of fun, the author designed a narrative interactive process, as is shown in Figure 3:Fig. 3. The narrative interactive process of "funny tap"The word learning process is conceived as a game of whack-a-mole, imagining there are N mole holes, and there are M letters in a word (i.e. M moles with a letter). If you tap down M jumping moles in accordance with the order, you will get the cheers, if the tap is not correct, it will continue to call "come on"; meanwhile, the action of "tap" is not only funny, but also effective to train children's hands and brain coordination.Voice interaction was prepared by the microcontroller program to control the voice modules. There are two features regarding the "funny pat": one is word pronunciation; the other is the design of the applause and cheering voices for reward and punishment, which help to reach the goal of incentive.In the first stage, video interaction was prepared by displaying the letters on buttons through LED dot matrix character display modules mainly controlled by microcontroller; in the second stage, we provided toy with 3D projector for projecting the whole process in the air to construct a 3D emotional scenario, and the action of "tap" is to tap the projections in the air.3.2. Principle diagram of interactive educational toy for children-"funny tap" The operation principle of "funny tap" is shown in Figure 4:Fig. 4. The operation principle of "funny tap"The system consists of six components, such as voice module, LED indicator, action back module, MCU, power module and LED dot matrix character display module. Among these, the three formers are connected with MCU through 8-bit data bus; LED dot matrix character display module is connected with the microcontroller through the 12C bus. Voice module stores English word pronunciation documents needed in the game, and MCU pronounces the word by controlling the voice module via the bus. LED dot matrix character display module consists of driver chips and the 8*8 LED matrix. MCU bus control LED dot matrix character display module via I2C to show the corresponding English letters. Action back module tests and captures the player's actions during the game for the MCU to judge whether the player conducts normal actions to control the game process.3.3. Appearance design process of interactive educational toy-"funny tap"The following Figure 5 is a design process from sketch, modelling, model-making to the final product and the drawing of the product structure explosion.Fig. 5. Appearance design process of "funny tap"3.4. Interaction testSample of N (N is an odd number) preschool children was randomly selected to test the product's availability, usability and user's willingness of using it. Mainly onsite testing observation and questionnaire survey, and then we improve the product according to the test results.Testing times are equal to or more than I so as to find the products with highest interaction. In the product final trial, most of parents fed back that this toy combined fun and knowledge well and the whole learning process was very smooth and the children were very happy when "learning".4. SUMMARY AND PROSPECTChina is a large country of toy manufacturing, but it still remains in the stage of imitating foreign design, especially in educational toy design. The research and practice of interactive educational toys in this study is expected to give some thought and inspiration to toy designers so as to further promote the development of Chinese toy industry.REFERENCES[I] Liu Zaihua, Children's Social Intelligence, Anhui People's Publishing House, 2008.[2] KARL T. ULRICH, STEVEN D. EPPINGER, Product Design and Developmen,Higher Education Press, 2005.[3] (U.S.) Robert J. stembeg, Translated by Yang Bingjun, Chen Yan, Chow Zhiling,Cognitive Psychology, Beijing: China Light Industry Press, 2006.[4] Zhang Zhcnzhong, Li Yanjun, Classification Research of Educational Toys,Textiles and Design, December 2008 Vol. 12.[5] Li Qiaodan, Xia Hongwen, On the Function of Digitized Bran-training Toys inElementary Education, China Education Informationalization Issuing Department.[6] Song Jun, Researches on Design Principles of Children's Educational Toys,[Online]. Available: [7] Liu Mingliang, " The Principle Production and Purchasing of Electronic Toys", New Era Press, 1992.Toy development and design based on the needs of olderpersonsAbstract:In china, aging and the life-quality of older persons has become today’s important issues of social concern, and how to solve this problem thus turns to be an important challenge in the design and development of supplies for the old. Now, the ensuing ways to solve varied. For instance, the design community has put emphasis on the design and development of the supplies for the old, but a large part of these de signs were for medical care and medical products of the senior person. The designsfor the vast majority of the healthy people in their senior age are rarely involved. In this, I think, for the function of toys, the emphasis on the development of physical and mental health of older persons is the key, so to rethink the development of toys for the old persons in china is one of the ways.Keywords: Toys for the old, Needs design, humane careMentions of the toys, we always unconsciously think of the innocent children, as if toys are just child’s belongings. With the improvement of living standards, emphasis on the toys is constantly improved. To meet the needs of children, various designs are brought out, and then from luxury goods, toys have gradually become the child’s necessities. However, the authorities of the china toy association state that the toy is no longer the children’s only product: toy concept has been extended and functional and practical range of modern toy has been further expanded. Toys not only inspire children, but also become the recreation products for the seniors. The old also need toys that could meet their spiritual needs and enrich their life in later years.1．Status of the development and design of toys for the seniorsIn china, toy for the old is still an industry to be developed. Senior people, as customers, they have needs and also purchasing power, but no targeted toys for them. There are as much as 130 million seniors in china who would be a huge consumer group, but the research and development of toys for old consumers has lagged behind developed country for more than 30 years.In America, the toys designed for the senior amount to 40% of the toy market. The toy market for old persons is more mature. They have many toy stores for the seniors throughout the urban and rural areas. Also our neighbor Japan does well in the development of toys for the old persons, and most toy companies have produced toys for seniors, and continued to introduce new products.2．The meaning of the development of toys for the seniorsRetiring from work, the senior people get more time than before. Besides watching TV at home, they have no many alternative entertainments. Some old people have been for a long period in loneliness. Over time, they are prone todepression, anxiety disorder and Alzheimer’s, seriously affecting their physical and mental health and become burden to children and society.Li guangqing in department of rehabilitation of Beijing Xuanwu Hospital once said: “with age increasing, the function of the body of the seniors gradually degraded, and their reaction will be clumsier. At the same time, retirement from work, the opportunity for the old to use their brain reduces, which further brings the decline of attention and cognitive ability. Except to maintain good habits and moderate exercise, to slow down brain aging, putting hands and brain in work at the same time is the most effective way, which is exactly the function of toys. for people with Alzheimer’s, playing with toys, to some extent, would alleviate the condition.Therefore, toys can develop people’s thinking ability, and improve our intelligence. If the seniors play with toys constantly, the aging of the brain and the Alzheimer’s would be effectively prevented. Medical experts found that to maintain old people’s intelligence, we must first fully protect the brain. In addition to proper nutrition and adequate sleep, the seniors should make most of the brain. Just as Chinese saying tells that”water does not rot, and the door hinge is never worm-eaten “, the more one use his brain, the more sensitive it becomes. Playing with toys is exactly a good way to use the brain. With toys, the old people not only receive more information, at the same time become more optimistic than before, thereby enhancing their immune system function.3．The needs-analysis of toys for the oldWhat is a needs analysis? This approach is to focus on the users’ needs. Users’needs are sources of many new products.What is the demand-design? it is the most front-end process for new product in its life cycle, and decides the success or failure of the new products. Needs-design starts from the businesses and designers’judgment of the market or the needs of users, and ends at planning proposals or technical specifications on description of the product development. Understand the market or user demand is a high-level investment for the success of the product.The development and design of toys for old persons should start from the needs ofthe seniors. Only a real understanding of the old consumers and their psychological and physiological needs can bring toys that give practical cares for the seniors physically and spiritually.Toys for the old should bring human care. Toy design process should be integrated into this concept. The aim of the toy design for the old is enhanced, with seniors-centered design principles, and with the help of analysis on the seniors’physiological psychological characteristics, cultural level and lifestyle. The toy design principle that shows humane care for the seniors is reflected at the same time.(1)Safety firstTo varying degrees, the judgment, cognitive ability and ability to respond of the old people weaken, thus in the process of using the product, they inevitably make mistakes. In case a threat to physical and mental health occurs, they usually are unable to escape the danger. Therefore, toys for the seniors should be fault-tolerant. So that, the old people even make a mistake, there will be no danger. Here the reduction of operation process and the set of message for safe operation is an effective way to ensure the safety of the seniors with toys.(2)Moderate difficultThe design of toys for the old should be of moderate difficulty, and the purpose is to arouse their interest in playing. If too simple, it would not enhance the interest of the seniors and thus would not achieve the aim of exercising the brain; if too difficult, it would be strenuous for them to learn, and consequently cause a sense of failure which is not conducive to their mental health.(3)Easy to identifyThe toy should have a familiar form and an understandable functional theory for the old. It should also be equipped with an interface in keeping with the experience and habits of the seniors. Besides, the toys that need interface design, should take into account the graphic symbols, size, color, clarity of sound, light intensity.(4)Facilitate communicationPeople’s feelings need to vent and exchange, especially for the seniors. For them, emotional communication is indispensable to maintain their vitality, andimprove the quality of life. Playing with toys, there are many ways for the old to choose, such as: taking turns to participate, working together and racing in the game. The development of multiple-persons playing toys is to create a harmonious environment in which they can talk when play. So the core of toy-development is to involve the participants as much as possible. For the participating ways, common collaborative participatory approach is the best, which is more conducive to conversation, and get to know some new friends. In this way the seniors can expand their social circle with emotional exchange.(5)The effect for keeping fitness and developing intelligenceIncreasing with age, people’s organ recession becomes an objective physiological phenomenon. In order to maintain good physical function and mental state, and improve the quality of life, fitness puzzle is a very important content in the lives of older persons. Body-building that can achieve with playing toys is the most basic needs of older persons. Old people by playing intellectual toys can effectively prevent Alzheimer’s disease, so to maintain the flexibility of the seniors’mind is the main direction of the toy development.(6)Cultural connotationsLife experiences bring the old people with more comprehensive concept of life, thus toys with a certain ideological and cultural depth usually put them in recollecting and thinking of issues. Toys for the seniors are different from those for children: a child plays a toy intuitively, while the old emphasize the toy’s inherent fun, and show great interest in the toys with cultural connotations. Of course, this culture must be familiar with the elderly, has gone deep into the ideological deep.Summing up, toys for the seniors have a promising market, for each one of us would inevitably become old. The design industry should make more efforts to improve the living standard of the seniors. One way is to develop toys for the old and help them improve their life quality with theses design. We all know, care for the old is to care for all mankind, and designing from the needs of the old has become an urgent task of today’s society.References：[1]Yang Guanghui. China’s Population Aging and the Industrial Structure [m].Liaoning Science and Technology Press, 2008.7.[2] Wang Lianhai. Chinese Toys, Art History [m], Hunan Fine Arts Publishing House, 2006.8.[3] Wang court. Toys And Innovative Design [m], Chemical Industry Press, 2005.12.儿童家具的人性化设计摘要：本文以儿童家具设计问题为出发点,提出人性化的概念在新的时代环境下的新解释,并指出新的人性化设计原则在儿童家具的设计方法中的实现,分析儿童家具的现状,并提出一些建议。
施工组织设计外文文献翻译中英文.docx
外文文献翻译(含：英文原文及中文译文)文献出处：Nuclear Instruments & Methods in Physics Research, 2015, 3(2):281-294.英文原文Importance of construction organization designG BaeckerAbstractDuring the construction process of a construction project, the advantages and disadvantages of the construction organization scheme not only directly affect the quality of the project, but also have an important impact on the duration and the safety of the personnel during the construction process. The construction organization is an important technical and economic document for the project construction and guidance of project construction. Can adjust the contradiction of personnel, machinery, raw materials, environment, process, equq)ment9 civil construction, installation, management, production, etc. in construction. It is necessary to supervise and control the construction organization design so as to ensure the project quality with high quality, low cost, and lessEnergy consumption is conpleted.Key words: Project Management, Construction Organization, Program ImportanceConstruction organization design is the conception and specific arrangement of the entire construction process of the engineering construction project. It is the core and soul of the construction organization management work. Its purpose is to make the project faster, better quality, and more efficient. Make the whole project get relatively optimal results in the construction.1.The reason for the importance of the design of construction organizationThe construction project and its construction have three characteristics: fixed and fluidity, diversity and individuality, large body and long construction period. Therefore, the construction of each construction project must be carried out. This is because: The production of other general industrial products has its own fixed, long-term factory. The construction of the building is fluid, and it is impossible to establish such a factory. It is only when each construction project is constructed that a corresponding, temporary construction site preparation like thenature of the plant is employed・The unique features of construction and the characteristics of construction mobility determine that each construction project must select the appropriate equipment and labor organization. The selection of construction methods, the formulation of construction technology plans, and the organization of workforces and implements are collectively referred to as construction work capacity allocation. The characteristics of the construction cycle have determined that the supply of various labors, equq)ment and many materials and materials technologies will take a long time・ This will result in the construction and design of materials and technologies that are compatible with the overall construction schedule・From this we can see that construction organization design is very important in project management.2.The importance of construction organization designAs a product, building products play an extremely important role in project management throughout the construction process. The construction organization of the engineering construction project has a close relationship with its engineering cost. The basic contents of the construction organization design include:project overview and construction condition analysis, construction plan, construction process, construction schedule plan, and general plan of construction. There are also economic analysis and construction preparation work plans. Among them, the determination of the construction plan and construction process is more important. For examp le, the selection of construction machinery, the selection of horizontal transportation methods, the construction methods of the earthwork, the construction methods of the main structure and the selection of the construction technology all directly affect the project budget. The price changes・ Under the premise of guaranteeing project quality and satisfying the owners use requirements and construction period requirements, optimizing the construction plan and construction process is an important measure and method to control investment and reduce construction project cost2.1The construction organization plan affects the quality of the project to a great extent. Therefore, a reasonable project organization plan is not only the basis for ensuring the successful completion of the project, but also the basis for project safety. The construction organization design is an important part of theconstruction engineering design documents・ It is the main basis for prq)aring the project investment budget and the main reference for the preparation of bidding documents・ Therefore, careful construction of the construction organization will have a very important role in determining the project cost and reducing the investment in the project, which will help control the construction cost.2.2The construction organization plan is an important means for scientific management of construction activities. It has the dual role of strategic deployment and tactical arrangements・ It embodies the requirements for realizing the basic construction plan and design, provides the contents of the construction preparation work in each phase, and coordinates the mutual relations between each construction work area, each construction work type, and each voluntary work in the construction process. The construction organization plan must be able to determine the basic combination of various factors of production based on the characteristics and requirements of the engineering product and the current and possible winning construction conditions. It is impossible to carry out any production without effectively solvingthe problem・・3.Index calculation and analysis of construction organizationdesignAt present, what indicators should be established in the construction organization design are not uniform and the calculation method is not standardized・ As it is a yardstick for evaluating the overall effect of construction organization design and evaluation of implementation status, it is also the basis for examining the level and effect of production, operation and management of the unit (project department) that undertakes construction. We should pay attention to the following suggestions ・3. 1 indicator system. The index system should be set up to reflect the level reached by the construction organization's design goals and provide convenience for evaluation, assessment, and implementation.3. 2 Index calculations・(1) Construction preparation period. From the start of site preparation to the full time of formal project start-up. (2) Unit project duration. The construction period arranged by the unit construction schedule・(3) Labor。
英文论文(外文文献)翻译成中文的格式与方法
英文论文（外文文献）翻译成中文的格式与方法英文论文（外文文献）翻译成中文的格式与方法本文关键词：外文，英文，中文，翻译成，文献英文论文（外文文献）翻译成中文的格式与方法本文简介：在撰写毕业设计（论文）或科研论文时，需要参考一些相关外文文献，了解国外的最新研究进展，这就需要我们找到最新最具代表性的外文文献，进行翻译整理，以备论文写作时参考，外文文献中英文文献占绝大多数，因此英文论文准确的翻译成中文就显得尤为重要！一、外文文献从哪里下载1、从知网国际文献总库中找英文论文（外文文献）翻译成中文的格式与方法本文内容：在撰写毕业设计（论文）或科研论文时，需要参考一些相关外文文献，了解国外的最新研究进展，这就需要我们找到最新最具代表性的外文文献，进行翻译整理，以备论文写作时参考，外文文献中英文文献占绝大多数，因此英文论文准确的翻译成中文就显得尤为重要！一、外文文献从哪里下载1、从知网国际文献总库中找，该数据库中包含14,000多家国外出版社的文献，囊括所有专业的英文文献资料。
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外文文献
英文文献资料外文文献一：Food safety: the shocking truth about the food industrySource: Author: Marion Nestle、Refrigeration technology, pasteurization, pesticides, disease control, these technologies so that safe food into the 20th century, public health's greatest achievements. This book view is that food safety problems also depend on politics. September 2001 events to dispel this view of the doubts about aviation aircraft used by terrorists as a destruction of weapons to civilians and public figures have anthrax spores sent folder of letters, the consequences of these events shows, food, water can easily become a a tool for terrorists, it has also become the federal government for food safety control problem.This chapter will sum up this book referred to in the various food safety problems. Some of them threatened to keep animals healthy, very few will lead to a number of human diseases. Even so, these issues impact on human well-being is deep; large-scale destruction of breeding animals, affecting the livelihood of many people, limiting personal freedom. The 20th century, 90's and early 21st century, an outbreak of mad cow disease and foot and mouth disease Although this is only because of errors caused by the production process, but still brings a lot of destructive. In contrast, bio-terrorism is the deliberate use of biological and chemical substances to achieve their political objectives. For food safety issues,Bio-terrorism extends food safety issues and political outreach; deliberate destruction, excluding any consequences of innocent injury.In this chapter, we will discuss how the rise of bio-terrorism, food safety issues and extend the extension of food safety issues. In the United States, food safety, usually refers to the family food supply reliability. E-mail from the anthrax incident, the food safety issues, also includes safety from biological terrorism. Our discussion will be the beginning of some zoonotic diseases: such as mad cow disease, foot and mouth disease, anthrax. In recent years, these zoonotic diseases harmful to humans is relatively small. Today, for these zoonotic diseases, we are concerned that they may give rise to disease, destruction of food supply system,To become a tool for bio-terrorism aspect. This chapter summarizes the discussion of this book, fromsociety and from a personal point of view what action should be taken to face these issues, as well as food safety issues present and future.The political animal diseasesOne of the consequences of globalization is that of food cross-border long-distance rapid transit, affecting food supply all kinds of disease can easily spread from one country to another country. Animal diseases have a commercial impact, if a country has come to infectious diseases of animals, other countries will refuse to import the kinds of animal meat. The impact of business at the same time there are political consequences.Britain's mad cow disease and foot and mouth disease occurred as a result of beef in the production process caused by mismanagement, compared to the U.S. anthrax letters is a result of vandalism. However, this three kinds of threatening to cause great panic, they are difficult to detect control, can cause severe disease. Moreover, these three kinds of threats against people for the food supply, as well as confidence in the Government.Mad cow is the mid-20th century, 90 of the most popular of a food security crisis, the epidemic is mainly limited to the United Kingdom. With regard to BSE-related issues and our discussion, mainly because of political issues and scientific issues intertwined Among them, public confidence had a great impact. For example, the British Government in the BSE crisis in the practice is also considered to result in distrust of genetically modified food one of the reasons. The beginning of the 20th century, 80 years, no one had heard of the disease, but in 1999, this disease affects at least 175,000 British cattle. The consequences are very serious: 400 million head of livestock were slaughtered, the loss of 70 billion U.S. dollars,Spread to 18 countries worldwide national boycott of British beef. By 2001 only, although "only" 120 people died of the human variant of mad cow disease, it is estimated the death toll will reach 10 million people. Because mad cow disease revealed the modern politics of food safety issues, it is worth detailing.英文文献中文翻译06013618 胡冬敏外文翻译一：作者：玛丽恩·内斯特尔出版时间：2004年11月食品安全：令人震惊的食品行业真相（美）玛丽恩·内斯特尔冷藏技术，巴氏消毒，杀虫剂，疾病控制，这些技术使安全食品成为20世纪公众健康最伟大的成就之一。
世界贸易和国际贸易外文文献及中文翻译
世界贸易和国际贸易外文文献及中文翻译World Trade and International TradeIn today’s complex economic world, neither individuals nor nations areself-sufficient. Nations have utilized different economic resources; people have developed different skills. This is the foundation of world trade and economic activity. As a result of this trade and activity, internationalfinance and banking have evolved.For example, the United States is a major consumer of coffee, yet it does not have the climate to grow any or its own. Consequently, the United States must import coffee from countries (such as Brazil, Colombia and Guatemala)that grow coffee efficiently. On the other hand, the United States has large industrial plants capable of producing a variety of goods, such as chemicals and airplanes, which can be sold to nations that need them. If nations traded item for item, such as one automobile for 10,000 bags of coffee, foreign trade would be extremely cumbersome and restrictive. So instead of batter, which is trade of goods without an exchange of money, the United State receives moneyin payment for what it sells. It pays for Brazilian coffee with dollars, which Brazil can then use to buy wool from Australia, which in turn can buy textiles Great Britain, which can then buy tobacco from the United State.Foreign trade, the exchange of goods between nations, takes place for many reasons. The first, as mentioned above is that no nation has all of the commodities that it needs. Raw materials are scattered around the world. Large deposits of copper are mined in Peru and Zaire, diamonds are mined in South Africa and petroleum is recovered in the Middle East. Countries that do not have these resources within their own boundaries must buy from countries that export them.Foreign trade also occurs because a country often does not have enough ofa particular item to meet its needs. Although the United States is a major producer of sugar, it consumes more than it can produce internally and thus must import sugar.Third, one nation can sell some items at a lower cost than other countries. Japan has been able to export large quantities of radios and television sets because it can produce them more efficiently than other countries. It is cheaper for the United States to buy these from Japan than to produce themdomestically. According to economic theory, Japan should produce and export those items from which it derives a comparative advantage. It should also buy and import what it needs from those countries that have a comparative advantage in the desired items.Finally, foreign trade takes place because of innovation or style. Even though the United States produces more automobiles than any other country, it still imports large numbers of autos from Germany, Japan and Sweden, primarily because there is a market for them in the United States.For most nations, exports and imports are the most important international activity. When nations export more than they import, they are said to have a favorable balance of trade. When they import more than they export, an unfavorable balance of trade exists. Nations try to maintain a favorable balance of trade, which assures them of the means to buy necessaryimports.International trade is the exchange ofgoods and services produced in one country for goods and services produced in another country. There are several reasons for it.The distribution lf natural resources around the world is somewhat haphazard: some nations possess natural deposits in excess of their own requirements while other nations have none. For example, Britain has large reserves of coal but lacks many minerals such as nickel, copper, aluminum etc, whereas the Arab states have vast oil deposits but little else. In the cultivation of natural products climates whereas others, such as citrus fruits, require a Mediterranean climate. Moreover, some nations are unable to produce sufficient of a particular product to satisfy a large home demand, for example, Britain and wheat. These are the reasons why international trade first began.With the development of manufacturing and technology, there arose another incentive for nations to exchange their products. It was found that it made economic sense for a nation to specialize in certain activities and produce those goods for which it had the most advantages, and to exchange those goods for the products of other nations which and advantages in different fields.This trade is based on the principle of comparative advantage.The theory of comparative advantage, also called the comparative cost theory, was developed by David Ricardo, and other economists in the nineteenth century. It points out that trade between countries can be profitable for all,even if one of the countries can produce every commodity more cheaply. As long as there are minor, relative differences in the efficiency of producing a commodity even the poof country can have a comparative advantage in producing it. The paradox is best illustrated by this traditional example: the best lawyer in town is also the best typist in town. Since this lawyer cannotafford to give up precious time from legal and typing matters. But thetypist’s comparative disadvantage is least in typing. Therefore, the typist has a relative comparative advantage in typing.This principle is the basis of specialization into trades and occupations. At the same time, complete specialization may never occur even when it is economically advantageous. For strategic or domestic reasons, a country may continue to produce goods for which it does not have an advantage. Thebenefits lf specialization may also be affecting by transport costs: goods and raw materials have to be transported around the world and the cost of the transport narrows the limits between which it will prove profitable to trade. Another impediment to the free flow of goods between nations is the possible introduction of artificial barriers to trade, such as tariffs or quotas.In addition to visible trade, which involves the import and export lf goods and merchandise, there is also invisible trade, which involves the exchange of services between nations.Nations such as Greece and Norway have large marine fleets and provide transportation service. This is a kind of invisible trade. When an exporter arranges shipment, he rents space in the cargo compartment or a ship.The prudent exporter purchases insurance for his cargo’s voyage. While at sea, a cargo is vulnerable to many dangers. Thus, insurance is another service in which some nations specialize. Great Britain, becauseof the development of Lloyd’s of L ondon, is a leading exporter of this service, earning fees for insuring other nations’ foreign trade.Some nations possess little in the way of exporter commodities or manufactured goods, but they have a mild and sunny climate. During the winter, the Bahamas attract large numbers of countries, who spend money for hotel accommodations, meals, taxis, and so on. Tourism, therefore, is another form of invisible trade.Invisible trade can be as important to some nations as the export of raw materials or commodities is to other. In both cases, the nations as the export of raw materials or commodities is to other. In both cases, the nations earn money to buy necessities.International trade today little resembles European commerce as it existed between the 16th century and the 19th century. Trade in earlier times was conducted largely between a mother country and its colonies. It was conducted according to strict mercantilist principles. The colonies were supposed to supply the mother country with raw materials, and they were expected to buyall finished goods from the mother country. Other forms of trade were forbidden to the colonies, but many of them evaded these restrictions.A result of the Industrial Revolution, which began in England in the 18th century, was the transformation of trade from a colonial exchange into a many sided international institution. Cottage industries gave way to mass production in factories. Railroads and steamships lowered the cost of transportation at the same time that new markets were being sought for the expanding output of goods.The Industrial Revolution also brought an end to mercantilist policies. The laissez-faire attitudes that emerged in their stead permitted businessmen to manufacture what they pleased and to trade freely with other nations. Trade was also stimulated by the growth of banking facilities, insurance companies, and improved commercial shipping and communications.The repeal of the Corn Laws by Great Britain in 1846 ended Britain’s longstanding policy of protectionism. During the 19th century, many European nations made commercial agreements with each other easing their tariff rates. Lower tariffs and the growth of population and industry caused trade to soarin the 19th century.In the 20th century two world wars and a major depression caused severe disturbances in international trade. Nations, sensing a threat to their domestic economies, sought to protect themselves from further disturbances by erecting various barriers to trade.The situation became even worse after Great Britain abandoned the gold standard. The nations that were closely related to Britain, including most of the members of the Commonwealth of gold standard. As the means of makinginternational payments broke down and trade restrictions increased, some countries had to resort to barter to obtain foreign goods.International trade was in such severe straits during the depression that a World Economic Conference was held in 1933. This conference, however, was unable to halt a rash of currency devaluations, tariff increases, and quota arrangements.In 1934, U.S. Secretary of State Cordell Hull persuaded Congress to pass the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act. This law authorized the President to negotiate tariff cuts with other nations. The Reciprocal Trade Act providedfor protection of U.S. industries in the event foreign imports increased to such a degree that U.S. businesses were injured. This protection includedperil point and escape clauses under which tariff cuts could by refused of rescinded if a U.S. industry suffered economic hardship. Despite the protectionist clauses in the act, U.S. tariffs were substantially reduced.Shortly before the end of World War Ⅱ, members of the United Nations met at Bratton Woods, N.H. to discuss ways of reducing the financial barriers to international trade. The International Monetary Fund was established as a result of the conference. The fund was designed to encourage the growth of international trade by stabilizing currencies and their rate of foreign exchange.In the early postwar period, more than 20 nations met in Geneva, Switzerland, to negotiate tariff reductions. When any two nations reached an agreement to reduce tariffs on a product, the benefits were extended to all participating nations. This was an application of the so-called most favored nation clause.The Geneva tariff agreements were written into the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). GATT also established standards for the conduct of international trade. Fox example, the agreement prohibits nations from placing quotas of limits on imports, except under very special circumstances.After World War Ⅱ a number of free trade areas were formed to solve trade problems on a regional basis. Tariffs on goods moving within these areas were to be abolished. Some of the groups also erected a single tariff on the goods of outsiders coming into their common area. Such groups are called customs unions. The goal of all trade blocs was to merge small political units intolarge geographic entities in which goods could be freely manufactured and sold.A large market area greatly stimulates economic growth and prosperity. These trade blocs are: Benelux, The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), the European Economic Community (EEC or Common Market), the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECOM), the Latin American Free Trade Association (LAFTA), the Central American Common Market (CACM), the Caribbean Free Trade Area (CARIFTA), the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM).世界贸易和国际贸易在当今复杂的经济世界个人和国家都不是自给自足。
论文必备中英文献数据库大全
论文必备——中英文献数据库大全终身受用，写论文需要的参考文献都在这里了！一、中文数据库中国最大的数据库，内容较全。
收录了5000多种中文期刊，1994年以来的数百万篇文章，并且目前正以每天数千篇的速度进行更新。
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文献收录1989年以来的全文。
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二、外文全文站点(所有外文数据库世界上第二大免费数据库（最大的免费数据库没有生物学、农业方面的文献），该网站提供部分文献的免费检索，和所用文献的超级链接，免费文献在左边标有FREE.Elsevier Science是荷兰一家全球著名的学术期刊出版商，每年出版大量的农业和生物科学、化学和化工、临床医学、生命科学、计算机科学、地球科学、工程、能源和技术、环境科学、材料科学、航空航天、天文学、物理、数学、经济、商业、管理、社会科学、艺术和人文科学类的学术图书和期刊，目前电子期刊总数已超过1 200多种（其中生物医学期刊499种），其中的大部分期刊都是SCI、EI等国际公认的权威大型检索数据库收录的各个学科的核心学术期刊。
Wiley InterScience是John Wiely & Sons 公司创建的动态在线内容服务，1997年开始在网上开通。
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其中被SCI收录的核心期刊近200种。
(注册一个用户名密码，下次直接用注册的用户名密码进去，不用代理照样能看文章全文，Willey注册一个，就可以免费使用CP了，那可是绝对好的Protocols )施普林格出版集团年出新书2000多种，期刊500多种，其中400多种期刊有电子版。
毕业设计论文外文文献翻译计算机科学与技术微软VisualStudio中英文对照
外文文献翻译（2012届）学生姓名学号********专业班级计算机科学与技术08-5班指导教师微软Visual Studio1微软Visual StudioVisual Studio 是微软公司推出的开发环境，Visual Studio可以用来创建Windows平台下的Windows应用程序和网络应用程序，也可以用来创建网络服务、智能设备应用程序和Office 插件。
Visual Studio是一个来自微软的集成开发环境IDE（inteqrated development environment），它可以用来开发由微软视窗，视窗手机，Windows CE、.NET框架、.NET精简框架和微软的Silverlight支持的控制台和图形用户界面的应用程序以及Windows窗体应用程序，网站，Web应用程序和网络服务中的本地代码连同托管代码。
Visual Studio包含一个由智能感知和代码重构支持的代码编辑器。
集成的调试工作既作为一个源代码级调试器又可以作为一台机器级调试器。
其他内置工具包括一个窗体设计的GUI应用程序，网页设计师，类设计师，数据库架构设计师。
它有几乎各个层面的插件增强功能，包括增加对支持源代码控制系统（如Subversion和Visual SourceSafe）并添加新的工具集设计和可视化编辑器，如特定于域的语言或用于其他方面的软件开发生命周期的工具（例如Team Foundation Server的客户端：团队资源管理器）。
Visual Studio支持不同的编程语言的服务方式的语言，它允许代码编辑器和调试器（在不同程度上）支持几乎所有的编程语言，提供了一个语言特定服务的存在。
内置的语言中包括C/C + +中（通过Visual C++）,（通过Visual ），C＃中（通过Visual C＃）和F＃（作为Visual Studio 2010），为支持其他语言，如M,Python,和Ruby等，可通过安装单独的语言服务。
地铁与城市发展外文文献翻译中英文最新
外文文献翻译原文及译文标题：地铁与城市发展外文翻译2019文献出处：Marco Navarro, Matthew Turner. Journal of Urban Economics, Volume 108, November 2018, Pages 85-106译文字数：4500 多字英文Subways and urban growth: Evidence from earthMarco Navarro，Matthew TurnerAbstractWe investigate the relationship between the extent of a city’s subway network, its population and its spatial configuration. For the 632 largest cities in the world we construct panel data describing population, measures of centralization calculated from lights at night data, and the extent of each of the 138 subway systems in these cities. These data indicate that large cities are more likely to have subways but that subways have an economically insignificant effect on urban population growth. Our data also indicate that subways cause cities to decentralize, although the effect is smaller than previously documented effects of highways on decentralization. For a subset of subway cities we observe panel data describing subway and bus ridership. For those cities we find that a 10% increase in subway extent causes about a 6% increase in subway ridership and has no effect on bus ridership.Keywords：Subways，Public transit，Urban growth，Urban decentralization1. IntroductionWe investigate the relationship between the extent of a city’s subway network and its population, transit ridership and spatialconfiguration. To accomplish this investigation, for the 632 largest cities in the world we construct panel data describing population, total light, measures of centralization calculated from lights at night data, and the extent of each of the 138 subway systems in these cities. For a subset of these subway cities we also assemble panel data describing bus and subway ridership.These data suggest the following conclusions. First, while large cities are more likely to have subways, subways have a precisely estimated near zero effect on urban population growth. Second, subways cause cities to decentralize, although this effect appears to be small relative to the decentralization caused by radial highways. Third, a 10% increase in subway extent leads to about a 6% increase in subway ridership and does not affect bus ridership. A back of the envelope calculation suggests that only a small fraction of ridership increases can be accounted for by decentralized commuters. Together with the fact that little new ridership can be attributed to population growth, this suggests that most new ridership derives from substitution from other modes of travel towards subways.Subway construction and expansion projects range from merely expensive to truly breathtaking. Among the 16 subway systems examined by Baum-Snow and Kahn (2005), construction costs range from about 25 million to 550 million USD2005 per km. On the basis of the mid-point ofthis range, 287 million per km, construction costs for the current stock are about 3 trillion dollars. These costs are high enough that subway projects generally require large subsidies. To justify these subsidies, proponents often assert the ability of a subway system to encourage urban growth.1 Our data allow the first estimates of the relationship between subways and urban growth. That subways appear to have almost zero effect on urban growth suggests that the evaluation of prospective subway projects should rely less on the ability of subways to promote growth and more on the demand for mobility. Our data also allow the first panel data estimates of the impact of changes in system extent on ridership and therefore also make an important contribution to such evaluations.Understanding the effect of subways on cities is also important to policy makers interested in the process of urbanization in the developing world. Over the coming decades, we expect an enormous migration of rural population towards major urban areas, and with it demands for urban infrastructure that exceed the ability of local and national governments to supply it. In order to assess trade-offs between different types of infrastructure in these cities, understanding the implications of each for welfare is clearly important. Since people move to more attractive places and away from less attractive ones (broadly defined), our investigation of the relationship between subways and population growth will help to inform these decisions. In particular, if the objective ofpolicymakers is to increase a city’s population or to decentralize economic activity, highways seem more promising. On the other hand, in a related companion paper, Gendron-Carrier et al. (2017)show that if the objective is to reduce pollution, then subways can be effective.Finally, an active academic literature investigates the effect of transportation infrastructure on the growth and configuration of cities. In spite of their prominence in policy debates, subways have so far escaped the attention of this literature. This primarily reflects the relative rarity of subways. Most cities have roads so a single country can provide a large enough sample to analyze the effects of roads on cities. Subways are too rare for this. A statistical analysis of the effect of subways on cities requires data from, at least, several countries. An important contribution of this paper is to assemble data that describe all of the world’s subway networks. In addition, with few exceptions, the current literature on the effects of infrastructure is static or considers panel data that is too short to investigate the dynamics of infrastructure’s effects on cities. Because our panel spans the 60 year period from 1950 until 2010, we are able to investigate such dynamic responses to the provision of subways.To estimate the causal effects of subways on urban growth and urban form, we must grapple with the fact that subway systems and stations are not constructed at random times and places. This suggests two potential threats to causal identification. The first could occur if subwayexpansions systematically take place at times when a city’s population growth is slower (or faster) than average. For example, if construction crews leave the city when new subway expansions are complete or if subway expansions tend to occur when some constraint on a city’s growth begins to bind. The second results from omitted variables. For example, suppose that cities expand their bus networks in years when they do not expand their subway networks and that bus and subway networks contribute equally to population growth. Then any regression of population growth on subway growth that omits a measure of the bus network will be biased downward. Briefly, we address the problem of confounding dynamics by showing that the null population growth result is invariant to using first differences, instrumented first differences, second differences and dynamic panel data models. The instrument we propose takes advantage of the fact that larger subway systems grow more slowly and this allows us to predict subway growth using long lags of subway system size. We address the omitted variables issue by showing that the null effect of subways on population is not masking heterogenous effects by measures such as congestion, road supply, bus supply, institutional quality, city size, or size of network, among others.2. Literature2.1. SubwaysWith a few exceptions that we describe below, the literature thatanalyzes the effects of subways on cities consists entirely of analyses of a single city. Nevertheless, this literature is large and we here focus our attention on the small set of papers which attempt to resolve the problem of non-random assignment of subways. More complete surveys are available in Billings (2011) and Gibbons and Machin (2005).Gibbons and Machin (2005) examine housing prices in London during the periods 1997–1999 and 2000–2001, periods that bracket two expansions of the London underground. Gibbons and Machin (2005) calculate various difference-in-differences estimates of the effect of these transit expansions on housing prices and find that moving one km away from a subway station decreases house values by about 2% for the first two km, and about zero thereafter. Billings (2011) conducts a similar exercise for a new light rail line in Charlotte, North Carolina.2 Like Gibbons and Machin (2005), Billings (2011) estimates the effect of subways on housing prices using a difference-in-differences estimator. Despite differences in milieu and method, Billings (2011) arrives at estimates quite close to those of Gibbons and Machin (2005): single family houses within 1.6km of the transit line see their prices increase by about 4% while condominiums see their prices rise by about 11%. Like Gibbons and Machin (2005), Billings (2011) observes that changes result from subway construction over the course of just a few years.Each of these papers makes a credible attempt to overcome the fact that subway systems are not located randomly within cities. However, neither provides us with much information about the relationship between subways and city-level growth. If subways affect the growth of cities, then they may affect it everywhere, both near and far from a station. By construction, a differences-in-differences methodology cannot measure such citywide effects. Therefore, while the existing literature makes some progress on the problem of non-random assignment of subways to places, it does so at a high cost. The difference-in-differences methodology cannot tell us about the effect of changes in the overall level of activity within a city. Unless we are specifically interested in reorganizing economic activity across neighborhoods within a city, it is changes in the overall level which are of primary policy interest and which are the object of our investigation.Finally, in an important contribution Ahlfeldt et al. (2015) estimate a structural model of how a subway network can restructure a city, rather than just whether subways attract development. Given this, it is closest in spirit to our decentralization exercise. With this said, Ahlfeldt et al. (2015) use time series variation from just one city, so their ability to investigate the effect of subways on urban growth relies heavily on the assumptions underlying their model.There are few studies considering cross city or panel data on transitand city level outcomes. Pang (2017) and Gendron- Carrier et al. (2017) are rare exceptions. Pang (2017) uses US data to investigate the effect of public transit on employment rates for low- skilled workers, and finds that low skilled workers are more likely to be employed as their access to subways improves. Gendron- Carrier et al. (2017) is a companion paper to this one, and uses an event study methodology to investigate the relationship between airborne particulates and subway system opening. In a sample of about 40 cities all over the world, it finds that subway openings cause economically important reductions in pollution.Apart from these two, the only studies to investigate the effects of subways on city level outcomes are primarily or completely interested in ridership.4 On the basis of a single cross-section of about 50 cities, Gordon and Willson (1984) conduct a city level regression to predict riders per mile of track as a function of city population density and country level per capita gdp. They find that these two variables are excellent predictors of ridership - the relationship being positive and negative, respectively. Finally, Baum-Snow and Kahn (2005) provide evidence from 16 US cities for a similar relationship between density and transit use, although their small sample size limits the precision of their results. They also show that ridership shares in catchment areas for new stations attain almost the same level as in the catchment areas of oldstations over their 30 year study period. Consistent with the finding in Gordon and Willson (1984) that ridership decreases with income and increases with density, Baum-Snow and Kahn (2005) find that most US transit expansions have only small effects on ridership, a conclusion echoed in Gomez-Ibanez (1996) for time series data on the use of Boston’s transit system. Our results on the relationship between subway extent and ridership are the first to exploit city level panel data. Barnes (2005) provides evidence from a few cities in the US that people are more likely to take transit for trips to a central business district than for trips to other locations.2.2. Other infrastructureRedding and Turner (2015) survey the literature relating roads and highways to urban growth. This literature has developed rapidly over the past several years and suggests the following conclusions.First, Duranton and Turner (2012) find that the stock of highways in a city contributes to the growth in city population in the us between 1980 and 2000. This effect is small in an absolute sense, though it is economically important as a share of the total growth rate. Using a similar research design, Garcia-López et al. (2015)finds that highways cause about the same rate of population growth in Spanish cities.5Second, that radial highways can have dramatic effects on the internal structure of cities. Baum-Snow (2007) investigates the effect ofradial highways on population decentralization for a sample of large US cities between 1950 and 1990. He finds that, over the whole 40 year course of his study period, a single radial highway causes about a 9% decrease in central city population. This large decentralizing effect of highways is confirmed for China by Baum-Snow et al. (2017) and for Spain by Garcia-López (2012).Finally, Duranton and Turner (2011) and Hsu and Zhang (2014) find that vehicle kilometers traveled increase about proportionately to increases in the extent a city’s road network, and that increases to non- commute driving appear to be the most important contributor to this increase. All of these responses, decentralization, growth and driving, can be detected over a 5–20 year time horizon, much shorter than our 60 year study period.In contrast, we find that the effects of subways on urban growth are tiny. We find a much larger effect of subways on the configuration of cities. The effect of subways on ridership is large, though probably smaller than the effect of roads on driving. Finally, we will present indirect evidence to suggest that only a small fraction of the increase in ridership reflects decentralized commuters. More likely, commuters shift their mode of transportation towards subways.3. Results vs. theoryAnticipating our results, our data indicate that marginal changes to acity’s subway network have the following effects. First, subways have approximately zero effect on a city’s population. Second, subways cause cities to decentralize in a way that is qualitatively similar to the way that roads cause cities to decentralize. Third, the cities in our sample grow at about 2% per year. In addition, from Gendron-Carrier et al. (2017), we know that subway openings cause reductions in air pollution that have an estimated value that is of about the same order of magnitude as construction costs (though the effects of expansions are probably smaller). Finally, what evidence we have on the matter, e.g., Baum-Snow and Kahn (2005), suggests that subways are very expensive to build and that fare revenue does not fully cover operating costs.This model is deliberately stylized and so welfare interpretations should be regarded with care. In particular, the model omits the possibility that people consume more space as transportation costs fall. This is surely valuable, but statements about residential density are beyond the reach of our data and so we omit this margin of adjustment from our model.In addition, this simple model is based on the assumption that improvements to the subway network reduce transportation costs everywhere. In fact, as we will show, subways overwhelmingly serve central cities. Since mode transfers are costly, one can therefore imagine that subways could reduce the cost of commuting within their centralservice area, while leaving commute costs from more remote locations more or less unchanged. In this case, changes to the subway system would not affect the condition determining the edge of the city. Relative to the model articulated above, such a model has the advantage of greater realism and of predicting widely observed increases in land rent in subway catchment areas. With this said, the same basic intuition holds. In order for population to remain constant with increases in subways, we require that the increased tax burden offset improvements in local wages or amenities.中文地铁与城市发展：来自全球的证据马可·纳瓦罗，马修·特纳摘要我们研究了城市地铁网络的范围，人口与空间配置之间的关系。
场地管理现场管理外文文献翻译中英文最新
外文文献翻译原文及译文标题：场地管理现场管理外文翻译中英文文献出处：Kazuhisa Kuba, Christopher Monz, Bård-Jørgen Bårdsen, Vera Helene Hausner[J].Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism, Volume 22,June 2018, Pages 1-8译文字数：8700 多字英文Role of site management in influencing visitor use along trails in multiple alpineprotected areas in NorwayKazuhisa Kuba, Christopher Monz,etcAbstractSite-level management such as the construction of parking lots, formal trails and other visitor facilities is a common means of confining visitor use in protected areas. The effectiveness of site management, in terms of providing visitor access while limiting impacts, has not been broadly evaluated in parks in the Nordic regions given the tradition of open access and the prevalence of multiple entry points. Moreover, in Norwegian parks, visitor facilities are often provided by the Norwegian Trekking Association, which is the country's largest outdoor organization, and have originally been designed for public access to recreation rather than to meet management objectives in protected areas. In this study, we explored whether formal trails tend to focus visitor use by assessing observable indicators of visitor use along 64 formal trails (417.3 km) and 234 informal trails (66.9 km). The assessment was conducted across a vast geographic area consisting of 11 protected areas in the Alpine North Environmental Zone in Norway. We found that Norwegian protected areas generally have low level of observable visitor use along informal trails. In comparisons, importance of site management was statistically evident only for the presence of trash, as facilities such as marked trails and parking lots were negatively related to amount of trash along associated informal trails. There was also a trend of less use along informal trails depending on the degree of site management present in the parks.Keywords: Protected areas, Visitor monitoring, Study design, Line transect sampling, Scandinavia1. IntroductionRecreation and tourism use in protected areas continues to increase in many locations worldwide (Balmford et al., 2015, Cordell, 2008). Although the degree of ecological impact caused by visitor use is dependent on many factors such asecosystem type, use intensity, timing of use, and type of visitor activity (Hammitt et al., 2018, Pickering, 2010), understanding the spatial distribution of visitor use has been receiving increased attention in the literature recently (e.g., Monz, Cole, Leung, & Marion., 2010; D’Antonio and Monz, 2016). This increased focus on the spatial aspects of use is due to the importance in understanding use characteristics at a range of spatial scales and in managing the overall area affected by recreation in many protected areas (Cole, 2004, Monz and Leung, 2006).The assessment of informal trails created by visitors is often used as an indicator of off-trail hiking behavior. Understanding the physical characteristics of informal trails, which can often form extensive networks, provides information on the spatial extent of human activities in parks and other protected areas (Hagen et al., 2012, Leung et al., 2011, Marion et al., 2006, Monz et al., 2010, Monz et al., 2012, Walden-Schreiner and Leung, 2013, Wimpey and Marion, 2011). However, as trails could also be created by livestock and wildlife, knowledge about the visitor use of informal trails is crucial for managing protected areas. This is particularly the case in Norway where sheep and reindeer grazing are prevalent (Austrheim, Solberg, & Mysterud, 2011) and the public right of access or Allemannsretten, grants locals and tourists alike rights to access and move freely on all open lands either public or private (Anononmous, 1957). In addition to hiking and camping, Allemannsrettenalso allows for traditional activities such as harvesting berries, mushrooms, herbs or other plants, and the preferred locations of these activities may not always be served by the formal trail system (Hammitt, Kaltenborn, Emmelin, & Teigland, 2013; Kaltenborn, Haaland, & Sandell, 2001; Gundersen, Mehmetoglu, Vistad, & Andersen, 2015). Increased visitor use of informal trails in remote areas could increase access to vulnerable sites, disturb wildlife and their habitats, spread weeds and non-native species, and fragment landscapes (Bradford and McIntyre, 2007, Hagen et al., 2012, Leung and Marion, 2000, Manning et al., 2006, Pickering, 2010, Wimpey and Marion, 2011). For example, the protected area networks in southern Norway support the last remaining populations of wild reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) in Europe and increased visitor use has been associated with changes in their condition and spatialdistribution (Gundersen et al., 2015, Gundersen et al., 2013, Strand et al., 2014). Resource subsidies (i.e., food) brought by visitor use may further favor generalist predators or scavengers on behalf on the native wildlife species such as ground nesting birds and Arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus, e.g., Hagen et al., 2012; Newsome et al., 2015). Therefore the dispersion of visitor use along the trails and around visitor facilities needs to be monitored and managed.Limiting access by area wide or individual track restrictions, is a management strategy rarely applied in Norwegian protected areas (Engen et al., 2018, Gundersen et al., 2015). Visitors often enter from multiple locations without registering or paying fees regardless of whether facilities are available (Hausner, Engen, Bludd, & Yoccoz, 2017). Site management is therefore a preferred management strategy, with the use of physical infrastructure and visitor facilities becoming more common (Gundersen et al., 2015). Site level management has been widely used to manage human impacts in sensitive ecosystems by limiting spatial extent of visitor use (Yale, 1991, Hall and McArthur, 1993, Curthoys, 1998, Kuo, 2002, Hammitt et al., 2018). Park facilities such as formal trails, boardwalks, and designated sites often serve the dual objective of providing visitor amenities and access while protecting park resources. The utility and appropriateness of designating trails and providing facilities is dependent on the context, with factors such as desired objectives, visitation levels, and activity types influencing specific designs and applications (Marion & Reid, 2007). Regardless, appropriate management of gateways and trails concentrates visitor use and influences the formation of destinations and travel routes in parks, often referred to as the node and linkage patterns (Manning, 1979, Monz et al., 2010). Particularly, formal trails can protect resources by concentrating visitor use impacts, and are regarded as one of the most important park facilities in protected areas (Hill and Pickering, 2009, Marion and Leung, 2001, Marion and Leung, 2004). While the absence of visitor facilities may remain the best strategy from a visitor experience perspective in some protected areas, controlling the spatial distribution of visitor use by site level management (e.g., concentrating visitor use impacts on maintained formal trails) is generally considered desirable for protected areas with increasing visitation levels (Leung and Marion,1999, Marion and Leung, 2004, Park et al., 2008, Wimpey and Marion, 2011).Managers and scientists need to monitor and assess visitor use impacts on ecosystems at larger spatial scales (e.g., potentially across several protected areas) to understand the dynamics of visitor use impacts at the ecosystem level (Fancy et al., 2009, Monz et al., 2010). Also, many protected area agencies are currently not able to conduct visitor monitoring sufficiently due to limited financial and human resources (Buckley, 2003, Hadwen et al., 2007). In Norway, visitor monitoring has been limited, but a new national park branding and visitor management strategy is currently being implemented, that expects all national parks to have a plan for visitor monitoring in place by 2020 (Higham et al., 2016). The new visitor management strategy strives to increase local value creation through attracting visitors to Norwegian national parks by providing good visitor experiences, while strengthening the protection of park qualities by improved visitor management (Norwegian Environmental Agency, 2015).A broad scale approach using a sampling of observable indicators can provide a cost effective method to document visitor use distribution on park level and could be useful for implementing this new visitor management strategy.Given this background, we designed this study to better understand visitor use and associated impacts along formal and informal trails in eleven Norwegian protected areas. In these locations, actual counts of visitors are difficult to obtain due to many of the aforementioned issues. We therefore relied on assessing the occurrence and location of physical evidence of visitors as indicators of use. This objective was particularly challenging given the lack of formal access points in many locations, so our study relied on a sampling strategy of likely access locations and indirect, observable measures of visitor use. Specifically, the study addressed the following research questions:•What are the primary observable indicators of visitor use in Norwegian Protected areas?•Using observable indicators of visitor use, how does use vary on formal trails and informal trails?•Does the level of park infrastructure affect the frequency of occurrence anddistribution of observable indicators of use?2. Methods2.1. Study area and park selectionApproximately 17% of mainland Norway is protected by 37 national parks (10%), 202 protected landscapes (4.5%), and other types of protected areas (2.5%) under the Nature Diversity Act (Statistics Norway, 2014). Many of the protected areas are located in the Alpine North Environmental Zone, a region derived from a stratification of Europe based on climate, geomorphology, geology and soil characteristics. The Alpine North covers mountains and uplands in Scandinavia, and is dominated by arctic, arctic-alpine and dwarf shrub tundra, and various forest types (Jongman et al., 2006, Metzger et al., 2005).We included a large number of parks in effort to contrast the levels of park management, that is, some parks are highly managed with formal trails and other infrastructure, while others have little management presence and infrastructure. The selection criteria were that the park: (1) should be alpine and situated within the Alpine North Environmental Zone; (2) must have been established earlier than 2003; and (3) needs to have a management plan, so that information about the management is available for analysis. We also included two protected areas that did not have management plans (Stabbursdalen NP and Øvre Dividal NP) in Northern Norway to ensure a wide geographic gradient, which covers a distance of over 1200 km from south to north. One park (Stabbursdalen NP) was later excluded due to logistical difficulties. We sampled five national parks (NP) and six protected landscapes (PL) during the summer visitor season, from late June to early September.2.2. Selection of sampling locationsWe first identified entry points on topographical maps (1:50,000 scale) for trails leading into the parks. A circular arc was drawn from the road access point to 5, 7.5 or 10 km radius, depending on the size and shape of the protected area. A sufficient number of circular arcs were randomly selected until the arcs represented approximately 10% of the total area in each protected area. All formal and informal trails located in these circular arcs were sampled.2.3. Line transect samplingIn order to reasonably sample such a large geographic area, we employed a rapid assessment approach by sampling observable indicators of visitor use along formal and informal trails. We defined informal trails as those trails that branched out from formal trails, which had enough width for one person to walk and had some exposed mineral soil, and did not appear on the topographical map. Livestock, visitors, or traditional local use could have created some of these informal trails, and many existed before the protected areas were designated. We expected visitors to use maps to select trails for entering the park, and we accordingly defined these as formal trails. We defined off-trail hiking as visitors departing from these formal trails exploring the existing network of informal trails or potentially creating new ones. Our method could not distinguish tourists from local visitors, who are more familiar with the sites and may tend to hike off trails more often than park visitors (Gundersen et al., 2015), but we could assess whether site management would channel the majority of people to the formal trails to reduce ecological impacts.Line transect sampling (e.g., Bårdsen & Fox, 2006) was performed along formal trails by recording observable indicators of visitor use. Since our main interest was to analyze off-trail hiking (i.e. dispersion of visitor use) we sampled both the formal-and the informal trails. Higher visitor use on informal trails relative to formal trails indicated higher degree of dispersion in our study. Using each trail as a long line transect, we walked on the center of the trail in a slow pace looking to both sides and recorded all observable indicators of visitor use— firepits, trash, damaged trees, visitor sites, trampled vegetation and the presence of existing recreation activity (tent, boat, etc.). The transect distance from the starting point was recorded every 100 m by using a recreation-grade Garmin Colorado 400GPS device (Garmin Corporation, Olathe, KS, USA). We recorded the distance from the trails to all observable visitor use within each of these 100 m until we reached 5, 7.5 or 10 km. In addition, at 500 m intervals we used perpendicular transects 20 m long to assess the effective width of the formal trails for the detection and distribution of observable indicators of visitor use. To increase sampling efficiency over a broad scale, we included a stop rule at500 m for informal trails. As much as 70% of the informal trails ended before 500 m, which indicates that our sampling length was reasonable for our purposes. Six field staff working between late June and early September conducted the field survey.2.4. Site level managementCabins operated by the Norwegian Trekking Association (“Den Norske Turistforening, DNT”), formal parking lots and formal trails were identified by using available topographical and park maps. We hypothesized that visitors, who use visitor facilities such as tourist cabins would largely confine their use to formal trails, while others, who are not channelized by such facilities would disperse more into informal trails. Accordingly, visitor impacts would be higher on informal trails in areas without facilities. Sufficient data on visitor numbers in each entry point was lacking in most parks, but visitor numbers to DNT and other tourist cabins, were typically available, but represented only a proportion of total use. Additionally, the proportion of impacts on informal trails relative to formal trails reflected the dispersal in the park relative to visitor facilities (e.g. if there was no net dispersal in the park depending on visitor facilities, then there would be a constant relationship between observable impact on informal and formal trails).2.5. Statistical analyses2.5.1. Trail levelAll statistical analyses were performed in R (ver. 2.15.1; R Development Core Team, 2012). The synthetic variable called “occurrence rate” was calculated by dividing the number of observed visitor traces (i.e., the occurrence of an indicator of visitor use) by total length of the trails sampled, and represented an index of observed visitor traces (i.e. observed visitor traces per unit of length for the trails) that was directly comparable across parks. We examined whether site management influenced occurrence rate of firepits, trash and the presence of recreation activity on informal trails using Generalized Linear Mixed Model (GLMM: Bolker et al., 2009; Zuur, Hilbe, & Leno, 2013).The data of observed visitor traces were treated as Poisson distribution using a log-link function. For presence of recreation activity and firepits, the numbers ofoccurrences were very low and we therefore used GLMM on presence/absence data assuming a binary distribution using a logit-link function. GLMMs were fitted using the glmer function in the lme4 package (Bates, Maechler, & Bolker, 2012). We examined the effects of formal trails on the number of occurrences of trash, fire pits and presence of recreational activity along informal trails. The occurrence rate of formal trails was included in the model to check if dispersion along informal trails was higher than expected by visitor use of formal trails. Visitor use of formal trails was the best proxy we could use in the absence of actual visitor numbers per trail, but we also included the number of visitors in cabins as covariates. Parks were treated as a random factor, and all mixed effects models in the present study were fitted with random intercepts only. We checked for multicolinearity among explanatory variables before analyzing the relationship between site management and visitor use/impact as this would jeopardize assumptions in GLMM.We selected models for inferences based on second-order Akaike's Information Criterion (AICc) from a set of a priori defined candidate models (e.g., Burnham & Anderson, 2002). We fitted models with a maximum likelihood (ML) when we compared models with different fixed effects to each other and we used Restricted Maximum Likelihood (REML) when we extracted estimates and their precision from the selected model (Zuur et al., 2013). Models were checked for constant variance of the residuals and presence of outliers.2.5.2. Park levelWe hypothesized that parks with a higher level of visitor facilities are more likely to concentrate visitor use along formal trails. We collected statistics for each park on numbers of tourist cabins, number of parking lots, and the length of formal trails divided by the park size. All the predictors were log10(x + 1) transformed where x denote each predictor of visitor impacts, namely density of trails, parking lots and cabins. We used partial least square regression (PLS) to analyze the relationship between park infrastructure and the visitor impacts (firepits, trash and presence of recreation activity). PLS regression has been found to be less sensitive to sample size issues than multiple regression, and is possible to use when there are few observationsand many, correlated predictors (Carrascal, Galván, & Gordo, 2009). It extends multiple regressions by analyzing the effects of the linear combination of predictors on the responses. Uncorrelated latent factors (PLS components) are extracted that maximise the explained variance of the dependent variables. We selected the number of PLS components by the increase in the root mean squared error of prediction (RMSEP). The significance of the variables for explaining the predictors were assessed using the Variable Importance for the Projection (VIP) that measures the importance of an explanatory variable for the building of the PLS components, where 0.8 is regarded as significant for the model (Eriksson, Johansson, Kettaneh-Wold, & Wold, 2001). The goodness of fit was evaluated by using the adjusted R2 which takes into account the number of predictors used in the model. We used the PLS package version 2.3–0 for PLS regression which includes standardization of variables prior to analysis (Mevik and Weherens, 2007).3. ResultsIn total, 64 formal trails (417.3 km) and 234 informal trails (66.9 km) were sampled in 11 parks. A typical entrance study site took three days to complete the assessment by a field crew of two. A total 2044 visitor traces were recorded and analyzed. More than half of the visitor use traces observed were occurrences of trash (total 1356). Despite an intensive sampling effort, observed visitor trace occurrences along the trails were relatively infrequent and 80.7% of occurrences were found within 3 m from the trail.3.1. Visitor use on the trail levelThe sample sizes of most observable indicators were too limited to model the relationship with site management. Trash was the only variable that had sufficient sample size to model the relationships at trail level, where the amount of trash along informal trails was a function of formal trails, visitor numbers, and parking areas. The presence of formal trails and parking lots predicted less trash along informal trails, and higher visitor numbers predicted more visitor use-related impacts on the informal trails. The among-park (random) effect was small relative to the intercept, so we calculated the Nagelkerke R2 without including the random effect (R2 = 0.44).3.2. Visitor use at the park levelAll the visitor impacts in the PLS models were insignificantly improved by using two instead of one PLS component (% increase in variance explained from one to two components was 0.8–2.7% for firepits, trash and recreation traces). We therefore retained only one component for all of the three impacts. The density of trails was the only significant variable explaining the distribution of firepits, trash and occurrence of recreation activity along informal trails on the park level (VIP > 0.8). Parks with a denser network of formal trails had relatively fewer impacts on the informal trails. The park-level model explained 67.3% of the variance in recreation traces, 50% of the firepits and 32.8% of the trash occurrences on informal trails. The estimate for trash on the park level was also highly uncertain and the 95% CI showed that the effect was not significantly different from zero. There were too few parks to explain the high variance of observable visitor impacts on informal trails.4. DiscussionOur analysis of the relative difference between visitor trace occurrences on formal versus informal trails suggested some support for the hypothesis that site level management tends to concentrate visitor use and impacts to formal trails. Overall, there were surprisingly few observable indicators of visitor use on both formal and informal trails in Norwegian parks, with trash representing more than half of all the traces recorded followed by fire pits. We only had sufficient data to statistically examine the occurrence of trash on informal trails, and we found that the presence of parking lots and marked trails resulted in lower amount of trash on informal trails relative to main paths.Our results were consistent with a few recent case studies indicating that the node-linkage pattern of visitor use (i.e., visitors confining their use to established routes) may be relevant also in Norway (Gundersen et al., 2013, Strand et al., 2014, Vorkinn, 2003). The effect of site management was evident for trash, as marked trails and parking lots significantly reduced amount of trash along informal trails, whereas increased visitor use (i.e. cabin visitor numbers and visitor traces alongformal trails) tended to increase the trash levels along informal trails in the parks. Themost comprehensive visitor monitoring program has been conducted in the Dovrefjell-Sunndalsfjella National Park using automatic counters, questionnaires, GPS tracking and field observation. The results show that 80–90% of the visitors in the park use formal trails and visitor infrastructure, which is promising with respect to the management objectives to channel visitor use away from sensitive areas and species such as the wild reindeer (Gundersen et al., 2013). Our study added to these findings by showing that these patterns were consistent also over broad scales and multiple protected areas.Due to the low number of park staff, Norwegian protected areas are unlikely to have the capacity to clean up trash along informal trails. There have been clean ups on formal trails in some parks, but no quantitative data is available (Sletten, Norwegian Environmental Agency, pers. comm). On informal trails, the occurrence of trash most likely reflected visitor use patterns along informal trails in the parks. In this regard, the results of our study indicated that visitor use along the sampled trails in the alpine protected areas is currently relatively low. In a study of resource conditions on backcountry campsites by Monz and Twardock (2010), the amount of trash present was a means of identifying the most impacted sites. The amount of trash co-varied with other visitor related impacts such as vegetation loss. Examining the occurrence of trash may be useful to understand visitor use and other visitor related impacts in the parks, but it is also important for visitor experience and for understanding ecological effects of anthropogenic food resources to generalist predators (e.g., Hamel, Killengreen, Henden, Yoccoz, & Ims, 2013; Newsome et al., 2015). Our focus in this study was on the trail level where we have controlled for park level variance, but the distribution of trash on a broader scale within parks is particularly important to capture landscape effects on wildlife and for managing the parks.Several authors refer to the effectiveness of site management strategies to manage visitor impacts on sensitive ecosystems (Yale, 1991, Hall and McArthur, 1993, Curthoys, 1998, Kuo, 2002). In protected area management, site management such as formal trails and other park facilities can minimize visitor impacts on ecosystems by concentrating visitor use (Kuo, 2002, Leung and Marion, 2000, Marionand Leung, 2001). Particularly, Leung and Marion (2000) point out that formal trails can reduce negative effects by visitors on ecosystems, such as trampling and soil erosion, by preventing potential proliferation of informal trails. The absence of such facilities may in some cases be the most desirable for “pristine areas” (Gundersen et al., 2015), but additional site level management might be needed to avoid dispersion to vulnerable sites in parks with increasing number of visitors (Hagen et al., 2012).One of the challenges in protected area management is to understand the relationship between local and visitor use. Farrell and Marion (2002) refer to the confounding problem of shared natural resources between local residents and visitors and point out that some impacts in the protected areas are attributed both to visitors and local residents. Also, Muhar, Arnberger, and Brandenburg (2002)mention that visitor traces such as the amount of trash left in the landscape are not only correlated to visitor numbers, but also to individual behavior and local traditions. For example Gundersen et al. (2013) found that tourists, local cabin owners and local users distribute differently in the landscape with locals moving off trail for harvest activities to a much larger extent. In the alpine areas in the Europe, traditional land use is usually an integral part of nature conservation policies and informal trails, local cabins, and fences are part of the cultural heritagein the parks (Plieninger et al., 2006, Speed et al., 2012). Grazing activities, particularly by sheep and reindeer, have been important for shaping the alpine landscape in Scandinavia, and many of these informal trails were created in the past (Austrheim et al., 2011, Speed et al., 2012). Studies on dispersion by visitors in the park could therefore not be limited to measures of informal trail proliferation, but also record the actual use along informal trails by recording physical evidence of use. Regarding the number of informal trails, there was a possibility that the parks with higher site management by coincidence had more livestock. It was also very challenging to distinguish traces created by park visitors from other physical traces, which might have been created by local people. Especially in Norway the many possible entry points into the parks and the lack of entrance registration makes it hard to use standard methods or estimate the relative importance of visitor and local use.。
文学作品中英文对照外文翻译文献
文学作品中英文对照外文翻译文献
本文旨在汇总文学作品中的英文和中文对照外文翻译文献，共有以下几篇：
1. 《傲慢与偏见》
翻译：英文原版名为“Pride and Prejudice”，中文版由钱钟书翻译。
该小说是英国作家简.奥斯汀的代表作之一，描绘了19世纪英国中上层社会的生活和爱情故事。
2. 《了不起的盖茨比》
翻译：英文原版名为“The Great Gatsby”，中文版由杨绛翻译。
小说主要讲述了一个居住在纽约长岛的年轻白领盖茨比为了追求他的旧爱黛西而付出的努力，是20世纪美国文学的经典之作。
3. 《麦田里的守望者》
翻译：英文原版名为“The Catcher in the Rye”，中文版由施蛰存翻译。
该小说主人公霍尔顿是美国现代文学中最为知名的反英雄形象之一，作品深刻地揭示了青少年内心的孤独和矛盾。
4. 《1984》
翻译：英文原版名为“1984”，中文版由李敬瑞翻译。
该小说是英国作家乔治.奥威尔的代表作之一，描绘了一个虚构的极权主义社会。
以上是部分文学作品的中英文对照外文翻译文献，可以帮助读者更好地理解和学习相关文学作品。
绿色供应链管理外文文献翻译中英文2020最新
绿色供应链管理的驱动力，实践和绩效外文文献翻译中英文本文档由凝脂烟霞独家提供（节选重点翻译）英文Green supply chain management drivers, practices and performance: Acomprehensive study on the moderatorsGuido Micheli，Enrico Cagno，Gianluca Mustillo，Andrea TrianniAbstractThe growing level of attention toward global warming, reduction of non-renewable resources and pollution calls manufacturing firms to implement sustainable, and specifically green initiatives into their supply chains (Green Supply Chain Management, GSCM). So far, too little studies have provided clear empirical evidence on the actual impact of these initiatives on firms’ performance, especially within the European manufacturing context, and on the actual impact of possible drivers on the implementation of the above-mentioned initiative. Thus, the aim of this study is to analyse possible moderation factors that affect the relationships between drivers-practices and practices-performance through a survey carried out in 169 Italian manufacturing firms belonging to a range of different sectors. The moderation analysis shows that some drivers strongly influence the relationships between drivers-practices andpractices-performance, and a few contributions from the existing literature are challenged and discussed. Our findings may be particularly interesting for managers and supply chain specialists, as well as for policymakers, who could be inspired by the role of particular drivers on the implementation of GSCM practices, and by the level of performance achievable thanks to the adoption of a set of green practices. As for the academic impact, the issue has been tackled for the first time in an attempt of a comprehensive view, which paves the way to a number of research lines to further investigate both the confirmed and unconfirmed moderations, so as to understand the related rationales in the comprehensive view proposed by the authors.Keywords：Green supply chain management，Driver，Practice，Performance，Moderator IntroductionSustainability in the operations, as a balance between the economic, environmental and social dimensions, has become more accepted knowledge as a crucial element for production and consumption (UN, 2019). Expanding sustainability understanding across the supply chain (SC) has been recognised not only as promising but also as an effective approach bringing innovation and practice into industrial operations (Silvestre and Tîrca, 2019; Jadhav et al., 2019; Taghikhah et al., 2019). This can be noted from recent research with customers and finalconsumers developing a growing environmental awareness pushing toward green products (Dubey et al., 2015a, Dubey et al., 2015b), while community and NGOs mobilize public opinion and the media in favour of or against a firm's environmental policies (Chien and Shih, 2007; Mathiyazhagan et al., 2015).With respect to the very crucial – and potentially even more crucial for the competitiveness and survival of companies and SCs – issue of the intersection between environmental and economic pillars for production and SCs (Sarkis and Zhu, 2018), green supply chain management (GSCM) has been acknowledged as an important business strategy to improve eco- sustainability, to respond to the already mentioned firm stakeholders' driver and to achieve corporate profit and market share objectives by reducing environmental risks and impacts (Zhu et al., 2008b). GSCM integrates environmental thinking (Srivastava, 2007) into SC management, ranging from product design (Kannan et al., 2014), material sourcing and selection (Govindan et al., 2013; Hashemi et al., 2015), manufacturing processes (Zhu and Geng, 2013), delivery of the final product (Sarkis, 2017) as well as end-of-life management of the product after its useful life (Cucchiella et al., 2015; Rehman and Shrivastava, 2011). A significant number of GSCM studies have focused their attention on the identification of key stakeholders’ drivers and their influence on GSCM initiatives adoption (Ahi and Searcy, 2013; Hassiniet al., 2012). Furthermore, in the literature, there is a number of contributions discussing whether the implementation of environmental SC practices leads to enhanced firm performance (for a recent review see, e.g., Tseng et al., 2019). Literature has also offered a variety of mathematical models and tools to address the sustainability issues in SC management, given the higher complexity involved (Bai and Sarkis, 2018; Sarkis et al., 2019).Nevertheless, so far there is too little consensus – mainly due to lack of empirical evidence – over the factors moderating relationships between drivers and practices, as well as between practices and performance, leading to vague and ambiguous conclusions. Indeed, the role of important moderators, such as, e.g., firm size, sector, in the relationships between pressures and GSCM practices and performance has received less attention from scholars, especially in regard to empirical investigations.Additionally, as recently observed by Koberg and Longoni (2019), who have analysed a rigorous systematic literature review of articles focused on sustainable supply chain management in global supply chains, there has been a growing interest on the topic starting from the seminal articles on sustainability in global supply chains (Gereffi et al., 2001; Humphrey and Schmitz, 2001). Nevertheless, the interest of those scholars seems to be more focused on the modes of sustainabilitygovernance, which attracted the interest of recent research as well (e.g., Bush et al., 2015). Then some authors, by taking inspiration from those pioneers, have highlighted that a silo perspective, when looking at green, lean and global value chains, impedes the scope needed to gain a holistic perspective over the topic, missing a strategic perspective (Mollenkopf et al., 2010).Yet, in order to improve the sustainability of the industrial sector, the interest of academia should equally be devoted to non-global value chains, in most cases characterised by local Small- and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs), since they may yield to additional insights (Morali and Searcy, 2013), and have been scarcely investigated (Aboelmaged and Hashem, 2019), with a few recent exceptions such as, e.g., UK manufacturing SMEs (Kumar et al., 2019). In fact, so far, no empirical studies have been conducted in this area in Italy, which represents the second-largest manufacturing European economy. Therefore, enhanced knowledge in this area could be beneficial also for industrial decision- makers and policy-makers aiming at fostering the transformation towards increased sustainability in the SC.Production strategyLooking at the moderation results of “Production strategy”, in firms adopting the ETO production approach, the effect of GSCM practices (GP, ECO, CC) on Environmental Performance and of IEM, GP, ECOand CC on Positive economic performance is higher. Thus, this research stimulates managers of ETO companies to implement GSCM practices at a higher level. Besides this improvement of both economic and environmental performance, this study shows that under an ETO strategy, the effects of ECO and GP on negative economic outcomes are the highest within all the strategies. If green purchasing does not show any correlation with negative economic performance in literature, the impact of eco-design on the financial budget is well known. Eco-Design requires significant initial capital investments (Zhu and Sarkis, 2007) and methodologies demanding further development and improvement (Green et al., 2012), but, at the same time, can result in cost reductions such as decreases in expenses for energy consumption (Zhu et al., 2013). Nevertheless, as this paper is one of the first exploratory studies specifically investigating the moderation role offered by the production strategy, further research is highly recommended.Manufacturing sector“Manufacturing sector” moderates both the relationships between drivers-practices and practices-performance. A specific manufacturing sector possesses its own characteristics and, for this reason, it is influenced in different ways by several drivers to implement, in its supply chain, certain green initiatives. Under high community pressure, textile enterprises show the greatest effect of the drivers on the practices'implementation. As depicted in Wu et al. (2012), who consider Taiwan's textile and apparel industry, communities strongly push this manufacturing sector to have a more corporate social responsibility (CSR) and to protect the environment from pollution. Under high regulatory pressure, the Petroleum sector undergoes higher GSCM implementation. Petrochemical firms are enterprises under the radar of regulatory entities due to their high level of pollution (Zhu et al., 2007a). This sector responds to the high pressure of regulations with the implementation of GP and ECO. Further, our findings look overall aligned with research conducted in French supply chains (Stekelorum et al., 2018), where the activity sector seems to affect the perception of internal barriers.ConclusionsRecently, the importance of GSCM has received considerable attention due to climate change issues, pollution and degradation of natural resources. Our research attempted to contribute to the discussion by investigating the role of several moderators in the relationships between GSCM drivers-practices and practices-performance within Italian manufacturing enterprises. Based on the elements emerged from this research, from a theoretical perspective, previous frameworks present in literature have been modified to account for the effect of several moderators affecting the aforementioned relationships. The main contribution of this work is the empirical exploration of the relationshipsbetween drivers-practices and practices-performance, which have shown mixed results in the literature or have just been formulated theoretically, by considering the effect of moderators in these relationships in a European manufacturing context, which so far has been almost neglected, yet being very significant at a worldwide level.In terms of results, the present research reveals that “Firm size”, “ISO 14001 certification”, “Past performance”, “Institutional requirement”, “Position of the firms within the supply chain”, “Production strategy”, “Organizational strategy”, “Trust, Colla boration and Information sharing between partners” and “Manufacturing sector” strongly influence the relationships between practices-performance and drivers-practices. As for the comparison against the extant literature, whilst in previous papers, internal environmental management was associated with a decrease in economic performance, our study has shown that smaller firms could achieve better economic performance from adopting internal environmental management. Moreover, an element of novelty of the present study is the improvement of the operational performance under higher competitive pressure, which resulted in statistically significant and quite original findings compared to previous research. Further, our findings interestingly note that practices such as information sharing and improved level of trust with partners may have a relevant role in improving environmental outcomes. Additionally, wenote a strong and significant relationship between intra-organizational environmental management and operational performance.In terms of impact, our findings may be particularly interesting for managers and supply chain specialists, as well as for policy makers, who could be inspired by the role of particular drivers on the implementation of GSCM practices, and by the level of performance achievable thanks to the adoption of a set of green practices. As for the academic impact, the issue has been tackled for the first time in an attempt of a comprehensive view, which paves the way to a number of research lines to further investigate both the confirmed and unconfirmed moderations, so as to understand the related rationales in the comprehensive view we proposed.In terms of limitations to this study, since data were collected from a single country (Italy), results might differ in other contexts, particularly when it comes to the institutional (regulatory) setting. Further, this study is based on the perception of respondents. Despite self-reported survey data are commonly used in literature to measure performance (thusmaking this study consistent with previous literature) we have not collected real economic data nor indexes. Therefore, this perception could exceed or underestimate the real performance achieved by the firm.In addition to the study limitations that naturally offer opportunities for further research, we want to conclude by sketching additional research directions. Firstly, we believe additional insights may come from theapplication of a similar approach in other industrial contexts, simultaneously testing all the possible hypotheses of moderation between drivers, GSCM practices and performance (instead of decoupling drivers- practices and practices-performance, as in this paper and the extant literature), together with the analysis of the adoption of GSCM practices (with drivers and performance) in production contexts with different environmental impact of single companies and supply chains. Secondly, as indicated by very recent research, the effect of additional moderators could prove interesting such as, e.g., the role of social control and environmental dynamism (Zhang et al., 2019), or that of supplier involvement (Chen et al., 2019). More generally, future study could more deeply delve into exploring the collaboration with supply chain partners (Tseng et al., 2019), given that a link between the implementation of GSCM practices and performance would be misleading without considering the specific position of a company in the SC, as revealed by our study and previous research (Cook et al., 2011). Similarly, by involving and leveraging on additional stakeholders such as, e.g., local communities, the diffusion of more sustainable SCM practices could be fostered (Golini et al., 2017). Further insights could also come by further exploring the moderating role of SC traceability in the relationships between GSCM and environmental performance that, so far, have brought results contrary to the expectations (Cousins et al., 2019). Thirdly,concerning the set of performance, further research could expand the set of indicators of sustainability by including the impact of GSCM practices also on social performance ones, as well as further exploring the connection between quality, lean and green practices for sustainable performance (Henao et al., 2019; Yu et al., 2019; Farias et al., 2019). Fourthly, further research could explore the relationship between GSCM and SSCM practices with SC dynamic capabilities. In this area, preliminary studies indicated a significant positive effect of SSCM practices on SC dynamic and innovative capabilities, and in turn a positive contribution to the three sustainability dimensions (Hong et al., 2018; Adebanjo et al., 2018), but more empirical research would be needed.中文绿色供应链管理的驱动力，实践和绩效摘要人们对全球变暖，减少不可再生资源和污染的关注日益增强，这要求制造企业在其供应链中实施可持续的，特别是绿色的举措（绿色供应链管理，GSCM）。
利用google实现最新外文文献免费全文下载更新版的
利用google实现最新外文文献免费全文下载
如果需要用谷歌来实现外文文献的查找，最好安装360极速浏览器，安装谷歌工具栏，和有安装迅雷下载，后面我会注明原因。
想要通过google实现最新外文文献免费全文下载，可以利用google来实现快速而有效的检索。
方法如下：
首先打开google的主页/
输入与你的课题相关的英文最好关键词最好一个
点开PDF
如果不安装迅雷，则无法显示黑色的六个，文档无法保存。
点击保存，即可下载
如果看不懂应为你可以下载个翻译
如果你的浏览器没有谷歌翻译，是可以设置的，具体操作方法
选项-高级设置
这样 英文页面就变成中文了
如果需要复制粘贴
可以下载adobe reader安装，就可以了
有些pdf可以转换成文字,有些pdf转化不成，如果转换不了，就别试了。
因为上传者有些是以文字上传的，有些是以图片格式上传的。
机械类外文文献翻译(中英文翻译)
机械类外文文献翻译(中英文翻译)英文原文Mechanical Design and Manufacturing ProcessesMechanical design is the application of science and technology to devise new or improved products for the purpose of satisfying human needs. It is a vast field of engineering technology which not only concerns itself with the original conception of the product in terms of its size, shape and construction details, but also considers the various factors involved in the manufacture, marketing and use of the product.People who perform the various functions of mechanical design are typically called designers, or design engineers. Mechanical design is basically a creative activity. However, in addition to being innovative, a design engineer must also have a solid background in the areas of mechanical drawing, kinematics, dynamics, materials engineering, strength of materials and manufacturing processes.As stated previously, the purpose of mechanical design is to produce a product which will serve a need for man. Inventions, discoveries and scientific knowledge by themselves do not necessarily benefit people; only if they are incorporated into a designed product will a benefit be derived. It should be recognized, therefore, that a human need must be identified before a particular product is designed.Mechanical design should be considered to be an opportunity to use innovative talents to envision a design of a product, to analyze the systemand then make sound judgments on how the product is to be manufactured. It is important to understand the fundamentals of engineering rather than memorize mere facts and equations. There are no facts or equations which alone can be used to provide all the correct decisions required to produce a good design.On the other hand, any calculations made must be done with the utmost care and precision. For example, if a decimal point is misplaced, an otherwise acceptable design may not function.Good designs require trying new ideas and being willing to take a certain amount of risk, knowing that if the new idea does not work the existing method can be reinstated. Thus a designer must have patience, since there is no assurance of success for the time and effort expended. Creating a completely new design generally requires that many old and well-established methods be thrust aside. This is not easy since many people cling to familiar ideas, techniques and attitudes. A design engineer should constantly search for ways to improve an existing product and must decide what old, proven concepts should be used and what new, untried ideas should be incorporated.New designs generally have "bugs" or unforeseen problems which must be worked out before the superior characteristics of the new designs can be enjoyed. Thus there is a chance for a superior product, but only at higher risk. It should be emphasized that, if a design does not warrant radical new methods, such methods should not be applied merely for the sake of change.During the beginning stages of design, creativity should be allowedto flourish without a great number of constraints. Even though many impractical ideas may arise, it is usually easy to eliminate them in the early stages of design before firm details are required by manufacturing. In this way, innovative ideas are not inhibited. Quite often, more than one design is developed, up to the point where they can be compared against each other. It is entirely possible that the design which is ultimately accepted will use ideas existing in one of the rejected designs that did not show as much overall promise.Psychologists frequently talk about trying to fit people to the machines they operate. It is essentially the responsibility of the design engineer to strive to fit machines to people. This is not an easy task, since there is really no average person for which certain operating dimensions and procedures are optimum.Another important point which should be recognized is that a design engineer must be able to communicate ideas to other people if they are to be incorporated. Communicating the design to others is the final, vital step in the design process. Undoubtedly many great designs, inventions, and creative works have been lost to mankind simply because the originators were unable or unwilling to explain their accomplishments to others. Presentation is a selling job. The engineer, when presenting a new solution to administrative, management, or supervisory persons, is attempting to sell or to prove to them that this solution is a better one. Unless this can be done successfully, the time and effort spent on obtaining the solution have been largely wasted.Basically, there are only three means of communication available tous. These are the written, the oral, and the graphical forms. Therefore the successful engineer will be technically competent and versatile in all three forms of communication. A technically competent person who lacks ability in any one of these forms is severely handicapped. If ability in all three forms is lacking, no one will ever know how competent that person is!The competent engineer should not be afraid of the possibility of not succeeding in a presentation. In fact, occasional failure should be expected because failure or criticism seems to accompany every really creative idea. There is a great deal to be learned from a failure, and the greatest gains are obtained by those willing to risk defeat. In the final analysis, the real failure would lie in deciding not to make the presentation at all. To communicate effectively, the following questions must be answered:(1) Does the design really serve a human need?(2) Will it be competitive with existing products of rival companies?(3) Is it economical to produce?(4) Can it be readily maintained?(5) Will it sell and make a profit?Only time will provide the true answers to the preceding questions, but the product should be designed, manufactured and marketed only with initial affirmative answers. The design engineer also must communicate the finalized design to manufacturing through the use of detail and assembly drawings.Quite often, a problem will occur during the manufacturing cycle [3].It may be that a change is required in the dimensioning or tolerancing of a part so that it can be more readily produced. This fails in the category of engineering changes which must be approved by the design engineer so that the product function will not be adversely affected. In other cases, a deficiency in the design may appear during assembly or testing just prior to shipping. These realities simply bear out the fact that design is a living process. There is always a better way to do it and the designer should constantly strive towards finding that better way.Designing starts with a need, real or imagined. Existing apparatus may need improvements in durability, efficiently, weight, speed, or cost. New apparatus may be needed to perform a function previously done by men, such as computation, assembly, or servicing. With the objective wholly or partly defined, the next step in design is the conception of mechanisms and their arrangements that will perform the needed functions.For this, freehand sketching is of great value, not only as a record of one's thoughts and as an aid in discussion with others, but particularly for communication with one's own mind, as a stimulant for creative ideas.When the general shape and a few dimensions of the several components become apparent, analysis can begin in earnest. The analysis will have as its objective satisfactory or superior performance, plus safety and durability with minimum weight, and a competitive east. Optimum proportions and dimensions will be sought for each critically loaded section, together with a balance between the strength of the several components. Materials and their treatment will be chosen. These important objectives can be attained only by analysis based upon the principles ofmechanics, such as those of statics for reaction forces and for the optimumutilization of friction; of dynamics for inertia, acceleration, and energy; of elasticity and strength of materials for stress。
列举查到的全中文文献10篇外文5篇
列举查到的全中文文献10篇外文5篇
（原创实用版）
目录
1.引言
2.中文文献综述
3.外文文献综述
4.结论
正文
【引言】
本文旨在对当前关于某个主题的研究进行综述，以期对该领域的发展提供一定的参考。
为此，我们查阅了大量的中文和外文文献，从中挑选出了具有代表性的文献进行分析。
【中文文献综述】
我们查阅了 10 篇全中文文献，发现这些文献主要从以下几个方面进行了探讨：（具体内容请自行填写）。
这些研究为我们提供了丰富的理论依据和实践经验，为我们深入了解该领域的发展提供了有力的支持。
【外文文献综述】
我们还查阅了 5 篇外文文献，发现这些文献主要从以下几个方面进行了探讨：（具体内容请自行填写）。
这些研究不仅丰富了我们的理论视野，还为我们了解国际上的研究动态和发展趋势提供了宝贵的资料。
【结论】
通过对这些文献的综述，我们可以看出，该领域的研究已经取得了丰硕的成果。
然而，同时也暴露出一些问题和不足，需要我们在今后的研究中加以改进和深入探讨。
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外文文献中文版担心战略的实施？不要忽视市场营销的作用摘要许多高层管理人员与学者认为有效战略的实施至少与发展一个卓越的战略同样重要或更加重要。
虽然存在一些关于成功实施战略的需要的观点，也许最具有影响力的观点是企业的成功需要一个合适的战略或组织架构。
组织架构涵括结构变量和能力。
在过去的十年里，我们已经研究了四个通用的商业战略营销的组织架构相匹配的性能影响：探索者、模仿者、低成本捍卫者、差异化捍卫者。
通过六个实证研究，我们已经确定了最佳实践这些策略类型之间的匹配因素：（1）营销组织文化；（2）营销策略；（3）市场策略的形成过程；（4）市场战略的组织行为；（5）营销组织结构；和（6）营销控制系统。
在本文中，我们结合这些研究，对营销行为和优异的公司业绩相关的政策提供了全面的概述。
关键词：经营策略；策略类型；战略实施；组织架构；市场营销1 寻找合适人选拉里·博西迪，联信公司和霍尼韦尔公司的前首席执行官，和拉姆·查兰，世界领先管理顾问之一，都曾表示：“策略经常失败是因为他们没有执行。
”应该发生的事情“没有发生”（博西迪和查兰，2002，第15页）。
当然，这里引出了一个问题：怎样确保正确的事情发生？这个适合战略实施的角度（Miles & Snow，1984）是组织架构的元素，例如，结构、系统和文化——鼓励并塑造做出使正确事情发生的行为，以及不同的策略需要不同的组织架构。
迈克尔•波特（1996年, 第73页）在此基础上进一步阐述：在许多活动之间，战略的协调性不仅是竞争的基本优势，还是持续性的优势。
它是对手难以匹配的联锁活动的阵列，而不是仅仅是模仿一个特定的销售力的方法，与之相匹配的是工艺技术，或复制一套产品的特点。
我们一直遵循沃克和Rueker（1987年，第15页）的观点：“鉴于特定类型的战略，什么样的市场结构、政策、程序和方案有可能区别于那些来自相对较少有效的高性能业务单位呢？”沃克和Ruekert集中营销组织架构，这是因为在战略的形成与实施中具有核心作用，比如市场分析、目标市场的选择、识别顾客的需求、引导发展有意义的产品、价格的设定、和客户关系管理。
在过去的10年时间里，我们已经研究了营销组织架构，与之联系的性能优越四个不同类型的战略元素：探索者、模仿者、低成本捍卫者、差异化捍卫者。
具体而言，我们已经审查了所作出的贡献：（1）营销组织文化（Slater, Olson, & Finnegan, 2008）；（2）市场策略(Slater & Olson, 2000, 2001; Slater, Hult, & Olson, 2007)；（3）市场策略的形成(Slater, Olson, & Hult, 2006)；（4）市场战略的组织行为(Olson, Slater, & Hult, 2005; Slater, Hult, & Olson, in press)；（5）营销组织架构(Olson et al., 2005)；（6）营销控制系统(Olson & Slater, 2002)。
沃克和Ruekert（1987）也表示：卓越的盈利能力的途径是不同类型的企业通常或多或少强调不同的中间目标。
例如，其中的一个管理团队相信，通过客户满意度的实施可以达到卓越的盈利能力；而其他的管理团队可能认为，低成本的定位、新产品的成功或快速循环时间是盈利的最好领先指标。
因此，我们后来对于优越的业绩的充分解释是其在当时的环境下是否符合或者超过目标。
基于发表文章的研究成果，对于高绩效企业的营销组织架构我们能够提供完整全面的解释。
本次论文能够为高管在寻求竞争优势中提供一个目标。
2 经营策略在我们开始讨论策略实施之前,我们必须奠定经营策略实际上是什么。
经营策略是反映在决定该业务取得竞争优势的模式上的。
经营策略的两个主要框架是迈尔斯和斯诺（1978）模型，其范围专注于主动行为；和波特(1980)模型,其重点在竞争优势(即分化和低成本)上。
在这些模型的基础上，我们组合成以下四个策略类型作为我们的基础研究:探索者、分析者、低成本捍卫者、差异化捍卫者。
2.1 探索者作为探索者，公司试图成为第一个向市场推出创新产品或服务或第一个进入新兴市场或细分市场的企业。
他们的竞争为早已进入的顾客感知价值带来了新的和创新的解决方案。
3M公司被称为探索者，基于其开发新产品和新业务而闻名。
例如,在1916年,3M公司发明了Wetordry：砂纸具有防水的功能，这使得产品可以使用水作为润滑剂来带走粒子，否则便会降低最好的等级的砂纸。
它的第一个应用在汽车修补漆上，至今仍在使用。
3M的其他成功发明产品还包括胶带、苏格兰玻璃纸胶带、热传真复印过程、高洁织物保护、便利贴以及各种医药产品。
目前，3M公司通过其六个部门不断创新与开发新产品以服务其顾客。
2.2 模仿者通常情况下，模仿者迅速效仿探索者，通过改进产品或服务或以更低的价格进入新的细分市场。
这些公司的竞争力之所以能够迅速提高是基于探索者通过价格、功能或者两者结合的价值主张。
模仿者虽然提高了其竞争力，但是也面临另一个挑战。
除了创造性的模仿，追随者还必须利用其市场定位产生收入，以便满足连续市场所需的产品及市场发展。
通过动态研究，加拿大公司背后流行的黑莓系列智能手机是一个很好的追随者例子。
虽然IBM的西蒙往往是公认为第一个设计智能手机(Tynan,2005)的,紧随其后的是诺基亚和爱立信产品,但是黑莓是第一个设计无线电子邮件方便使用的智能手机。
黑莓目前持有近20%的智能手机市场，相比之下，苹果公司智能手机市场只有11%(Park, 2009)。
2.3 低成本捍卫者低成本捍卫者通常情况下通过提供足够的利益竞争方案，但是在市场相对成熟的情况下，往往提供最低的总体价格差异。
VIZIO咨询公司成立于在2003年,其产品液晶电视在2007年第二季度成为了市场占有率的领导者。
VIZIO的成功关键在于制造成本低、价格低、质量好、广告费用低以及密集的分销策略（OGG Kanellos，2007年）。
2.4 差异化捍卫者差异化捍卫者也在相对成熟的市场上竞争，但通常提供优质的产品或服务进行溢价。
闻名的Intuit公司的快捷、快速书籍及TurboTax产品备受尊敬。
为了保持知名度，Intuit公司在市场营销、客户支持和以客户为导向的创新领域上进行大量的投资。
例如,Intuit公司的员工经常访问客户，是为了更好地了解他们如何使用产品,以便公司可以做出必要的改进。
创始人兼首席执行官斯科特·库克，Intuit公司的成功归功于其个人的亲密关系和非常容易的解决方案，它们只在一个以消费者为导向的公司体现出来(Kontzer,2004)。
不同功能的战略和政策（例如，市场营销，运营，人力资源，研发）提供以实现业务战略所需的行动的细节。
在下面的章节中，我们描述营销组织架构是如何促进业务战略的实施的。
3 营销组织架构元素市场营销是一个边界功能，把业务与它的客户联系起来。
Kenichi Ohmae (1988)作为麦肯锡公司战略管理实践的创始人之一，坚定地认为：“首先是关注客户的需求''（第149页）。
成功地实施经营策略，必须得到客户的连接行为的权利。
可能导致成功的是什么？是一个支持业务策略的明确的市场战略和有利于做正确的事的成员企业的目标市场的营销组织结构特点。
至于营销人员，这意味着获得正确的营销组织架构的下列元素。
3.1 营销组织文化文化是营销组织架构的核心，作为隐含在文化形态架构（见图1）的其他元素的价值。
营销组织文化代表一个公司根深蒂固的价值观和在营销功能上提供行为、做出决策的信仰（德什潘德＆韦伯斯特，1989年）。
一个被广泛使用的组织文化模型是“竞争价值观框架”（奎因和Rohrbaugh，1983）。
竞争价值观框架指出：管理者必须做出选择，以便反映两个组织中存在的紧张关系：内部与外部；以及需要控制于灵活性的需要。
这两种紧张关系产生了四个主要的文化类型。
灵活组织类型的特点是灵活性与外部取向产生的创业精神和创造性行为。
市场类型的特点是控制和外部取向产生高度竞争的行为。
氏族类型体现了灵活性和内部取向生产关系的建设行为。
最后一种类型的层次，特点是通过控制和内部的方向，产生的行为集中在可预见性和顺利运作上。
所有组织都表现出每个文化类型的属性。
图1 营销组织结构3.2 营销策略适当的功能策略是必要的，以便支持和加强经营策略。
营销策略显得尤为重要，因为它代表了一套综合决策，通过业务来实现其目标市场以及满足客户的价值需求(Varadarajan & Clark, 1994)。
正如迈克尔·波特（1985年，十六页）指出的：“增长竞争优势的根本价值是公司能够创造出它的买家。
”关键的营销策略的核心是市场细分、目标市场以及市场定位，是基于产品、价格、促销、渠道的定位。
我们的研究确定了四个营销策略类型。
为了实现组织购买，每个营销策略类型必须反映营销组织文化固有的价值观和假设条件：（1）积极的营销是提供高品质、创新的产品。
他们与客户保持密切的合作关从事广泛的市场调研工作，以确定细分市场，即寻求愿意支付高价的买家。
他们在这些市场上选择分销策略，通过密集的广告与买家进行沟通。
他们利用比例相对较高的专业销售人员。
（2）大众营销是提供品质优良的产品，是创新的追随者。
他们利用广泛的分销渠道和价格竞争，而不是广告。
同时他们利用一些专业的营销人员。
（3）追求降低风险的营销则等待，直到一个产品概念被市场接受之前推出自己的版本。
他们追求自己的市场，具有足够的质量、低廉的价格、密集的分销策略。
他们一般有最集中的产品线和利用最少的专业营销人员。
（4）价值营销则是提供高品质、创新的产品，追求保持与客户密切合作的关系。
他们从事的系统营销研究比任何大众营销或营销极小，往往是他们的主要竞争对手，专门为早期和晚期的大多数客户的业务系统进行市场调研并收费较高的价格。
他们的分销策略是选择性稍差的策略，他们通常利用适度的广告。
3.3 营销体系：策略的形成策略的形成是通过有效的策略（Chakravarthy＆DOZ，1992年）在业务中发展起来的。
策略的有效性，应在形成过程中满足该组织的竞争环境和其营销策略中固有的挑战，不同的策略可能有不同的目标，是为了可能更好的适合不同的市场环境(Chakravarthy & Lorange,1991)。
该策略的形成是由能力活动导致的：使命/目标声明、形势分析、综合性的替代评价和策略的形成过程(明茨伯格,阿斯特&•兰佩尔1998)。
任务包括组织的宗旨、市场活动的范围以及具有竞争力的独特性。
形势分析范围涉及公司的环境和组织分析。