新编简明英语语言学教程

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新编简明英语语言学教程第2版学习指南答案

新编简明英语语言学教程第2版学习指南答案Study Guide for New Concise English Linguistics Tutorial 2nd Edition AnswersIntroductionThe New Concise English Linguistics Tutorial 2nd Edition is a comprehensive guide to the study of the English language. This study guide provides answers to the exercises and questions found in the textbook, helping students to better understand the concepts and theories discussed in each chapter.Chapter 1: Introduction to Linguistics1.1 What is Linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language and its structure, including phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.1.2 What are the subfields of Linguistics?The subfields of linguistics include phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.1.3 What is the difference between prescriptive and descriptive grammar?Prescriptive grammar is concerned with rules for what is considered "correct" language use, while descriptive grammar describes how language is actually used by speakers.Chapter 2: Phonetics and Phonology2.1 What is phonetics?Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, including their production, transmission, and reception.2.2 What is phonology?Phonology is the study of the sound system of a language, including the patterns and rules that govern the pronunciation of words.2.3 What is the difference between consonants and vowels?Consonants are speech sounds that are produced with some degree of obstruction in the vocal tract, while vowels are speech sounds that are produced without obstruction.Chapter 3: Morphology3.1 What is morphology?Morphology is the study of the structure of words and how words are formed from smaller units called morphemes.3.2 What are free and bound morphemes?Free morphemes can stand alone as words, while bound morphemes must be attached to other morphemes to form a complete word.3.3 What is the difference between inflectional and derivational morphemes?Inflectional morphemes modify the grammatical function of a word (e.g., tense, number), while derivational morphemes create new words or change the meaning of existing words.Chapter 4: Syntax4.1 What is syntax?Syntax is the study of the structure of sentences and how words are combined to create meaningful phrases and sentences.4.2 What is the difference between phrases and clauses?Phrases are groups of words that function as a single unit within a sentence, while clauses are larger structures that contain a subject and a predicate.4.3 What is the difference between syntax and semantics?Syntax deals with the structure of language, while semantics is concerned with the meaning of language.Chapter 5: Semantics and Pragmatics5.1 What is semantics?Semantics is the study of meaning in language, including how words and sentences convey meaning.5.2 What is pragmatics?Pragmatics is the study of how context influences the interpretation of language, including the social and cultural factors that affect communication.5.3 What are speech acts?Speech acts are actions that are performed through speech, such as making a request or giving an order.ConclusionThis study guide provides answers to the exercises and questions found in the New Concise English Linguistics Tutorial 2nd Edition, helping students to deepen their understanding of the core concepts and theories in the study of English linguistics. By using this guide, students can enhance their knowledge andskills in the field of linguistics and improve their overall comprehension of the English language.。

新编简明英语语言学教程中文版

第一章：绪论1．什么是语言学？1．1定义语言学常被定义为是对语言进行系统科学研究的学科。

语言学研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有的语言。

为了揭示语言的本质，语言学家首先要对语言实际使用进行观察，并在此基础上形成有关语言使用的概括性假设，这些初步形成的假设要在语言使用中进行进一步的检验，最终形成一条语言理论。

1．2语言学的研究范畴:语言学研究有不同的侧重。

对语言体系作全面研究的语言学研究称为普通语言学。

语音学主要是对语言声音媒介的研究，它不只是研究某一特定的语言的声音媒介，而是所有语言的声音媒介。

音系学与语音学不同，它主要研究特定语言的语音体系，即音是如何结合在一起产生有意义的单位。

形态学主要研究单词的内部语义结构，及这些叫做词素的语义最小单位是如何结合构成单词。

句法学主要研究构成潜在句子的句法规则。

语义学以研究语义为目的，传统语义学主要研究抽象的意义，独立于语境之外的意义，语用学也是研究语义，但是它把语义研究置于语言使用语境中加以研究。

语言不是一个孤立的现象，而是一种社会现象，各种社会因素都会对语言的使用产生影响。

从社会的角度来研究语言的科学被称之为社会语言学。

语言和社会之间的关系是社会语言学研究的主要内容。

心理语言学主要从心理学的角度来研究语言。

它要研究人们在使用语言时大脑的工作机理，如人是如何习得母语的，人的大脑是如何加工和记忆语言信息等问题。

把语言学的研究成果应用到实践中的科学形成了应用语言学。

狭义上，应用语言学指把语言理论和原则运用于语言教学的科学，在广义上，它指把语言理论与原则应用于解决实际问题的科学。

除此之外还有人类语言学、神经语言学、数学语言学、计算语言学等。

1．3语言学研究中的几对基本概念1．3．1规定性和描述性语言学研究是描述性的，不是规定性的。

这是语言学和传统语法的一个重要区别。

语言学研究的目的是对人们使用的语言进行客观描述与分析，而不是对语言的使用作出规定。

传统语法是规定性的，它主要建立在笔头语言基础之上，旨在规定一系列的语法规则，并且把这些语法规则强加给语言使用者。

《新编简明英语语言学教程》PPT课件

Chomsky’s definition (1957)
“From now on I will consider language to be a
set of (finite or infinite) sentenБайду номын сангаасes, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”
• • • • •
Arbitrariness Productivity/Creativity Duality Displacement Cultural transmission
Arbitrariness
----No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings. Onomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, …. Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang… ) Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopy…
Language is arbitrary
Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.

新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版

新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版第1章导言本章要点：1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究范围2. Important distinction in Linguistic语言学的一些重要区分3. The definition and the design features of language语言的定义和识别特征4. Function of language语言的功能本章考点：语言学考点：语言学的定义，语言学中几组重要的区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支及各自研究范畴；宏观语言及应用语言学的主要扥只及各自的研究范畴。

语言的考点：语言的定义；语言的识别特征（任意性，能产性，二重性，移位性，文化传递性）；语言的功能1,The definition of linguistics语言的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language(based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to general theory of language structure) 2.The scope of linguistics语言学的范围A： micro-linguisticsPhonetics（语音学）: the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication.Phonology（音系学）: the study of how sounds put together and used to convey meaning in communication.(语音分布和排列的规则及音节的形式)Morphology（形态学）: the study of the way in whichthe symbols are arranged and combined to form words. Syntax（句法学）: the study of rules in the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in language.Semantics（语义学）: the study of meaning.Pragmatics（语用学）: the study of the meaning in the context of language use.B： macro-linguisticsSociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with the society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics: the study of language and its relation with psychology.Applied linguistics: the study of application of language to the solution of practical problems. Narrowly it is the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.3. Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学中的重要区分A: Descriptive vs Prescriptive 描写式与规定式Descriptive: if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.Prescriptive: if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what should they say and what they should not say, it is said to be Prescriptive.B: Synchronic vs Diachronic 共时性和历时性Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.C: Speech vs writing 言语和文学These are major media of communication.D: Langue vs parole 语言与言语(Saussure 索緖尔) Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by the all the members of a speech community.Parole: refers to the realization of language in actual use.E: Competence vs performance 语言能力和语言应用(Chomsky乔姆斯基)Competence: refers to a user’s underlying knowledge about the system of the rules.Performance: refers to the actual use in concrete situations.乔姆斯基和索绪尔的区别：索绪尔采用的是社会学的观点，他的语言观念是社会惯例性的。

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版课后练习题答案

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答：The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答：The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.”Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答：In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing? 答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented”by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languagesthat can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised”record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答：Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答：First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett toshow that it is essentially different from animal communication system?答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement”means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not geneticallytransmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration. 答：Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?答：V oicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?答：The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is thetranscription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, i.e. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [?] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h”is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答：English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答：V owels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?] 6) [?]答：A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?答：(1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language ––the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [?], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?答：A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments arecalled the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule. 答：Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy”tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, i.e., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, e.g.discreet –indiscreet, correct –incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, i.e. [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, i.e. [?]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying”a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign –signature, resign –resignation, phlegm –phlegmatic, paradigm –paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?答：The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+”between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc.”translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry”asexual, “without sex or sexorgans”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results opposite to those intended”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...The general phrasal structural rule ( X stands for the head N, V, A or P):The XP rule: XP →(specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.Conjunction exhibits four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role of each elementHead:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary. Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordancewith the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences. a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A（以下8-12题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) →head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det + head (argument) N + complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg + head (above) P + complement (the window) NP9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（划底线的为动词的修饰语，斜体的为名词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences. （划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements ofa verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence. （划底线的为补语从句）a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences. （划底线的为关系从句）a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences.a) Would you come tomorrow? (surface structure)you would come tomorrow (deep structure)b) What did Helen bring to the party? (surface structure)Helen brought what to the party (deep structure)c) Who broke the window? (surface structure)who broke the window (deep structure)Chapter 5 Semantics1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?答：(1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(2) The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.(3) The contextualist view held that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context ––elements closely linked with language behaviour. The representative ofthis approach was J.R. Firth, famous British linguist.(4) Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.”This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.2. What are the major types of synonyms in English?答：The major types of synonyms are dialectal synonyms, stylistic synonyms, emotive or evaluative synonyms, collocational synonyms, and semantically different synonyms.Examples（略）3. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.答：(1) Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms (2) While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. There are many polysemic words in English, The fact is the more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning.(3) Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. Hyponymy is a relation of inclusion; in terms of meaning, the superordinate includes all its hyponyms.。

《新编简明英语语言学教程》(戴伟栋+何兆熊编)

Chapter 1nguage can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system. Systematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; can’t be combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat.Language is arbitrary. Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.Language is symbolic in nature. Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”----Shakespeare2. The design/defining features of human language(Charles Hockett)⑴ArbitrarinessNo logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings①Onomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, …. Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang… )②Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, p hotocopy…⑵Productivity/CreativityPeculiar to human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before, e.g. we can understand sentence like “ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”, though it does not describe a common happening in the world.①A gibbon call system is not productive for gibbon draw all their calls from a fixed repertoire which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible.②The bee dance does have a limited productivity, as it is used to communicate about food sources in any direction. But food sources are the only kind of messages that can be sent through the bee dance; bees do not “talk” about themselves, the hives, or wind, let alone about people, animals, hopes or desires⑶Duality①Lower level----sounds (meaningless)②Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning)③A communication system with duality is considered more flexible than one without it, for a far greater number of messages can be sent. A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (words), and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. (We make dictionary of a language, but we cannot make a dictionary of sentences of that language.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places.①A gibbon never utters a call about something he ate last year②There is something special about the bee dance though. Bees communicate with other bees about the food sources they have found when they are no longer in the presence of the food. In this sense, the bee dance has a component of displacement. But this component is very insignificant. For the bees must communicate about the food immediately on returning to the hive. They do not dance about the food they discovered last month nor do they speculate about future discoveries.⑸Cultural transmissionLanguage is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; rather than by instinct).①Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All cats, gibbons and bees have systems which are almost identical to those of all other cats, gibbons and bees.②A Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. That is, it is pass on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.③The story of a wolf child, a pig child shows that a human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language.3. Some important distinctions in linguistics⑴Prescriptive vs. Descriptive①Descriptive ---- describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use (modern linguistic)②Prescriptive ----lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar)⑵Synchronic vs. diachronic①Synchronic study---- description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics)②Diachronic study---- description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time)⑶Speech vs. writing①Speech ---- primary medium of language②Writing ---- later developed⑷Langue vs. parole (F. de Saussure)①Langue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community.②Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use.Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.⑸Competence and performance (Chomsky)①Competence ---- the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language②Performance ---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.Chapter 21. Speech organs: three important areasPharyngeal cavity ---- the throat;The oral cavity ---- the mouth;Nasal cavity ---- the nose.2. The diagram of speech organsLips Tip of tongueTeeth Blade of tongueTeeth ridge (alveolar) Back of tongueHard palate Vocal cordsSoft palate (velum) Pharyngeal cavityUvula Nasal cavity3.Minimal pai r----when two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g. beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat.4. Phone, phoneme, allophoneA phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].Allophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments5. The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are its distinctive features. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair6. Suprasegmental features⑴Stress①Word stressThe location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, e.g. a shift in stress in English may change the part of speech of a word:Verb: im’port; in’crease; re’bel; re’cord …Noun: ’import; ’increase; ’rebel; ’record …Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements:Compound: ’blackbird; ’greenhouse; ’hotdog…Noun phrase: black…bird; green ’house; hot ’dog…The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of -ing forms and nouns:Modifier: ’dining-room; ‟readingroom; ‟sleepingbag…Doer: sleeping ’baby; swimming ’fish; flying ’plane…②Sentence stressSentence stress----the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually notstressed.Note: for pragmatic reason, this rule is not always right, e.g. we may stress any part in the following sentences.He is driving my car.My mother bought me a new skirt yesterday.⑵ToneTones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.mā妈(level)má麻(the second rise)mǎ马(the third rise)mà骂(the fourth fall)⑶IntonationWhen pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)For instance,“That‟s not the book he wants.”7. The manner of articulationStops/plosives: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g];Fricatives: [f], [v], [s], [z], [W], [T], [F], [V], [h];Affricates: [tF], [dV]; Liquids: [l](lateral), [r];Nasals: [m], [n], [N]; Glides/semivowels: [w], [j].Chapter 31.Morpheme--the minimal unit of meaningWords are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes, e.g.1-morpheme boy, desire 2-morpheme boy+ish, desir(e)+ble3-morpheme boy+ish+ness 4-morpheme gentle+man+li+ness, un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity 5-morpheme un+gentle+man+li+ness 6-morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism ⑴Affix①Prefix ---- morphemes that occur only before others, e.g.un-, dis, anti-, ir-, etc.②Suffix ---- morphemes that occur only after others, e.g.-ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -able, -tive, tion, etc.⑵Free morpheme & bound morpheme①Free morpheme----is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc.②Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves, such as “-s” in “dogs”, “al” in “national”, “dis-” in “disclose”, “ed” in “recorded”, etc.2. Derivational morpheme & inflectional morpheme①Derivational morphemes---- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. modern---modernize, length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc.②Inflectional morphemes---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g.a) number: tables apples carsb) person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talkedc) case: John/John’s3. Some points about compounds⑴Noun compoundsdaybreak (N+V) playboy (V+N) haircut (N+V) callgirl (V+N) windmill (N+N)⑵Verb compoundsbrainwash (N+V) lipread (N+V) babysit(N+V)⑶Adjective compoundsmaneating (N+Ving) heartfelt (N+Ved) dutyfree (N+adj.)⑷Preposition compoundsinto (P+P) throughout (P+P)⑸①When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category, e.g. postbox, landlady, icy-cold, blue-black…②When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound, e.g. head-s trong, pickpocket…③Compounds have different stress patterns from the non-compounded word sequence, e.g. red coat, green house…④The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.Chapter 41.Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, parts of speech)⑴Word-level categories①Major lexical categories: N, V, Adj, Prep.②Minor Lexical categories: Det, Deg, Qual, Auxi, Conj.⑵Phrase categories and their structures①Phrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called ⑵phrase categories, such as NP(N), VP(V), AP(A), PP(P).②The structure: specifier + head + complement③Head---- the word around which a phrase is formed④Specifier---- the words on the left side of the head s⑤Complement---- the words on the right side of the headsChapter 51. The conceptualist viewThe conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.2. The contextualism①Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:②Situational context: spatiotemporal situation③Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation.④For example, “black” in black hair& black coffee,or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.3. Behaviorism①Behaviorists attempted to de fine meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.②The story of Jack and Jill:Jill JackS_________r--------s_________R4. Sense and referenceSense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.①Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.②Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.5. Major sense relationsSynonymySynonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.1) Dialectal synonyms---- synonyms used in different regional dialects, e.g. autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol –gasoline…2) Stylistic synonyms----synonyms differing in style, e.g. kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence…3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning, e.g. collaborator- accomplice…4) Collocational synonyms, e.g. accuse…of, charge…with, rebuke…for; …5) Semantically different synonyms, e.g. amaze, astound…Antonymy1) Gradable antonyms----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair,e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short …2) Complementary antonyms----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female …3) Relational opposites----exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below …6. Sense relations between sentences(1) X is synonymous with Y①X: He was a bachelor all his life. Y: He never got married all his life.②X: The boy killed the cat. Y: The cat was killed by the boy.If X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false.(2) X is inconsistent with Y①X: He is single. Y: He has a wife.②X: This is my first visit to Beijing .Y: I have been to Beijing twice.If X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true.(3) X entails Y①X: John married a blond heiress. Y: John married a blond.②X: Marry has been to Beijing. Y: Marry has been to China.Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y.If X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be true or false.(4) X presupposes Y①X: His bike needs repairing. Y: He has a bike.②Paul has given up smoking. Paul once smoked.If X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true.(5) X is a contradiction*My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.*The orphan‟s parents are pretty well-off.(6) X is semantically anomalous*The man is pregnant.*The table has bad intentions.*Sincerity shakes hands with the black apple.7. Analysis of meaning⑴Componential analysis---- a way to analyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example,Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]Boy: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]Woman: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]Girl: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]⑵Predication analysis1) The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its component words, e.g. “The dog bites the man” is semantically different from “The man bites the dog” though their components are exactly the sam e.2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning, e.g. *Green clouds are sleeping furiously.*Sincerity shook hands with the black apple.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.3) Predication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (British G. Leech).4) Predication----the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate.①An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence.②A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.5) According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we may classify the predications into the following types:①One-place predication: smoke, grow, rise, run …②Two-place predication: like, love, save, bite, beat…③Three-place predication: give, sent, promise, call …④No-place predication: It is hot.Tom smokes.→ TOM (SMOKE) The tree grows well.→ TREE (GROW)The kids like apples.→KIDS (LIKE) APPLE I sent him a letter.→I (SEND) HIM LETTER Chapter 61. Context---- a basic concept in the study of pragmatics. It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background, situation (time, place, manner, etc.), the relationship between the speaker and the hearer, etc.….Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him.2. Speech act theorySpeech acts is a term derived from the work of the philosopher J. L. Austin (1962) and now used to refer to a theory which analyzes the role of utterances in relation to the behavior of the speaker and the hearer in interpersonal communication. It aims to answer the question “What do we do when using language?”⑴Austin’s new model of speech act sAccording to Austin’s new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.①The locutionary act----an act of saying something, i.e. an act of making a meaningful utterance (literal meaning of an utterance);②The illocutionary act----an act performed in saying something: in saying X, I was doing Y (the intention of the speaker while speaking).③The perlocutionary act----an act performed as a result of saying something: by saying X and doing Y, I did Z.Ⅰ.For example,“It is cold in here.”①Its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning the weather is clod in here;②Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hear to shut the window;③Its perlocutionary act can be the hearer’s shutting the window o r his refusal to comply with the request.Ⅱ.Analyze one more example: “You have left the door wide open.”Note: Of the three acts, what speech act theory is most concerned with is the illocutionary act. It attempts to account for the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say.Ⅲ.Analyze the illocutionary acts of the following conversation between a couple:----(the telephone rings)----H: That‟ the phone. (1)----W: I‟m in the bathroom. (2)----H: Okay. (3)Ⅳ.This seemingly incoherent conversation goes on successfully because the speakers understand each other’s illocutionary acts:① Making a request of his wife to go and answer the phone.② A refusal to comply with the request; issuing a request of her husband to answer the phone instead.③Accepting the wife’s refusal and accepting her request, meaning “all right, I‟ll answer it.”⑵Searle’s classification of speech acts (1969)①Assertives/representatives(陈述) Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true, e.g.I think the film is moving.I‟m certain I have never seen the man before.I solemnly swear that he had got it.②Directives(指令) Trying to get the hearer to do something, e.g.I order you to leave right now.Open the window, please.Your money or your life!③Commissives(承诺) Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action, e.g.I promise to come.I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.④Expressives(表达) Expressing the speaker’s psychological state about something, e.g.I‟m sorry for being late.I apologize for the sufferings that the war has caused to your people.⑤eclarations(宣布) Bringing about an immediate change in the existing state or affairs, e.g.I now appoint you chairman of the committee.You are fired.I now declare the meeting open.Note: (1) All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their strength or force, e.g.I guess / am sure / swear he is the murderer.Note: (2) In order to get someone open the door, we can choose one from a variety of the forms in below:Could you open the door, please!Can you open the door!Do you mind opening the door?Open the door!The door please!3. Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)Cooperative principle (CP)---- According to Grice, in making conversation, there is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.Four maxims of CP①The maxim of quality----Do not say what you believe to be false.----Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.②The maxim of quantity----Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange.----Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.③The maxim of relation----Be relevant ( make your contribution relevant).④The maxim of manner----Avoid obscurity of expression.----Avoid ambiguity.----Be brief.----Be orderly.Chapter 71. Addition of new words①coinage(创新词)----A new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose, e.g.Walkman Kodak Xerox Ford Benz Toyota②clipped words(缩略词) ----The abbreviation of longer words or phrases, e.g. Gym—gymnasium memo—memorandum disco—discotheque fridge—refrigerator③blending(紧缩法) ----A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words, e.g. Smog—smoke + fog motel—motor + hotel camcorder—camera + recorder④acronyms(词首字母缩略词) ----Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words,e.g. CBS---- Columbia Broad casting systemISBN----International Standard Book NumberWTO WHO PLA AIDS UNESCO APEC OPEC CAD SARS⑤back-formation(逆构词法) ----New words may be coined from already existing words by “subtracting” an affix thought to be part of the old word.Edit ⇐ editor hawk ⇐ hawker beg ⇐ beggar baby-sit ⇐baby-sitter⑥functional shift ----Words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes, e.g. Noun⇒verb: to knee, to bug, to tape, to brake…Verb⇒noun: a hold, a flyby, a reject, a retreat…Adj⇒verb: to cool, to narrow, to dim, to slow…Adj⇒noun: a daily, a Christian, the rich, the imposs ible…⑦borrowing ----When different cultures come into contact, words are often borrowed from one language to another. The following are some of the loan words in English (see more in P100-101). Latin bonus education exitGerman beer waltz quartzChinese tea kowtow sampanRussian sputnik commissar vodkaArabic zero algebra alcohol2. Loss of wordsWords can be lost from a language as time goes by. The following words, taken from Romeo and Juliet, have faded out of the English language.Beseem →to be suitableWot →to knowGyve →a fetterWherefore →why3. Changes in the meaning of words①Widening of meaningHoliday: [+specific] holy day[+general] any rest dayTail: [+specific] tail of a horse[+general] tail of any animal②Narrowing of meaningHound: any doga special kind of dogGirl: young person of either sexyoung people of female sex③Meaning shiftinn: a small, old hotel or pubwell-known, nice hotelnice: ignorant (1000 years ago)good, fineChapter 81. The relatedness between language and societyThere are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society.①Language is often used to establish and maintain social relationships. (e.g. greeting)②The use of language is in part determined by the user’s social background. (social class, age, sex, education level, etc.)③Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. (“snow” for Eskimo)④As a social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social ( the postvocalic [r] ).2. Speech community and speech variety①Speech community---- the social group that is singled out for any special sociolinguistic study is called the speech community.②Speech variety or language variety---- any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker ora group of speakers. In sociolinguistic study three types of speech variety are of special interest,i.e. regional dialects, sociolects and registers.3. Two approaches to sociolinguistic studies①Macro sociolinguistics, i.e. a bird’s-eye view of the languages used in society;②Micro sociolinguistics, i.e. a worm’s-eye view of language in use.4. Sociolect is a linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class. (e.g. Received Pronunciation)5. Ethnic dialect----a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation (e.g. Black English).6. Register, in a restricted sense, refers to the variety of language related to one’s occupation.In a broader sense, according to Halliday, “language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register: field of discourse, tenor of discourse, mode of discourse.Three social variables:①Field of discourse: what is going on: to the area of operation of the language activity. It is concerned with the purpose (why) and subject matter (about what) of communication. It can beeither technical or non-technical.)②Tenor of discourse: the role of relationship in the situation in question: who are the participants in the communication and in what relationship they stand to each other. (customer-shop-assistant, teacher-student, etc.)③Mode of discourse: the means of communication. It is concerned with how communication is carried out. (oral, written, on the line…)7. Standard dialect①The standard variety is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.②The standard variety has a number of featuresFirst of all, the standard dialect is based on a selected variety of the language, usually it is the local speech of an area which is considered the nation’s political and commercial center.Second, the standard dialect is not a dialect a child acquires naturally like his regional dialect. It is a superimposed variety; it is a variety imposed from above over the range of regional dialects. Then the standard dialect has some special functions.Chapter 91. The relationship between language and culture①The same word may stir up different associations in people under different cultural background,e.g. the word “dog”.②Language expresses cultural reality, reflects the people’s attitudes, beliefs, world outlooks, etc.③The culture both emancipates and constrains people socially, historically and metaphorically.④Culture also af fects its people’s imagination or common dreams which are mediated through the language and reflected in their life.⑤On the one hand, language as an integral part of human being, permeates in his thinking and way of viewing the world, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality; on the other, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return.2. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis⑴①Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf, proclaimed that the structure of the language people habitually use influences the ways they think and behave, i.e. different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently, this is also known as linguistic relativity.②Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.⑵Strong version & weak versionStrong version bel ieves that the language patterns determine people’s thinking and behavior; Weak version holds that the former influence the latter.----The study of the linguistic relativity or SWH has shed two important insights:①There is nowadays a recognition that language, as code, reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think.②More than in Whorf’s days, however, we recognize how important context is in complementing。

新编简明英语语言学教程中文版2

新编简明英语语言学教程中文版2简介《新编简明英语语言学教程中文版2》是一本系统介绍英语语言学的教材。

本教材由专业的语言学家和教育学家编写，旨在帮助学习者深入了解英语语言学的基本概念和原理。

本文档将简要介绍本教材的内容，并对其中重要概念进行概述。

第一章：语言学导论第一章主要介绍了语言学的基本概念和研究对象。

在本章中，学习者将了解什么是语言学，以及语言学的研究范围和方法论。

同时，还提供了一些语言学研究的历史背景和经典理论。

本章的目的是给学习者提供一个全面的语言学导论，为后续章节的学习做好铺垫。

第二章：语音学第二章主要介绍了语音学的基本概念和方法。

学习者将了解语音学的研究对象——音素以及音素的分类和描述方法。

在本章中，还将介绍音系和音位的概念，并讨论语音的产生和感知。

此外，还将讨论音位对语言的重要性以及音系和音位在不同语言间的差异。

通过学习本章内容，学习者将对语音学的基本理论和方法有一个初步了解。

第三章：音系学第三章主要介绍了音系学的研究内容和方法。

在本章中，学习者将学习语音学中的重要概念：音位、语音环境和音变规律。

此外，还将介绍音系学的研究方法，如音位的调查和描述。

通过学习本章内容，学习者将了解音系学在语言研究中的重要性，以及如何通过音系学方法来分析和描述不同语言的音系。

第四章：词汇学第四章主要介绍了词汇学的研究内容和方法。

在本章中，学习者将学习词汇学的基本概念，如词汇的定义和分类。

同时，还将介绍词汇的形态结构和词性。

本章还将介绍词汇的意义和语义关系，并讨论词汇的产生和变化。

通过学习本章内容，学习者将了解词汇学在语言研究中的重要性，以及如何进行词汇的分析和研究。

第五章：句法学第五章主要介绍了句法学的研究内容和方法。

在本章中，学习者将学习句法学的基本概念，如句子的组成和句子的结构。

同时，还将介绍句法分析的方法和理论，如短语结构文法和依存句法。

本章还将讨论句法的意义和句法的变化。

通过学习本章内容，学习者将了解句法学在语言研究中的重要性，以及如何进行句法的分析和研究。

圣才教育：戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》

内容摘要
实用性：这本书不仅注重理论知识的学习，还强调实际应用能力的培养。每一章节都附有大量实例和案例分析，帮助学生更好地理解和掌握语言学知识。书中的关键词和思考题也为学生提供了实际应用的指导。时代性：这本书的内容紧跟时代步伐，反映了当今语言学研究的前沿。它不仅介绍了最新的语言学理论和研究成果，还涉及了语言与文化、社会、认知等领域的交叉研究，有助于学生拓宽视野，了解学科前沿。内容丰富：这本书涵盖了语言学的各个方面，包括语音、词汇、语法、语义、语用等基础理论知识和应用。同时，它还涉及了二语习得和语言习得的理论和实践，使得学生能够全面了解语言学及应用。
该章节介绍了计算机与语言的、计算机与自然语言处理的关系以及自然语言处理的基本任务和应用领域。
该章节介绍了认知科学的定义、认知科学的学科交叉性、语言与认知的关系以及认知语言学的定义和基本原理。
该章节介绍了隐喻和转喻的定义、隐喻和转喻的认知功能以及隐喻和转喻在英语词汇和表达中的应用。
该章节介绍了文化的定义、文化与语言的关系以及文化适应和文化休克的概念。同时，还介绍了跨文化交际能力和跨文化意识的培养方法。
精彩摘录
语言是人类最重要的交际工具，是音义结合的符号系统。
语言的音和义、语素和词汇的意义是约定俗成的，语言的音义之间没有必然的关系。
语言的底层是一套音位和音位的组合规则；上层是音义结合的语言符号。
语言具有创造性，它能够产生并理解无限量的语句。
语言具有创造性，它能够产生并理解无限量的语句。
该章节介绍了形态学的定义、词素和词根、词干和词缀、屈折变化和派生变化、复合词和短语以及形态学在自然语言处理中的应用。
该章节介绍了句法学的定义、语法和句法的关系、短语、句子和句法结构、句法规则的类型和应用、转换语法和句法分析的基本原则以及句法学在自然语言处理中的应用。

新编简明英语语言学教程

新编简明英语语言学教程Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of h islanguage.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

(完整word版)新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版(word文档良心出品)

语言的考点：语言的定义；语言的识别特征（任意性，能产性，二重性，移位性，文化传递性）；语言的功能1,The definition of linguistics语言的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language(based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to general theory of language structure)2.The scope of linguistics语言学的范围A：micro-linguisticsPhonetics（语音学）: the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication.Phonology（音系学）: the study of how sounds put together and used to convey meaning in communication.(语音分布和排列的规则及音节的形式) Morphology（形态学）: the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.Syntax（句法学）: the study of rules in the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in language.Semantics（语义学）: the study of meaning.Pragmatics（语用学）: the study of the meaning in the context of language use. B：macro-linguisticsSociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with the society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics: the study of language and its relation with psychology.Applied linguistics: the study of application of language to the solution of practical problems. Narrowly it is the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.3. Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学中的重要区分A: Descriptive vs Prescriptive 描写式与规定式Descriptive: if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.Prescriptive: if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using lan guage, i.e. to tell people what should they say and what they should not say, it is said to be Prescriptive.B: Synchronic vs Diachronic 共时性和历时性Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.C: Speech vs writing 言语和文学These are major media of communication.D: Langue vs parole 语言与言语(Saussure 索緖尔)Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by the all the members of a speech community.Parole: refers to the realization of language in actual use.E: Competence vs performance 语言能力和语言应用(Chomsky乔姆斯基) Competence: refers to a user’s underlying knowledge about the system of the rules.Performance: refers to the actual use in concrete situations.乔姆斯基和索绪尔的区别：索绪尔采用的是社会学的观点，他的语言观念是社会惯例性的。

新编简明英语语言学教程教案PPT 第一章上

What is language? How does language work? What rules are there that govern the structure of language? What do all languages have in common? What range of variation is found among languages? What makes language change? To what extent are social class differeces reflected in language? How does a child acquire his mother tongue?
semantics（语义学）--the study of the meaning of language pragmatics（语用学）-- the study of meaning in the context of
language use.
The scopes of linguistics
sociolinguistics（社会语言学）-- how social factors affect language use psycholinguistics（心理语言学）-- linguistics behavior and
morphology（形态学）--the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged and combined to form words (the form of words)
syntax（句法学）--the study of the rules that govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentence

(完整word版)新编简明英语语言学教程中文版

第一章：绪论1．什么是语言学？1．1定义语言学常被定义为是对语言进行系统科学研究的学科。

语言学研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有的语言.为了揭示语言的本质，语言学家首先要对语言实际使用进行观察,并在此基础上形成有关语言使用的概括性假设，这些初步形成的假设要在语言使用中进行进一步的检验，最终形成一条语言理论。

1．2语言学的研究范畴：语言学研究有不同的侧重。

对语言体系作全面研究的语言学研究称为普通语言学.语音学主要是对语言声音媒介的研究，它不只是研究某一特定的语言的声音媒介，而是所有语言的声音媒介。

音系学与语音学不同，它主要研究特定语言的语音体系，即音是如何结合在一起产生有意义的单位。

形态学主要研究单词的内部语义结构，及这些叫做词素的语义最小单位是如何结合构成单词。

句法学主要研究构成潜在句子的句法规则.语义学以研究语义为目的，传统语义学主要研究抽象的意义，独立于语境之外的意义，语用学也是研究语义，但是它把语义研究置于语言使用语境中加以研究.语言不是一个孤立的现象，而是一种社会现象，各种社会因素都会对语言的使用产生影响。

从社会的角度来研究语言的科学被称之为社会语言学。

语言和社会之间的关系是社会语言学研究的主要内容.心理语言学主要从心理学的角度来研究语言.它要研究人们在使用语言时大脑的工作机理，如人是如何习得母语的,人的大脑是如何加工和记忆语言信息等问题。

把语言学的研究成果应用到实践中的科学形成了应用语言学。

狭义上，应用语言学指把语言理论和原则运用于语言教学的科学，在广义上，它指把语言理论与原则应用于解决实际问题的科学。

除此之外还有人类语言学、神经语言学、数学语言学、计算语言学等。

1．3语言学研究中的几对基本概念1．3．1规定性和描述性语言学研究是描述性的,不是规定性的。

这是语言学和传统语法的一个重要区别。

语言学研究的目的是对人们使用的语言进行客观描述与分析，而不是对语言的使用作出规定。

传统语法是规定性的,它主要建立在笔头语言基础之上，旨在规定一系列的语法规则,并且把这些语法规则强加给语言使用者。

(NEW)戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》(第2版)笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解

目　录第1章　导　言1.1　复习笔记1.2　课后习题详解1.3　考研真题与典型题详解第2章　音位学2.1　复习笔记2.2　课后习题详解2.3　考研真题与典型题详解第3章　形态学3.1　复习笔记3.2　课后习题详解3.3　考研真题与典型题详解第4章　句法学4.1　复习笔记4.2　课后习题详解4.3　考研真题与典型题详解第5章　语义学5.1　复习笔记5.2　课后习题详解5.3　考研真题与典型题详解第6章　语用学6.1　复习笔记6.2　课后习题详解6.3　考研真题与典型题详解第7章　语言变化7.1　复习笔记7.2　课后习题详解7.3　考研真题与典型题详解第8章　语言与社会8.1　复习笔记8.2　课后习题详解8.3　考研真题与典型题详解第9章　语言与文化9.1　复习笔记9.2　课后习题详解9.3　考研真题与典型题详解第10章　语言习得10.1　复习笔记10.2　课后习题详解10.3　考研真题与典型题详解第11章　第二语言习得11.1　复习笔记11.2　课后习题详解11.3　考研真题与典型题详解第12章　语言与大脑12.1　复习笔记12.2　课后习题详解12.3　考研真题与典型题详解第1章　导　言1.1　复习笔记本章要点：1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究的范围2. Important distinctions in Linguistics语言学的一些重要区分3. The definition and the design features of language语言的定义与识别特征4. Functions of language语言的功能本章考点：1. 有关语言学的常考考点语言学的定义；语言学中几组重要区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。

简明新编英语语言学教程教案

简明新编英语语言学教程教案第一章：英语语言学概述1.1 教学目标了解英语语言学的定义、研究范围和重要性。

掌握英语语言学的基本概念和术语。

1.2 教学内容英语语言学的定义和研究范围。

语言、言语和语言学的区别。

英语语言学的主要分支和理论。

1.3 教学方法讲授和讨论相结合，介绍英语语言学的基本概念。

通过案例分析和实例讲解，帮助学生理解语言学的实际应用。

1.4 教学评估课堂讨论和提问，了解学生对英语语言学的理解程度。

课后作业，要求学生编写简短的英语语言学小论文。

第二章：语音学2.1 教学目标了解语音学的定义和研究内容。

掌握基本的语音学知识和术语。

2.2 教学内容语音学的定义和研究内容。

音素、音位和音标的概念。

英语音素的分类和特点。

2.3 教学方法讲授和示范相结合，介绍语音学的基本概念。

通过听力和发音练习，帮助学生掌握英语音素的发音。

2.4 教学评估课堂发音练习和听力测试，了解学生对语音学的掌握程度。

课后作业，要求学生分析和描述英语单词的发音特点。

第三章：词汇学3.1 教学目标了解词汇学的定义和研究内容。

掌握词汇学的基本知识和术语。

3.2 教学内容词汇学的定义和研究内容。

词根、词缀和词性的概念。

英语词汇的构成和变化。

3.3 教学方法讲授和讨论相结合，介绍词汇学的基本概念。

通过词汇练习和词根记忆法，帮助学生扩展英语词汇量。

3.4 教学评估课堂词汇练习和词根记忆法展示，了解学生对词汇学的掌握程度。

课后作业，要求学生分析和解释英语单词的构成和变化。

第四章：语法学4.1 教学目标了解语法学的定义和研究内容。

掌握语法学的基本知识和术语。

4.2 教学内容语法学的定义和研究内容。

句子结构、词类和时态的概念。

英语语法的规则和用法。

4.3 教学方法讲授和练习相结合，介绍语法学的基本概念。

通过句子结构和时态练习，帮助学生掌握英语语法的规则。

4.4 教学评估课堂语法练习和句子结构分析，了解学生对语法学的掌握程度。

课后作业，要求学生编写简短的英语语法分析文章。

新编简明英语语言学教程

新编简明英语语言学教程引言英语是世界上最广泛使用的第二语言，拥有超过20亿的非母语使用者。

因此，研究英语语言学对于理解这一全球语言的结构和运作方式至关重要。

本文将介绍一部新编的简明英语语言学教程，旨在帮助学习者系统地学习和理解英语语言学的基本概念和原理。

第一章：语言和语言学本章将介绍语言学的定义和目标，解释语言的基本概念，如语音、语法、语义和语用。

通过对语言学的基础知识的介绍，学习者将能够理解英语语言学的主要研究领域和方法。

第二章：音系学音系学是语言学的一个重要分支，研究语音的产生、传播和感知。

本章将介绍英语语音的分类和描述，包括元音、辅音和重音等内容。

同时，还将讨论声调、音位和音变等语音学的重要概念。

第三章：形态学形态学研究词的内部结构和变化规律。

本章将介绍英语的词形变化和构词法，帮助学习者理解单词的构成和词义的变化。

通过学习形态学，学习者将能够更有效地记忆和运用英语中的词汇。

第四章：句法学句法学研究句子的结构和组成规则。

本章将介绍英语句子的基本结构和常见句法规则，如主谓结构、宾语和定语从句等。

学习者将通过理解句法学的知识，提高英语句子的构建和理解能力。

第五章：语义学语义学研究词和句子的意义。

本章将介绍英语词汇的意义分类和语义关系，如同义词、反义词和上下位关系等。

同时，还将讨论句子的真值条件和语义角色等语义学的重要概念。

第六章：语用学语用学研究语言在社交交际中的使用和理解。

本章将介绍英语中的言外之意、语体、礼貌原则和会话分析等语用学的重要概念。

通过学习语用学，学习者将能够更好地理解英语中的语用规则和言语行为。

第七章：历史语言学历史语言学研究语言在时间上的变化和发展。

本章将介绍英语的历史演变和变异，帮助学习者了解英语的词汇、语法和语音的变化过程。

通过学习历史语言学，学习者将能够更深入地理解英语的发展历程。

结论新编简明英语语言学教程是一部全面介绍英语语言学基本概念和原理的教材。

通过系统地学习该教程，学习者能够掌握英语语言学的核心内容，提高对英语语言的理解和运用能力。

新编简明英语语言学教程

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新编简明英语语言学教程中文版

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新编简明英语语言学教程 戴伟栋版

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版课后练习题答案

《新编简明英语语言学教程》(戴伟栋+何兆熊编)

新编简明英语语言学教程中文版2

圣才教育：戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》

新编简明英语语言学教程

(完整word版)新编简明英语语言学教程 戴伟栋版(word文档良心出品)

新编简明英语语言学教程 教案PPT 第一章上

(完整word版)新编简明英语语言学教程中文版

(NEW)戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》(第2版)笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解

简明新编英语语言学教程教案

新编简明英语语言学教程

新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版

(完整word版)新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版(word文档良心出品)

新编简明英语语言学教程教案PPT 第一章上