普通语言学概论第六章第六节RHRobins
普通语言学概要第二版伍铁平
普通语言学概要第二版伍铁平第一章语言与语言学第一节语言是人类特有的财富语言是人区别于其他动物的重要特征之一动物语言表现是现场刺激引起的，所能传递的信息种类有限，可以列举。
每次表现都是用浑然一体的喊叫或动作表示一定的意思，无法拆卸成单位，另行组装。
是一种不用学习的的，与生俱来的本能，是简单的粗疏的工具。
人类语言的特点一功能上——功能开放能够传递的信息无限丰富，包含现实中万事万物，不拘范围，不论题材，新事物新思想过去未来哲理感情除理性的思想外，还要在说话中表示出自己的身份态度情绪目的切合情景有充分的弹性造出无穷的句子。
二结构上------构思巧妙（关键）高度的运转能力语音层符号层语音=> 语素一词一句子音义结合构成符号语言的构造就在这儿从语音层进入符号层语素---音义结合的最小单位一定规则组合构成了词一定规则组合句子------------ — --------------------------- —①任意性----音义结合是任意的一保证任何事物都可以用语言表达②离散性----每个单位有独立的存在，彼此不相混淆T单位可以自由拆装使组成的上级单位内涵分明③层级性----就可以用较少的单位有规则的组成数量上扩大许多倍的上一级单位，逐层递增掌握一种语言意味着掌握他的几十个音素（位），几千个语素以及语音语素词的组合规则人类语言的产生主观本身一高度的思维能力灵活的发音能力客观一有经常的交流需要来推动可能｛直立行走手脚分工制造工具组成社会劳动中锻炼了大脑改造了发音器官｝需要--劳动中产生了组织协调交流思想的需要需要和可能想结合促成了语言的产生语言是人类和其他动物分道扬镳懂的最后的最重要的标志三习得上—人类语言要经过传授才能习得动物语言是与生俱来的本能，不用学习从幼儿学说话来看语言潜能的实现的关键期：1岁半到5岁之间幼儿的学话能力没有种族民族的差别幼儿学语的共同阶段：①咿呀期②独词句阶段③双词句阶段④电报体阶段（虚词语法）⑤接近成人阶段成人学外语条件优越为何反不如儿童地道？①儿童花在学话上的时间相当多平均为每天12小时②成人对儿童说话的特点：a发音：声音偏高强调式语调吐词清楚速度较慢句子之间有明显停顿经常反复一些音节b用词造句：句子简短合乎规格实词多虚词少修饰语和代词也较少使用过祈使疑问用的较多常用诱发问句只要求孩子重复或提供一个词做答案c十分关怀的感情和耐心③本族语的干涉④儿童学话在潜能的关键期内成人不是儿童不自觉学会了说话规则为什么？观点一：模仿说-----儿童学语法是先在头脑里逐步形成规则再根据规则去理解从前没有听到过的句子或产生新的句子观点二：天赋说——儿童天生就具有一种语言习得装置（language acquisitiondevice）观点三：认知说----智力的发展综上：父母的指引儿童的模仿先天的学话机制认知的背景第二节语言是符号系统语言是说话的一部分说话言语动作（张口说话的动作）语言（说话所用的那套代码）言语作品（说出来的话）语言存在的方式语言的构造：音语素词规则单位语言的符号性符号--事物的标记具有约定性（某些人约定或者是社会习惯）符号象征----有一定含义可说狭义的符号---没有理据任意约定的ec语言符号语言的符号是按类给出的舍去个体的特性抽出整类的共性概括成类的意义然后把这个意义跟一组音相结合形成一个符号语言里的符号（指一般而不指个别积累着社会的认识成果）符号是语言里的单位，语言里除单位外还有规则，语言规则的形成也有任意性语言符号的特点：①任意性-----语言符号的音的选择和组合规则归纳在符号里的意义取舍什么音和什么义结合成符号符号和符号组合的规则都是约定俗成的=> 语言的民族的稳固的时代的特点②线条性-----符号与符号组合只能在一条线上伸展符号的组合是有层次的而层次是两维的语言的系统性词要参与结构的组成两种关系①组合关系----组成结构的词之间的关系②聚合关系----有同样组合能力的词之间的关系（有同样组合能力：指这些词都能出现在结构某个位置上彼此可以替换）组词造句-----按意义的需要立出句子的结构把适当的词填入结构的每个位置结构怎么立-----是组合的问题词都要从有关的聚合里去提取----- 是聚合的问题句子是组合和聚合两种规则相互作用产生的组合和聚合不但是词之间的主要关系也是低于词的层级各部分内部诸因素间的主要关系是揭示语言每个层级上的单位如何运转的钥匙也是语言系统性的集中表现第三节语言的社会功能和思维功能语言的社会功能一语言是人类最重要的交际工具对比其他交际工具：文字旗语红绿灯电报代码数学符号化学公式非语言的表情动作空间距离交际是语言的基本职能，语言的其他社会功能是从交际功能中生发出来的二语言是集体的标志民族地区男女老少阶层行业口头书面性格处境.......三语言是社会生活的记录①反映一个民族当时的生产生活社会制度风俗意识形态等②是民族关系的见证（外来词一对外关系）=>语言是打开民族关系的钥匙，是记载历史事实的口碑语言的思维功能一语言是认知的伴侣认知和语言相伴而行音和义组合成语言符号（词）所以语言起着固定认识成果的作用a每个名族的认识成果都能找到相应词语的反映b对个人来说学话的过程实际上就是认识世界和发展思维的过程二语言是思维的重要工具思维-----统指大脑的意识活动形象思维：包括感觉知觉表象这些层次的带有形象的心理活动抽象思维：在概念判断推理这些心理层次上进行的词语句子一组句子形象思维内容的表达T语言用语言表达出来的形象要经过抽象思维的加工借助语言来体现和组织三语言是信息的载体信息甲流的五个阶段编码---发送---传递---接收---解码计算机是人类思维的延伸T需要一个信息载体语言第四节语言学的任务社会的需要推动语言学的发展语言学研究基础研究（研究语言本身）应用研究（研究语言学的各种应用）交叉研究（语言学和其他学科共同研究语言及其邻界现象的相互关系—交叉学科）语言的基础研究目的是弄清语言本身的基本情况为学习应用和研究提供必要的信息分类个别语言的研究（状态历史）语言共性的研究（状态历史）①状态：指语言发展中的一个平面重要的是现代的平面，同时也指过去某一历史时期的平面对状态的研究采取描写的方法系统地揭示语言各部分的单位关系和规则说明各部分如何协调制约保证整体的运转描写语言的方法：分析术衡量术的标准是好坏和是否合用②历史1语言过去的样子T理解古代文献2经过哪些坎坷曲折-深化对现状的认识3哪些因素推动语言的演变规律性-把握语言的动向=> 方法① 理出演变线索归纳出条理②以今证古③内部构拟法区别：语言描写—静态研究—说明语言的构造和运转语言历史—动态研究—说明语言演变的方式和规律性联系：互相补充印证观念改变：①语言研究曾长期偏重于历史 -状态领先于历史②语言是社会约定俗成描写只能真实地反映语言的状况无权规定它应该怎样但不是反对语言的规范③描写语言状态时口语领先于书面语语言的应用研究和交叉研究①应用语言学：语言学的应用研究运用语言学的理论方法和基础研究的成果来阐明解决其他领域中出现的语言问题A最大课题—语言教学（本族语教学外语教学）B使用方面锻炼口语表达能力的演讲术提高写作能力的作文法修辞学是语言应用研究历来关心的重点C翻译技巧的研究D选定民族共同语定规范②交叉研究：人文科学包括文学社会学历史学地理学考古学心理学哲学逻辑学文化史科技包括数学信息论电子学医学符号学情报学通信技术计算机科学自动化技术交叉学科：社会语言学人类语言学地理语言学心理语言学神经语言学数理语言学实验语言学计算语言学认知语言学模糊语言学计算机与语言学基本原理：在计算机里预存一定规模的词典语法规则语义规则推理规则和有关主题的知识第二章语言的构造与机制第一节语言的构造语言的构造词汇系统-----构筑语言系统的种种词汇单位的集合包括语素词短语其中最重要的是词语素作用在于构词但不限于构词有一些语素只起语法作用如词尾语法系统------由种种组织词汇单位的规则组成的系统语法规则：实质表现的是各词汇单位内部或相互之间在造句（或构词）方面的关系语言单位形式---- 语音（音素音节）内容------语义（义素）语言的构造：以语音为形式以语义为内容由词汇和语法构成的系统语言单位的切分和归并①切分句子最具独立性可切分因为语言有线条性切分的标准①看它们有无相同的功能（切分出的单位）A从句子切分词主要目的在于看它们能否直接组成句子或者充当句子成分（实词）或者在造句中起语法等作用（虚词）B切分语素标准与表达意义有关语素是最小的有意义的单位②既要看它们能否以相同意义在不同的上下文中出现又要看这些片段本身能否再切分成更小的有意义的单位切分音素音节抛开了同语义的联系切分之后丢掉的东西①各种组织规则②附着在整个组合（结构）之上的语调重音等②归并（又叫同一）是判明话语中多次出现的类似单位是不是同一个单位的过程一般引起对立的差异不应该忽略凡有对立性区别的多是不同的单位不对立而又类似才是同一单位对立-----需要判明的单位在相同的语言环境中出现时能够区别意义这时它们应该属于不同的单位例普通话的D T 现汉中花掉了（开的花落了）花掉了（花费出去了）不对立-----①可以在相同的上下文出现但没有区别意义作用例南京话兰州话中N L不分英EXCISE （消费税）读----------但这种不对立往往是规范的对象要消除异读的现象②互补：两种需判明的单位各自在不同的语境中出现-----甲出现的语境乙不能出现而乙出现的语境甲不能出现于是甲乙互补互补的单位无区别意义的作用故不对立例——语素和词的几个义项之间亦互补正------歪（垂直或符合标准）——侧偏（位置在中间）反（正面）副（主要的基本的）----------------------- 负（大于0的）语义互补的语言环境远大于语音互补不对立是判断是否同一单位的必要条件③切分和归并的关系①切分和归并是研究语言单位不可避免的两种相互关联的程序②语言是一种线性的复杂结构需切分加以研究③只有进行了归并才能将各种并无实质性区别的单位归并成一个真正的语言单位所谓复现便指这种语言单位的复现④归并又是衡量切分是否正确的手段语言单位的组合关系和和聚合关系①组合关系：语言单位在语流中产生的相互关系（搭配关系拼合关系）组合关系受限制体现出语言单位的选择性①同一层级的单位才能组合语音层中音位----音位音节——音节词汇层中语素----语素词-----词/短语②同一层级的语言单位能否组合--—社会习惯一组合规律组合体（结构）：语言单位按照组合关系组成的片段②聚合关系：组合体中的各个单位往往可以被其他单位替换这些可以通过联想进行类比形成的语言单位间相互替换的关系聚合体：有聚合关系的各个语言单位组成一个聚合体替换----在确定聚合关系时占有重要位置通过替换可以发现语言单位由出现的语境所显示的组合能力可以相同也可以不同由此可以把语言单位分成不同的类③组合关系和聚合关系的相互作用①组合关系是聚合关系形成的标准②组合关系又必须得到聚合关系的支持（熟语例外）③组合关系第一性一切语言单位都必须经过组合在言语中出现即语言单位首先必须是某一组合体的成员正是从各种组合关系中人们才能通过联想类比发现聚合关系第二节语言的机制一预设机制预设的概念----［德］弗雷格1892 （19世纪的亚里士多德）他的理论被认为是人工智能的理论基础预设——①无需说出的说出来只会引人发笑②可以说出来不会造成幽默可笑的效果没话找话说说些预设自明的话是寒暄话的一大特点例——二排除机制（与预设相对）共时①语义方面：由于上下文制约只出现一个意义②构词方面：例---居住同义但同住者不等于同居者③语音方面：英：SPEAK PIE B P不区别意义汉：爸怕区别意义④书写方面：例------历时刘献廷w新韵谱》：声母以外的部分一韵父因韵父与韵腹同音易混淆一改韵母古英语HARVEST①收获②秋天诺曼入侵英语吸收法语借词14世纪AUTUMN 秋天16世纪普遍用AUTUMN于是排除了HARVEST秋天之意三补偿机制＜一＞共同补偿现象①汉语中动词的时制区别或者不表示出来或者不明显=＞否定动词行为用副词不未没等词之间的区别来补偿表示时制手段之不足已经重复—用又将来重复—用再②汉：不严格区分手和手臂但用动词的区别来补偿HAND IN HAND 手拉手ARM IN ARM 手挽手③英YOU没有平称敬称之分用动词虚拟式等手段表示客气以资补偿COULD YOU PLEASE PASS ME THE SALT④DEAR亲爱的昂贵的易混淆用EXPENSIVE表示昂贵的来作补偿⑤广西桂平吃茶—吃药喝茶—喝茶水名词（宾语）的混同用不同动词的区别来排除动词起了补偿名词的作用排除机制和补偿机制往往同时起作用＜二＞历时补偿现象古英语名词有五个格T现代五个格全消失用词序相对地固定和介词来补偿四多余机制（羡余成分）（羡多余剩余［古代］）使得人们在进行语言交际时即使受到外界干扰也不会影响理解①俄语（以多余成分著称）②英MANY BOYS③汉一条板凳一张桌子一把椅子（个体量词）（但他给了我一把刀不等于他给了我一刀）A构词上有同义词素构成的词同义反复结构偏义词或偏义结构（捐弃疾病奇怪。
《普通语言学》第 6 次课
此音何以得名: (略)
主要代表：英语语音中的[p, b, t, d, k, g]是爆破音。
4. APPROXIMATANT (近音) 5. LATERAL (边音) 6. TRILL (颤音) 7. TAP and FLAP (一次接触音和闪音) 8. AFFRICATE (塞擦音 或 破擦音)
4. PLACE of ARTICULATION refers to the point
where a consonant is made. Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds. 1. BILABIAL (双唇音) 2. LABIODENTAL (唇齿音) 3. DENTAL (齿音) 4. ALVEOLAR (齿龈音) 5. POSTALVEOLAR (齿龈后音) 6. RETROFLEX (卷舌音) 7. PALATAL (硬腭音)
8. VELAR (软腭音) 9. UVULAR (小舌音) 10. PHARYNGEAL (咽音) 11. GLOTTAL (声门音)
5. 对上述音的描写中，所涉及的方面有： 1. 发音规则; 2.主要代表
1. STOP or PLOSIVE
(塞音/闭塞音/口腔塞音或破裂音/爆破音)
发音特点：Complete closure of the articulators is involved so that the airstream cannot escape through the mouth. [发音器官完全关闭，气流无法从口腔 通过]
普通语言学概要
普通语言学概要 1. 语言学的对象和任务：一门古老而又年轻的科学；语文语言；一种语言的句子是无限的，但是组成它的材料和规则是有限的2. 世界上的语言 a) 世界上已查明的语言或方言有5500多种，已确定的独立语言2790种，有70%的语言没有文字，被研究过的语言有500多种，有近千种语言在消亡 b) 在北美有170多种印第安语在消亡，澳洲有250多种土语、西非有280多种语言在消亡 c) 使用人数超过6千万人的语言有13种：汉、英、俄、法、西、阿、印地、日、印尼、德、孟、葡、意3.语言的社会功能 a) 语言是人类最重要的交际工具其他交际工具：文字、红绿灯、手势等 b) 语言是一种特殊的社会现象语言是具有全民性而没有阶级性的语言既不属于经济基础也不属于上层建筑，这两方面的改变都不能从本质上改变语言语言是社会生活的记录语言本身可以提供大量信息语言是民族关系的见证4. 语言的思维功能 a) 语言是认知的工具语言在认识的过程中起着固定认识成果的作用，词语的发展也反映了社会认知的发展（人类） b) 学话的过程也就是认识世界的过程（个人）5. 语言是思维的重要工具 a) 抽象思维需要语言 b) 形象思维不需要语言 c) 思维是全人类共同的，但语言是各民族不同的6. 语言是信息的载体 a) 编码—发送—传递—接受—解码7. 语言的符号性：符号及符号的构。
有特定的语音表达出来的意义才成为语义语言符号的特点： 1任意性：就语言的起源、自然性而言“约定俗成”出自《荀子·正名》：“名无固实，约之以命实，约定俗成谓之实名。
” 2线条性：符号的使用只能在时间的线条上绵延，依次出现，是单维的以上特点由瑞士学者索绪尔在《普通语言学教程》中指出8. 语言的系统性：语言是一个分层装置，靠组合和替换来运转 a) 层级性 b) 最低层音位几十个 c) 第一级语素：音义结合的最小单位几千个 d) 第二级词：由语素构成几万个 e) 第三级短语：由词构成无限 f) 效能：已少数有规则地组成多数，层层翻番，以至无穷9. 组合关系和聚合关系 a) 组合关系：组成结构的符号之间的关系 b) 聚合关系：具有同样的组合能力的符号之间的关系 c) 组合关系（看的见）：语言单位彼此之间的组合关系是有选择性的d) 聚合关系（看不见）：通过联想进行类比形成的语言单位间互相替换的关系10.组合关系和聚合关系的相互作用： a) 组合关系是聚合关系形成的标准 b) 组合关系必须得到聚合关系的支持 c) 组合关系是第一性的，聚合关系是第二性的11.语言的特征：1）语言是人类特有的财富（单位的明晰性、任意性、结构的二层性、开放性、传授性、不受时地环境的限制）2）语言是后天习得的（关键期：1岁半——5岁；阶段：A,咿呀期：几个月半岁以后B独词句一岁半C双词句阶段两岁左右造句萌芽D电报体阶段两岁半到三岁E接近成人阶段快四岁时F达到成人水平五岁）语言是有声的 4）语言的稳固性和发展性 5）语言是说话的一部分12.语言时说话的一部分 i. 说话=动作+说话所使用的代码+说出来的话 ii. 法庭上应该说普通话，轮到你作证时你才说话，法庭认为你的话有说服力13.语言和言语的区别：语言是社会性的，是一种社会现象；言语是个人性的，是说话的动作及其结果。
《语言学教程》中文笔记(完整)
语言学教程笔记第一章语言学导论语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。
1.任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核心特征。
例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pen/。
任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。
（2）句法层面上的任意性。
（3）任意性和规约性。
2.二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。
话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。
因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。
二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产性。
3.创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。
利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。
4.移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间或观点。
因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而后者位置距我们非常之远。
语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。
移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。
词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化的语境中。
他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。
5.文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。
6.互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。
元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。
比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。
这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考”。
所以只有人类才能提问：元语言功能对交际、思考及人类的意义是什么？语言学的一些重要区别1.“描写式”和“规范式”描写式：客观系统地记录一种语言的模式和用法或变化。
《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示_百度文库
英语语言学概论》重、难点提示整理人:宁强县第一中学陈宁第一章语言的性质语言的定义:语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性;语言的功能(寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为;语言的起源(神授说,人造说,进化说等。
第二章语言学语言学定义;研究语言的四大原则(穷尽、一致、简洁、客观;语言学的基本概念(口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为;普通语言学的分支(语音、音位、语法、句法、语义;;语言学的应用(语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称;英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法;语音学的定义;发音语音学;听觉语音学;声学语音学;元音及辅音的分类;严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论;最小对立体;自由变异;互补分布;语音的相似性;区别性特征;超语段音位学;音节;重音(词重音、句子重音、音高和语调等。
第五章词法学词法的定义;曲折词与派生词;构词法(合成与派生;词素的定义;词素变体;自由词素;粘着词素(词根,词缀和词干等。
第六章词汇学词的定义;语法词与词汇词;变词与不变词;封闭词与开放词;词的辨认;习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义;句法关系;结构;成分;直接成分分析法;并列结构与从属结构;句子成分;范畴(性,数,格;一致;短语,从句,句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义;语义的有关理论;意义种类(传统、功能、语用;里奇的语义分类;词汇意义关系(同义、反义、下义;句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化(词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化;第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义;萨丕尔-沃夫假说;语言与思维的关系;语言与文化的关系;中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义;语义学与语用学的区别;语境与意义;言语行为理论(言内行为、言外行为和言后行为;合作原则。
《普通语言学》教案
《普通语言学》教案第一章：引言1.1 课程介绍了解本课程的目标、内容和教学方法。
强调语言学的重要性和实际应用价值。
1.2 语言与语言学定义语言和语言学的概念。
解释语言的本质和功能。
探讨语言的起源和发展。
1.3 语言学分支介绍语言学的各个分支，如语音学、词汇学、语法学、语义学等。
解释各分支的研究对象和研究方法。
1.4 语言学与应用探讨语言学在不同领域的应用，如教育、翻译、语言技术等。
强调语言学对人类社会的重要性。
第二章：语言的本质2.1 语言与符号系统解释语言作为一种符号系统的特点。
探讨语言符号的任意性和规则性。
2.2 语言的多样性与统一性介绍不同语言之间的多样性，如语音、语法、词汇等方面的差异。
强调人类语言的统一性，如语法结构的普遍性。
2.3 语言的生物基础探讨语言与大脑的关系，了解语言处理的神经机制。
讨论语言能力与智力、遗传等因素的关系。
2.4 语言的社交功能强调语言在人类社交交流中的作用。
探讨语言的约定俗成性和社交约束力。
第三章：语音学与音系学3.1 语音学概述定义语音学的概念，介绍语音学的研究对象。
分析语音的特点，如音高、音强、音长等。
3.2 音素与音位解释音素和音位的概念，探讨它们的关系。
分析音位的分布规律和语音变化。
3.3 音系学概述定义音系学的概念，介绍音系学的研究方法。
探讨音系规则和音系对立。
3.4 语音障碍与语音治疗讨论语音障碍的原因和类型，如发音困难、语音不清等。
介绍语音治疗的方法和技术。
第四章：词汇学与语义学4.1 词汇学概述定义词汇学的概念，介绍词汇学的研究对象。
探讨词汇的分类和词汇之间的关系。
4.2 词义与语义解释词义和语义的概念，探讨它们的关系。
分析词义的分类和语义的传递。
4.3 语义学概述定义语义学的概念，介绍语义学的研究方法。
探讨语义场的构建和语义关系。
4.4 词汇与新词创造分析词汇的途径，如词缀法、合成法等。
探讨新词创造的规则和趋势。
第五章：语法学与句法学5.1 语法学概述定义语法学的概念，介绍语法学的研究对象。
(完整版)英语语言学概论--整理
Chapter 1 Language语言1. Design feature （识别特征） refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal systemof communication。
2. Productivity（能产性） refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantitiesof sentences in their native language。
3. arbitrariness （任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between alinguistic form and its meaning.4. symbol （符号） Symbol refers to something such as an object, word， or sound that represents something else by associationor convention.5. discreteness (离散性） Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct.6. displacement(不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about thingsthat are not in the immediate situations of its users。
普通语言学第六章
Speech act theory
• Constatives (叙述句) ---- statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable; • Performatives (施为句) ---- sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable. • Note: Sometimes they are easy to get confused, e.g.“It is raining outside” can be a constative, and also a performative, for by uttering such a sentence, we may not only state a fact, but involve in the act of informing someone about the rain.
• Note: Pragmatics can make sense out of nonsense, given a suitable context. Appropriateness is very important in linguistic communication, especially in cross-cultural communication. If you say something grammatically incorrect, you are at worse condemned as “speaking badly”, but, if you say something inappropriately, you will be judged as “behaving badly”, such as insincere, untruthful, or deceitful. (Thomas, 1983)
普通语言学概要提纲介绍
第一章语言和语言学第一节语言是人类特有的“财富”一、什么是语言音义结合的符号系统，人类用于交际和思维的工具。
二、语言是人类特有的动物的“语言”和人类语言的本质区别：（一）人类语言的功能开放性和动物“语言”的功能相对封闭性（二）人类语言结构的任意性、离散性、层级性和动物语言结构的简单性。
（三）人类的语言是可以学习和传授的，动物语言则是与生俱来的。
三、幼儿怎样学会说话1、模仿说2、天赋说3、认知说第二节语言是符号系统一、语言和言语在语言学中说话是一种复合现象，至少可以分出三个组成部分：一是张口说话的动作，称为言语动作或言语行为；二是说话所用的单位（材料）和规则，由语音、词汇、语义、语法等子系统组成，称为语言；三是说出来的话，称为言语作品。
我们也可以把一和三统称为言语，它和二形成言语与语言的对立。
言语可以总结为“个人说的行为和结果”，它是对语言的运用及其成果。
语言是从言语中概括出来的，人类用于交际和思维的最重要的音义结合的符号系统，言语是语言的存在形式；语言是抽象的系统,言语是其具体的运用；语言是社会的，言语是个人的；语言是有限的，言语是无限的。
二、语言的符号性（一）符号1、含义符号就是人们约定的，代表某种事物的标记。
2、特点（1）符号都具有形式和内容两个方面。
内容即是符号所代表的意义，即“所指”；形式是可以为人的感觉器官感知到的外在形式，即“能指”。
（2）符号的内容和形式之间一般没有天然的联系。
3、分类（1）从符号的形式作用的感觉器官不同，可以分为听觉符号、视觉符号、触觉符号等。
（2）从符号的内容和形式之间有无联系上，可以把符号分为象征性符号和任意性符号。
语言是音义结合的听觉符号，形式是语音，内容是语义。
（二）语言符号的特点1、音义结合的任意性语言符号具有任意性，这是源于索绪尔的观点。
所谓任意性即音义结合的任意性。
什么样的声音表达什么样的意义完全是任意的。
它们之间没有本质的、必然的联系，也即是它们之间的结合是不可论证的，完全是由使用语言的社会成员约定俗成的。
语言学概论(笔记整理)
《. What is language？“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human l anguages, developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than writt en. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.. What are design features of language？“Design features” here refer to the defining properties ofhuman language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability. What is arbitrariness？By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo wor ds, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or m ore transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.is duality？Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, languageis analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. , language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.is productivity？Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those tha t has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register.Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by .is displacement？“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now a nd there. It couldn’t be bow wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.is cultural transmission？This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of thelinguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.is interchangeability？(1) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to make me happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to thelistener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.(2) Some male birds, however, utter some calls, which females do not (or cannot), and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” and which listening.do linguists say language is human specific？First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them (see I .2-8). Let’s borrow C. F. Hocket’s Chart that compares human language with some animals’ systems, from Wang Gang (1998,.Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Beatnice and Alan Gardner brought up Washoe, a female chimpanzee, like a human child. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child”infunctions does language have？Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and per formative. According to Wang Gang (1988,, language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art. M .A. , representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal and textual (see! 11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al., pp10-13, pp394-396).1. 11What is the phatic function？The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language . “How are you” “Fine, thanks.”) Is insin cere iftaken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don’t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.. What is the directive function？The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, ., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to and ’s “indirect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direction too, ., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”is the informative function？Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to ’s “Cooperative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.is the interrogative function？When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have t his function as well, ., “I’d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s/listener’s answer.is the expressive function？The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I’m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own a ttitudes.is the evocative function？The “evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, ., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with the other way round.is the per formative function？This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze Bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say, “OK”, which means more than speech, and more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration, etc., are performatives as well (see ’s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, .is linguistics？“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but also the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp20-22)makes linguistics a science？Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data, which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the languagestructure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.are the major branches of linguistics？The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics Zhuanglin et al., 1988;Wang Gang, 1988). But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics,psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc.are synchronic and diachronic studies？The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachroni c). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp25-27).is speech and what is writing？(1) No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary; because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.(2) In contrast to speech, spoken form of language,writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.(3) Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches？A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high”(literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.is the difference between langue and parole？F. De Saussure refers “langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, I. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on laterlinguists.is the difference between competence and performance？(1) According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence. (2) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.(3) Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point ofview than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.is linguistic potential What is actual linguistic behavior？M. A. K. Halliday made these two terms, or thepotential-behavior distinction, in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says . his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree In what way do they differ And their counterparts？Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different (see . Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker’s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actualutterance situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. Competence means “knowing”, and linguistic potential a set of possibilities for “doing” or “performing actions”. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.is phonetics？“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer’s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on thehearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain.(3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulator phonetics.are the vocal organs formed？The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al., p41), or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.is place of articulation？It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved. g. Lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1) bilabial: [p, b, m]; (2) labiodental: [f, v]; (3) dental: [,]; (4) alveolar: [t, d, l, , z]; (5) retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar: [,]; (7) palatal: [j]; (8) velar [k, g,]; (9) uvular; (10) glottal: [h].Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w] has both an approximation of the two lips and those two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed“labial-velar”.is the manner of articulation？The “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstreams may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following: (1) plosive: [p, b, t, d, k, g]; (2) nasal: [m, n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap; (5) lateral: [l]; (6) fricative: [f, v, s, z]; (7) approximant: [w, j]; (8) affricate: [].do phoneticians classify vowels？Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1) long and short vowels, .,[i:,]; (4) rounded and unround vowels,.[,i]; (5) pure and gliding vowels, .[I,].is IPA When did it come into beingThe IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet”,is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription？In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet made a distinction between “narrow” and “broad” transcriptions, which he called “Narrow Romic”. The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.is phonology What is difference between phonetics and phonology？(1) “Phonology” is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.(2) Phonetics, as discussed in , is the branch oflinguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language.is a phone What is a phoneme What is an allophone(1) A “phone” is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced:[pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different[p]’s, readily making possible the “narrow transcription or diacritics”. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A “phoneme” i s a phonological unit; it is a unit that is ofdistinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].(2) The phones representing a phoneme are called its “allophones”, i. e., the different ., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So th e different[p]’s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.are minimal pairsWhen two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, ., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc. All these words together constitute a minimal set. They areidentical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).is free variation？If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in “free variation”. The plosives, for example, may not be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme.is complementary distribution？When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary distribution”. For example, the asp iratedEnglish plosives never occur after[s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of[l], for example, are also in complementary distribution. The clear[l] occurs only before a vowel, the voiceless equivalent of[l] occurs only after a voiceless consonant, such as in the words “please”, “butler”, “clear”, etc., and the dark[l] occurs only after a vowel or as a syllabic sound after a consonant, such as in the w ords “feel”, “help”, “middle”, etc.is the assimilation rule What is the deletion rule？(1) The “assimilation rule” assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasal[n] that occurs within a word. The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant[n] assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant. The negative prefix “in-“ serves as a good example. It ma y be pronounced as [in], or [im] when occurring in different phonetic contexts: e. g., indiscrete-[ ](alveolar) inconceivable-[ ](velar)。
伍铁平 普通语言学概要教案版
第一章语言与语言学第一节语言是人类特有的“财富”一、什么是语言我们正常的人每天都要讲话，就像每天都要呼吸，都要睡觉一样，语言无处不在。
但至今语言学界对语言还没有一个清晰而统一的定义。
一般来说，我们可以把语言定义为：人类用于交际和思维的最重要的音义结合的符号系统。
语言是交际和思维的工具，它又是最重要的，是作用于听觉的，很严密的符号体系。
二、语言是人类特有的“人有人言，兽有兽语”，人类以外的动物也有所谓的“语言”。
但这些所谓的动物“语言”和人类的语言有着本质的区别。
另外，动物也不能真正掌握人类的语言。
我们主要来看动物的语言和人的语言的本质区别：（一）人类语言结构的任意性、离散性、层级性和动物语言结构的简单性。
语言中绝大多数的词和语素的音义结合具有任意性。
即用什么样的音表达什么样的意义是任意的，没有道理可言的。
比如，汉语“人”“走”“好”等词为什么用语音形式“ren35”“zou214”“hao214”来表达，是说不出道理的，其实当初完全可以用其他语音形式来表达。
音义结合的任意性保证了任何事物都可用语音表达。
离散性指每个单位都独立存在，彼此不相混淆。
离散性保证了单位的自由拆装。
而且通常可以使组装成的上一级单位内涵分明，便于从成分断定整体。
人类的语言内部是分层级的：分为两层。
音位层和符号层。
音位层包括几十个音位。
符号层又分三级：语素、词、句子。
语言划分了层级，就可以用较少的单位有规则的组成数量上扩大许多倍的上一级单位，逐级递增，直到无穷。
动物所谓的“语言”有一定程度的任意性，但局限于一个题目，是僵硬的。
动物的叫喊是浑沌的，无法分析出明晰的单位。
动物语言的结构是非常简单的，只包括一套相互区别的本能反应。
这种低效率的结构自然限制了动物语言的功能。
2、人类语言的功能开放性和动物“语言”的功能相对封闭性人类的语言具有功能开放性，表现在人类语言的可变性和创造性上。
人类语言虽然是一个相对稳定的系统，但随着社会的发展、人类的进步，语言各要素都在发生着变化。
普通语言学教程笔记(索绪尔)
《普通语言学教程》索绪尔绪论第一章语言学史一瞥语法（规范）-语文学（过于注重书面语）-比较语文学或比较语法（只比较）-新语法学派（语言集团集体精神的产物）第二章语言学的材料和任务；与毗邻科学的关系语言学的任务是：a 对一切能够得到的语言进行描写并整理他们的历史，尽可能重建每个语系的母语；b 寻求在一切语言中永恒地普遍地起作用的力量，整理出能概况一切历史特殊现象的一般规律；c 确定自己的界限和定义。
它与社会心理学、生理学、语文学相关。
语言学也有实际用途，特别是对于那些利用文献的人，另外对一般修养也很重要。
第三章语言学的对象定义——在任何时候，语言都是现行制度和过去的产物。
我们的研究方法是一开始就站在语言的阵地上，把它当做言语活动的其他一切表现的准则。
语言和言语活动不能混为一谈，它只是言语活动的一个确定的部分，而且当然是一个主要部分，它既是言语机能的社会产物，又是社会集团为了使个人有可能行使这机能所采用的一整套必不可少的规约。
语言本身是一个整体，一个分类的原则。
它是一种约定俗成的东西，人们同意使用什么符号，这符号的性质是无关轻重的。
对人类天赋的不是口头的言语活动，而是构成语言——即一套和不同的观念相当的不同的符号——的机能。
人们说话的机能——不管是天赋的或非天赋的——只有借助于集体所创造和提供的工具才能运用，所以，说语言使言语活动成为统一体，绝不是空想。
语言在言语活动事实中的地位——言语循环重建：心理现象-生理过程-物理过程-生理过程-心理现象（c-i）这一主动过程称为执行部分，（i-c）这一被动过程称为接受部分，此外还有联合和配置的机能。
语言是社会的、主要的，言语是个人的、偶然的、从属的。
语言的特征是：1 他是言语活动事实的混杂的总体中的一个十分确定的对象，是言语的社会部分。
2 语言是人们能够分出来加以研究的对象。
3 言语是异质的，而规定下来的语言是同质的，它是一种符号系统，在系统中，只有意义和音响形象的结合是主要的，符号的两个部分都是心理的。
英语学习胡壮麟语言学详细笔记
Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规那么在语言交际中的表达。
《普通语言学概要》
其实这些话都是多余的。因为既然已见面，自然是回来了，“回来”是“见面”的前提。
但是，这是一种很久不见面，与人打招呼的日常寒暄方式，而且可能是一种较好的方式；因为它比："什么时候回来的?"只类的更为礼貌.
什么是符号？粗略地说，符号是事物的标记。事物的标记并非都是符号。
每个词都处在两种关系当中：一是组合关系，一是聚合关系。
第三节形象思维包括感觉、知觉、表象这些层次的带有形象的心理活动。比方，回忆过去一位同学的音容笑貌。
抽象思维是在概念、判断、推理这些心理层次上进行的：概念的载体是词语。比方，我们平时思考问题，说话打腹稿。
排除机制
补偿机制
多余机制
类推机制
对称机制
汉语中的"2+2"对称式的四字格在汉族人心理中造成了一种语言优势,以致遇到语义上"1+3"格式时,人们也往往受到类推机制的影响.如"一衣带水",易被误解为"一衣,带水"
在句法中,主宾语的位置也表现出对称的特点.如
"Happy is the man who is living by his hobby."正确语序是The man who is living by his hobby is happy.
聚合关系。（）+宾语=动宾短语，括号中的及物动词就可以看成一个聚合体。
第二节
预设机制。人在使用自然语言时，有很多不言自明的预设，否则交际就会比较困难。如，现在称“拍手”（也可说“拍掌”、“鼓掌”），并不影响交际，这是因为人们脑子里有预设：通常“拍手”指的是拍手掌，而不是手背、手腕、手臂或者手指。
普通语言学概要课件
• 义素是对词的义项加以进一步分析后得到 的语义特征，是最小的语义单位。 • 义素分析：一般采用对比的方法，即通过 对不同的词义（义项）的对比找出义素来。
• • • • •
三、词的基本组合类型 四、词类 词类是词的语法类别。 划分词类的标准 1.形态标准：根据词形变化来确定词类。这是最 简单、最明显，也是最可靠的标准。在形态比较 丰富的语言中，不同类的词具有不同的形态，因 此，可以用形态作为标准划分词类。但是它不适 用于像汉语这样缺乏形态变化的语言。 • 2.结合能力标准。 • 3.意义标准。
第一节 语言的构造
• • • 一、语言的构造 二、语言单位的切分和归并 三、语言单位的组合关系和聚合关系
第二节 语言的机制
• • • • • • • 一、预设机制 二、排除机制 三、补偿机制 四、多余机制 五、类推机制 六、对称机制 七、经济机制
第一节 语音的性质和分类
• 一、语音的物理性质 （音高、音强、音长、 音质四个要素 ） • 二、语音的生理基础 • 三、音素和音标 • 元音和辅音的区别 ： • 1．气流是否受阻。 2．发音器官的紧张程 度 。3．气流强弱。 4．声带振动与否。 5．持续时间的久暂。
第三节 句子
• 一、句子和成句的条件 • 句子是能表达一个相对完整的意思、具有 特定语调的语言单位，是语言运用的基本 单位。 • 二、句子的结构分析 • 三、显性结构和隐性结构 • 四、变换
第四节 语法结构类型
• 一、形态类型 • 词根语，粘着语，屈折语，编插语。 • 二、句法类型
英语语言学课件Chapter 6 The Sound Patterns of Languag
• Thousands of physical different ways of saying “Me”
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Phonology
• Definition: f the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language
• Based on a theory of what every speaker of a language unconsciously knows about the sound patterns of the language
• Concerned with the abstract or mental aspect of the sounds in language rather than within the actual physical articulation of speech sounds
• Feat, fit, fat, fate, fought, foot • Big, pig, rig, fig, dig, wig
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Phonotactics
• Constraints on the sequence or position of English phonemes
• Part of every speaker’s phonological knowledge
• [i] in seed and seen [i] in seen nasalised
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Minimal Pairs and Sets
• Phonemic distinctions in a L can be tested via pairs and set of words
语言学概论第1章绪论
心理社会学派
心理社会学派：以梅耶、格拉蒙、房德里耶斯、 巴利、薛施蔼等为代表。他们认为语言既是社 会事实，也是心理现象。
结构主义语言学派
结构主义语言学派
布拉格学派（功能派） 哥本哈根学派（符号派） 美国学派（描写派）
布拉格学派（功能派）
布拉格学派（功能派）：以马泰休斯、特鲁别 茨柯依、雅柯布逊等为代表。形成于1926年， 刊物：《布拉格语言学会会报》。他们发挥了 索绪尔的语言社会观，重视语言的社会功能， 把结构与功能结合起来，认为语言活动和人类 其他活动一样具有目的性，应该用功能观点去 研究语言。在音位和音位区别特征理论方面取 得重大突破，这一派被称为“功能派”，也叫 “音位学派”。
交叉语言学阶段
随着当代社会的飞跃发展，语言学和社会科学 与自然科学的关系越来越密切。它们之间相互 渗透，形成一些交叉性、边缘性学科。
心理语言学、人类语言学、病理语言学、数理 语言学、文化语言学、应用语言学、模糊语言 学……
交叉性、边缘性是新时期语言学的最大的特点。
学习语言学的意义
（一）科学技术现代化需要语言学。 （二）语言教学和研究离不开语言学。 （三）制定和理解语文政策都离不开语言学。
哥本哈根学派（符号派）
哥本哈根学派（符号派）：以布龙达尔、叶尔 姆斯列夫为代表。成立于1931年，刊物《语 言学学报》。该派将索绪尔的语言符号说发展 到极端，认为语言只是一种内容形式和表达形 式所构成的符号。这种符号不依赖语音和现实 世界而存在，因此他们研究的不是语言结构， 而是抽象的关系结构。他们常常用一些同数学 符号很相近的符号系统来代表传统的术语。这 一派被称为“符号派”，也叫“语符学派”。
语言是语言学的研究对象。主要研究语言的 性质、功能、结构，语言的现状、变化及发展 规律。
《普通语言学概要》伍铁平 第六章语言的发展
2 社会的分化和统一推动语言的发展 方言的产生是社会分化为相对独立 的社会群体后形成的,如果这种分化的时 间进一步延长,地域方言就可能变为亲属 语言. 相反,如果不同社会之间或同一社会 各部分之间走向统一时,语言或地区方言 的差别就会减少,语言就会逐步走向统一. 语言的分化和统一是语言发展中两 个基本过程.
社会方言和地域方言的异同
共同点: 都是全民语言的分支,全民语言的变体. 差异点: 1 地域方言是以地域上的分布定范围的,在 同一个区域内,一般只有一种地域方言;社会方言 不是按地区来划分的,在同一区域内,可以有多种 不同的地域方言. 2 地域方言的特点表现在语音、词汇、语法 各个方面;社会方言的特点基本上表现在词汇方 面.
3 民族间的接触推动语言发展 汉代通西域,引进了“狮子、苜蓿、 葡萄、核桃、石榴、玻璃”等词语; 佛教的传入引进了“和尚、塔、 比丘尼、魔、菩萨”等词语. 1840年后引进的词语更多.
从日本语中借来的 借用汉语文献中的词赋予新义:
“革命\教育\经济\文化\封建\社会\ 劳动\保险” 利用汉语的构词材料构成新词: “积极\科学\历史\军事\干部\情报\ 解放\调整” 用汉语材料创造新词: “取缔\服务\支部\手续”
我国历史上语言融合的记载
太和十九年六月己亥，诏不得以北俗之语 言于朝廷。若有违者，免所居官。 《魏书•高祖孝文帝纪》 汝辈自幼惟习汉人风俗，不知女真纯实之 风，至于文字语言，或不通晓，是忘本也。 又命，“应卫士有不闲女真语者，并勒学 习，仍自后不得汉语。 ” 《金史•世宗本纪》
三 融合的基本过程 融合是个漫长的过程,基本过程大体是： 双语 一种语言 注 意： 失败的语言并不是一点东西都不留下， 而是把自己语言中的成分遗留在胜利的 语言中。
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Dual: specific word forms associated with two objects, persons, or the like. Like “both” in English. Dual is therefore is a lexical, not a grammatical category in most European languages today. One singular More than one plural But collections is an exception: 如wheat，barely，and corn to the singular Oats to the plural Wheat grows well here, oats grow wely of gender In English, gender is really only applicable to the anaphoric pronominal links nouns and he, she, it, and the reflexive pronouns himself, herself. Some anomalies: She有时候用于ships, cars, bicycles, and the names of countries (England, France, Germany). Baby may be referred to by it when the sex is unknown. Cousin (堂兄弟姊妹): the sex distinction is equally unmarked.
Meaning of grammatical categories 语法范畴的意义
Affixes and other markers of grammatical categories vary greatly in the degree to which their presence in a word correlates with a definite semantic function ascribable to the word as a whole. A semantic label attached to the affix and the category marked it may be useful, and categories are well known in grammatical writings.
1.Category of number
Semantic correlation of formally established categories may vary from tolerable closeness to extreme indeterminacy. Between the category of number and the actual singularity and plurality in what is referred to there is a fairly close correlation. In most languages number may be used to label a formal category of grammar. Number is mostly a category of noun and pronoun. But the English verb also inflects for number. He speaks English. They speak English. The grammatical category of number, though a very widespread one among languages, is in no way universal.
A slightly different formal distinction with a similar partial semantic correlation is seen in some languages in the categories of animate（生物） and inanimate（非生 物）, nouns belonging to one of the two category classes and requiring correspondingly different concord forms or grammatical arrangements in sentences.
Traditional grammar was well aware of the need for the semantic description of the uses to which grammatical elements and categories were put. It is, clearly, possible and legimitate to approach the sementic functions of grammatical forms and structures from two starting points. 1)How various semantic categories are formally expressed in a language. 2)The various formal arrangements of elements that the grammar of a language allows and then analyse their semantic functions.
6.6 Grammatical semantics
Semantic correlations 语义关联 The purpose behind the grammatical array of words, morphemes, constructions, and the rules associated with them is the provision of means adequate to express all sorts of meanings required in human life and in the use of a language.