词汇学缩略词期末复习整理
英语词汇学总结复习资料
英语词汇学总结复习资料⼤家请注意：笔记中⼤多数是以名词解释的形式出现的，这些是绝对的基础，应该⼀字不漏的背下来。
其实不少简答题也就是⼏个定义的汇总，再加上个例⼦就可以拿满分了。
区分两个词的区别，主要还是指明其各⾃的定义。
第⼀章Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1. 词的定义Word —— A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2.声⾳与意义的关系There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional.E.g. ―woman‖ means ’Frau’ in German，’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right，rite and write，though denoting different things，yet have the same sound.3.读⾳与拼写不⼀致的原因The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors.（At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns）a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language.b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spellingc）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500d）. Borrowing of foreign language4. 词汇的含义Vocabulary —— Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given displine and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history.The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words.5.词汇的分类的原则Classification of Words—by use frequency，by notion，by originthe English vocabulary consist of words of all kinds. they can be classified by different criteria and for different purpose . words may fall into the word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion , and into native words and borrowed words by origin.基本词汇的特点1）. Basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary.1.all national character （most important）– natural phenomenamost common things and phenomena of the human body and relationsworld around us names of plants and animals action，size，domain，state numerals，pronouns，prep. ，conj.2. stability– they donate the commonest thing necessary to life，they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative，some are undergoing some changes. But the change is slow.e.g. arrow，bow，chariot，knight – past electricity，machine，car，plane ——now3.productivity– they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words，they can form new words with other roots and affixes.e.g. foot – football，footage，footpath，footer4.polysemy – often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous.e.g. take to move or carry from one place to another to remove5.collocability– quite a number of set expressions，idiomatic usages，proverbial saying and others基本词汇在英语中的地位和重要性The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of thelanguage .though words of the basic word stock constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary ,yet it is the most important part of it .e.g. heart – a change of heart， a heart of goldNon-basic vocabulary ——(例⼦)1. terminology –technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicinephotoscanning，hepatitis，indigestion，penicillin，algebra，trigonometry，calculus2. jargon– specialized vocabulary in certain professions.Bottom line，ballpark figures，bargaining chips，hold him back，hold him in，paranoid3. slang—— substandard words often used in informal occasionsdough and bread，grass and pot，beaver，smoky，bear，catch，holler，Roger，X-rays，Certain words are labeled slang because of their usage.4. argot – words used by sub-cultured groupscan-opener，dip，persuader cant，jargon ，argot are associated with，or most available to，specific groups of the population.5. dialectal words– only by speakers of the dialectbeauty，chook，cocky，station，auld，build，coo，hame，lough，bog6. archaisms – words no longer in common use or restricted in use. In older poems，legal document and religious writing or speech.7. neologism– newly created words with new meaning e.g. microelectronics，futurology，AIDS，internet，E-mailold meaning acquired new meaning e.g. mouse，monitor2）. Content word （notional word）– denote clear notions.Functional word （empty word，form word）– do not have notions of their own，express the relation betweennotions，words and sentences.a. Content words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary are numerous.Functional words are in a small number.b. Content words are growing.Functional words remain stable.c. Functional words do far more work of expression than content words.3）. Native words –are words brought to Britain in the 15 century by the German tribes. Ango-Saxon Words，50，000-60，000What is true of the basic word stock is also true of native world. More are1. neutral in style （not stylistical specific ）2. 2.frequent in use （in academic fields and science French，Latin or Greek are used）（usage 70-90%）Borrowed words （loan words，borrowing）– words taken over from foreign language. 80%本族语词在英语中的地位和重要性Native words form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language .therefore , what is true of the basic word stock is also true of native words.According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing，we can bring the loan words under 4 classes.1.Denizen s– words borrowed early and now are well assimilated into English language.e.g. port from portus（L）shift，change，shirt，pork cup from cuppa（L）2.Aliens– retained their original pronunciation and spellinge.g. décor（F）blitzkreeg（G）emir，intermez，rowtow，bazaar，rajar，status quo3.translation loans– formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language.1）. Word translated according to the meaninge.g. mother tough from lingua maternal（L）black humor from humor noir long time no see，surplus value，master piece 2）. Words translated according to the sounde.g. kulak from kyrak（Russ）lama from lama（Tib）ketchup tea4. Semantic loans– their meaning are borrowed from another languagee.g. stupid old dump new sassy dream old joy and peace pioneer old explorer/person doing pioneering work new a member of the young pioneer fresh old impertinent，sassy，cheeky第⼆章The Development of the English1、Indo-European language family （Europe，the Near East，India）It can be grouped into an Eastern set :Balto –Slavic 、Indo-Iranian、Armenian and Albanian; a Western set: Celtic、Italic 、Hellenic、GermanicIn the Eastern set , Armenian and Albanian are each the only modern language respectively,the Balto –Slavic comprises such modern language such as Prussian、Lithuanian、Polish、Czech、Bulgarian、Slovenian、Russian. In the Indo-Iranian we have Persian, Bengali, Hindi, Romany, the last three of which are derived from the dead language Sanskrit.In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic. In the Celtic,we find Scottish, Irish,Welsh, Breton. the five Romance language ,namely, Portuguese,Spanish, French, Italian, Roumanian all belong to the Italic through an intermediate language called Latin. The Germanic family consist of the four Northern European language :Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German, Dutch, Flemish and English.2、History （时间，历史事件，特征）1）Old English （450-1150）totally 50，000-60，000 wordsThe 1st people known to inhabit England were Celts，the language was Celtic.The second language was the Latin of the Roman Legions. The Germanic tribes called angles，Saxons and Jutes and their language，Anglo-Saxon dominated and blotted out the Celtic. Now people refer to Anglo-Saxon as old English. At the end of 6th century，the introduction of Christianity has a great impact on the English vocabulary. The common practice was to create new words bycombining two native words. In the 9th century，many Scandinavian words came into English. At least 900 words of Scandinavian are in modern English，our daily life and speech.特点：highly inflected language///complex endings or vowel changes （full ending）2）Middle English （1150-1500）English，Latin，FrenchUntil 1066，although there were borrowings from Latin，the influence on English was mainly Germanic. But the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.By the end of the 13th century，English gradually come back into public areas.Between 1250 and 150 about 9000 words of French origin pouered into English. 75% of them are till in use today.As many as 2500 words of Dutch origin come into English.特点：fewer inflections leveled ending3）Modern English （1500-up to now）early modern English （1500-1700）late modern English（1700-up to now）The Renaissance(the early period)，Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the West ern world’s great literary heritage.From the 1500’s through the 1700’s ,many writers experimented with words. Over 10000 new words entered the English language .many of these were taken from Latin and Greek .The Industrial Revolution was in the mid-17 century. With the growth of colonization，British tentacles began a stretching out of to every corner of the globe，thus enabling English to absorb words from all major languages of the world.After World War II，many new words have been created to express new ideas，inventions and scientific achievements. More words are created by means of word-formation.thousands and thousands of new words have been entered to express new ideas inventions，and scientific achievements. more words are created by means of word-formation.in modern English，word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions English has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language.science and technology terms make up about 45% of new words. words associated with life-style constitute of 24% and social and economic terms amount to over 10% .mention should be made of an opposite process of development i.e. old words falling out if use.特点：ending are almost lost.3. Three main sources new words当代英语词汇发展的现状New words sweep in at a rate much faster than at any other historical period of time .词汇发展的主要原因1).The rapid development of modern science and technology2).Social: economic and political changes3).The influence of other cultures and languages4. Three modes of vocabulary development（英语发展的三个主要⽅式：创造新词、旧词新意、借⽤外来语词）1. Creation – the formation of new words by using the existing materials，namely roots，affixes and other elements. （This is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.）2. Semantic change - an old form which take on a new meaning to meet the new need.3. Borrowing – to take in words from other languages.（played a vital role in the development of vocabulary , particularly in earlier times）4. （Reviving archaic or obsolete）French 30%，Latin 8%，Japanese Italian 7%，Spanish 6%，German Greek 5%，Russian Yiddish 4%第三章Word Formation*1. Morpheme(词素) ——A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. （The smallest functional unit in the composition of words.）*2.Morph—— A morpheme must be realized by discrete units. These actual spoken minimal carriers of meaning are morphs.3.Monomorphenic words– morphemes are realized by single morphs.4.Allomorph（词素变体）——Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position. Such alternative morphs are allomorphemes. E.g. the morpheme of plurality （-s）has a number if allomorphemes in different sound context，e.g. in cats/s/，in bags/z/，in matches/iz/.5. Free morphemes or Free root —— The morphemes have complete meaning and van be used as free grammatical units in sentences，e.g. cat，walk. They are identical with root words. morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.6.Bound Morphemes——The morphemes cannot occur as separate words. They are bound to other morphemes to form words，e.g. recollection （re+collect+ion）collect – free morpheme re-and –ion are bound morphemes. （include bound root and affix）Bound morphemes are found in derived words.7.Bound root ——A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root，it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example：it conveys the meaning of ―say or speak‖ as a Latin root，but not as a word. With the prefix pre-（=before）we obtain the verb predict meaning ―tell beforehand‖。
词汇学期末复习资料
1.Words Motivation言语理据：deals with the connection between name (word-symbol) and its sense (meaning). It is the relationship between the word structure and its meaning. There are four types of motivation, which are Onomatopoeic motivation,Morphologic motivation, Semantic motivation and etymologic motivation.(1) Onomatopoeic motivation:拟声理据Onomatopoeic motivation means defining the principle of motivation by sound. For example, bow-wow, bang, ping-pong, miaow, tick-tuck ,haha and the like are Onomatopoeic words. Knowing the sounds means understanding the meaning of a word.(2) Morphologic motivation:形态理据It means that we observe the connection between morphemic structure of the word and its meaning. For example,if one knows the meaning of the affix and the base, say –able and learn, then one can immediately tell that the meaning of the word learnable is “that can be learned”. (3)Semantic motivation:语义理据Semantic motivation refers to the mental association suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. For example: When we speak of a stony heart we are comparing the heart with a stone.(4) etymologic motivation: 词源理据It explains the words whose meanings are closely associated with their origins, i.e. the meanings of the words. For example, now people use pen for any writing tool though it originally denotes “feather” because before modern pens were created, feathers were commonly used as writing tool.2.Meanings of meaning: There are seven types of meaning which is proposed by G. Leech.(1)conceptual meaning:概念意义it is the literal meaning. It is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing refers to. eg: the word "desk" is explained as a piece of furniture in the dictionary. (2)connotative meaning:内涵意义it refers to the meaning implied. eg: woman is a tiger and in this sentence, the word "woman" is connotative meaning.（3）social meaning: if refers to social circumstances. eg: the meaning of the word black differs in the two collcations of black hair and black tea.(4)affective meaning: 情感意义it refers to emotion or the feeling expressed by the speaker or writer. For example, the woman is cute. In this sentence, the word "cute" expresses the author's favor to woman..(5)reflective meaning:联想意义it refers to meaning undetected in communication. Take the word "table" as an example. It is a very common word in English. If we look it up in any dictionary, we will find that it has at least the following three meanings: a piece of furniture, all the people seated at a table, the food that is put on a table.(6)collocativemeaning:搭配意义it is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of other word..For instance, the phrase "see a film" is ofen used in everyday life but not "read a film".(7)thematic meaning: it is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of other and emphasis. For example, "It is until the midnight that my father worked in the lab", this sentence emphasis time adverbial and it's theme is that my father worked hard "until the midnight". However, in this sentence "It is my father that worked until the midnight in the lab", it emphasis the subject "my father"3.词义关系(1)Synonymy:同义关系refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. ①Dialectal synonyms—synonyms used in different regional dialects. Eg. British English: autumn. American English: fall.②S tylistic synonyms---Synonyms differing in style. Eg. Start, begin, commence ③Synonyms that different in their emotive or evaluative meaning. Eg. The two words collaborator and accomplice are synonymous inthat they share the meaning of “a person who helps another”, but they differ in that a collaborator helps another in doing something good, while an accomplice helps another ina criminal act. ④S emantically different synonyms. Eg. The two words amaze and astound are very close in meaning to the word surprise, but have very subtle differences. While amaze suggests confusion and bewilderment, astound suggests difficulty in believing. ⑤Collocational s ynonyms. Eg. charge…. With, rebuke….for, sour milk (2).Polysemy:多义现象It refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. Eg. If we look up he word “table” in any dictionary, we will find the following meanings: 1)a piece of furniture, 2)all the people seated at table, 3)the food that is put on the table, 4)a thin flat piece of stone, metal, wood, etc, and so on(3).Homonymy同音异义refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form. 1)Homophones同音异义—when two words are identical in sound. Eg. Meet/meat; son/sun; night/knight; Homonymy Homographs同形异义—when two words are identical in spelling. Eg. minute n/minute adj; tear v./ tear n ; lead v./lead n. Complete homonyms—when two words are identical in both spelling and sound. Eg. Fast adj./ fast v. scale n./scale v.(4).Hyponymy下义关系It refers to the sense relation between a more general, moreinclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate上义词, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms下义词. Eg. Superordinate: animal, hyponyms: dog, cat, tiger, lion, fox, bear.(5)Antonymy 反义关系It’s the term used for oppositeness of meaning. ①Gradable antonyms分级反义词(a matter of degree). Eg.Old—middle-aged—young; hot-warm-cold .②Complementary antonyms互补反义词(the denial of one member of pair implies the assertion of the other) . Eg. Alive—dead; male—female; ③Relational opposites关系反义词(Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites)Eg. father-son; teacher-pupil; doctor-patient; buy-sell; above-below; north-south(6)Taxonomy:分类关系it is a classified structure formed by different level of types of lexicon. The relation between different types of lexicon is taxonomy. The lexicon contains a narrow type which is called taxonyms. While the lexicon contains a wide type on a superior level is superordinate. The lexicons in the same level are co-taxonyms. For example: plant can be divided into lichen, creeper, tree and so on, tree can be divided into conifer and deciduous. Conifer can be divided into pine and spruce. From the relations, pine is a kind of conifer which is a kind of tree, which is a kind of plant, so pine is a kind of plant.(7)Partonomy (Meronymy)部分整体关系:it involves part-whole relation between words. For example: wheel, engine, window and door are parts of car. Car is called the superordinate in the relationship. wheel, engine, window and door are called the meronyms in the relationship.4.Derivation:派生it is generally defined as a word formation process by which new words are created by odding prefix, suffix or both to the base form. For example: unhappy is the derivation of happy. Proposal is the derivation of propose. Dishonest is the derivation of honest.pounding :复合法is a process of word formation by which two or more stems are put together to make one word. For example: baby-sitter, housekeeper, speed-reading, overwork are all compound words.6.Conversion :转化is a word formation process by which a word of a certain word class is shifted into a word of another word class without the addition of an affix. For example: wateris a noun and it can convert into a verb which means to pour water on. Wealthy is an adjective and it can convert into a noun “the wealthy” which means rich people.7.Back formation:逆构词法it refers to a type of word formation by which a shorter word is coin by deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already existing in the language. For example: daydreamer is a noun. We can remove the suffix-er. Then the word daydreamer turns into a verb. The meaning of them are still same.8.Abbreviation(Clipping): 缩略法it refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrases. For example: quake is the abbreviation of earthquake. Fridge is the abbreviation of refrigerator.9.Hyponymy:下义词it refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. For example: fruit, meat, vegetable are hyponyms of the superordinate term food. Beef , pork. Mutton are hyponyms of the superordinate term meat.10.Context:generally speaking, context is consist of two aspects: one is “linguistic context” referring to the linguistic unit preceding and/or following a particular linguistic unit in a text and refer to the words, clause and sentences in which a word appears. The other is “extra-linguistic” context or “non-linguistic” context refers to those situations and features which are not directly a part of the language in use but which either contribute in conveying a message or have an influence on language use. It contains situational context referring to time , place, human characteristic and social status; common sense and some certain information in a certain situation.修辞：1.metaphor,隐喻:两个事物存在某一类似之处，而用一个事物的词来指另一个事物。
英语词汇学复习资料
英语词汇学复习资料IntroductionEnglihaaglobal1)Morphology（构词学）2)Semantic（语义学）3)Stylitic（语体学）4)Etymology（词源学）3.研究le某icology的两大方法1)Diachronicapproach:历时语言学2)Synchronicapproach:共时语言学Chapter1Le某icologyandbaicconceptofwordandvocabulary1.Word——Awordiaminimalfreeformofalanguagethathaagivenoundandmeaningandyn tacticfunction.2.Thereinologicalrelationhipbetweenoundandmeaningatheymbolic connectionbetweenthemiarbitrary(任意的)andconventional（约定的,俗称的）.3.ound＆formTheoundhouldbeimilarto/conitentwiththeform,butthereareomeill ogical不合逻辑的andirregularity不规则的1)influencedbyRoman2)Pronunciationchanged3)earlycribe（抄写员）4)borrowing4.Vocabulary——Notonlycanitrefertothetotalnumberofthewordinalanguage,butitcanta ndforalltheworduedinaparticularhitoricalperiod.5.ClaificationofW ordbaicfull/content实义词native/Anglo-Sa某onwordfrequencynotionoriginnonbaic/vocabularyfunctional/empty功能词borrowed/loanCollocability（可搭配性）neutralintyle（中立性）(2)Twofeatureofnativewordfrequentinue1)wordtakenoverfromforeignlanguageareknowaborrowedwordorloan wordorborrowinginimpleterm.2)ItietimatedthatEnglihborrowingconti tute80percentofthemodernEnglihvocabulary3)TheEnglihlanguagehavat debt.Inanydictionaryome80%oftheentrieareborrowed.Chapter2ThedevelopmentoftheEnglihvocabulary1.OldEnglih属于Indo-Europeanlanguagefamily（印欧语系）——Germanic（日耳曼语系），与德语最相似.2.Hitory1）OldEnglih（450-1150）a.Thefirtpeopleknowntoinhabit（居住）EnglandwereCelt，thelanguagewaCeltic（凯尔特语）.b.TheecondlanguagewatheLatin（拉丁语）oftheRomanLegion（罗马军队）.Romaninvaion→Anglo-Sa某on 三个事件TheintroductionofChri tianity→拉丁文的涌入Vikinginvaion（北欧海盗）andScandinavian斯堪的纳维亚语传入word文档可自由复制编辑2）MiddleEnglih（1150-1500）在英语发展过程在哪个阶段出现三语鼎立的现象？French,Latin,EnglihinMiddleEnglihperiodeael,port,freight,出现于英语发展的哪个阶段，属于哪一种外来词的引入？MiddleEnglih,Dutch（带来了2500个词汇）3）ModernEnglih （1500-uptonow）TheRenaiance（文艺复兴）:LatinandGreekwererecognizedathelanguageoftheWeternworld’gr eatliteraryheritage（文化遗产）.TheIndutrialRevolution（工业革命）:17世纪中期Withthegrowthofcolonization（殖民化）,Britihtentacle（魔爪）beganatretchingoutoftoeverycorneroftheglobe，thuenablingEnglihtoaborb（吸收）wordfromallmajorlanguageoftheworld.十六世纪，有一种新工业Printing出现对词汇的发展产生重要的影响,这导致oundandform出现concord（一致）和tandardization第二次世界大战以后，大量外来词进入英语中，如：Maojacket,blackbelt,kongfu标准化Inflectionallanguage屈折语Analyticallanguage分析语TherapiddevelopmentofmoderncienceandtechnologySocial,economi candpoliticalchangeTheinfluenceofothercultureandlanguageThreemodeofvocabularyde velopmentChapter3ThetructureofEnglihwordword.）Free→cantandaloneaaword/independentofothermorphemeTypeprefi某ation前缀Le某ical→derivational→affi某ationBound→addedtoothermorphemeuffi某ation后缀Grammatical→inflectional2.Morph——Amorphememutberealizedbydicrete（离散的）unit.Theeactualpokenminimalcarrierofmeaningaremorph.Monomorpheni cword——morphemearerealizedbyinglemorph.Allomorph（词素变体）——Somemorphemearerealizedbymorethanonemorphaccordingtotheirpoition .3.Root——Arootithebaicformofaword,whichcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttota lloofidentity.（Whatremainofawordaftertheremovalofallaffi某e.）Stem——aformtowhichaffi某eofanykindcanbeadded.Bae——refertoaformtowhichaffi某eofanykindcanbeadded.Itcanbearootortem.atemmayconitofainglerooto rtworootandarootpluaaffi某.atemcanbearootoraformbiggerthanaroot.请加以区别下面两个词的特征:nation,dict加以理论的分析(1)Bothnationanddictbelongtoroot,nationifreeroot,whichcanfun ctionaloneinaentence,Chapter4Word-formationinEnglih1.Therearefourmaintypeofword-formationinEnglih.word文档可自由复制编辑(1)★Affi某ation（prefi某ationanduffi某ation）构词能力最强Affi某ationigenerallydefinedatheformationofwordbyaddingwordformingorde rivationalaffi某etotem.fullconverion——Itcantakeanindefinitarticle(不定冠词)or-(e)toindicateingularorpluralnumber.e.g.black→ablackdrinkable→d rinkablepartialconverion——mutbeuedtogetherwithdefinitearticle.e.g.rich→therich2.Othertype ofword-formation(1)Clipping/hortening——hortenalongerwordbycuttingapartoftheoriginanduingwhatremainintea d.quake（earthquake）dorm（dormitory）pop（popularmuic）flu （influenza）(2)Acronymy首字母缩略法——joiningtheinitialletterofnameofocialandpoliticalorganizationorpe cialphraeandtechnicaltermeg:VOA-VoiceofAmericaTV-televiion绝大多数blending都是nouneg:mog（烟雾）frommoke+fogtele某（电传机）fromteleprinter+e某changeMedicare（医疗保险）frommedical+carelunarnaut（登月宇航员）fromlunar+atronaut(4)Back-formation逆构词法——iaproceofword-formationbywhichawordicreatedbythedeletion删除ofauppoedaffi某.donate（donation）loaf（loafer）babyit（babyitter）laze（lazy）Chapter5Wordmeaning1.Analytical(referential)分析的Reference–therelationhipbetweenlanguageandtheworld.Operational(conte某tual)运用到具体场景中Concept–whichbeyondlanguageithereultofhumancognitionreflectingthe objectiveworldinthehumanmind★Sene1）enedenotetherelationhipinidethelanguage.Theeneofane某preioniitplaceinaytemofemanticrelationhipwithothere某preioninthelanguage.’2）Sincetheeneofane某preioninotathing,itioftendifficulttoaywhatortofidentityiti.Itial oanabtraction.3）Everywordthathameaninghaene(noteverywordhareference)2.Motivation（理据）——accountfortheconnectionbetweenthelinguitic（语言学的）ymbolanditmeaning.non-motivatedOnomatopoeic（拟声的）——thewordwhoeounduggettheirmeaning.Semantic（语义学的）——refertothementalaociationuggetedbytheconceptual概念上的meaningofaword.eg：atthefootofmountain,themouthofriverword文档可自由复制编辑Etymological（词源学的）——Thehitoryoftheworde某plainthemeaningoftheword.3.TypeofmeaningGrammatical语法–refertothatpartofthemeaningofthewordwhichindicategrammaticalconc eptorrelationhipConceptual概念——themeaninggiveninthedictionaryandformthecore核心ofword-meaning.Le某ical词汇Connotative内涵意义eg：Mother—afemaleparent—loveAociative联想Stylitic语体1)formal2)neutral3)informalAffective/Emotive——appreciativeandpejorativeCollocative固定搭配Chapter6SenerelationSynchronicapproachRadiation辐射像车轮式一样进行发展的语义e.g.face,neck（3）TwoproceofdevelopmentConcatenation–meaning―linkingtogether‖串联 2.Homonymy（1）定义：Homonymaregenerallydefinedaworddifferentinmeaningbuteitheridenti cal（完全相同的）bothinoundandpellingoridenticalonlyinoundorpelling.PerfectHomonym同音同形异义词e.g.bear忍受；熊ball球；舞会（2）TypeHomograph同形异义e.g.minute分钟；微小的（1）定义：Synonymareworddifferentinoundandpellingbutmotnearlyalikeore某actlytheameinmeaning.Aboluteregioned地域（BritihEnglih＆AmericanEnglih）（2）TypetyliticdegreeRelative（Near）hadeofmeaningemotiverangecollocative搭配Borrowing（themotimportantource）（1）定义：Antonymyiconcernedwithemantic语义学的oppoition.Relative(dependoneachother)eg:parent—child,ell—buy,predeceor前辈—ucceor继承者word文档可自由复制编辑（3）Characteritic1）Antonymareclaifiedonthebaiofemanticoppoition.2）Awordwhichhamorethanonemeaningcanhavemorethanoneantonym.3）Antonymdifferinemanticincluion.4）Contrarytermaregradableantonym,differingindegreeofintenity,oeach haitowncorrepondingoppoition.（4）Ue。
不可忽视的缩略词总结
不可忽视的缩略词总结不可忽视的缩略词总结不可忽视的缩略词总结一、对原来完整的词进行加工，缩略其中一部分字母，构成新词，这种词叫做“缩略词”1. ad: advertisement ads: advertisements 广告2. pop: popular 流行的`3. fridge: refrigerator 冰箱4. flu: influenza 流行感冒5. N-bomb: nuclear bomb 氢弹6. E-mail: electrical mail 电子邮件7. chem: chemistry 化学8. med: medical 医学 9. mod: modern 现代的、时髦的10. eng: engineering 工程学 11. kilo: kilogram 公斤12. myth: mythology 神话 13. tec: detective 侦探14. copter: helicopter 直升飞机二、将词组中主要词的首字母合成一个词，这种词叫“首字母缩略词”1. EQ: emotional quality 情商2. UFO: unidentified flying object 飞碟3. WTO: the world trade organization 世界贸易组织4. IT: information technology 信息技术5.VIP: very important person 重要人物6. WC: watercloset 洗手间7. GMT: Greenwich Mean Time 格林威治时间8. OPEC: Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries石油输出国组织9. NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization 北大西洋公约组织10. BC: Before Christ 公元前11. AD: Anno Domin in the year of our lord 公元后12. VOA: Voice of America 美国之音13. BBC: British Broadcast Corporation 英国广播公司14. UN: the United Nations 联合国15. UK: the United Kingdom 联合王国16. PLA: the People’s Liberation Army 中国人民解放军17 PRC: the People’s Republic of China 中华人民共和国三、还有一些其他形式的缩略词1. etc: and the others等等2. eg: for example 例如3. ie: that is to say 意即短文改错训练：When nasreddin’s wife dies, he was married again. His second 1________wife was much younger than he was and they were often quarreled. 2________One evening he came home late. His wife said, “ I cookedyour dinner two hours ago.” She was very a ngry that she gave him a 3________push, and as she was very strong, Nasreddin fell down the stairs. 4________One of his neighbors, who was always eager know what was happening 5_______in everybody else’s houses, listening ,and when she heard the 6________noise what nasreddin made when he fell down the stairs, she came and 7________asked, “What is happened?” “ My coat fell down the stairs,” he answered. 8______“ But a coat would not make so many noise!” the neighbor said. 9_________“ Of course it would,” answered nasreddin, “ If I am inside it!”。
词汇学期末考
1. Word单词: is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit that can be used on its won.2. Vocabulary词汇: refers to all the words used in a particular kind of work, business, etc. or known to a particular person.3. Morpheme词素: a morpheme is the minimal unit—an arbitrary union of a sound and a meaning that cannot be further analyzed.Lexicology 词汇学research not only the structure and meaning of words but also their development, including their origin, history, change, their use and learning, and lexicography词典编撰者.4. Free morphemes自由词素：are the morphemes which can be used by itself as a word.如book, wall, dog, bag.5. Bond morphemes粘着词素：are the morphemes that cannot be used by its own as a word, that’s to say, they must combined with other morphemes.如tele-, -tive, -ful.6. Content morphemes实意词素: are the morphemes that carry meaning, also often called open-class morphemes, because they are open to the invention of arbitrary new items.如nouns, verbs and adjectives.7. Function morphemes功能词素: are the morphemes which signal the relations among words. We also called closed-class morphemes, because they are essentially closed to invention or borrowing.8. Derivational morphemes派生词素：are the morphemes that can be added to a word to create a new word. This type of morphemes changes the meaning of the word or part of speech or both. 如the addition of –ness to happy creates happiness which is a noun turned from the adjective happy.9. Inflectional morphemes曲折词素: are create morphemes that express grammatical meaning like tense, number, aspect and so on. 如-d in invited indicates past tense.10. Root词根：is the basic form of word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. It carries the main components of the meaning of a word. It can also be defined as the part of a word which remains after all the inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.11. Free roots自由词根：are the roots can stand alone as words.12. Bound roots粘着词根：are the roots cannot stand alone as words.13. Stem词干: a stem can be defined as a form to which an affix can be added to. A stem is the part of word form, which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed.14. Affix词缀：an affix is a morpheme that is attached to a root to form a word.15. An inflectional affix曲折词缀is often a suffix in English that performs a grammatical function and does not change the word class of its root. 如English plural复数–s and past tense –ed are inflectional suffixes.16. A derivational affix派生词缀is an affix by means of which a new word can be formed, derivational affixes may be prefixes or suffixes. 如in English –ness and pre-belongs to the derivational affixes.17. Derivation派生法：is the morphological形态学的process whereby a derivational morpheme is attached to a root or stem.18. the word results from derivation is called a derivative.派生词19. Prefixation前缀法：is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.20. Suffixation后缀法：is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.21. Conversion转化法：refers to the morphological process, whereby a new word is created without adding any affixes to the root or stem, just change the word class of the original word.22. Compounding复合法：is concerned with the combination of two or more words to form a new word.23. abbreviation缩略法：is lexically regarded as one of the minor means in English word-formation.24. clipping截短法: is one way in which we shorten a relatively long word and thereby create a new one without changing its meaning. 如we change the word dormitory by clipping and form the new word dorm which is called a clipped word.25. initialism首字母缩略法: is a reduction process in which initialization in word is used.有两种形式，如LA—Los Angeles; IOU—I owe you.26. acronym首字母拼音法: is a word composed of the initial letters of the words of a phrase and is pronounced as a word. 如LAN—local area network.区别：initialism is pronounced letter by letter；acronym is pronounced whole word.27. blending拼缀法: the process in which some words are formed by joining part of one word with part of another, is a minor, although fashionable, technique for forming new words.如smoke+fog=smog; spoon+fork=spork.缩略词blends28. back-formation逆生法：is a formation of shortening in which the omitted material is or is perceived to be a formative, typically an affix.如housekeeper—housekeep; typewriter—typewrite..29. onomatopoeia拟声法：is one of the minor devices used to form echo/ echoic words related to the imitation of sounds made by human beings, animals and some other things.如ha- ha represent the sound of laugh; boohoo show that someone is crying; bees—buzz.30. reduplication 复制法: is a minor morphological process by which the root or stem of a word, or part of it, is repeated, through which a new compound word is formed either by doubling an entire word of part of a word .如bow-wow; Bye-bye; ding-dong.31. denotation指称：is the set of potential references of a word in a particular meaning.32. reference所指: is the actual subset referred to in a utterance. is often used in a more restricted sense, as a name for the particular ―things‖ that a word refers to in a particular utterance.33. sense语义: is a relationship which is internal to the language system. It is what can be simply called the meaning of ―meaning‖.34. the different between sense and reference is that every word has meaning has sense but not every word has reference.35. denotational meaning指称意义：refers to the relationship between a linguistic sign and its referent.36. non- denotational meaning非指称意义：37. connotative meaning 内涵意义：of a word is the meaning over and above its denotitional meaning.38. affective meaning情感意义：express the speak er’s attitude or emotion.39. stylistic meaning文体意义：refers to varying degrees of formality and status of words in the language.40. collocative meaning搭配意义: consists of the association a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment, part of the word meaning is closely related to the words it co-occurs with.Meaning development词义的发展：when the new meaning developed does not change the category the original meaning belongs to.Meaning shift词义的转换：the new meaning of a word is obtained by rhetorical devices and the meaning shifts from the literal to the figurative.41. generalization词义的扩大：which is also known as the enlarging, widening, extension, expansion, or broadening of meaning.如butcher，old meaning is one who killed goats，extended meaning is one who killed animals.42. specification词义的缩小：known as the opposite of generalization，is the narrowing or restriction of meaning.如room，old meaning is space，narrowed meaning is a part of the inside ofa building.43. amelioration词义的升格：is the process by which a word’s meaning improves or becomes elevated, coming to represent something more favorable than it originally referred to.如minister, old meaning is servant, elevated meaning is head if the government department.44. pejoration词义的降格：is the process by which a word’s meaning worsens or degenerates, coming to represent something less favorable than it originally did. 如villain, old meaning is person who worked in a villa, degenerated meaning is evil or wicked person or scoundrel.45. old meanings: we mean some meanings which either totally disappeared from the word or are no longer active in use. The lost meanings are called the obsolete meanings, and the old-fashioned meanings are archaic meanings. 如point, obsolete meaning is physical condition. Remember, archaic meaning is to remind.47. radiation放射性：is a process of meaning change in which there is a multiplication in the senses of a word. That is, all the new meanings developed are depended of each other.48. concatenation连锁性：is a process in which the second meaning of the word develops from the primary meaning, while the third meaning does not start from the primary meaning but from the second meaning, thus the third meaning has little to do with the primary meaning.Sense relations are the relations held between words within the vocabulary.49.synonymy同义关系：is the relationship of lexical units which involves the similarity of meaning如tube—subway.同义词是synonyms.50.antonymy反义关系：is the relationship of words which involves the oppositeness meaning. Types of antonyms: complementary antonyms互补反义词(are those in an either/ or relation of oppositeness.如male and female)；gradable antonyms等级反义词(represent a more/ less relation.如short and long.); converse antonyms逆向反义词(are considered to be a kind of directional opposite.如above and below)；multiple incompatibilities antonyms多项不相容词(如东南西北).51.polysemy多义关系:is a relationship that holds between different senses of the same word. The meanings are related to each other. 多义词polysements.52.homonymy同音异义关系：are the relationship which refers to a situation where we have two or more words with the same linguistic form.homonyms are words which are identical in pronunciation and spelling, or, at least, in one of these aspects, but different in meaning.Homonyms with the same sounds and spellings are termed homonyms proper同音同形异议词.E.g. Bear ―a large strong animal‖ and bear ―to bravely accept or deal with a painful or unpleasant situation‖.Homonyms which are the same in sound but different in spelling are homophones同音异形词. E.g. sew ―to use a needle and thread to joined pieces of cloth together‖ and sow ―to plant or scatter seeds on a piece of ground‖.Homonyms with the same spellings but different sounds are homographs同形异音词.E.g. minute ―one of the 60 parts into which an hour is divided‖ and minute ―extremely small‖.of the same category，but different spellings，e.g. the verbs ring and wring.Of different categories, but with the same spelling, e.g. the verb keep and the noun keep.Of different categories, and with the same spellings, e.g. not, kont.53.hierarchical relations等级关系：54.hyponymy上下以关系：is a relation of inclusion. Daffodil is a hyponym of flower. If something is a daffodil, it must be a flower because the meaning of flower is embedded in daffodil. So we say that daffodil is a hyponym of flower, and conversely, that flower is the superordinate of daffodil.A is hyponymy of BC is hyponymy of AC is also hyponymy of B55.taxonymy分类关系: is often regarded as a sub-type of hyponymy.An X is a kind of Y.X is the taxonomy and Y is the superordinate. So if X is a taxonomy of Y, the result is normal:A rose is a type of flower.A pear is a kind of fruit.。
《英语词汇学》知识点归纳
English Lexicology( 英语词汇学 )Lexicology （词汇学） : is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into theorigins and meanings of words.The Nature and Scope of English lexicology ：English lexicology aims at investigating and studying themorphological structures of English words and word equivalents, theirsemantic structures, relations, historical development, formation andusages.：The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extenttoEnglish Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态) 学 ),semantics( 语义学 ), etymology( 词源学 ),stylistics （文体论）and lexicography( 词典学The reason for a student to study English lexicology ：According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely bebeneficial for students of English.A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules ofword-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify andstore words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relationswill gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable themuse words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge ofdictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raisetheir problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord （词的定义） : A word is a minimal free form of a language that has agiven sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity(3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentencend and meaning （声音与意义） : almost arbitrary, “ no logical relationship betweenthesound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself ”Sound and form （读音和形式） : 不统一的四个原因（ 1 ）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （ 2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years （ 3） some ofthe difference were creates by the early scribes （4） the borrowings is an importantchannel of enriching the English vocabularyVocabulary （词汇） : all the words in a language make up its vocabularyClassification of English Words ：By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabulary By notion:content words&functional words By origin:native words&borrowed wordsThe basic word stock （基本词汇） : is the foundation of the vocabularyaccumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary. The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征) : 1)All-National character （全民通用性 mostimportant ） 2)Stabil ity（相对稳定性） 3)Productiv ity （多产性） 4)Polysem y （多义性） 5)Collocabi lity（可搭配性）没有上述特征的(4)Argot （暗语） words: (1)Terminology( 术语 ) (2)Jargon （行话）(3)slang （俚语） （ 5） Dialectal words( 方言 ) (6) Archaisms （古语） (7) Neologisms（新词语） :Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email)Content words/notionalwords functional words/empty words实词 ( cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently虚词 ( on, of, and, be, but )) and Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative words （本族语词） : known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words （外来语词） : words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)4 Types of loan words:1) denizens( 同化词 ): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens （非同化词 / 外来词） :are borrowed words which have retained their originalpronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH) 磕头 )3) translation loans( 译借词 ): 按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see (from China)4) semantic loans （借义词）： they are not borrowed with reference to theform,but their meanings are borrowedChapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family( 印欧语系 )The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages （ 8 大印欧语群）The Eastern set:（1 ） The Balto-slavic Group （波罗的- 斯拉夫语族）：Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc.（2 ） The Indo-Iranian Group （印度 -伊朗语族）： Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.(3)The Armenian Group （亚美尼亚语族）： Armenian.(4)The Albanian Group （阿尔巴尼亚语族）： Albanian.The Western set:(5)The HellenicGroup（古希腊语族）：Greek.(6)The ItalianGroup（意大利语族）：Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc.(7)The Celtic Group （凯尔特语族）：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.(8)The Germanic Group （日耳曼语族）：Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language.2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E wordscome almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endingswere mostly lost with just a few expections.English has evolved from asynthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language.Modes of Vocabulary Development( 词汇的发展模式):1)creation 创造新词： the formation of new words by usingthe existingtoots,affixes and other elements.( 最重要方式 )materials,namely2)semantic change 旧词新义 :does not increase the number of word formsbut create many more new useages of the words.3) borrowing 借用外来词 :constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new wordsReviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.Chapter 3 Word Formation IMorpheme( 词素 ) :the smallest functioning unit in the composition of wordsAllomorph( 词素变体 ) : is a different variant form of amorpheme and spelling form, but at the same in functionand meaning， differ in phonologicalType of Morpheme( 词素的分类)（1 ）Free Morphemes （自由词素） : have complete meaning in themselves and canbe used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that canstand by itself. (independent).（2 ） Bound Morpheme( 粘着语素 ): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself. Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root( 粘附词根 ) (2)Affix( 词缀 )Affixes can be put into two groups:1)Inflectional affixes ( 屈折词缀 ):affixes attached to the end ofwords to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thusknown as inflectional morphemes.2)Derivational affixes( 派生词缀 ): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words.B)suffix:An adjective suffix （形容词后缀） that is added to the stem,whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective.Free Morpheme =free root （自由词根）Morpheme( 词素 )Bound root prefixbound derivationalaffix suffixinflectionalRoot and stem （词根和词干）The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzedwithout total loss of identity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Chapter 4 Word-Formation II( 构词法 )1.Affixation 词缀法（Derivation 派生法）：the formation of words by addingword-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.（1 ） Prefixation( 前缀法 ) ：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.1)Negative prefixes( 否定前缀 ): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes （逆反前缀） : un-,de- ，dis- etc. unwrap(open)3)P ejorative prefixes: mis （贬义前缀）： mis- ， mal-, pseudo-etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)4) Prefixes of degree or size( 程度前缀 )：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect. overweight5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude （倾向态度前缀）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro-etc.anti-nuclear6)Locative prefixes （方位前缀） :extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary)7) Prefixes of time and order （时间和顺序前缀） :fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc.monorail(one rail)8) Number prefixes （数字前缀） :uni- ，mono-, bi- ， di-, tri-,multi- ，poly-， semi- ， etc.bilingual(concerning two languages)9)M iscellaneous prefixes （混杂前缀）： auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman)(2)Suffixation （后缀法） : It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixespounding 复合法（ also called composition ）Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid 连写 (airmail) ，hyphenated 带连字符(air-conditioning)and open 分开写 (air force, air raid)Formation of compounds （复合词的形式）（1 ） noun compounds ： e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot（2 ） adjectivecompounds： e.g. acid + head = acid-head（3 ） verbcompounds： e.g. house + keep = housekeep3.Conversion 转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of oneclass to another class. （功能转换，又叫零派生 .functional shift/zero-derivation ）4.Blending 拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog =smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN5.Clipping 截短法Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone fromtelephone.四种形式：1).Front clippings 删节前面(phone from telephone)2).Back clippings 删节后面(dorm from dormitory)3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)6.Acronymy 首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initialletters of names of social and political organizations or special nounphrases and technical terms.（1 ） Initialism （首字母缩写词法）: initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter.e.g.:BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)（2 ） Acronym （首字母拼音法） :Acronyms are words formed from initialletters but pronounced as a normal word. E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as aforeign language)（逆生法，逆构词）7.Back-formationBack-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It?s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)8.Words From Proper Name( 专有名词转成法):Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e.g.: sir watt siemens( 人名 ) -- watt （瓦特，电功率单位）Chapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “ Meaning( “意”义”的意义 )Reference ( 所指 ):It is the relationship between language and the word.It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yetwith the help of context, it can refer to something specific.Concept （概念） :which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition( 认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense （意义） :It denotes the relationship inside the language. ,The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relat ionships with other expressions in the language.?Motivation ( 理据 ) ： It accounts for the connection between thelinguistic symbol and its meaning.1) Onomatopoeic motivation （拟声理据） :words whose sounds suggest their meaning, forthese words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowingthe sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha.2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of manyare the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt . 例外：black market, ect.3)Semantic motivation （词义理据）： refers to the mental associationssuggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connectionbetween the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot ofthe mountain(foot)4)Etymological motivation （词源理据） :the history of the word explains themeaning of the word. E.g:pen-featherTypes of meaning( 词义的类别 )1.Grammatical Meaning （语法意义） :indicates the grammatical concept or relationships (becomes important only in actual context)2.Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)Lexical meaning has 2 componentsmeaning( 关联意义 ) 内容 : Conceptualmeaning(概念意义) and associative1） Conceptual meaning( 概念意义 ): also known as denotativemeaning( meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core ofword-meaning.外延意义 ) is the2） Associative meaning( 关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to theconceptual meaning. [4types:（1 ）Connotative （内涵意义）：theovertonesorassociationssuggestedby theconceptua l meaning, traditionallyknown as connotations.(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来 )（2 ） Stylistic （文体意义）： many words have stylistic features, which make themappropriate for different contexts.（3 ）Affective（感情意义）：indicates the speaker?s attitude towards the personor thingin question. 这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义appreciative & pejorative（4 ）Collocative （搭配意义）： is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the wordsbefore or after the word in discussion.]Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field （语义关系和语义场）Polysemy （多义关系）Two approached to polysemy （多义关系的两种研究方法）:1.diachronic approach( 历时方法 ) ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure ofone and same word. First meaning is the primary meaning , the latermeanings are called derived meanings.2. synchronic approach ( 共时方法 ) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistenceof various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time. centralmeaning , 次要意基本意义是Two processes of development （词义的两种发展类型）:1.radiation （辐射型）： is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at thecentre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every directionlike rayes. (e.g: face, neck)2.concatenation （连锁型） :is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word movegradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not asign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that whichthe term had atthe beginning.(e.g:treacle)3.In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning.In concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to thepreceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced backto the original, there is no direct connection in between.4.They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading topolysemy. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the twoprocesses work together, complementing each other.Homonymy （同形同音异义关系） :words different in meaning but eitheridentical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Types of homonyms( 同音同形异义关系的类别)1）Perfect homonyms （完全同音同形异义词）：words identical both in sound andspelling, but different in meaning.2)Homographs （同形异义词） :words identical only in spelling, but differentin sound and meaning.( 最多最常见 )3）Homophones （同音异义词）：words identical only in sound but different inspelling and meaning.Origins of homonyms ( 同形同音异义词的来源 )1） change in sound and spelling ： (eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)2） borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )3） Shortening( 缩略 ): (ad-advertisement,)The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes （同音同形异义词和多义词的区别)：1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.2)One important criterion is to see their etymology( 词源)： Homonymys are from differentsources. Polysemant is from the same source.3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness( 语义关联 ): The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning.Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another. Indictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headwordwhereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.Rhetoric features of homonyms( 同形同音异义词的修辞特色) ： As homonyms are identicalin sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed tocreate puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.Synonymy ( 同义关系 ): one of two or more words in the English languagewhich have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning .Types of Synonymy( 同义词的类别 ) :(1) Absolute synonyms （完全同义词）：also known as complete synonyms are words whichare identical in meaning in all aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings.[ Absolute synonyms arerestricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology. ](2) relative synonyms （相对同义词）:also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly thesame in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.(e.g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer,idle/lazy/indolent)Sources of synonyms( 同义词的来源 ) :1)Borrowing （借词）：最重要的来源 (room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase)2)Dialects and regional English （方言和地区英语）3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words （单词的修饰和委婉用法） :occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact.4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions （与习惯表达一致）:win-gain the upper hand,decide- make up one?s mind, finish -get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand.Discrimination of Synonyms(1)difference in denotation 外延不同 . Synonyms may differ in the range andintensity of meaning.(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire)(2)difference in connotation 内涵不同 . By connotation we mean the stylisticand emotive colouring of words. Some words share the same denotation butdiffer in their stylistic appropriateness. ( 借词： answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual,unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal. 中性词：policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌： ire/anger,bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake )(3)difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning butdifference in usage in simple terms. They form different collocationsand fit into difference sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- letsb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter)Antonymy (反义关系 ) :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.Types of Antonyms:1)contradictory terms ( 矛盾反义词 ): these antonyms truly representoppositeness ofmeaning. 特点：① The assertion of one is the denial ofthe other. ②Such antonyms arenon-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs ofintensity like “ very ” toqualify(e.g:themsingle/married).2)contrary terms （对立反义词） : antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scalerunning between two poles or extremes.(e.g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The twoopposites are gradable and one exists in comparison withthe other.3)relative terms （关系反义词）： this type consists of relationalopposites.（ parent/child,husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give ）Some of the characteristics ofantonyms( 反义关系的特点 ):1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semanticopposition( 语义对立 ) 2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion （语义内涵）4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms ， differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)The use of antonyms （反义词的使用）1） Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words.2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought forthe sake ofcontrast.(e.g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe 敌友， wealand woe哀乐 )3） To form antithesis( 对比法 ) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together. (proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go./ more haste, less speed.)Hyponymy ( 上下义关系 ): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another moregeneral word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animalSuperordinate and Subordinate ( 上义词和下义词) ： use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader.Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea.Semantic Field( 语义场 )Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.e.g.(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange,lemon, ,fruits?)etc. make up the semantic field ofThe semantic field of the same concept may not have the same membersin different language.e.g.(aunt in English, may means 父亲的姐姐“，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子”inChinese.(122)Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning 词义的演变Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form.Types of Changes ( 词义变化的种类 )1.Extension /generalization( 词义的扩大 ) : is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.(e.g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion)It is 2.Narrowing/ specialization( 词义的缩小 ) ： is the opposite of wideningmeaning. a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower orspecialized sense. Inother words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomesrestricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-dayEnglish.(e.g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife,accident, girl). [ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, themeaning is narrowed accordingly. ]3.Elevation /amelioration( 词义的升华 ) :refers to the process by which words rise fromhumble（粗陋的） beginnings to positions of importance. [nice, marshal,constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]4.Degradation / pejoration( 词义的降格 ) :A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory （贬损的）sense.[boor,churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]5.Transfer( 词义的转移 ) : Words which were used to designate 指明one thing but laterchanged to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.Causes of Semantic Change( 词义变化的原因 )1.Extra-linguistic factors( 词义演变的语言外部因素):1)H istorical reason( 历史原因 ) ： Increased scientific knowledge anddiscovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time. E.g:pen, car, computer.2 )Class reason( 阶级原因 ) ： The attitude of classes have also madeinroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation.3) Psychological reason( 心理原因 ) ：the associated transfer of meaning and euphemisticuse of words are often due to psychological factors. Such slow, humbleand despised occupations take more appealing names is all due topsychological reasons.2.Linguistic factors （语言内部原因）：the change of meaning may be caused byinternal factors with in the language system.1)shorting 缩略 :gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier2)borrowing 借用 :deer-animal-beast3)analogy 类推 :Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义和语境Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic and extra-linguistic contexts.Two types of context （语境的种类）1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation （非语言语境）：In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces thepeople, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (look out,weekend, landlord )2.Linguistic context/ grammatical context ( 语言语境 ) ： In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book. 分为两类：1)L exical context （词汇语境）： It refers to the word that occurs togetherwith the word in question. (e.g: paper, do)2) Grammatical context （语法语境）： It refers the situation when themeaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g:become)The role of context( 语境的作用 )1.Elimination of ambiguity( 消除歧义 )1） Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy.2） Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity如何消除歧义？——① extend the original sentence ② alter the context a little2.Indication of referents( 限定所指 )如何限定所指？——① with clear context ② with adequate verbal context3.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning ( 提供线索以猜测词义 )1)definition2)explanation3)example4)synonymy5)antonymy6)hyponymy （上下义关系）7)relevant details8)word structureChapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语Idioms （习语的定义） : are expressions that are not readilyunderstandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms（俗语） , Catchphrases （标语） ,slang expressions （俚语） ,proverbs （谚语） ,etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary.Characteristics of Idioms （英语习语的特点）1.Semantic unity （语意的整体性）： words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom.The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each of the idiom.2.Structural stability( 结构的稳定性 ):the structure of an idiom is to a largeextentun changeable.1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article.4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeable The fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity. 习语性表达习惯Classification of Idioms （英语习语的分类）1. idioms nominal in nature名词性习语(white elephant累赘物 )2 .idioms adjectival in nature 形容词性习语 （as poor as a church mouse） 3 .idioms verbal in nature动词性习语 （ look into ）4 .idioms adverbial in nature 副词性习语 （ tooth and nail拼命） 5 .sentence idioms 句式习语（ never do things by halves）Use of idioms （习语的使用） 1.Stylistic features （文体色彩） ：1） colloquialisms （俗语）2） slang （俚语）3） literary expressions （书面表达）The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned （指派） different meanings.2.Rhetorical features( 修辞色彩 )1) phonetic manipulation （语音处理）：（1 ） alliteration 头韵法（2 ） rhyme 尾韵法2） lexical manipulation （词法处理）（1 ） reiteration （ duplication of synonyms ）同义词并举[scream and shout] （2 ） repetition 重复 [out and out]（3 ） juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置[here and there]3.figures of speech （修辞格）（1 ） simile 明喻（2 ） metaphor 暗喻（3 ） metonymy 换喻 / 以名词代动作：live by one?s pen（4 ） synecdoche 提喻 / 以部分代整体： earn one?s bread（5 ） Personification 拟人法（6 ） Euphemism 委婉语： kick the bucket(die)（7 ） hyperbole 夸张： a world of troubleVariations of idioms( 习语的变异形式 ) ：1.addition 增加2.deletion 删除。
英语词汇学期末复习
Chapter 1Lexicology 词汇学Context 语境Pragmatics 语用学Phoneme 音素Morpheme 词素Semantic fields 语义场Lexicology: is the study of the vocabulary or lexicon of a given language.Morphology 形态学Semantics 语义学Etymology 词源学Lexicography 词典学Morphology is the study of the forms of words and their components, is to look at morphemes and their arrangements in word formation.构词法Morphemes: the smallest meaningful units which may constitute words or parts of words.最小的、有意义的构词单位Semantics: is often defined as the study of meaning.Etymology: is the study of the whole history of words.Lexicography: is closely related to the words in a given language.What is a word?Word：is used traditionally to refer to a sequence of letters bounded by spaces.以空格为界的字母序列Word: an uninterruptible unit of structure consisting of one or more morphemes.由一个或多个词素组成的不可分离的结构单元Word: is viewed as a minimal free form which can occur in isolation and have meaning but which cannot be analyzed into elements which can occur alone and also have meaning. （除复合词）最小的、有意义的、可独立存在的、不可分离的语言单位Major features of wordsA word is a sound or combination of sounds which we make voluntarily with our vocal equipment.任意的、发声器官Pitch 音高Juncture 停顿A word is symbolic and is used to stand for something else.The word is uninterruptible unitA word has to do with its social functionalA word may consist of one or more morphemesWords are part of the large communication system we call language.A word occurs typically in the structure of phrasesA word receives some of its meaning as it fills the grammatical slot in a sentence.Syntax: 句法学Discourse analysis: 语篇分析Word classesClosed classes: preposition pronoun determiner conjunction auxiliary verb封闭词类:介词代词限定词连词助动词Open classes: noun adjective verb adverb开放词类：名词形容词动词副词Lexical words(词汇词)= form open classesGrammatical words(语法词)=closed classes and so onInflectional words(8): 名词复数、所有格，动词三单、过去式、过去分词、现在分词，形容词的比较级、最高级。
词汇学期末考试重点整理
第十单元1 The features of dictionaryLongman Dictionary of Contemporary English (LDCE)朗文当代英语词典<1>clear grammar codes<2>usage notes<3>language notes2 Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary (CCELD)科林斯合作英语词典<1>Definition（定义）, the definitions in this dictionary are all in full sentences.<2>Extra column（额外专栏）, the use of extra column to deal with grammar information.<3>Usage examples（用法举例）, in this dictionary, almost every meaning of a word has an example to show its meaning and usage, most in sentence form.Chinese-English Dictionary(CED)汉英词典<1>A large number of newly created words<2>Revised some old entries<3>Keeps the previous alphabetical order of entries<4>Boasts of the quality of the English equivalents it provides for its Chinese items第九单元1 What are the characteristics of Idioms?1). Semantic unity(语义的整体性)：being phrases or sentences, idioms each consists of mora than one word, but each is a semantic unity. 例子Bee in one’s bonnet 想入非非，know the ropes内行2). Structural stability(结构的稳定性): Unlike free phrases, the structure of an idiom is to a large extent unchangeable. First, the constituents of idioms can not be replaced. Secondly, the word order can not be inverted or changed. Thirdly, the constituents of an idiom can not be deleted or added to, not even an article. Finally, many idioms are grammatically unanalysable.例子Diamond cut diamond,势均力敌，like cures like以毒攻毒2 Use of idioms<1>which are idioms<2>understand them correctly in actual context<3>use them properly in production3一堆修辞Figures of speech<1>Alliteration （押头韵）<2>Rhyme （押尾韵）<3>Reiteration (duplication of synonyms)同义词重叠<4>Repetition重复<5>Juxtaposition (of antonyms)并列<6>Simile （明喻）<7>Metaphor 隐喻<8> Metonymy转喻<9>Synecdoche提喻<10>Personification拟人<11>Euphemism委婉4 Variations of Idiom变形变体（Replacement替换Addition or deletion增减词Position shifting位置互换Shortening缩减Dismembering支解）第八单元1The role of context<1>Elimination of ambiguity消除歧义polysemy 多义词He is a hard businessman[he is a hardworking businessman or he is a hard businessman to deal with]John ran the egg-and-spoon race.[we have no way to determine whether John “participated”in the race or “organized”the race as the word run can mean both.]John ran the egg-and-spoon race and got second place.[John took part in the race personallybecause he got second place.]Homonymy同型同音异义They saw her duck.[duck—n. “a kind of poultry”or as a verb meaning “lower one’s head or body quickly, dodge (忽地低下头(或弯腰)，躲避).Both fit in the syntactic structure of the sentence .]The ball was attractive.[ ball may mean a “a round object to play in a game”as well as a “dancing party”. ]The fish is ready to eat[the fish is cooked or served, so ready for people to eat.or the fish is ready to eat things.]I like mary better than jean[ i like mary better than i like jean.or i like mary better jean likes mary.]<2>Indication of referents限定所指<3> Provision of clues for inference of word meaning提供线索【P157】2如何为理据提供线索Definition下定义Explanation解释Exemplification 例证Synonymy同义Antonymy反义词Hyponymy上下关系Relevant details相关细节Word structure课后题【P160，3】第七单元1Types of Changesextension词义的扩大, narrowing词义的缩小,degradation降格, elevation升华, and transfer转移.2Causes of ChangesLinguistic Factors （语言因素）and Extra-linguistic Factors（非语言因素）第六单元1 Two Approaches to Polysemy一词多义Diachronic (历时的）Synchronically（共时地）2 Two Processes of DevelopmentRadiation(辐射型）Concatenation(连锁型）3Types of Homonymsperfect homonyms , homographs拼写同and homophones音同Homophones constitute the largest number and are most common4Origins of Homonyms<1>Change in sound and spelling long a not short , from lang. long to want very much , from langian <2>borrow ing fair a market . Borrowed from feria .fair pretty , from fæger <3>shortening ad shortened from advertisement add to cause an increase5. Try to point out the main sources of synonyms（同义词）.1). Borrowing. The most important source is perhaps borrowing.2). Dialects and regional English.3). Figurative and euphemistic use of words.4). Coincidence with idiomatic expressions.6. What’s the fundamental difference between the processes of radiation（辐射型）and concatenation（连锁型）? Illustrate your point.答：Radiation describes a process where each of the derived meaning is directly connected tothe primary meaning, concatenation describs a process where each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. But the two are closely related , being different stages of the development leading to polysemy. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other.7. Try to illustrate the three major types of Antonyms with examples.答：1). Contradictory terms（矛盾反义词）. These antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. They are so opposed to each other that they are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them. The assertion of one is the denial of the other. In other words, if one of the pair is true, then the other cannot be. For example: dead and alive; boy and girl; present and absent. Another character of this category is that such antonyms are non-gradable.2). Contrary terms（对立反义词）. Antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes. Antonyms such as: rich and poor; old and young; big and small represesnt two points at both ends of the pole. The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.3). Relative terms（关系反义词）. This third type consists of relational opposites such as: parent and child; husband and wife; employer and employee. The pairs of words indicate such a reciprocal social relationship that one of them can not be used without suggesting the other.8What’s polysemy?Polysemy（多义关系）is a common feature peculiar to all natural Languages.9.How do you understander the statement that “true synonymy is non-existent.Synonyms can be classified into absolute synonyms(绝对同义词) and relative synonyms（相对同义词）they are confined to technical terms like word formation-word building but even technical terms like these might still have some slight difference, for instance, one term mat be more used than the other or one term is preferable in some situation. That is why we say “true synonymy is non-existent.10.homonymy（同形同音异义关系）: Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.11. a men changes his habits, alters his conduct, and varies his manner of speaking.I did not comprehend his arguments, although i understood the language, and all the sentences.[p111 108 两个图]The most important source of synonyms is perhaps borrowing.The use of antonymsDefining the meanings of the words and express economically the opposite of a particular thought.第五单元Reference(所指关系) is the relationship between Language and the world.concept（概念）: Concept, which is beyond Language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It’s universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, Language and so on.2. sense（语义）: Sense denotes the relationship inside the Language. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the Language.3. motivation（理据）: Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symboland its meaning.第四单元1.Affixation,derivation（词缀法）: [prefixation前缀法suffixation后缀法]pounding（合成法）3conversion（转换法）4 blending（拼缀法）5clipping（截短法）6 acronymy（首字母拼音法）:7initialisms（首字母缩略词）8 acronyms（首字母拼音词）:9back-formation（逆生法）课后题1. What are the differences between root and stem?答：①A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analysed without total loss of identity. The root whether free or bound generally carries the main component of meaning in a word.② A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in “iron”or of two root morphemes as in a compound like “handcuff”. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in “mouthful”. Therefore, a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind cab be added.第二单元1Mode of vocabulary developmentModern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change, borrowing CRATION: Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials , namely roots affixes and other elements Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need. Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowing.2词的发展1,Old English[450-1150] Middle English[1150-1500] Modern Englis[1500-up to now]第一单元一、BASIC CONCEPTS OF WORD AND VOCABULARY 1、the definition of a word comprises : A, a minimal free form of a language B, a sound unity C, a unit of meaning D, a form that can function alone in a sentence 2, classification of word 词的分类：words may falls into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion, and into native words and borrowed words by origin 3, BASIC WORD STOCK 的特点A, all national character B, stability C, productivity D, polysemy多义性E, collocability 搭配性4，没有3的特点：A, Terminology术语B, Jargon行话C, Slang谚语习语D, Argot黑话E, Dialectal words方言F, Archaisms古语G, Neologisms新词5, Content word/ notional word 实词functional words /empty words虚词6，Native word特点：A, all national character B, stability C, productivity D, polysemy多义性E, collocability 搭配性F, neutral in style风格性G, frequent in use频繁使用7，according to the degree of assimilation 同化and manner of borrowing,外来词的四种类型：Denizens本土化Aliens异化词Translation-loans译借词Semantic-loans借义词课后题1，A Borrowed words which still sound foreign and look foreign are [aliens]. B There is no [logical]relationship between sound and [meaning]as the connection between them is [arbitrary]and conventional. C[Denizens] borrowings that have become naturalized D Archaisms are words no longer in [common] use [obsolete] E content words are changing all the time whereas functional words are [stable] [functional] [higher] F a word whose meaning was borrowed [semantic loan]。
英语缩略词,英语词汇学
Nowadays, English shortening is widely used in China, for example, foreign brands is pouring into China like advertising signs such as IBM, KFC, CAT, etc, which offer us a beauty of simplism and a flavor of imported goods.
Hale Waihona Puke 龚 陈 慧 云 玲404 陈 褚 婷 银 婷 燕 盛 芳 华
吴 燕 红
We can often find shortening words when we are reading science and technology articles, newspapers and literatures. The popularity of abbreviation prevails in almost every field, whether in everyday communication or academic research.
energy and trouble to write correct words, especially long and sophisticated ones.
Names of different organizations or institutions
APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation) 亚太经贸合作 组织 IOC (International Olympic Committee) 国际奥林匹克委员 会 ISO (International Organization for Standardization) 国际 标准化组织 OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) 欧 佩克:石油输出国组织 WTO (World Trade Organization) 世界贸易组织
英语构词法之缩略法
英语构词法之缩略法摘要：现代英语词汇的特点之一是用词简化，这一方面是由于英语的整个发展趋势逐渐简化，词语向单音节（monosyllabism）方向发展；另一方面，现代社会的生活要求讲话、写文章必须节省时间和篇幅。
做为英语学习者必须弄清楚这种构词法的规律，这样有助于我们更好的学习。
关键词：构词法、缩略法把词的音节加以省略或简化而产生的词统称为缩略词，这种构词方法称为缩略法（abbreviation或shortening）。
英语中缩略词形式繁多，主要有四种类型：1、截短词（clippedword）2、首字母缩略词（initialism）3、首字母拼音词（acronym）4、拼缀词（blend）。
一、截短词（clipped words）截除原词的某一或某些音节所得的缩略词，叫做截短词。
1、截除词尾（apocope）ad←advertisement 广告Bike←bicycle 自行车demob←demobilize 复员doc←doctor 医生exam←examination 考试fax←facsimile 电传gent←gentleman 绅士hippo←hippopotamus 河马kilo←kilogram 公斤lav←lavatory 盥洗室memo←memorandum 备忘录mini←miniskirt 超短裙rhino←rhinoceros 犀牛Tele←television 电视auto←automobile 汽车coke←coca cola 可口可乐disco←discotheque 迪斯科dorm←dormitory 宿舍expo←exposition 展览会gas←gasoline 汽油heli←helicopter 直升飞机jap←Japanese 日本人lab←laboratory 实验室maths←mathematics 数学mike←microphone 话筒mitt←mitten 连指手套porn←pornography 色情文学stereo←stereotype 铅板trig←trigonometry 三角学2、截除词首（aphaeresis）有些词如果截除词尾保留词首，会引起语义不清，或与其他词混淆，因此也有截除词首的截短词。
词汇学期末考试复习资料
词汇学期末考试复习资料第一章A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic functionWord ，Vocabulary的关系All the words in a language make up what is generally known as its vocabulary.The relationship between sound and meaning is almost always arbitrary and conventional, and there is no logical relationship between sound and meaning.Word-form and meaning: arbitrary and conventional.What is the relationship between sound and meaning?1)There is ‘no logical relationship between the sound and act ual thing.e.g. dog. cat2)The relationship between them is conventional.3) In different languages the same concept can be represented by different sounds.What is relationship between sound and form?1)The written form of a natural language is the written record of the oral form. Naturally the written form should agree with the oral form.2)This is fairly true of English in its earliest stageOld English3)With the development of the language, more and more diff erences occur between the two.What is the classification of words? How to classify words i n linguistics?Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion, and into native words and borrowed words byorigin.According to Stuart Robertson the nine functional words , namely ,and , be , have , it , of , the , to , will ,youWhat are the characteristics of basic word stock?1) All national character 2) Stability 3) Productivity 4) Polyse my 5) CollocabilityNone basic vocabulary1) Terminology e.g. sonata, algebra 专业术语2) Jargon e.g. Bottom line ( Jargon ) 行话3) Slang e.g. smoky, bear ( Slang ) 俚语4) Argot e.g. persuader 黑话，隐语5) Dialectal words e.g. station ( AusE = ranch ) bluid ( ScotE = blood)方言6) Archaisms e.g. wilt (will) 古语词7) Neologisms e.g. email ( Neologisms ) 新语词第二章语系Three Phases of the Historical DevelopmentThe first peoples who inhabited the land were Celts.The second language known in English was Latin of the Roman Legions.Celtic对英语的影响小，主要是place，river name。
根据老师的要求整理的词汇学期末复习资料
根据老师的要求整理的词汇学期末复习资料Chapter 11.What is the scope of lexicology? How is lexicology related to lexicography and etymology?2.What are diachronic approach历时性研究and synchronic approach共识性研究in lexicological study?lexicology, a branch of linguistics, deals with the nature, history, use , and meaning of words and the relationships between elements of words. Lexicology mainly covers the origin, development, structure, meaning, and application of words.Linguists usually define a word as the smallest unit of a language1.Lexicology includes phonetics语音学phonology音韵学semantics 语义学etymology词源学lexicography词典学morphology形态学Etymology, which can be regarded as a subfield of lexicology, mainly focuses on the study of the origin and history of words. Lexicography, another related branch to lexicology, is mainly concerned with inclusion of words and the science of compiling dictionaries. Lexicography is about the application of lexicology--the science of dictionaries.Translation;coal abounds in this province.Crystal water wells out of the spring.2.Two major approaches are employed in lexicological studies;diachronic approach and synchronic approach. They are also two principal approaches to the study of language. all languages exist in a state of constant change and development. In language studies, linguists may investigate the history and stages oflanguage change(diachronic) in a course of time. It is historical lexicology. At the same time, they can study the language use, features and variation within a certain stage of its development(synchronic). Then it is descriptive lexicology.3.Chapter 21, what are the major foreign influences upon the development of the English vocabulary? Are there any other sources of influence that are not discussed in this chapter? Could you find some and add with examples?2, what factors do you think might influence the development of the English language? In your opinion, what will be English language be like in 50 years?The English vocabulary sprang from three major root sources; Germanic, Latin, and Greek.① Germanic tribes; anglo-Saxons, form AD450 to 1150; old English period, they contributed about 50. 000 very basic words in today’s English.②Latin; Roman Occupation, 55BC-AD410. The status of Englandwas re-enhanced as the Latin-speaking missionaries brought Christianity to England.Greek; Roman conquerors turned to learn Greek, and the English nobles began to learn Latin.French; in 1066, the Norman French conquered Britain and brought the French style of life to England.Italy; the European Renaissance, which originated from Italy in the late 14th century and began in large scale in Western Europe throughout the 15th century, signified a new epoch of scientific revolution, religious reforms, artistic transformations, and literary revival.as a result of this cultural movement, quite anumber of Italian words become a permanent part of the English vocabulary.In the 17th century, British conquered the place we call United State, mixed English with their language.In conclusion, Roman, Anglo-Saxon, Jute, Viking, Norman.Chapter31.What is morpheme? What are the major types of morphemes? What is allomorph词素变体?A morpheme词素is the smallest part of a word that has grammatical function or meaning. For example, walks, walked, and walking can be analyzed into the morphemes(walk). None of these morphemes can be further divided into meaningful units.Morpheme;free morpheme自由词素it does not have to be attached to another morpheme.bound morpheme粘着词素they must be attached to some other unit(s).inflectional morpheme\屈折词素such as -s, -ed, -ing，the addition of inflectional morphemes merely changes word form. Such asderivational morpheme派生词素.re-, un-, -ness, -ful . The addition of derivational morphemes creates new words. Such as possible→impossibleWhen a morpheme has variant forms, these variant forms are called allomorphs. Allomorphs are different realizations of the same morpheme. Such as tooth→teeth, sheep→sheep(different pronunciation.)Chapter4The formation of English Words;derivation派生法; is the process by which new words areformed form existing words or roots by adding affixes词缀( prefix, suffix).Such as; self+less→selfless, self+less+ly→selflessly, un+self+ish→unselfish.compounding复合法；is a direct process of word formation.A compound word is usually formed of two or more independent words that can be used alone as individual words.Eg; database, weblog, webpage, customer service, data retrieval, mass-destructionconversion转类法；is a process in which the part of speech of a word changes while its form is maintained. Conversion is also defined as”zero derivation,”which means that a word can play a new role without deriving anything or making any changes.Such as; water n, v. bottle→t o bottle, closet, fool, knife, name, pocket, ship, can, e-mail, heat, microwave, nurse, shape, tutor. n→vblending拼缀法；is a word formation process in which parts of words are put together to get a new word. Such as; smoke+ fog→smog, spread+crawl爬行→sprawl伸开四肢坐或卧, camcorder→camera+recorder, blog→web+log, brunch→breakfast+lunch, comcast→communication+broadcast, guestimate→guest+ estimate, intercom →internal+ communication, laundromat→laundry+automat, medicaid→medical+care+aid, medicare→medical + care, newscast→news+ broadcast, nightscape→night + landscape, paratroops→ parachute+ troops伞兵,back formation逆构法；is a process of creating a new word out of an existing word which is mistakenly assumed to be in derivative; a supposed suffix of a longer word is removed. Such as; babysit from babysitting, nominate推荐from nomination提名.clipping 截短法；is another word formation process from which a new word is formed by dropping one or more syllables from a polysyllable word and the remaining will mean essentially the same thing as the original word.. Such as; fax from facsimile, and phone from telephone, ad→advertisement, cable→cablegram, dorm→dormitory, gas→gasoline, gym→gymnastics, kilo→kilogram, memo→ memorandum, ?acronyms缩略法；Acronymy and Initialism首字母缩略法；are word formation practices in which the first letters of the individual words of a phrase are put together to form a new word. Such as; DOB for date of birth.from proper noun to common noun从专有名词到普通名词Chapter71.How do your understand sense relations? What are the majorsense relations discussed in this chapter?2.What is polysemy? What is homonymy? How are they related? How are they different?The meaning of a word in usually related in important ways to the meanings of other words. The relations in meaning are known collectively as sense relations. The major kinds of sense relations include; synonymy同义关系antonymy反义关系hyponymy上下义关系（such as flower and rose）polysemy一词多义homonymy同形或同音异义关系（bank bear）Polysemy; refers to the capacity of a word to have multiple meanings.A polyseme is a word or a phrase with different but related meanings. There are two kinds of polysemy; regular/systematicpolysemy and irregular/nonsystematic polysemy. Regular polysemy refers to the situation where different interpretations of one word have parallel sets of meanings among one another. For example, bottle can refer both to a container( of liquids)-as in this bottle is full of water-and to a quantity( of liquids)-as in i would like to buy a bottle of wine. Irregular polysemy is different. For example, glass can refer to a certain material, or to a certain kind of container, or to a certain optical aid which is often made of this material. Although these three meanings of the word are, to some extent, related to each other, the relations among them are not systematic, since we cannot give rulesthat would account for these three meanings of glass.Homonymy is , in the strict sense in linguistics, a sense relation in which words share the same spelling and/or the same pronunciation but have different meanings. One example of homonym is left( opposite of right) and left( past tense of leave). This is an example of perfect homonyms-they are the same in spelling as well as pronunciation, but different n meaning. Besides true homonyms, there are two other types; words that are same in spelling, but not in pronunciation, are called homographs; words that are the same in pronunciation, but different in spelling, are called homophones. Bear;忍受；生育(一词多义)，bear 忍受；熊（同形异义）Chapter8Metaphor隐喻；a metaphor is an implied analogy that suggestively identified one thing with another.Eg; the city is a jungle, where the strong survive and the weak perish. The jail is a zoo, where many” animals” are caged.Life is the morning dew, which vapors away in a mere glimpse.The world is a stage.Personification拟人化; is a figurative technique by whichnon-living objects such as things and ideas are endowed with the traits, feelings, actions, characteristics, and even languages of human beings.The yellow fog that rubs its back upon the window-panes, The yellow smoke that rubs its muzzle on the window-panes, Licked its tongue into the corners of the evening,Lingered upon the pools that stand in drains,Let fall upon its back the soot that falls from chimneys,slipped by the terrace, made a sudden leap,And seeing that it was a soft October night,Curled once about the house, and fell asleep.Hyperbole夸张; or exaggeration, is a figurative technique used to emphasize a point. Writers or speakers use this technique to be impressive or to emphasize a point.The fish is as small as a shrimp.To heaven or to hell, I will to with you.He feels as if he could crumb the earth into pieces.Allusion暗指;allusion is another kind of metaphor. It is used to refer to something that is well-known in literature or history to express your point.This story is actually a new version of King Lear’s tragedy.Many Americans were worried that the war in Iraq would become a second Vietnam War.After getting tired of the Tom-and-Jerry games in a high school, he quit his teaching job.Want to make a million dollars overnight? Have you got the Aladdin’s lamp yet?Paradox悖论refers to seemingly self-contradictory statement that actually is true.it may appear totally senseless on the surface but is really valid.Rewards are not always proportionate to efforts.You achieve your goal only to find out that it’s not what you want. Ignorance is joy.Onomatopoeia 拟声; means to take advantage of the words whose sounds are associated with the objects or actions they represent. Onomatopoeia generates sounds.“We won!” my boss chortled in joy.The ghost chortled as it was getting closer to him in the nightmare howl.One of the war phots recorded a mother howling over the dead body of her child.Better wind howled through the naked trees.The horses snorted when pulling the wagon up the mountain road. That old steam-engine train snorted as it left the train station. “That is my father.” she whispered to him.Leaves were whispering in the autumn wind.A little boy was wailing for a toy train.An ambulance wailed down the street.A dog barked at the stranger.“Hold it! Or I’ll shoot,” the farmer barked at the intruder.The roar of a lion echoed in the valley.“Get out!” he roared, “I don’t want to see your face again!”Several young sparrows were twittering in their nest.He could not sleep because several little girls were twittering outside the window.。
英语笔译笔记常用缩略词大全[精品]
![英语笔译笔记常用缩略词大全[精品]](https://img.taocdn.com/s3/m/4c86699248649b6648d7c1c708a1284ac8500517.png)
英语笔译笔记常用缩略词大全[精品]英语口译笔记常用缩略词大全进行英语口译时，大家可能常会用到一些缩略词做一些简单的笔记。
这里为大家总结了较全的缩略词，首先为大家介绍的是缩略词A—C acc = account, accountant acdg = accordingacpt = acceptad = advertisement adm = administration ads = addressadv = adviceagr = agricultureagt = agentalt = altitudea.m. = ante meridiem = before noonAMAP = as much as possibleamb = ambassadoramt = amountanal = analysisanc = ancientanon = anonymousans = answerapp = appendixApr = Aprilapt = apartmentarch = architecturearr = arrive; arrivalASAP = as soon as possibleass = assistant; associationat = atmosphere; atomicatt = attorney; attentionAug = Augustaux = auxiliaryav = averageave = avenuea.w.l. = absent with leave (准假)a.w.o.l. = absent without official leave (无故缺席) B.A. = Bachelor of Artsbal = balanceB.C. = before Christbd = boardbdl = bundlebk = bank; bookbkts = basketsB/L = bill of lading (提单)BLDG = buildingbp = birthplacebr = branch; brotherB.S. = Bachelor of Sciencebu = bureauC = capacity; century; chapter; centigrade; cost; city; center cal = calendar; caliber; caloriescap = capital; captaincat = catalogcc = carbon copy (复印件;抄送)CEO = chief executive officercert = certificateCFM = confirmcncl = cancelcp. = comparecit = citizenciv = civil; civilizationclk = clerkcml = commercialco. = companyc/o = care of(转交)col = college; colorcom = commentary; common; communication; communitycomm = commissioncomp = complete; computer; competitioncon = conclusion; againstcond = conditioncont. = continent; continuedcorp = corporationcust = customer; custom; customs上文我们为大家总结了英语口译缩略词A—C的内容，这里为大家总结的英语口译笔记常用缩略词区间段D—K的词汇。
英语词汇学期末考试复习资料
1.A word will cover the following points:1) A minimal free form of a language2) A word is minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function.(A sound unity, A unit of meaning, A form that can function alone in a sentence);3) A word is the smallest of the linguistic units which can occur on its own in speech or writing.2.Classification of words:1) Basic and non-basic word stock or vocabulary2) Content/ lexical /open class words and function/grammatical/closed class words3.What is involved in knowing a word?1) Form;/ structure;/2) meanings and semantic features associated with that word;3) grammatical or syntactic behavior associated with that word;4) network of associations between that word and other words;/ collocations;/ 5) limitations imposed on the use of word according to variations of function and situation;6) the degree of probability of encountering that word in speech or print.4.Morpheme can be classified as following:5.English word-formation英语构词法6.Derivation / Affixation派生法/词缀negative: a- dis- non- un-privative: de-dis-un- pejorative: mal- mis- pseudo-prefixation and suffixation.前缀和后缀Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to bases. A prefix is a letter or group of letters placed at the beginning of a word to change its meaning. Prefixes are frequently used to form new words.7.Conversion 转类法Conversion may be defined as a process by which a word belonging to one word class is transferred to another word class without any concomitant（伴随的）change of form. This process is also known as functional shift or zero-derivation. (零位派生) eg: bookstore was a must(v-n) for me. He downed(adv-v) his tools for a rest. He is a native(a-n)Functions of conversion: to achieve compactness and efficiency, accuracy and specificity, vividness and expressiveness, novelty and balance.8.Backformation逆生法Backformation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a short word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already present in thelanguage. This process is considered to be the opposite process of affixation. eg:bookkeeper<bookkeeping babysit<babysitting burgle<burglar lase<laser9.Abbreviation: 缩略法Abbreviation refers to word formation through clipping, initialism and acronym. These short forms are quicker and more convenient in use and for this reason they are becoming more and more popular.Clipping截短法Word formation by clipping part of a word, leaving only a piece of the old word. The shortening may occur at the beginning of the word, at the end of the word and at both ends of the word. The clipped form is normally regarded as informal. eg: phone(telephone), copter(helicopter), quake(earthquake) taxi(taxicab) appx.(appendix)Initialism首字母缩略词Words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as letters. VOA(Voice of America), p.c.(post card), VIP(very important person), BP(beautiful people)Acronym首字母拼音词ROM(read only memory), NATO(North Atlantic Treaty Organization), OPEC(Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries )10.Blending 混词法Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Words formed as such are called blends. Blends tend to be more frequent in informal style in the registers of journalism, advertising and technical field. Eg: head+tail：flaunt:flout+vaunt, blunt:blind+stunt, H-bomb:hydrogen+bomb, squash:squeeze+crash, hifi:high+fidelity/head+word:medicare:medical+care,/telequiz:telephone+quiz,//word+tail:workfare:work+welfare,bookmobile: book+automobile11.Imitation 基本拟声Zap! Crunch! Swoosh! The world is Whoa!12.Borrowing 外来语Coinage 新生词Invention 创造法poundingis a phenomenon where two or more existing words are combined to construct a new word. Compounding are useful to express the same meaning shortly and briefly and it can help writer to avoid repeating. E.g. The boy who catches attention is my son. The eye-catching boy is my son. The latter one expresses the same meaning more briefly and avoid repeating when we want to mention the boy afterwards. 14.Kinds of meaningConceptual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or lexical item that relates it to phenomena in the real world or in a fictional or possible world.Associative meaning Reflected meaning and collocative meaning, affective meaningand social meaning: all these have more in common with connotative meaning than with conceptual meaning, they all have the same open-ended, variable character. They can all be brought together under the heading of associative meaning.Connotative meaning refers to the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, or the mental content attached to the core meaning. These associations show people’s emotions and attitudes towards what the word refers to.Stylistic meaning Many words have stylistic features, which form the variation in meaning from casual to formal according to the type of situation, the addresser or person addressed, the location, the topic discussed, etc. These distinctive features form the stylistic meaning of words. In some dictionaries, these stylistic features are clearly marked as formal, informal, literary, archaic, slang and so on.Affective meaning reflects the speaker’s emotions, feelings and attitudes towards the person or thing in question. This meaning is often expressed in terms of the conceptual, connotative or stylistic content of the right word or by using proper intonation, tone of voice, and interjections.15.types of affective meaning:pejorative/derogatory; appreciative/commendatory16.How to express affective meaning? Explain with examples.The reflected meaning of a word is the total of all the other meanings a person thinks when hearing the word. The word has its suggestive power.Collocative meaning: Words may share the same meanings, but may be distinguished by the range of lexical terms they collocate with.Thematic meaning It is about what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.Analyzing meaning Meanings of words can be analyzed into a number of features or components, such approach is called componential analysis or semantic features analysis.17.English euphemisms formation1)Compounding, Clipping, Acronym: gents (gentlemen’s room)2) .backslang, respelling of initials, phonetic distortion: elly-bay (belly)3) . Borrowing, substitution of synonyms, use of fuzzy word: nude (naked)4) . Metaphor, understatement, periphrases, etc.: to sleep forever, adjustment downward, landscape architect, smelly18.Five major mechanisms in semantic changes语义转化Broadening/widening/extending/generalization of meaningNarrowing/restriction/reduction/specializationAmelioration/elevationPejoration/degradationTransfer of meaning19.The polysemy of the word一词多义a word having two or more closely relatedmeanings.20.Semantic relations语义关系Words do not exist in isolation. Their meanings are defined through their relations to other word, and it is through understanding these connections that we arrive at our understanding of words.A. Synonymy Words which have the same or nearly the same meanings as other words are called synonyms and the relationship between them is one of synonymy. Absolute and relative synonyms 绝对同义词和相对同义词B.Antonyms Words opposite in meaning are generally called antonyms. Gradable antonyms 层级反义词Complementary or contradictory antonym互补反义词Converse antonyms 逆行Three types of antonyms: gradable antonyms, complementary or contradictory antonyms, and converses.C. Hyponymy and meronymy 上下义关系和部分整体关系Hyponymy--the kind of’ relation The relation of hyponymy serves to structure large parts of a language’s vocabulary. The organization of a work like Roget’s Thesaurus suggests that it is perhaps an all-pervasive structuring relation.meronymy--the part of relation can similarly be represented by a hierarchy of superordinate and subordinate termsD. Homonymy 同形同音异义词Homonyms refer to words which are written in the same way and sound alike but which have different meanings. They can be classified into two categories: homographs and homophones.a. Homographs: 同形异义词words that have the same spelling but differ in sound and meaning.b. Homophones: 同音异义词words that have the same phonological form but differ in spelling and meaning.20.Semantic/lexical field:It is the organization of related words and expressions into a system which shows their relationship to one another.The semantic field arrangement brings together words that share the same semantic space. It is a record of the vocabulary resources available for an area of meaning, and it enables a user of the language to appreciate often elusive meaning differences between words.21.The major features of idioms1)Compositeness: 复合性idioms consist of more than one word; They are multiword lexical items as in bread and butter, spill the beans, let the cat out the bag, etc.2)Structural stability: 稳定性idioms are fixed collocations by long usage. Unlike free phrases, idioms are frozen and conventionalized collocations whose components cannot be varied or varied only within definable limits. 3)Semantic unity: 统一性idioms are semantically opaque. Unlike free phrase, the meaning of an idiom is not the sum of its constituents. In other words, the meaning of idiom is not transparent in most cases.Transformation/creativity in idiom: Replacement/substitution, addition, permutation, deletionThe application of idioms:Idioms from the speech of soldiers, every-day life of Englishmen, health, illness and death, business and the stock exchange, popular sports and games, books and stories22.Cohesive device 衔接手段(links in meaning) conjunction连词,substitution替代,ellipsis省略, reference指代, lexical cohesion词汇衔接Discourse is any passage spoken or written of whatever length that forms a unified corn. It may be a product of a single writer, speaker or several persons.23.词汇衔接手段reiteration（复现）and collocation(共现)Lexical cohesion refers to lexical items which work on the organization of coherent discourse. Under this heading includes a variety of kinds of semantic relationship that can exist between lexical items. Halliday and Hasan cluster them into two broad sub-classes: reiteration and collocation, which contribute to the creation and organization of discourse.Reiteration 复现or repetition is the occurrence of one or more items in a sentence that by themselves tell the reader or listener nothing new but reinstate some element(s) from the earlier sentences so that something new can be said about. As a form of lexical cohesion, reiteration involves the repetition of an identical lexical item, the use of a general word to refer to a lexical item, the use of a synonym or near-synonym, the use of superordinate, the use of hyponym, Equivalence 等价Naming 命名Semblance/Analogy 同义词/类比Metonymy 借喻etc. They serve to show the relatedness of ideas in the discourse.Collocation搭配is a cover term for the cohesion that results from the co-occurrence of lexical items that are in some way or other associated with one another, because they tend to occur in similar environment.24.General approaches to lexical learning in EFL1.) guessing/inferring from context2.)using mnemonic techniques3.) using word parts4.) learning from word cards5.) using dictionary25.Kinds of Context Clue Linguistic clues:cues based on knowledge of English language. e.g. synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms, grammar, punctuations, word parts, pronunciation, intonation, stress, etc.Logical clues: cues based on relationships among the various parts of the information.e.g. cause and effect, comparison and contrast, generalization and examples,restatements, definitions, etc.World knowledge clues: cues based on the informant’s experience and knowledge of the topic.Non-verbal clues: cues based on tables, images, diagrams, etc.ing mnemonic techniques1) Repeating (verbal and oral): Repetition is the key to learning. Only by saying, writing, listening and using words again and again can one make them part of his active vocabulary.2) Linking with prior knowledge: Integrating the new word with the familiar one, connecting the new word with already known words through associating, semantic mapping and charting semantic features, etc.3) Forming word association: Getting words together on account of their semantic relations or logical connections. e.g. grass – green, school – students, hit – ball, swim – pool, apple – fruit, irritated – annoyed, dead – alive, baby – mother, etc.4) Building up semantic mapping: Brainstorming associations a word has with other words and then diagramming the results.27.What is lexical cohesion? What are the general features of it?Lexical cohesion refers to lexical items which work on the organization of coherent discourse. Cohesion means formal links between element links in form. There are 2 types of lexical cohesion,reiteration and collocation. As a form of lexical cohesion, reiteration involves the repetition of an identical lexical item, the use of a general word to refer to a lexical item, the use of a synonym or near-synonym, the use of superordinate, the use of hyponym. Collocation reflects rules of the conventions and co-occurence tendency in the use of word in discourse. Collocation is a cover term for the cohesion that results from the co-occurrence of lexical items that are in some way or other associated with one another, because they tend to occur in similar environment. For example, in a talk about football game, words like shoot, goalkeeper, penalty and kick are more likely to appear than other words in the talk.28.Learning from word cardsStep 1 Choosing words to learnSept 2 Making word cardsStep 3 Using the cardsing DictionariesWhat are the major purposes for dictionary use?Comprehension/ Look up unknown words met while listening, reading, or translating./ Confirm the meanings of partly known words./ Confirm guess from context./ Production/ Look up unknown words needed to speak, write, or translate. / Look up the spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammar, constraints on use, collocations, inflections and derived forms of partly known words needed to speak, write or translate. /Confirm the spelling, pronunciation, meaning, etc. of known words. /Check that a word exists./Find a different word to use instead of a known one./Correct an error./Learning /Choose unknown words to learn./Enrich knowledgeof partly known words, including etymology.。
词汇学复习资料 大纲 英语专业必考
Chapter11.word:A word is the smallest unit of spoken written language which has meanings and can stand alone. A word is a minimal free form that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function2. A word is(1)A minimal free form of a language;(2)a sound unity;(3)a unity of meaning;(4)a form that can function alone in a sentence.3.1 the physical structure of the word(1)Phonetics is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for the description, classification and transcription.(2)Morphology is the branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and rules by which words are formed. In other words, it identifies the smallest meaningful units in a language which are called morphemes and look into the ways the morphemes are arranged to form words.2.2 the semantic structure of the word（1）the word is a unit of speech or writng, which serves the purposeful human communication.（2）the word can be perceived as the total of the sounds that comprise it（3）the word , in writing, is seen as a sequence of letters bounded on either side by a blank space.（4）the word, viewed linguistically, possesses its physical structure (form) and semantic structure (meaning).4.V ocabulary:V ocabulary refers to all the words used in a particular kind of work, business or known to a particular person.5.V ocabulary and Lexis :Lexi, a mass noun, is defined as the total stick of words in a language.6.Lexicology: the study of meaning and uses of words论述对词汇学的理解包括内容：Lexicology is the part of linguistics which studies words. This may include their nature and function as symbols, their meaning, the relationship of their meaning, and the rules of their composition from smaller elements. Lexicology also involves relations between words, which may involve semantics, derivation, usage and sociolinguistic distinctions. Any other issues involved in analyzing the whole lexicon of a languages.Chapter21.The development of English vocabulary. The history of English language can be divided into 3 periods:a/ Old English period (449—1100)the former inhabitants, the Celtic, the Germanic tribes called Angles, Saxons and Jutes Anglo-Saxon as Old English, Old English contains 50-60 thousand words, which consists of the basic word stock.*3个重大事件：(1)Teutonic Conquest 乔顿征服(2)Christianity(Latin word)(3)Scandinavian invasionb/ Middle English period (1100-1500)characterized by the strong influence of French following the Norman Conquest in 1066.The French loan words were found in law and governmental administration (judge, justice）1150-1204:French occupied the dnoinant position1204-1500:English gradually come back to a positionc/ Modern English period (1500--)the early stage of this period ( including the years between 1500-1700), the Renaissance brought great changes to the vocabulary. borrowing from Latin, Latin were now mostly connected with science and abstract ideas. Greek borrowings were mostly literary, technical and scientific words2.The origins of English words2.1 the native words: Anglo-Saxon elements2.2 the loan words: French, Latin, Greek, Scandinavian, other European elements, ChineseChapter31. American English: is the form of English used in the United States. It includes all English dialects used within the United States.2. British English: is the form of English used in the United Kingdom. It includes all English dialects used within the United Kingdom.3. The history:(1)17th century: The English language was first introduced to the American by British colonization, beginning in 1607 in Jamestown, Virginia.Early in the 17th century, the English settlements in Virginia and Massachusetts began the main stream of what we recognize as the American history.The language taken there was Elizabethan English(2)The War of Independence : It marks the end of the colonial period.The political independence brings the tendency to develop an American brand of English.4.Americanism: A word, phrase or idiom characteristic of English as it is spoken in the US.5.Difference: pronunciation / spelling/ vocabulary / habitual expression/ grammarChapter41.Neologism(新词): a neologism is a recently coined word, phrase or usage. It can also be an existing word or phrase which has been assigned a new meaning.Chapter51.morpheme:A morpheme is the minimal meaningful units of which the language is composed. Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.2.分类：(1)free morphemes (自由词素)(2)bound morphemes (黏着词素): bound root +affixA. Inflectional affixes (-s ,-es ,ing,-er ,or -(e)d,est)B. Derivational affixes(3)content and function morpheme(4)derivational and Inflectional morpheme3.Root, stem, base词根、词干、词基A root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed. (词根是所有屈折词缀和派生词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分)A stem is that part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed.(词干是所有屈折词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分)A base refers to a form to which affixes of any kind (both derivational and inflectional) can be added. It can be a root or a stem. (词基是任何一种词缀都可加在上面的形式)词根是所有屈折词缀和派生词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分。
词汇学期末复习参考资料
UNIT1 A SHORT HISTORY OF ENGLISH重点在于各阶段英语对现代英语的影响，历史部分不再赘述。
另：由于语音部分过于复杂，贴上传送门，有兴趣的同学自己研究。
按这里进入。
OLD ENGLISH发音和德语相近词汇复合法是重要的构词方法。
复合词在古英语词汇中占有显著的地位。
据统计，在史诗《贝奥武夫》3183行诗句中，竟有1069个复合词。
有些复合词中不重读部分，渐渐失去了独立地位，而演变成了词缀，如for-, in-, -ful 等派生法在古英语中也广泛使用。
共有二十四个名词后缀、十五个形容词后缀，-dom, -hood, -ship, -ness, -the, -ful,- ish 等词缀都可溯源到古英语时期。
古英语时期的诗歌有一种特殊的修辞手法，即头韵(alliteration)，由此产生的许多短语一直保留到现在，如night and main, friend or foe, a labour of love。
一批来自拉丁语和斯堪的纳维亚语的词汇进入英语。
语法古英语的名词有数和格的分别。
数分为单数、复数；格分为主格、所有格、与格、宾格。
因此一个名词加起来共有8种变化形式。
此外，名词还分阳性、中性和阴性。
但是比较奇怪的是，这些性的区分并不是以性别来判断的，而且没有性别的事物也未必是中性。
例如妇女就是阳性的。
形容词的形态变化分为强、弱两种，它的数和格也共有8种变化。
动词只有现在式和过去式两种时态变化。
MIDDLE ENGLISH发音依然和德语相近词汇中古英语吸收了大量法语的词汇，数目有几千之多。
此外，中古英语还吸收了拉丁语、佛兰芒语、荷兰语、低地德语的一些词汇。
同时，大量古英语的词汇由于不再使用而被淘汰。
语法中古英语的语法在形态变化方面发生了简化。
名词逐渐失去了古英语复杂的数和格的变化，简化成了单数和复数两种形式，复数以词尾-s表示。
形容词则简化成了没有任何变化的词类。
词在句子中的关系不再通过性、数、格的变化来表示，而是由词在句子中的位置来表示。
词汇学期末复习各章知识点
Chapter one The basic concepts of words and vocabulary1.1 The definition of a word（1）一个最小的自由形态（2）一个发音的集合体（3）一个意义单位（4）能独自影响句子的形式因此，我们能说“词语是语言最小的自由形式，拥有固定的声音和意义以及句法作用。
”1.2 vocabularyAll the words in a language make up its vocabulary. The general estimate of the English vocabulary is over one million words.1.3Sound and meaning词语是一个符号，代表着世界上其他的事物。
每种世界文化已经赞成一定的读音将代表一定的人，事，地方，特性，过程，行动，当然是在语言系统之外。
这种象征性的联系几乎总是主观的，并且“在代表事物和思想的声音和实际的事物和思想之间没有法定关系。
”1.4 sound and form在古英语中，口语比今天更忠实地代表书面语，但随着语言的发展，越来越多的不同出现在口语和书面语之间。
有以下几点原因：1.内因是因为英语字母表采用罗马字母，罗马字母没有独立的字母代表每个读音，因此一些字母代表两个读音或者组合在一起发音。
2.另一个原因是发音比拼写的变化快，在一些时候还拉开了距离。
在最近五百年里，尽管口语发音已经出现了显著的变化，却没有相应的拼写变化。
Another reason for this is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.3.第三个原因是一些早期的书写员发明了一些不同Those scribes had made some change to the word spelling4.到1500年年末，印刷已经变得非常普及。
常见英语缩略词大全
ADSL Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line 又名网络快车。
APEC Asian-Pacific Economic Cooperation 即亚太经济合作组织。
AQ Adversity Quotient逆境商数. CATV Cable Television即有线电视BBS Bulletin Board System 公告牌系统或电子公告板。
BSS Base Station System 即基站系统，指移动通信中的空中接口部分。
CARM Chinese Association of Rehabilitation Medicine 即中国康复医学会。
CBD Central Business District又称中央商务区。
CCEL China Certification Committee for Environment Labelling Production即中国环境标志产品认证委员会。
CD-ROM Compact Disk-Read Only Memory即光盘只读存储器即光驱。
CEO Chief Executive Officer即首席执行官。
CET College English Test即大学英语测试。
CFO Chief Finance Officer即首席财务主管。
CI Corporate Identity即企业形象统一战略，CID Central Information District即中央信息区。
CIO Chief Information Officer即首席信息主管，也称信息中心主任。
CPA Certified Public Accountant即注册会计师CPI Consumer Price Index，即全国居民消费价格指数。
CPU Central Processing Unit又称微处理器，CS customer satisfaction顾客满意度。
英语词汇学知识点整理
英语词汇学知识点整理Chapter 1Word and Vocabulary nsA word is defined as a minimal free form。
a sound unity。
a semantic unity。
and a form that can n alone in a sentence.Vocabulary refers to all the words in a language。
It is the sum of all the words。
and the XXX is like that een an individual and a group.Sound and MeaningXXX.Sound and FormThe written form of a natural language is the XXX een sound and form occur due to the n of the English alphabet from the Romans。
XXX。
the differences created by nal scribes。
and the continuing XXX.XXX languages。
such as Latin。
Greek。
French。
etc。
are known as borrowing or loanwords。
These words have been incorporated into the language over time and have e a part of the vocabulary.In terms of n。
words can be divided into basic words andnon-basic words。
Basic words are XXX to all speakers of the language。
英语词汇学 日常缩略词
密件抄送，暗送
It refers to the practice of sending a message to multiple recipients in a way that conceals the fact that there may be additional addresses from the complete list of recipients.
IMO
= In My Opinion 在我看来
K/KK = OK 好的
KIT = Keep In Touch 保持联系
HAGO = Have a good one 祝过得愉快
HHOK = Ha，ha, only kidding 开个玩笑罢了 TIA = Thanks in advance 先谢了
Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation Closed Circuit Television 闭路电视
Some useful E-mail expressions in abbreviated form: CC ：Carbon Copy 抄送
When used in an e-mail, it means to send a copy of the e-mail to someone else.
BTW
= By The Way 顺便说一句
LOL = Laughing Out Loud 大声笑 PLS/PLZ = Please 请
FAQ = Frequently Asked Question 常见问答
OIC = Oh, I See 哦，我明白了 BBL = Be Back Later 一会就回来
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英语常用缩略词
CPI : 消费价格指数
ATM: 自动取款机
SOS: 紧急求救信号
EQ: 情商
MVP: 最有价值球员
MTV: 音乐电视
API: 空气污染指数
ICU: 重症监护室
KFC: 肯德基
WC：厕所
BRT: 快速公交系统
CRH: 动车组
HDTV : 高清电视
CNN: 有线电视新闻网(美国) VOD：视频点播
OTC: 非处方药
USB: 通用串行总线
FDA: (美国)食品及药物管理局PICC: 中国人民财产保险股份有限公司IP: 互联网协议
DV: 数码录像
DVD: 数字激光视盘VCR: 录像机
VCD: 激光视盘
PhD: 博士
SCI: 科学引文索引
PK:
3G:
MP3:
AD: (拉丁语) 公元UNESCO: 联合国教科文组织4S:
CEO: 首席执行长官
DIY：自己动手做
BBS: 电子布告栏系统
PS: 图片处理
ID: 身份
FM: 调频
GDP: 国民生产总值MBA: 工商管理学硕士NBA: (美国)全国篮球协会FBI: (美国)联邦调查局
CT: 计算机断层扫描
NMET：高考
CET: 大学英语考试
TEM: 英语专业考试
PETS: 公共英语等级考试
TOEFL: 托福考试
IELTS: 雅思考试
GPS: 全球定位系统
GSM: 全球移动通信系统
EMS: 邮政特快专递
WWW: 万维网
ZIP code: 邮编（用5位号码划分美国邮区的制度）SOHO: 在家办公
SARS:
GRE:
CBD: 中央商务区
Pm2.5
DNA:
B2b
F2f
B2c
XL extra large 特大号
XS extra small 特小号
WHO world health organization 世界卫生组织WTO world trade organization 世界贸易组织CPA certified public accountant 注册会计师PRC People’s Republic of China 中华人民共和国PPT power point 演示稿文件
TCM traditional Chinese medicine 中医
IE internet explorer 浏览器
CCTV China Central TV 中央电视台CATV cable TV 有线电视
KTV Karaok TV
WIAN wireless local area network 无线局域网
WIFI wireless fidelity 无线网络
PBL problem-based learning 基于问题的学习AQI air quality index 空气质量指数LED light emitting diode 发光二极管
PLA People’s Liberation Army 中国人民解放军PE physical education 体育课
PDF portable document format 可移植文档格式DJ Disc Jockey 音乐解说人或主持人
LV Louis Vuitton 路易威登。