andCostAnalysisPartII(M-Grow-Hill,微观经济学
第五章成本与收益分析(微观经济学-哈工大,周燕)
2 120 63 183 29 91.5 31.5 60
3 120 90 210 27 70 30 40
4 120 116 236 26 59 29 30
5 120 145 265 29 53 29 24
6 120 180 300 35 50 30 20
7 120 230 350 50 50 32.86 17.4
生活总会给你谢另一个谢机会，大这个机家会叫明天 6、
。2 020年8 月30日 星期日 上午9 时47分5 秒09:47 :0520.8 .30
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•
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生产要素，但实际上没有支付的报 酬。
3、私人成本与社会成本
私人成本：是指个别厂商从事生产活动
所应支付的成本，它指显成本与隐成本 的和，即厂商的生产成本。
社会成本：是指由整个社会所支付的成
本，私人成本与外在成本的和。
社会成本是整个社会在制订经济决策和 立法时所考虑的重要因素。但是，作为 以追求利润最大化为目标的厂商来说， 在生产经营决策中往往考虑的是私人成 本，而不考虑社会成本。
当厂商可以选择很多不同的工厂规模时， 这时短期平均成本曲线的数目也很多，这 时，相邻两条短期平均曲线的交点下面部 分的点线段就越来越短。假如厂商可供选 择的规模可以无限的细分，SAC曲线将密 集排布在坐标图中（而LAC曲线上的每一 点代表与某一特定规模的SAC曲线相切的 点）这时厂商的LAC曲线将成为一条平滑 的曲线。显然，长期平均曲线是无数条短 期平均成本曲线的包络线。
第五章 成本 《微观经济学》PPT课件
❖ 由 TC曲线和 TVC曲 线的斜率，可得 MC 曲线，且拐点与 MC 最低点相对应。
o
TC
·c TVC b·
Q
MC
·· b′ c′ ·a〞
Q1 Q2 Q3
Q
第三节 短期成本曲线 五、短期产量与成本曲线
第三节 短期成本曲线
五 短期产量与成本曲线 Q 1 MC与MPL
TC(Q) TVC(Q) TFC
要素投入量不断调整 来实现最大利润。 ❖ 厂商在追求利润最大
P f w 0 L L P f r 0 k k
化中，可以得到最优
f 得到：L MPL w
的生产要素组合。
f MPK r
K
第二节 成本最小化 四、等斜线和生产总成本
第二节 成本最小化
四 等斜线和生产总成本
3 短期总成本
K
第一节 成本 三、经济利润
第一节 成本
三 经济利润
❖ 企业所有的显成本和隐成本之和构成总成本。 ❖ 企业的经济利润 (超额利润) 是指总收益和总成
本之间的差额，简称企业的利润。 ❖ 正常利润是指厂商对自己所提供的企业家才能
的报酬支付，是厂商生产成本的一部分。 ❖ 从机会成本看，正常利润属于成本并且属于隐
成本；经济利润中不包含正常利润，当经济利 润为零时，厂商仍得到全部的正常利润。
[资料] 名人谈利润
[资料] 名人谈利润
❖ 制度经济学家凡勃仑说： “ 企业的动机就是金钱 利益……它的目的和通常 结果就是财富积累。”
❖ 马克思引用邓宁关于资本 的精彩评论： “资本害 怕没有利润或利润太少， 就像自然界害怕真空一样， 一旦有适当的利润，资本 就胆大起来。”
期内平均每生产一单位产品 o
萨缪尔森《微观经济学》(第19版)笔记(第7章 成本分析)
萨缪尔森《微观经济学》（第19版）第7章成本分析复习笔记跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。
以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。
一、成本的经济分析1．基本概念（1）总成本：固定成本和可变成本总成本（TC）是生产某一特定产量所需要的最低成本总额，即生产活动中所使用的全部生产要素的价格，主要包括付出劳动所得到的工资、付出资本所得到的利息、付出土地所得到的地租、付出企业家才能所得到的利润。
在短期中，总成本可以分为固定成本与可变成本，用公式表示即为：TC FC VC=+。
①固定成本（FC）也称为“固定开销”，是指在短期内不会随着产量变动而变动的生产要素价格，一般包括租用机器厂房所花费的租金、机器设备折旧费、债务的利息支付、长期工作人员的薪水等等。
在一定时期内，这些固定成本都是必不可少的，厂商不能对它们进行选择使用与否或使用多少，只要建立了企业，无论在一定时期内是否生产产品，都一定要支付这些成本。
而且，如果产量发生变化，这些开支也不会改变。
因为长期内厂商可以改变生产规模，甚至退出该行业，从而长期内所有的成本都是可变的，固定成本没有意义。
②可变成本（VC）是指在短期内可以随着产量变动而变动的那些成本，一般包括原材料、燃料和动力的费用、生产工人的工资，也包括非固定的所有成本。
厂商没有进行生产时，可变成本为零。
产量逐渐增加时，可变成本会相应地增加，但可变成本的增加并不一定与产量的增加呈相同比例，这一过程受到收益递减规律的影响。
因此，开始时产量增加，可变成本的增加幅度可能较大，因为各生产要素的组合可能不一定有效率；随着产量到一定程度，生产要素组合的效率得到发挥，可变成本增加幅度变缓；最后，收益递减规律又会使它增加较快。
微观经济学成本分析
边际报酬递减规律定义：在短期生产过程中，在其它条件不变的前提下，随着一种可变要素投入量的连续增加，它所带来的边际产量先是递增的，达到最大值后再递减。
03
短期成本变动的决定因素：
01
边际报酬递减规律
02
对边际成本曲线的再讨论
如果只有一种投入，那么边际产量递减等价于边际成本递增。 但如果可变投入有两种，那么边际产量递减并不一定蕴涵边际成本递增。 这是因为边际产量的定义只允许一种投入变动，所有其他投入，固定的、可变的，都保持不变。 而根据成本函数的定义，当产量变动时，生产过程可以调节所有可变投入以求成本最低，并不一定局限于只变动一种投入。 由于有较大的调节余地，即使所有可变投入的边际产量都是递减的，边际成本也不一定递增。
3 边际成本
短期平均成本和边际成本
平均总成本：ATC = TC/Q 平均固定成本：AFC = FC/Q 平均变动成本：AVC = VC/Q 边际成本：MC = TC/Q =VC/Q 对于一个连续的TC函数： MC = d(TC)/dQ = d(VC)/dQ
收益
对成本概念的总结
成本函数通常是指产品成本与产量之间的函数关系
短期成本与长期成本 短期：在所分析的期间内，至少有一种投入要素的数量不能改变； 长期：在所分析的期间内，所有的投入要素的数量都可以改变； 短期与长期不是一个固定的时间。
第二节 成本函数
一、成 本 函 数
【成本函数】产品成本与产量之间的关系，可表示为：C=f（Q） 成本函数与生产函数 成本函数取决于: 产品生产函数； 投入要素的价格。 知道某种产品的生产函数，以及投入要素的价格，可以推导出它的成本函数.
但同时变动成本与边际成本增加了（运输、装卸、订货等），但其增加程度远远少于固定成本的减少量。
微观经济管理学与财务知识分析
Chapter 1
15
The Themes of Microeconomics
Microeconomics Allocation of Scarce Resources and Trade-offs In a planned economy In a market economy
14
Try to understand the phrase“scarce resources”in the following
Every gun that is made,every warship launched,every rocket fired signifies,in the final sense,a theft from those who hunger and are not fed.
Chapter 1
16
A planned economy
Allocation decisions of
scarce resources are made mostly by the government(like
Cuba,North Korea,Former Soviet Union)
Chapter 1
Part 1 Introduction:Markets and
Prices Chapter 1-2
Chapter 1
Preliminaries
Chapter 1
1
Traditional microeconomics for one-semester course
Chapter 1,2 3,4.14.4,6,7.1-7.4,8,9.19.3,10,11.111.3,12,14,15.1-15.4,18.118.2,18.5
曼昆经济学原理(微观部分)第13章 生产成本
n/a
$170 110
n/a
$100 50
n/a
$70 60 53.33 52.50 56.00 63.33
平均总成本(ATC )： 等于总成本除以产量
ATC = TC/Q
86.67 33.33 77.50 76 80 25 20 16.67
也等于，ATC =AFC +
AVC
7
620
88.57 14.29
企业用于生 产的投入品 的市场价值
作为机会成本的成本
记住经济学的十大原理之一：
某种东西的成本是你为了得到它所放弃的东西
显性成本：需要企业支出货币的投入成本
例如：支付给工人的工资
隐性成本：不需要企业支付货币的投入成本
例如：企业所有者时间的机会成本
无论对于显性成本还是隐性成本，两者对于
企业决策都是重要的。
总成本的增加：
∆TC MC = ∆Q
例1:总成本与边际成本
Q
(蒲式耳小 总成本 麦) 0
∆Q = 1000 1000 ∆Q = 800 1800 ∆Q = 600 2400 ∆Q = 400 2800 ∆Q = 200 3000 $9,000 $11,000 ∆TC = $2000 $7,000 $5,000 ∆TC = $2000 $3.33 $5.00 $10.00 $3,000 ∆TC = $2000 $2.50 边际成本 (MC ) $2.00
2,000 1,500
1 2
3 4 5
1000 1800
2400 2800 3000
1,000
500 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 工人的数量
边际产量
如果Caroline多雇佣一个工人，他的产出增
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)课后习题详解(第2章 像经济学家一样思考)
曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第6版）第2章像经济学家一样思考课后习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。
以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。
一、概念题1．循环流量图（circular flow diagram）答：循环流量图是指表明物品和劳务、生产要素以及货币支付在家庭和企业之间如何流动的经济图形，如图2-1所示。
在这个模型中，经济由两类决策者——家庭和企业——所组成。
企业用劳动、土地和资本（建筑物和机器等）这些投入来生产物品和劳务，这些投入被称为生产要素。
家庭则拥有生产要素并消费企业生产的所有物品与劳务。
图2-1 循环流量图图2-1中，经济决策由家庭和企业做出。
家庭和企业在物品与劳务市场（在这个市场上，家庭是买者而企业是卖者）以及生产要素市场（在这个市场上，企业是买者而家庭是卖者）上相互交易。
外面一圈的箭头表示货币的流向，里面一圈的箭头表示相应的物品与劳务的流向。
循环流量图的形式是简化的，是整体经济的一个简化模型，因为它不包括国际贸易和政府。
2．生产可能性边界（production possibilities frontier）（深圳大学2007研；北京工业大学2008研）答：生产可能性边界也称为社会生产可能性边界或生产可能性曲线，指一个经济在可获得的生产要素与生产技术既定时所能生产的产品的产量的各种组合。
由于整个社会的经济资源是有限的，当这些经济资源都被充分利用时，增加一定量的一种产品的生产，就必须放弃一定量的另一种产品的生产。
整个社会生产的选择过程形成了一系列的产品间的不同产量组合，所有这些不同产量的组合就构成了社会生产的可能性边界。
(完整word版)曼昆宏观经济学名词解释 (中英文)
宏观经济学第十五章MEASUREING A NATION’S INCOME一国收入的衡量Microeconomics the study of how households and firms make decisions and how they interact in markets.微观经济学:研究家庭和企业如何做出决策，以及他们如何在市场上相互交易。
Macroeconomics the study of economy-wide phenomena,including inflation,unemployment，and economic growth宏观经济学：研究整体经济现象，包括通货膨胀、失业和经济增长.GDP is the market value of final goods and services produced within a country in a given period of time.国内生产总值GDP：给定时期的一个经济体内生产的所有最终产品和服务的市场价值Consumption is spending by households on goods and services， with the exception of purchased of new housing.消费：除了购买新住房,家庭用于物品与劳务的支出。
Investment is spending on capital equipment inventories， and structures, including household purchases of new housing。
投资:用于资本设备、存货和建筑物的支出，包括家庭用于购买新住房的支出.Government purchases are spending on goods and services by local, state, and federal government.政府支出：地方、州和联邦政府用于物品和与劳务的支出.Net export is spending on domestically produced goods by foreigners (exports） minus spending on foreign goods by domestic residents （imports)净出口：外国人对国内生产的物品的支出(出口)减国内居民对外国物品的支出(进口）。
andCostAnalysisPartII(M-Grow-Hill,微观经济学
Determinants of the Shape of the Long-Run Cost Curve
The law of diminishing marginal productivity does not hold in the long run since all inputs are variable in the long run.
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•$38
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4
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•420
•280
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•750
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•480
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•18
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•19
•549
•366
•915
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•444
0-Run Average Total Cost Curve
•Costs per unit
•$64 •62 •60 •58 •56 •54 •52 •50 •48
•Average total cost •Minimum efficient level of production
Making Long-Run Production Decisions
微观经济管理学与财务知识分析规范(ppt 63页)
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
15 - 13
The Effect of a Negative Externality
Cost
P1 P0
0
Marginal social cost
15 - 9
Externalities
Positive externalities occur when the effect of a decision on others that is not taken into account by the decisionmaker is beneficial to others.
15 - 14
Positive Externalities
Private trades can benefit third parties not involved in the trade.
Marginal social benefit equals the marginal private benefit of consuming a good or service plus the positive externalities resulting from consuming that good or service.
15 - 4
Market Failures
微观经济管理学与财务知识分析规划(英文版)(PPT 68页)
Suppose the price has to drop to $490 before a 2nd person would rent.
Then p = $490 QD = 2.
Modeling Apartment Demand
The lower is the rental rate p, the larger is the quantity of close apartments demanded
– many potential renters and landlords
Modeling the Apartment Market
Who will rent close apartments? At what price? Will the allocation of apartments be
p QD .
The quantity demanded vs. price graph is the market demand curve for close apartments.
Market Demand Curve for Apartments
p
QD
Modeling Apartment Supply
Edition)
by Hal R. Varian W. W. Norton， 2003
The Theory of Economics does not furnish a body of settled conclusions immediately applicable to policy. It is a method rather than a doctrine, an apparatus of the mind, a technique of thinking which helps its possessor to draw correct conclusions
经济学：微观经济分析（一）
经济学：微观经济分析（⼀）缁忔祹瀛︼細寰缁忔祹鍒嗘瀽(涓€)(鎬诲垎锛?5.00锛屽仛棰樻椂闂达細90鍒嗛挓)涓€銆亄{B}}鍗曢」閫夋嫨棰榹{/B}}(鎬婚鏁帮細55锛屽垎鏁帮細55.00)1.Income elasticity is defined as the:A. percentage change in income divided by the percentage change in the quantity demanded.B. change in quantity demanded divided by the change in income.C. percentage change in the quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in income.锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A.B.C. 鈭?/span>D.瑙ｆ瀽锛欼ncome elasticity is defined as the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in income. Normal goods have positive values for income elasticity and inferior goods have negative income elasticities.2.According to the "invisible hand" principle, which of the following statements is least accurate?A. Competitive markets produce an optimal basket of goods and services.B. Efficient allocation of productive resources occurs through competition.C. The authority of the state, although not seen, must always be present in the market.锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A.B.C. 鈭?/span>D.瑙ｆ瀽锛歍he "invisible hand" to which Adam Smith referred in The Wealth of Nations did not include any legal authority. Rather, Smith was describing the way that individual producers serve society's interest by competing with one another to produce the goods and services that are valued most highly by final consumers, even though the producers do not have society's interest explicitly in mind.3.Product differentiation is the greatest source of market power for which of the following market structures ?A. Perfect competition.B. Oligopoly.C. Monopolistic competition.锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A.B.C. 鈭?/span>D.瑙ｆ瀽锛歅roduct differentiation gives market power to firms under monopolistic competition by making the firm the sole producer of a slightly differentiated good.4.Suppose that the demand curve for honey shifts such that the equilibrium price for a pound of honey increases from $ 7 to $ 9 per pound. At the new equilibrium, the quantity supplied increases from 500 pounds per month to 600 pounds per month, although the supply curve has not shifted. The elasticity of supply for honey is closest to:A. +0.91.B. +0.73.C. +1.12.锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A.B. 鈭?/span>C.D.瑙ｆ瀽锛歍he average quantity of honey supplied is (500+600)/2=550 pounds, and the average price of honey ($7+$9)/2=$8 per pound. So, the percentage change in quantity is (600-500)/550=18.18% and the percentage change in price is (9-7)/8=25.00%. Thus, the elasticity of supply is 18.18/25.00=+0.73.5.Which of the following statements about the elasticity of demand is least accurate?A. The most important determinant of price elasticity of demand is the availability of substitutes.B. Prices are more elastic in the long run than in the short run.C. When demand is inelastic, an increase in price will cause a decrease in the total expenditure on a good.锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A.B.C. 鈭?/span>D.瑙ｆ瀽锛欼f demand is inelastic, the age change in quantity demanded is smaller than the age change in price; quantity demanded is relatively unresponsive to price changes. A price increase increases total expenditures on a good.6.Which of the following is least likely to be the result of a minimum wage?A. Unemployment will rise.B. There will be an abundance of low-skilled workers willing to work.C. Labor will be substituted for capital.锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A.B.C. 鈭?/span>D.瑙ｆ瀽锛欶irms substitute capital for the "expensive" labor and use more than the economically efficient amount of capital. /doc/828e9b3afd00bed5b9f3f90f76c66137ee064f27.html pared to normal markets, the existence of fraud and the use of violence in black markets generally leads to:A. poorer economic efficiency.B. superior economic efficiency.C. lower profit rates for sellers.锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A. 鈭?/span>B.C.D.瑙ｆ瀽锛欶raud and violence lead to a lower level of economic efficiency in black markets. The black markets operate less smoothly. The sellers that are not caught can charge a higher price for the risks they take and earn a higher profit rate.8.Which of the following is least likely to be the long-run effect of a price ceiling that is set below the equilibrium price?A. Sellers take bribes.B. Suppliers discriminate.C. Sellers improve quality.锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A.B.C. 鈭?/span>D.瑙ｆ瀽锛歎nder price ceilings, sellers may reduce the quality of goods to a level that reflects the imposed ceiling price.9.A columnist is discussing how the efficient quantity of output for a good or service is determined. These two statements appear in his column:Statement 1: The equilibrium quantity of production for a good or service can be considered efficient as long as the marginal social benefit of that quantity is greater than its marginal social cost.Statement 2: Subsidies and quotas typically result in production of a good or service in quantities at which the marginal social cost exceeds the marginal social benefit.Are these statements correct?Statement 1 Statement 2鈶燗. Correct Correct鈶. Correct Incorrect鈶. Incorrect IncorrectA. 鈶?B. 鈶?C. 鈶?/LI>锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A.B.C. 鈭?/span>D.瑙ｆ瀽锛歋tatement 1 is incorrect. The efficient quantity of output is the quantity at which the marginal social benefit (demand) is equal to the marginal social cost (supply). Statement 2 is also incorrect. Subsidies typically lead to overproduction, where the marginal social cost at the quantity produced is greater than the marginal social benefit. Quotas, however, typically limit production to a level below equilibrium, such that the marginal social benefit at the quantity produced is greater than the marginal social cost.10.For which the following four-firm concentration ratios and Herfindahl-Hirschman indexes (HHI) indicates a highly competitive market?Four-Firm Ratio HHI鈶燗. 5% 150鈶. 98% 9500鈶. 98% 150A. 鈶?B. 鈶?C. 鈶?/LI>锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A. 鈭?/span>B.C.D.瑙ｆ瀽锛欶or both the four-firm ratio and the HHI, the lower the market concentration measure, the greater the degree of competition.11.In a regulated industry, the introduction of a marginal cost pricing role that maximizes total surplus would most likely be viewed as:A. inefficient but leaves the natural monopoly incurring an economic loss.B. inefficient and allows the natural monopoly to realize an economic gain.C. efficient but leaves the natural monopoly incurring an economic loss.锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A.B.C. 鈭?/span>D.瑙ｆ瀽锛欰 marginal cost pricing rule sets price equal to marginal cost. It is efficient but leaves the natural monopoly incurring an economic loss. Because, with an increase in output the average total cost falls, resulting in marginal cost being less than the average cost.12.Which of the following most accurately describes the impact of a price ceiling set below the equilibrium price for a good and a minimum wage set above the equilibrium wage? Price ceiling Minimum wage 鈶燗. Shortage Decreased unemployment 鈶. Surplus Increased unemployment 鈶. Shortage Increased unemployment A. 鈶燘. 鈶. 鈶?br/>锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A.B.C. 鈭?/span>D.瑙ｆ瀽锛欰 ceiling that is below the equilibrium price for a good will result in a shortage characterized by a quantity demanded that is greater than the quantity supplied. A minimum wage leads to increased unemployment as firms tend to substitute capital for labor. Even though there are often a large number of unemployed low-skilled workers who may be willing to work at a wage lower than the minimum wage, firms cannot legally hire them.13.The production of a rock concert is an example of which type of organization of an economic activity?A. Finn coordination.B. Market coordination.C. Economic coordination.锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A.B. 鈭?/span>C.D.瑙ｆ瀽锛歁arket coordination occurs when a firm employs resources outside the firm more efficiently than if they relied only on internal resources. An example is through the coordination of more than one market such as the production of a rock concert which involves many different markets ( e. g. marketing, vending, musicians, security, facilities procurement, etc. ).14.If accurately calculated, will the amount of accounting profit for a firm generally: be below that firm's economic consider both that firm's profit for the same time period?explicit and implicit costs? 鈶燗. No No 鈶. No Yes 鈶. Yes No A. 鈶?B. 鈶. 鈶?br/>锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A. 鈭?/span>B.C.D.瑙ｆ瀽锛歄pportunity cost is the return that a firm's resources could have earned elsewhere in their next most valuable use. Opportunity cost includes both explicit and implicit costs. Explicit costs are observable, measurable expenses such as the dollar cost of production inputs and the interest cost of renting (borrowing) capital. Implicit costs are notexplicitly observable and fall into two categories : (1) the opportunity cost to a firm of using its own capital and (2) the opportunity cost of the time and financial resources ofthe firm's owners. Economic profit considers both explicit and implicit costs. When thefirm's revenues are just equal to its opportunity costs (explicit and implicit costs, including a normal profit) , economic profits are zero. Accounting profit considers only explicit costs but not implicit cost and normally exceed economic profit.15.If quantity demanded declines 20 percent when incomes fall 3 percent, this good is:A. a luxury good.B. a necessity.C. an inferior good.锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A. 鈭?/span>B.C.D.瑙ｆ瀽锛欼ncome elasticity is the sensitivity of demand to changes in consumer income. Income elasticity for this good = (percent change in quantity demanded)/(percent change in income)=-20/-3=6.7. Normal goods with high income elasticities (absolute values锛?) are considered luxury goods, a type of normal good that experiences a greater percentageincrease in demand than the percentage increase in income.16.Which of the following statements about price elasticity is most likely FALSE?A. The elasticity of demand of a good increases over time.B. If the price of gasoline increases, total expenditures on gasoline will increase.C. If the price of a brand of toilet paper increases, total expenditure on that brand of toilet paper will increase.锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A.B.C. 鈭?/span>D.瑙ｆ瀽锛欰 particular brand of toilet paper likely has elastic demand because there are many available substitutes. The existence of many substitutes indicates elastic demand. When good substitutes for a product are available, a price rise induces many consumers to switch to other products. Thus, if the price of a brand of toilet paper increases, total expenditure on that brand will likely decrease as consumers substitute cheaper brands. The mostimportant determinant of the price elasticity of demand is the availability of substitutes. The other statements are true. The second law of demand suggests that in general, when the price of a product increases, consumers take time to reduce their consumption. Thus, demand decreases by a larger amount in the long run than in the short run. The demand for gasoline is likely inelastic. Thus, when price increases, the percentage change in quantity demandedis less than the change in price (and total expenditures on the good increase). The demandfor an individual firm is more elastic than the demand for the entire market.17.A minimum wage is an example of which of the following?A. A price ceiling.B. A quota.C. A price floor.锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A.B.C. 鈭?/span>D.瑙ｆ瀽锛欰 minimum wage is an example of a price floor.18.Because copper producers are allowed to release harmful chemicals into the air, the industry supply curve is not the marginal social cost curve. Given this situation and a copper market that is otherwise competitive, copper producers willA. produce less than the efficient amount of copper, an example of the "free rider"problem.B. produce less than the efficient amount of copper, resulting in a dead weight loss from underproduction.C. produce more than the efficient amount of copper, resulting in a deadweight loss from overproduction.锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A.B.C. 鈭?/span>D.瑙ｆ瀽锛歋ince some of the societal costs of copper production are not considered by the copper producers, the marginal social cost curve lies above the industry supply curve and equilibrium copper production is greater than the efficient level of output. This results in a deadweight loss from overproduction. The "free rider" problem arises when consumers can enjoy the benefit of public goods without paying anything towards their production.19.Which of the following most accurately describes society's allocation of resources to the production of goods with external costs or external benefits?External costs External benefits鈶燗. Over-allocation Over-allocation鈶. Under-allocation Under-allocation鈶. Over-allocation Under-allocationA. 鈶?B. 鈶?C. 鈶?/LI>锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A.B.C. 鈭?/span>D.瑙ｆ瀽锛欵xternal costs are costs associated with the production of goods which are not entirely borne by producers. The industrial pollution of fishing waters decreases the yield to the fishing industry. However, the lost revenue to the fishing industry is not considered a cost to the firms generating the pollution. The result is an over-allocation of resources to the production of goods made by the firms generating the pollution. External benefits refer to benefits received by those other than the buyers of a good. Scenic gardens and fountains built by private enterprises for their own interests are examples of goods with external benefits. Since the marginal benefit to society is greater than that of the marginal cost to the producer, less than the efficient quantity is produced.20.Which of the following is least likely to be considered an obstacle to the efficient allocation of an economy's resources?A. Rent controls.B. Minimum wages.C. Changes in consumer tastes.锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A.B.C. 鈭?/span>D.瑙ｆ瀽锛歅rice controls and taxes are obstacles to allocative efficiency. Rent controls and minimum wages are examples of price controls. As opposed to being obstacles to the efficient allocation of resources, changes in consumer tastes lead to the reallocation of society's resources, producing a different mix of goods or services that provide increased benefits.21.Thompson Industries has the following short-run cost structure per level of production output:Output Units (Q) Total Costs (TC) Fixed Costs (FC)30000 $ 240000 $1200050000 $ 360000 $1200070000 $ 480000 $1200090000 $ 570000 $12000Based on the above and assuming a sales price of $10 per unit, what is the marginal cost per unit if the Company's output is increased from 50000 units to 70000 units?A. $6.86B. $6.00C. $4.60锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A.B. 鈭?/span>C.D.瑙ｆ瀽锛歔*]22.Economics commentator Gail Brythe is discussing the different factors that influence the elasticity of supply. She states the following: Statement 1: Elasticity of supply is greater when a good or service can only be produced with unique or rare inputs. Statement 2: Typically, a good's momentary supply elasticity is higher than its short-run supply elasticity, which in tuna is higher than its long-run supply elasticity. Are Brythe's statements correct? Statement 1 Statement 2 鈶燗. Correct Correct 鈶. Correct Incorrect 鈶. Incorrect Incorrect A. 鈶燘. 鈶. 鈶?br/>锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A.B.C. 鈭?/span>D.瑙ｆ瀽锛欱oth statements are incorrect. Elasticity of supply ( i. e. , the responsivenessof the supply of a good to changes in its price) is low when a good can only be produced with rare or unique inputs, because the potential output of the good is constrained by the availability of those inputs. Supply elasticity is lowest in the momentarytime frame because producers typically cannot change the output of a good immediately. Supply becomes more elastic as the time frame increases because long-run adjustments in capital investment and technology lead to greater changes in profit maximizing output levels.23.The short run is best defined as:A. the period for which the quantities of all factors of production are fixed.B. a period of less than one year.C. the period for which the quantities of some resource inputs are fixed.锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A.B.C. 鈭?/span>D.瑙ｆ瀽锛歍he short run is typically defined as the period for which the quantities of some, but not all, resources are fixed. Working capital is the difference between a firm's current assets and current liabilities and consists of items (such as cash) that the firm can adjust in the short run.24.Producer surplus is most accurately defined as the.A. difference between the opportunity cost of producing the last unit of a good or service and the price received for that unit.B. sum of the differences between the marginal benefit and the marginal cost for each unit of good produced and consumed over the total number of units produced and consumed.C. sum of the differences between the price received for each unit of good produced and the opportunity cost of each unit.锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A.B.C. 鈭?/span>D.瑙ｆ瀽锛歅roducer surplus is the sum of the differences between the price received for each unit of good produced and the opportunity cost of each unit, for the total units produced. Producer surplus results when the market price for a good or service exceeds the marginal cost producing it.25.Which of the following concentration ratios are most likely to be associated with a perfectly competitive industry?Four-firm concentration ratio Herfindahl-Hirschman Index鈶燗. 125 1000鈶. 85 25鈶. 25 100A. 鈶?B. 鈶?C. 鈶?/LI>锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A.B.C. 鈭?/span>D.瑙ｆ瀽锛歍he four-firm concentration ratio can range from zero to 100 percent. The Herfindahl-Hirschman Index has a theoretical range of near zero to 10000. As the level of competition increases, the value of either of the concentration measures decreases. A perfectly competitive market is a market characterized by relatively low concentration measures.26.When household incomes go down and the quantity of a product demanded goes up, the product is:A. an inferior good.B. a necessity.C. a luxury good.锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A. 鈭?/span>B.C.D.瑙ｆ瀽锛歐hen household incomes go down and the quantity demanded of a product goes up, the product is an inferior good. Inferior goods include things like bus travel and margarine. 27.Which of the following statements regarding diminishing marginal returns is most accurate?A. As the quantity produced rises, costs begin to rise at a decreasing rate.B. As the quantity produced falls, costs begin to rise at a decreasing rate.C. As the quantity produced rises, costs begin to rise at an increasing rate.锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A.B.C. 鈭?/span>D.瑙ｆ瀽锛欰t production levels that are consistent with decreasing marginal returns, costs will increase at an increasing rate as production rises.28.Consider two markets; one has a Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) of 50, while the other has a four-firm concentration ratio equal to 2%. Which of the following statements most accurately describes these two markets?A. Both of these markets are monopolies.B. The market with the HHI equal to 50 is very competitive, while the other market has low competition.C. Both markets are highly competitive.锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A.B.C. 鈭?/span>D.瑙ｆ瀽锛欰n HHI concentration measure of 50 is very low, indicating a high degree of competition. A four firm concentration ratio of 2% indicates a high level of competition. For both the four-firm ratio and the HHI, the higher (lower) the concentration measure, the lower (greater) the degree of competition.29.If marginal cost is above the average cost, when you produce your next unit:A. average cost will decline.B. marginal cost will remain unchanged.C. average cost will increase.锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A.B.C. 鈭?/span>D.瑙ｆ瀽锛欼f marginal cost is above the average cost, when you produce your next unit, average cost will increase. Because marginal cost is the cost of producing the next unit, and because this cost is above the firm's average cost per unit, the average cost per unit must increase, if only slightly. Based on the information provided in the question, there is no way to know what will happen to the marginal cost of future units produced.30.Christine Dobbs is watching a public affairs television program on which one of the participants makes the following Statements:Statement 1: A common resource is an obstacle to the efficient allocation of resources unless it generates external benefits. Statement 2: The idea of utilitarianism suggests that market allocation of resources doesnot maximize the value of an economy to all individuals. However, achieving the results that utilitarianism regards as optimal involves a loss of economic output.Should Dobbs agree or disagree with these statements?Statement 1 Statement 2鈶燗. Disagree Agree鈶. Agree Agree鈶. Agree DisagreeA. 鈶?B. 鈶?C. 鈶?/LI>锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A. 鈭?/span>B.C.D.瑙ｆ瀽锛欳ommon resources and external benefits both represent obstacles to the efficient allocation of resources. Common resources tend to be overused and external benefits suggest that less than the efficient quantity is produced. Utilitarianism is the idea that fairness means all individuals own the same amount of resources. To bring about such an outcome would require transferring wealth from high income earners to low income earners. This wouldresult in high income earners working less, so the economy would produce less wealth overall. The time and effort requiredto transfer the wealth would also divert resources from productive uses.31.Which of the following factors of production is least likely to be fixed in the short run?A. Capital equipment.B. Labor.C. Plant size.锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A.B. 鈭?/span>C.D.瑙ｆ瀽锛歀abor is typically assumed to be variable in the short run.32.Fred Heyach and Gord Murdoll are discussing whether or not competitive markets use resources efficiently. Heyach says, "Competition must lead to the efficient allocation of resources. Consumers are willing to pay more for the goods they want most, so producers of those goods can outbid other producers for the resources to make them. Murdoll replies, "At any one point in time the market might allocate resources efficiently given consumers' preferences, but as consumers change their minds about which goods they want, the allocation of resources becomes inefficient. " Are these statements correct or incorrect?Heyach Murdoll鈶燗. Correct Incorrect鈶. Incorrect Correct鈶. Incorrect IncorrectA. 鈶?B. 鈶?C. 鈶?/LI>锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A. 鈭?/span>B.C.D.瑙ｆ瀽锛欻eyach's statement is correct but Murdoll's statement is incorrect. Competitive forces adjust the allocation of resources to changes in consumer preferences. If consumers' demand for a product decreases, the resources that were being used to produce it are diverted to the production of other goods that are in greater demand.33.Matthew Reeves is listening to a discussion on how resources move to the most efficient allocation. Two of the participants make these statements:Statement 1: When resources are diverted from beer production to wine production, this represents an inefficient allocation from the perspective of the beer producers.Statement 2: Market allocation of resources tends toward efficiency because the value of what a resource can produce determines its allocation in production.Should Reeves agree or disagree with these statements?Statement 1 Statement 2鈶燗. Disagree Agree鈶. Agree Agree鈶. Agree DisagreeA. 鈶?B. 鈶?C. 鈶?/LI>锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A. 鈭?/span>B.C.D.瑙ｆ瀽锛歊eeves should disagree with Statement 1. In the competitive market, resources are diverted away from goods for which final consumer demand is decreasing, and toward the production of goods for which final consumer demand is increasing. If the market isdiverting resources from producing beer to producing wine, it is because consumers have changed their decisions and begun offering more money for wine and less for beer. This means beer brewers are producing more than consumers demand and generating losses on the excess production. They will maximize their profits by reducing their production and using fewer resources. Thus, the new allocation of resources is efficient even from the point of view of the beer producers. Reeves should agree with Statement 2. The market constantly reallocates productive resources to uses where what they produce is valued more by final consumers, andremoving them from uses where what they produce is valued less. When there are no obstacles, resources are always moving toward their most efficient(value maximizing) allocations.34.Equilibrium in a perfectly competitive market results in a quantity for which the:A. difference between consumer and producer surpluses is maximized.B. consumer and producer surpluses are equal.C. sum of consumer and producer surpluses is maximized.锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A.B.C. 鈭?/span>D.瑙ｆ瀽锛欼n a competitive market, the equilibrium quantity is the one tot which the sum of the consumer and producer surpluses is maximized.35.The price of product Z decreased from $ 2.50 per unit to $ 2.00 per unit. Since the price decreased, demand has gone up from 3 million units to 4 million units. Calculate the price elasticity of demand and determine if the demand is elastic or inelastic.Price elasticity of demand Elasticity鈶燗. - 1.29 inelastic鈶. - 2.00 inelastic鈶. - 1.29 elasticA. 鈶?B. 鈶?C. 鈶?/LI>锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A.B.C. 鈭?/span>D.瑙ｆ瀽锛歱ercentage change in quantity =(4-3)/[(4+3)/21=0.286=28.6% percentage change in price =(2-2.5)/[(2+2.5)/2]=-0.222=-22.2% 28.6%/-22.2%=-1.29 Since the price elasticity of demand is greater than 1 ( ignore the sign) , product Z is elastic.36.Which of the following two factors are most likely to be considered variable during the short run?A. Labor and technology.B. Labor and raw materials.C. Raw materials and technology.锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A.B. 鈭?/span>C.D.瑙ｆ瀽锛歄f the sets of factors listed, the two that are typically considered variable in the short run are labor and raw materials.37.Which of the following statements least accurately describes why firms can coordinate economic activity more efficiently than markets? Firms can achieve:A. economies of scope.B. diversification benefits.C. economies of scale.锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>A.B. 鈭?/span>C.D.瑙ｆ瀽锛欶irms can often coordinate economic activity more efficiently than markets because firms can reduce the costs of market transactions, and they can achieve economies of scale, scope, and team production.38.Which of the following most accurately describes the typical relationship between marginal product (MP) and average product (AP) ? As the quantity of labor increases:A. initially, AP 锛?MP, then AP = MP, then AP 锛?MP.B. initially, AP = MP, then AP 锛?MP.。
微观经济学第7章成本分析
(1) Output (tons of wheat)
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
(2) Land (acres)
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
(3) Labor (workers)
0 6 11 15 21 31 45
(4) Rent ($ per acre)
5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5
3
固定成本
• Fixed costs are expenses that must be paid even if the firm produces zero output.
• A firm’s fixed costs, sometimes called “overhead” (企业一般管理费用) or “sunk costs” (沉没成本), must be paid even if the firm produces no output, and they will not change if output changes.
用于各项用途时带来的收益相等。
30
等边际原理的解释
总资源
用途1 用途2 用途3 …… 用途N
移动10万元
减追少加10万元
减追少加10万元
－-+利利润5润.55万.万元元 ＋8万元＝-+利利润3润万88.万元元
边际生产力 递减定律
31
等边际原理
$1 PA
MPA
$1 PB
MPB
This gives you the marginal product per dollar of output.
1 unit of output Tangent line
微观经济学(克鲁格曼)[第八章供给曲线的背后：投入与成本]山东大学期末考试知识点复习.doc
![微观经济学(克鲁格曼)[第八章供给曲线的背后：投入与成本]山东大学期末考试知识点复习.doc](https://img.taocdn.com/s3/m/3baf041702768e9950e73803.png)
18 16 14第八章供给曲线的背后：投入与成本本章内容概述本章和第9章研究了边际分析是如何解释供给曲线背后的产出决策。
本章考 察了企业的生产函数，其中生产函数说明了投入数量和产出数量之间的关系，并 且我们利用这一关系解释了生产成本。
它还阐述了为什么生产总受到投入的收益 递减的影响，企业的各种成本以及它们是如何形成边际成本曲线和平均成本曲线 的。
本章还揭示了为什么企业成本在短期可能与氐期不一致。
最后，作者讨论了 规模经济和规模不经济的概念。
要点：总是在中点附近画出投入的边际产品和一单位产出的边际成本。
在表 8—1和图8—1中，我们列示了某公司的边际产品表和曲线。
衰I--------------------------------- 劳动的25「•工人数I* 心产状 边际产M 边味产出2037546880 尽管我们用雇用第一位工人时总产量的* 变化来计算第一位工人的边际产出（雇佣人数从0位上升至1位）.但是我们在 表中和图中都用0和】位工人的中间来表示. 要点：只要边际产出是正的，即使它是递减的。
总产量还是在上升。
这和第7章关于边际收益的提示相似。
边际产出是指由于额外一单位可变投 入带来的总产量的变化；它是总产量曲线的斜率。
当我们把越来越多的可变投入 追加到固定投入上，最终下一单位比之前的可变投入对总产量增加的贡献少—— 边际产出递减。
只要可变投入追加到总产出上，总产出会上升。
如果边际产出是 正的并旦是递减的，那么总产量曲线会上升但会变得越来越平。
如果边际产出变成负的，那么总产量会下降，总产量曲线会向下倾斜。
图8—2列示了总产出曲线，并且解释了边际产出上升、递减和为负数的范围。
要点:在画短期平均成本曲线时要注意画出边际成本曲线穿过平均总成本曲线和平均可变成本曲线的最低点。
平均总成本曲线和平均可变成本曲线都是U形的，我们把平均总成本曲线的最低点称为最小成本产出。
记住：总产出总产出F降图—2•如果边际成本在平均总成本之下，平均总成本下降。
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10 - 11
Economies of Scale
There are economies of scale in production when the per-unit output cost decreases as output increases when all inputs are changeable.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
10 - 17
Economies of Scale
The minimum efficient level of production is reached once the size of the market expands to a size large enough so that firms can take advantage of all economies of scale.
58
total cost
56
Minimum efficient
54
level of production
52
50
48
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Quantity
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
The law of diminishing marginal productivity does not hold in the long run since all inputs are variable in the long run.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
It is the least-cost technically efficient process.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
10 - 7
Determinants of the Shape of the Long-Run Cost Curve
10 - 12
Economies of Scale
An indivisible setup cost is the cost of an indivisible input for which a certain minimum amount of production must be undertaken before the input becomes economically feasible to use.
10 - 14
Economies of Scale
Because of the importance of economies of scale, business people often talk of a minimum efficient level of production.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
andCostAnalysisPartII(M-Grow-Hill,微 观经济学
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
10 - 2
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
10 - 5
Technical Efficiency and Economic Efficiency
Technical efficiency is a situation in which as few inputs as possible are used to produce a given output.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
10 - 13
Economies of Scale
Indivisible setup costs create many realworld economies of scale.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
10 - 9
ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้
A Typical Long-Run Average Total Cost Table
Total Costs Total Cost Total Costs = Average Total Quantity of Labor of Machines TCL + TCM Costs = TC/Q
Technical efficiency is efficiency that does not consider cost of inputs.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
In real-world production processes, economies of scale are extremely important at low levels of production.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
10 - 3
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
10 - 16
Economies of Scale
The minimum efficient level of production will be at the beginning of the constant returns portion of the average cost curve—where average total costs are at a minimum.
Copyright © 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
10 - 10
A Typical Long-Run Average Total Cost Curve
Costs per unit
$64
62
60
Average
Copyright © 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
10 - 15
Economies of Scale
The minimum efficient level of production is the amount of production that spreads setup costs out sufficiently for firms to undertake production profitably.
10 - 6
Technical Efficiency and Economic Efficiency
The economically efficient method of production is that method that produces a given level of output at the lowest possible cost.
11
$381
$254
$635
$58
12
390
260
650
54
13
402
268
670
52
14
420
280
700
50
15
450
300
750
50
16
480
320
800
50
17
510
340
850
50
18
549
366
915
51
19
600
400
1,000
53
20
666
444