参考文献翻译(中文)
外文参考文献翻译-中文
外⽂参考⽂献翻译-中⽂基于4G LTE技术的⾼速铁路移动通信系统KS Solanki教授，Kratika ChouhanUjjain⼯程学院，印度Madhya Pradesh的Ujjain摘要：随着时间发展，⾼速铁路（HSR）要求可靠的，安全的列车运⾏和乘客通信。
为了实现这个⽬标，HSR的系统需要更⾼的带宽和更短的响应时间，⽽且HSR的旧技术需要进⾏发展，开发新技术，改进现有的架构和控制成本。
为了满⾜这⼀要求，HSR采⽤了GSM的演进GSM-R技术，但它并不能满⾜客户的需求。
因此采⽤了新技术LTE-R，它提供了更⾼的带宽，并且在⾼速下提供了更⾼的客户满意度。
本⽂介绍了LTE-R，给出GSM-R与LTE-R之间的⽐较结果，并描述了在⾼速下哪种铁路移动通信系统更好。
关键词：⾼速铁路，LTE，GSM，通信和信令系统⼀介绍⾼速铁路需要提⾼对移动通信系统的要求。
随着这种改进，其⽹络架构和硬件设备必须适应⾼达500公⾥/⼩时的列车速度。
HSR还需要快速切换功能。
因此，为了解决这些问题，HSR 需要⼀种名为LTE-R的新技术，基于LTE-R的HSR提供⾼数据传输速率，更⾼带宽和低延迟。
LTE-R能够处理⽇益增长的业务量，确保乘客安全并提供实时多媒体信息。
随着列车速度的不断提⾼，可靠的宽带通信系统对于⾼铁移动通信⾄关重要。
HSR的应⽤服务质量（QOS）测量，包括如数据速率，误码率（BER）和传输延迟。
为了实现HSR的运营需求，需要⼀个能够与 LTE保持⼀致的能⼒的新系统，提供新的业务，但仍能够与GSM-R长时间共存。
HSR系统选择合适的⽆线通信系统时，需要考虑性能，服务，属性，频段和⼯业⽀持等问题。
4G LTE系统与第三代（3G）系统相⽐，它具有简单的扁平架构，⾼数据速率和低延迟。
在LTE的性能和成熟度⽔平上，LTE- railway（LTE-R）将可能成为下⼀代HSR通信系统。
⼆ LTE-R系统描述考虑LTE-R的频率和频谱使⽤，对为⾼速铁路（HSR）通信提供更⾼效的数据传输⾮常重要。
参考文献中英文对照设置
参考文献中英文对照设置English:When setting up a reference list, it is important to include all the information necessary for someone to locate the sources you used. This typically includes the author's name, publication date, title of the work, and publication information such as the name of the publisher and the location. Including the URL for online sources is also important. When listing a source in a reference list, it should be done in a consistent and standardized format. This could be in APA, MLA, Chicago, or other citation styles depending on the requirements of the assignment or publication. It is essential to carefully follow the specific guidelines for the chosen citation style to ensure that the reference list is accurate and properly formatted.中文翻译:在设置参考文献列表时，重要的是包括所有必要的信息，以便其他人能够找到你使用的来源。
这通常包括作者的姓名、出版日期、作品的标题，以及出版信息，如出版商的名称和位置。
参考文献(Bibliography)格式的具体说明
Starr,Paul.“The Electronic Reader.”InReadingin the 1980s.Eds. Stephen Braubard, Michael Jackson, and Michael Jodan.New York: Bowker,1983.
5.参考文献同一个条目内部不可中英文夹杂，一般应与文献使用的语种一致，要么用英文，要么用中文书写。
6.英文文献字体是Times New Roman，使用英文标点符号；汉语文献字体是宋体，采用中文标点符号。
7.参考文献须悬挂缩进，即每一条目的第二行开始缩进5字符。
8.参考文献按1.5倍行距排列，不同条目之间空一行。
3.编著、论文集中的论文
论文作者“论文名”，XXX（编者）编《书名》，出版社所在城市名：出版社名，出版年份，起止页码。如：
陈红霞“浪漫误读与贬抑性误读”，乐黛云编《独角兽与龙——中西文化交流中的误读》，北京：北京大学出版社，1996，第XX－XX页。
4.期刊论文
论文作者“论文名”，《期刊名》年份（期号），起止页码。如：
廖七一“庞德与胡适诗歌翻译的文化思考”，《外国语》2003（6），第54－59页。
五、网络文献：直接列出网址。
四、中文参考文献的格式
1.专著
作者《书名》，出版社所在城市：出版社名，出版年份。如：
桂诗春、宁春岩《XXXXX》，北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1997。
2.编著、论文集
XXX主编《书名》，出版社所在城市：出版社名，出版年份。如：
桂诗春、宁春岩主编《语言学方法论》，北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1997。
参考文献(Bibliography)格式和要求的具体说明
外文文献及翻译
（（英文参考文献及译文）二〇一六年六月本科毕业论文 题 目：STATISTICAL SAMPLING METHOD, USED INTHE AUDIT学生姓名：王雪琴学 院：管理学院系 别：会计系专 业：财务管理班 级：财管12-2班 学校代码： 10128 学 号： 201210707016Statistics and AuditRomanian Statistical Review nr. 5 / 2010STATISTICAL SAMPLING METHOD, USED IN THE AUDIT - views, recommendations, fi ndingsPhD Candidate Gabriela-Felicia UNGUREANUAbstractThe rapid increase in the size of U.S. companies from the earlytwentieth century created the need for audit procedures based on the selectionof a part of the total population audited to obtain reliable audit evidence, tocharacterize the entire population consists of account balances or classes oftransactions. Sampling is not used only in audit – is used in sampling surveys,market analysis and medical research in which someone wants to reach aconclusion about a large number of data by examining only a part of thesedata. The difference is the “population” from which the sample is selected, iethat set of data which is intended to draw a conclusion. Audit sampling appliesonly to certain types of audit procedures.Key words: sampling, sample risk, population, sampling unit, tests ofcontrols, substantive procedures.Statistical samplingCommittee statistical sampling of American Institute of CertifiedPublic Accountants of (AICPA) issued in 1962 a special report, titled“Statistical sampling and independent auditors’ which allowed the use ofstatistical sampling method, in accordance with Generally Accepted AuditingStandards (GAAS). During 1962-1974, the AICPA published a series of paperson statistical sampling, “Auditor’s Approach to Statistical Sampling”, foruse in continuing professional education of accountants. During 1962-1974,the AICPA published a series of papers on statistical sampling, “Auditor’sApproach to Statistical Sampling”, for use in continuing professional educationof accountants. In 1981, AICPA issued the professional standard, “AuditSampling”, which provides general guidelines for both sampling methods,statistical and non-statistical.Earlier audits included checks of all transactions in the period coveredby the audited financial statements. At that time, the literature has not givenparticular attention to this subject. Only in 1971, an audit procedures programprinted in the “Federal Reserve Bulletin (Federal Bulletin Stocks)” includedseveral references to sampling such as selecting the “few items” of inventory.Statistics and Audit The program was developed by a special committee, which later became the AICPA, that of Certified Public Accountants American Institute.In the first decades of last century, the auditors often applied sampling, but sample size was not in related to the efficiency of internal control of the entity. In 1955, American Institute of Accountants has published a study case of extending the audit sampling, summarizing audit program developed by certified public accountants, to show why sampling is necessary to extend the audit. The study was important because is one of the leading journal on sampling which recognize a relationship of dependency between detail and reliability testing of internal control.In 1964, the AICPA’s Auditing Standards Board has issued a report entitled “The relationship between statistical sampling and Generally Accepted Auditing Standards (GAAS)” which illustrated the relationship between the accuracy and reliability in sampling and provisions of GAAS.In 1978, the AICPA published the work of Donald M. Roberts,“Statistical Auditing”which explains the underlying theory of statistical sampling in auditing.In 1981, AICPA issued the professional standard, named “Audit Sampling”, which provides guidelines for both sampling methods, statistical and non-statistical.An auditor does not rely solely on the results of a single procedure to reach a conclusion on an account balance, class of transactions or operational effectiveness of the controls. Rather, the audit findings are based on combined evidence from several sources, as a consequence of a number of different audit procedures. When an auditor selects a sample of a population, his objective is to obtain a representative sample, ie sample whose characteristics are identical with the population’s characteristics. This means that selected items are identical with those remaining outside the sample.In practice, auditors do not know for sure if a sample is representative, even after completion the test, but they “may increase the probability that a sample is representative by accuracy of activities made related to design, sample selection and evaluation” [1]. Lack of specificity of the sample results may be given by observation errors and sampling errors. Risks to produce these errors can be controlled.Observation error (risk of observation) appears when the audit test did not identify existing deviations in the sample or using an inadequate audit technique or by negligence of the auditor.Sampling error (sampling risk) is an inherent characteristic of the survey, which results from the fact that they tested only a fraction of the total population. Sampling error occurs due to the fact that it is possible for Revista Română de Statistică nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Auditthe auditor to reach a conclusion, based on a sample that is different from the conclusion which would be reached if the entire population would have been subject to audit procedures identical. Sampling risk can be reduced by adjusting the sample size, depending on the size and population characteristics and using an appropriate method of selection. Increasing sample size will reduce the risk of sampling; a sample of the all population will present a null risk of sampling.Audit Sampling is a method of testing for gather sufficient and appropriate audit evidence, for the purposes of audit. The auditor may decide to apply audit sampling on an account balance or class of transactions. Sampling audit includes audit procedures to less than 100% of the items within an account balance or class of transactions, so all the sample able to be selected. Auditor is required to determine appropriate ways of selecting items for testing. Audit sampling can be used as a statistical approach and a non- statistical.Statistical sampling is a method by which the sample is made so that each unit consists of the total population has an equal probability of being included in the sample, method of sample selection is random, allowed to assess the results based on probability theory and risk quantification of sampling. Choosing the appropriate population make that auditor’ findings can be extended to the entire population.Non-statistical sampling is a method of sampling, when the auditor uses professional judgment to select elements of a sample. Since the purpose of sampling is to draw conclusions about the entire population, the auditor should select a representative sample by choosing sample units which have characteristics typical of that population. Results will not extrapolate the entire population as the sample selected is representative.Audit tests can be applied on the all elements of the population, where is a small population or on an unrepresentative sample, where the auditor knows the particularities of the population to be tested and is able to identify a small number of items of interest to audit. If the sample has not similar characteristics for the elements of the entire population, the errors found in the tested sample can not extrapolate.Decision of statistical or non-statistical approach depends on the auditor’s professional judgment which seeking sufficient appropriate audits evidence on which to completion its findings about the audit opinion.As a statistical sampling method refer to the random selection that any possible combination of elements of the community is equally likely to enter the sample. Simple random sampling is used when stratification was not to audit. Using random selection involves using random numbers generated byRomanian Statistical Review nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Audit a computer. After selecting a random starting point, the auditor found the first random number that falls within the test document numbers. Only when the approach has the characteristics of statistical sampling, statistical assessments of risk are valid sampling.In another variant of the sampling probability, namely the systematic selection (also called random mechanical) elements naturally succeed in office space or time; the auditor has a preliminary listing of the population and made the decision on sample size. “The auditor calculated a counting step, and selects the sample element method based on step size. Step counting is determined by dividing the volume of the community to sample the number of units desired. Advantages of systematic screening are its usability. In most cases, a systematic sample can be extracted quickly and method automatically arranges numbers in successive series.”[2].Selection by probability proportional to size - is a method which emphasizes those population units’recorded higher values. The sample is constituted so that the probability of selecting any given element of the population is equal to the recorded value of the item;Stratifi ed selection - is a method of emphasis of units with higher values and is registered in the stratification of the population in subpopulations. Stratification provides a complete picture of the auditor, when population (data table to be analyzed) is not homogeneous. In this case, the auditor stratifies a population by dividing them into distinct subpopulations, which have common characteristics, pre-defined. “The objective of stratification is to reduce the variability of elements in each layer and therefore allow a reduction in sample size without a proportionate increase in the risk of sampling.” [3] If population stratification is done properly, the amount of sample size to come layers will be less than the sample size that would be obtained at the same level of risk given sample with a sample extracted from the entire population. Audit results applied to a layer can be designed only on items that are part of that layer.I appreciated as useful some views on non-statistical sampling methods, which implies that guided the selection of the sample selecting each element according to certain criteria determined by the auditor. The method is subjective; because the auditor selects intentionally items containing set features him.The selection of the series is done by selecting multiple elements series (successive). Using sampling the series is recommended only if a reasonable number of sets used. Using just a few series there is a risk that the sample is not representative. This type of sampling can be used in addition to other samples, where there is a high probability of occurrence of errors. At the arbitrary selection, no items are selected preferably from the auditor, Revista Română de Statistică nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Auditthat regardless of size or source or characteristics. Is not the recommended method, because is not objective.That sampling is based on the auditor’s professional judgment, which may decide which items can be part or not sampled. Because is not a statistical method, it can not calculate the standard error. Although the sample structure can be constructed to reproduce the population, there is no guarantee that the sample is representative. If omitted a feature that would be relevant in a particular situation, the sample is not representative.Sampling applies when the auditor plans to make conclusions about population, based on a selection. The auditor considers the audit program and determines audit procedures which may apply random research. Sampling is used by auditors an internal control systems testing, and substantive testing of operations. The general objectives of tests of control system and operations substantive tests are to verify the application of pre-defined control procedures, and to determine whether operations contain material errors.Control tests are intended to provide evidence of operational efficiency and controls design or operation of a control system to prevent or detect material misstatements in financial statements. Control tests are necessary if the auditor plans to assess control risk for assertions of management.Controls are generally expected to be similarly applied to all transactions covered by the records, regardless of transaction value. Therefore, if the auditor uses sampling, it is not advisable to select only high value transactions. Samples must be chosen so as to be representative population sample.An auditor must be aware that an entity may change a special control during the course of the audit. If the control is replaced by another, which is designed to achieve the same specific objective, the auditor must decide whether to design a sample of all transactions made during or just a sample of transactions controlled again. Appropriate decision depends on the overall objective of the audit test.Verification of internal control system of an entity is intended to provide guidance on the identification of relevant controls and design evaluation tests of controls.Other tests:In testing internal control system and testing operations, audit sample is used to estimate the proportion of elements of a population containing a characteristic or attribute analysis. This proportion is called the frequency of occurrence or percentage of deviation and is equal to the ratio of elements containing attribute specific and total number of population elements. WeightRomanian Statistical Review nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Audit deviations in a sample are determined to calculate an estimate of the proportion of the total population deviations.Risk associated with sampling - refers to a sample selection which can not be representative of the population tested. In other words, the sample itself may contain material errors or deviations from the line. However, issuing a conclusion based on a sample may be different from the conclusion which would be reached if the entire population would be subject to audit.Types of risk associated with sampling:Controls are more effective than they actually are or that there are not significant errors when they exist - which means an inappropriate audit opinion. Controls are less effective than they actually are that there are significant errors when in fact they are not - this calls for additional activities to establish that initial conclusions were incorrect.Attributes testing - the auditor should be defining the characteristics to test and conditions for misconduct. Attributes testing will make when required objective statistical projections on various characteristics of the population. The auditor may decide to select items from a population based on its knowledge about the entity and its environment control based on risk analysis and the specific characteristics of the population to be tested.Population is the mass of data on which the auditor wishes to generalize the findings obtained on a sample. Population will be defined compliance audit objectives and will be complete and consistent, because results of the sample can be designed only for the population from which the sample was selected.Sampling unit - a unit of sampling may be, for example, an invoice, an entry or a line item. Each sample unit is an element of the population. The auditor will define the sampling unit based on its compliance with the objectives of audit tests.Sample size - to determine the sample size should be considered whether sampling risk is reduced to an acceptable minimum level. Sample size is affected by the risk associated with sampling that the auditor is willing to accept it. The risk that the auditor is willing to accept lower, the sample will be higher.Error - for detailed testing, the auditor should project monetary errors found in the sample population and should take into account the projected error on the specific objective of the audit and other audit areas. The auditor projects the total error on the population to get a broad perspective on the size of the error and comparing it with tolerable error.For detailed testing, tolerable error is tolerable and misrepresentations Revista Română de Statistică nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Auditwill be a value less than or equal to materiality used by the auditor for the individual classes of transactions or balances audited. If a class of transactions or account balances has been divided into layers error is designed separately for each layer. Design errors and inconsistent errors for each stratum are then combined when considering the possible effect on the total classes of transactions and account balances.Evaluation of sample results - the auditor should evaluate the sample results to determine whether assessing relevant characteristics of the population is confirmed or needs to be revised.When testing controls, an unexpectedly high rate of sample error may lead to an increase in the risk assessment of significant misrepresentation unless it obtained additional audit evidence to support the initial assessment. For control tests, an error is a deviation from the performance of control procedures prescribed. The auditor should obtain evidence about the nature and extent of any significant changes in internal control system, including the staff establishment.If significant changes occur, the auditor should review the understanding of internal control environment and consider testing the controls changed. Alternatively, the auditor may consider performing substantive analytical procedures or tests of details covering the audit period.In some cases, the auditor might not need to wait until the end audit to form a conclusion about the effectiveness of operational control, to support the control risk assessment. In this case, the auditor might decide to modify the planned substantive tests accordingly.If testing details, an unexpectedly large amount of error in a sample may cause the auditor to believe that a class of transactions or account balances is given significantly wrong in the absence of additional audit evidence to show that there are not material misrepresentations.When the best estimate of error is very close to the tolerable error, the auditor recognizes the risk that another sample have different best estimate that could exceed the tolerable error.ConclusionsFollowing analysis of sampling methods conclude that all methods have advantages and disadvantages. But the auditor is important in choosing the sampling method is based on professional judgment and take into account the cost / benefit ratio. Thus, if a sampling method proves to be costly auditor should seek the most efficient method in view of the main and specific objectives of the audit.Romanian Statistical Review nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Audit The auditor should evaluate the sample results to determine whether the preliminary assessment of relevant characteristics of the population must be confirmed or revised. If the evaluation sample results indicate that the relevant characteristics of the population needs assessment review, the auditor may: require management to investigate identified errors and likelihood of future errors and make necessary adjustments to change the nature, timing and extent of further procedures to take into account the effect on the audit report.Selective bibliography:[1] Law no. 672/2002 updated, on public internal audit[2] Arens, A şi Loebbecke J - Controve …Audit– An integrate approach”, 8th edition, Arc Publishing House[3] ISA 530 - Financial Audit 2008 - International Standards on Auditing, IRECSON Publishing House, 2009- Dictionary of macroeconomics, Ed C.H. Beck, Bucharest, 2008Revista Română de Statistică nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Audit摘要美国公司的规模迅速增加，从第二十世纪初创造了必要的审计程序，根据选定的部分总人口的审计，以获得可靠的审计证据，以描述整个人口组成的帐户余额或类别的交易。
云计算外文翻译参考文献
云计算外文翻译参考文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)原文:Technical Issues of Forensic Investigations in Cloud Computing EnvironmentsDominik BirkRuhr-University BochumHorst Goertz Institute for IT SecurityBochum, GermanyRuhr-University BochumHorst Goertz Institute for IT SecurityBochum, GermanyAbstract—Cloud Computing is arguably one of the most discussedinformation technologies today. It presents many promising technological and economical opportunities. However, many customers remain reluctant to move their business IT infrastructure completely to the cloud. One of their main concerns is Cloud Security and the threat of the unknown. Cloud Service Providers(CSP) encourage this perception by not letting their customers see what is behind their virtual curtain. A seldomly discussed, but in this regard highly relevant open issue is the ability to perform digital investigations. This continues to fuel insecurity on the sides of both providers and customers. Cloud Forensics constitutes a new and disruptive challenge for investigators. Due to the decentralized nature of data processing in the cloud, traditional approaches to evidence collection and recovery are no longer practical. This paper focuses on the technical aspects of digital forensics in distributed cloud environments. We contribute by assessing whether it is possible for the customer of cloud computing services to perform a traditional digital investigation from a technical point of view. Furthermore we discuss possible solutions and possible new methodologies helping customers to perform such investigations.I. INTRODUCTIONAlthough the cloud might appear attractive to small as well as to large companies, it does not come along without its own unique problems. Outsourcing sensitive corporate data into the cloud raises concerns regarding the privacy and security of data. Security policies, companies main pillar concerning security, cannot be easily deployed into distributed, virtualized cloud environments. This situation is further complicated by the unknown physical location of the companie’s assets. Normally,if a security incident occurs, the corporate security team wants to be able to perform their own investigation without dependency on third parties. In the cloud, this is not possible anymore: The CSP obtains all the power over the environmentand thus controls the sources of evidence. In the best case, a trusted third party acts as a trustee and guarantees for the trustworthiness of the CSP. Furthermore, the implementation of the technical architecture and circumstances within cloud computing environments bias the way an investigation may be processed. In detail, evidence data has to be interpreted by an investigator in a We would like to thank the reviewers for the helpful comments and Dennis Heinson (Center for Advanced Security Research Darmstadt - CASED) for the profound discussions regarding the legal aspects of cloud forensics. proper manner which is hardly be possible due to the lackof circumstantial information. For auditors, this situation does not change: Questions who accessed specific data and information cannot be answered by the customers, if no corresponding logs are available. With the increasing demand for using the power of the cloud for processing also sensible information and data, enterprises face the issue of Data and Process Provenance in the cloud [10]. Digital provenance, meaning meta-data that describes the ancestry or history of a digital object, is a crucial feature for forensic investigations. In combination with a suitable authentication scheme, it provides information about who created and who modified what kind of data in the cloud. These are crucial aspects for digital investigations in distributed environments such as the cloud. Unfortunately, the aspects of forensic investigations in distributed environment have so far been mostly neglected by the research community. Current discussion centers mostly around security, privacy and data protection issues [35], [9], [12]. The impact of forensic investigations on cloud environments was little noticed albeit mentioned by the authors of [1] in 2009: ”[...] to our knowledge, no research has been published on how cloud computing environments affect digital artifacts,and on acquisition logistics and legal issues related to cloud computing env ironments.” This statement is also confirmed by other authors [34], [36], [40] stressing that further research on incident handling, evidence tracking and accountability in cloud environments has to be done. At the same time, massive investments are being made in cloud technology. Combined with the fact that information technology increasingly transcendents peoples’ private and professional life, thus mirroring more and more of peoples’actions, it becomes apparent that evidence gathered from cloud environments will be of high significance to litigation or criminal proceedings in the future. Within this work, we focus the notion of cloud forensics by addressing the technical issues of forensics in all three major cloud service models and consider cross-disciplinary aspects. Moreover, we address the usability of various sources of evidence for investigative purposes and propose potential solutions to the issues from a practical standpoint. This work should be considered as a surveying discussion of an almost unexplored research area. The paper is organized as follows: We discuss the related work and the fundamental technical background information of digital forensics, cloud computing and the fault model in section II and III. In section IV, we focus on the technical issues of cloud forensics and discuss the potential sources and nature of digital evidence as well as investigations in XaaS environments including thecross-disciplinary aspects. We conclude in section V.II. RELATED WORKVarious works have been published in the field of cloud security and privacy [9], [35], [30] focussing on aspects for protecting data in multi-tenant, virtualized environments. Desired security characteristics for current cloud infrastructures mainly revolve around isolation of multi-tenant platforms [12], security of hypervisors in order to protect virtualized guest systems and secure network infrastructures [32]. Albeit digital provenance, describing the ancestry of digital objects, still remains a challenging issue for cloud environments, several works have already been published in this field [8], [10] contributing to the issues of cloud forensis. Within this context, cryptographic proofs for verifying data integrity mainly in cloud storage offers have been proposed,yet lacking of practical implementations [24], [37], [23]. Traditional computer forensics has already well researched methods for various fields of application [4], [5], [6], [11], [13]. Also the aspects of forensics in virtual systems have been addressed by several works [2], [3], [20] including the notionof virtual introspection [25]. In addition, the NIST already addressed Web Service Forensics [22] which has a huge impact on investigation processes in cloud computing environments. In contrast, the aspects of forensic investigations in cloud environments have mostly been neglected by both the industry and the research community. One of the first papers focusing on this topic was published by Wolthusen [40] after Bebee et al already introduced problems within cloud environments [1]. Wolthusen stressed that there is an inherent strong need for interdisciplinary work linking the requirements and concepts of evidence arising from the legal field to what can be feasibly reconstructed and inferred algorithmically or in an exploratory manner. In 2010, Grobauer et al [36] published a paper discussing the issues of incident response in cloud environments - unfortunately no specific issues and solutions of cloud forensics have been proposed which will be done within this work.III. TECHNICAL BACKGROUNDA. Traditional Digital ForensicsThe notion of Digital Forensics is widely known as the practice of identifying, extracting and considering evidence from digital media. Unfortunately, digital evidence is both fragile and volatile and therefore requires the attention of special personnel and methods in order to ensure that evidence data can be proper isolated and evaluated. Normally, the process of a digital investigation can be separated into three different steps each having its own specificpurpose:1) In the Securing Phase, the major intention is the preservation of evidence for analysis. The data has to be collected in a manner that maximizes its integrity. This is normally done by a bitwise copy of the original media. As can be imagined, this represents a huge problem in the field of cloud computing where you never know exactly where your data is and additionallydo not have access to any physical hardware. However, the snapshot technology, discussed in section IV-B3, provides a powerful tool to freeze system states and thus makes digital investigations, at least in IaaS scenarios, theoretically possible.2) We refer to the Analyzing Phase as the stage in which the data is sifted and combined. It is in this phase that the data from multiple systems or sources is pulled together to create as complete a picture and event reconstruction as possible. Especially in distributed system infrastructures, this means that bits and pieces of data are pulled together for deciphering the real story of what happened and for providing a deeper look into the data.3) Finally, at the end of the examination and analysis of the data, the results of the previous phases will be reprocessed in the Presentation Phase. The report, created in this phase, is a compilation of all the documentation and evidence from the analysis stage. The main intention of such a report is that it contains all results, it is complete and clear to understand. Apparently, the success of these three steps strongly depends on the first stage. If it is not possible to secure the complete set of evidence data, no exhaustive analysis will be possible. However, in real world scenarios often only a subset of the evidence data can be secured by the investigator. In addition, an important definition in the general context of forensics is the notion of a Chain of Custody. This chain clarifies how and where evidence is stored and who takes possession of it. Especially for cases which are brought to court it is crucial that the chain of custody is preserved.B. Cloud ComputingAccording to the NIST [16], cloud computing is a model for enabling convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications and services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal CSP interaction. The new raw definition of cloud computing brought several new characteristics such as multi-tenancy, elasticity, pay-as-you-go and reliability. Within this work, the following three models are used: In the Infrastructure asa Service (IaaS) model, the customer is using the virtual machine provided by the CSP for installing his own system on it. The system can be used like any other physical computer with a few limitations. However, the additive customer power over the system comes along with additional security obligations. Platform as a Service (PaaS) offerings provide the capability to deploy application packages created using the virtual development environment supported by the CSP. For the efficiency of software development process this service model can be propellent. In the Software as a Service (SaaS) model, the customer makes use of a service run by the CSP on a cloud infrastructure. In most of the cases this service can be accessed through an API for a thin client interface such as a web browser. Closed-source public SaaS offers such as Amazon S3 and GoogleMail can only be used in the public deployment model leading to further issues concerning security, privacy and the gathering of suitable evidences. Furthermore, two main deployment models, private and public cloud have to be distinguished. Common public clouds are made available to the general public. The corresponding infrastructure is owned by one organization acting as a CSP and offering services to its customers. In contrast, the private cloud is exclusively operated for an organization but may not provide the scalability and agility of public offers. The additional notions of community and hybrid cloud are not exclusively covered within this work. However, independently from the specific model used, the movement of applications and data to the cloud comes along with limited control for the customer about the application itself, the data pushed into the applications and also about the underlying technical infrastructure.C. Fault ModelBe it an account for a SaaS application, a development environment (PaaS) or a virtual image of an IaaS environment, systems in the cloud can be affected by inconsistencies. Hence, for both customer and CSP it is crucial to have the ability to assign faults to the causing party, even in the presence of Byzantine behavior [33]. Generally, inconsistencies can be caused by the following two reasons:1) Maliciously Intended FaultsInternal or external adversaries with specific malicious intentions can cause faults on cloud instances or applications. Economic rivals as well as former employees can be the reason for these faults and state a constant threat to customers and CSP. In this model, also a malicious CSP is included albeit he isassumed to be rare in real world scenarios. Additionally, from the technical point of view, the movement of computing power to a virtualized, multi-tenant environment can pose further threads and risks to the systems. One reason for this is that if a single system or service in the cloud is compromised, all other guest systems and even the host system are at risk. Hence, besides the need for further security measures, precautions for potential forensic investigations have to be taken into consideration.2) Unintentional FaultsInconsistencies in technical systems or processes in the cloud do not have implicitly to be caused by malicious intent. Internal communication errors or human failures can lead to issues in the services offered to the costumer(i.e. loss or modification of data). Although these failures are not caused intentionally, both the CSP and the customer have a strong intention to discover the reasons and deploy corresponding fixes.IV. TECHNICAL ISSUESDigital investigations are about control of forensic evidence data. From the technical standpoint, this data can be available in three different states: at rest, in motion or in execution. Data at rest is represented by allocated disk space. Whether the data is stored in a database or in a specific file format, it allocates disk space. Furthermore, if a file is deleted, the disk space is de-allocated for the operating system but the data is still accessible since the disk space has not been re-allocated and overwritten. This fact is often exploited by investigators which explore these de-allocated disk space on harddisks. In case the data is in motion, data is transferred from one entity to another e.g. a typical file transfer over a network can be seen as a data in motion scenario. Several encapsulated protocols contain the data each leaving specific traces on systems and network devices which can in return be used by investigators. Data can be loaded into memory and executed as a process. In this case, the data is neither at rest or in motion but in execution. On the executing system, process information, machine instruction and allocated/de-allocated data can be analyzed by creating a snapshot of the current system state. In the following sections, we point out the potential sources for evidential data in cloud environments and discuss the technical issues of digital investigations in XaaS environmentsas well as suggest several solutions to these problems.A. Sources and Nature of EvidenceConcerning the technical aspects of forensic investigations, the amount of potential evidence available to the investigator strongly diverges between thedifferent cloud service and deployment models. The virtual machine (VM), hosting in most of the cases the server application, provides several pieces of information that could be used by investigators. On the network level, network components can provide information about possible communication channels between different parties involved. The browser on the client, acting often as the user agent for communicating with the cloud, also contains a lot of information that could be used as evidence in a forensic investigation. Independently from the used model, the following three components could act as sources for potential evidential data.1) Virtual Cloud Instance: The VM within the cloud, where i.e. data is stored or processes are handled, contains potential evidence [2], [3]. In most of the cases, it is the place where an incident happened and hence provides a good starting point for a forensic investigation. The VM instance can be accessed by both, the CSP and the customer who is running the instance. Furthermore, virtual introspection techniques [25] provide access to the runtime state of the VM via the hypervisor and snapshot technology supplies a powerful technique for the customer to freeze specific states of the VM. Therefore, virtual instances can be still running during analysis which leads to the case of live investigations [41] or can be turned off leading to static image analysis. In SaaS and PaaS scenarios, the ability to access the virtual instance for gathering evidential information is highly limited or simply not possible.2) Network Layer: Traditional network forensics is knownas the analysis of network traffic logs for tracing events that have occurred in the past. Since the different ISO/OSI network layers provide several information on protocols and communication between instances within as well as with instances outside the cloud [4], [5], [6], network forensics is theoretically also feasible in cloud environments. However in practice, ordinary CSP currently do not provide any log data from the network components used by the customer’s instances or applications. For instance, in case of a malware infection of an IaaS VM, it will be difficult for the investigator to get any form of routing information and network log datain general which is crucial for further investigative steps. This situation gets even more complicated in case of PaaS or SaaS. So again, the situation of gathering forensic evidence is strongly affected by the support the investigator receives from the customer and the CSP.3) Client System: On the system layer of the client, it completely depends on the used model (IaaS, PaaS, SaaS) if and where potential evidence could beextracted. In most of the scenarios, the user agent (e.g. the web browser) on the client system is the only application that communicates with the service in the cloud. This especially holds for SaaS applications which are used and controlled by the web browser. But also in IaaS scenarios, the administration interface is often controlled via the browser. Hence, in an exhaustive forensic investigation, the evidence data gathered from the browser environment [7] should not be omitted.a) Browser Forensics: Generally, the circumstances leading to an investigation have to be differentiated: In ordinary scenarios, the main goal of an investigation of the web browser is to determine if a user has been victim of a crime. In complex SaaS scenarios with high client-server interaction, this constitutes a difficult task. Additionally, customers strongly make use of third-party extensions [17] which can be abused for malicious purposes. Hence, the investigator might want to look for malicious extensions, searches performed, websites visited, files downloaded, information entered in forms or stored in local HTML5 stores, web-based email contents and persistent browser cookies for gathering potential evidence data. Within this context, it is inevitable to investigate the appearance of malicious JavaScript [18] leading to e.g. unintended AJAX requests and hence modified usage of administration interfaces. Generally, the web browser contains a lot of electronic evidence data that could be used to give an answer to both of the above questions - even if the private mode is switched on [19].B. Investigations in XaaS EnvironmentsTraditional digital forensic methodologies permit investigators to seize equipment and perform detailed analysis on the media and data recovered [11]. In a distributed infrastructure organization like the cloud computing environment, investigators are confronted with an entirely different situation. They have no longer the option of seizing physical data storage. Data and processes of the customer are dispensed over an undisclosed amount of virtual instances, applications and network elements. Hence, it is in question whether preliminary findings of the computer forensic community in the field of digital forensics apparently have to be revised and adapted to the new environment. Within this section, specific issues of investigations in SaaS, PaaS and IaaS environments will be discussed. In addition, cross-disciplinary issues which affect several environments uniformly, will be taken into consideration. We also suggest potential solutions to the mentioned problems.1) SaaS Environments: Especially in the SaaS model, the customer does notobtain any control of the underlying operating infrastructure such as network, servers, operating systems or the application that is used. This means that no deeper view into the system and its underlying infrastructure is provided to the customer. Only limited userspecific application configuration settings can be controlled contributing to the evidences which can be extracted fromthe client (see section IV-A3). In a lot of cases this urges the investigator to rely on high-level logs which are eventually provided by the CSP. Given the case that the CSP does not run any logging application, the customer has no opportunity to create any useful evidence through the installation of any toolkit or logging tool. These circumstances do not allow a valid forensic investigation and lead to the assumption that customers of SaaS offers do not have any chance to analyze potential incidences.a) Data Provenance: The notion of Digital Provenance is known as meta-data that describes the ancestry or history of digital objects. Secure provenance that records ownership and process history of data objects is vital to the success of data forensics in cloud environments, yet it is still a challenging issue today [8]. Albeit data provenance is of high significance also for IaaS and PaaS, it states a huge problem specifically for SaaS-based applications: Current global acting public SaaS CSP offer Single Sign-On (SSO) access control to the set of their services. Unfortunately in case of an account compromise, most of the CSP do not offer any possibility for the customer to figure out which data and information has been accessed by the adversary. For the victim, this situation can have tremendous impact: If sensitive data has been compromised, it is unclear which data has been leaked and which has not been accessed by the adversary. Additionally, data could be modified or deleted by an external adversary or even by the CSP e.g. due to storage reasons. The customer has no ability to proof otherwise. Secure provenance mechanisms for distributed environments can improve this situation but have not been practically implemented by CSP [10]. Suggested Solution: In private SaaS scenarios this situation is improved by the fact that the customer and the CSP are probably under the same authority. Hence, logging and provenance mechanisms could be implemented which contribute to potential investigations. Additionally, the exact location of the servers and the data is known at any time. Public SaaS CSP should offer additional interfaces for the purpose of compliance, forensics, operations and security matters to their customers. Through an API, the customers should have the ability to receive specific information suchas access, error and event logs that could improve their situation in case of aninvestigation. Furthermore, due to the limited ability of receiving forensic information from the server and proofing integrity of stored data in SaaS scenarios, the client has to contribute to this process. This could be achieved by implementing Proofs of Retrievability (POR) in which a verifier (client) is enabled to determine that a prover (server) possesses a file or data object and it can be retrieved unmodified [24]. Provable Data Possession (PDP) techniques [37] could be used to verify that an untrusted server possesses the original data without the need for the client to retrieve it. Although these cryptographic proofs have not been implemented by any CSP, the authors of [23] introduced a new data integrity verification mechanism for SaaS scenarios which could also be used for forensic purposes.2) PaaS Environments: One of the main advantages of the PaaS model is that the developed software application is under the control of the customer and except for some CSP, the source code of the application does not have to leave the local development environment. Given these circumstances, the customer obtains theoretically the power to dictate how the application interacts with other dependencies such as databases, storage entities etc. CSP normally claim this transfer is encrypted but this statement can hardly be verified by the customer. Since the customer has the ability to interact with the platform over a prepared API, system states and specific application logs can be extracted. However potential adversaries, which can compromise the application during runtime, should not be able to alter these log files afterwards. Suggested Solution:Depending on the runtime environment, logging mechanisms could be implemented which automatically sign and encrypt the log information before its transfer to a central logging server under the control of the customer. Additional signing and encrypting could prevent potential eavesdroppers from being able to view and alter log data information on the way to the logging server. Runtime compromise of an PaaS application by adversaries could be monitored by push-only mechanisms for log data presupposing that the needed information to detect such an attack are logged. Increasingly, CSP offering PaaS solutions give developers the ability to collect and store a variety of diagnostics data in a highly configurable way with the help of runtime feature sets [38].3) IaaS Environments: As expected, even virtual instances in the cloud get compromised by adversaries. Hence, the ability to determine how defenses in the virtual environment failed and to what extent the affected systems havebeen compromised is crucial not only for recovering from an incident. Also forensic investigations gain leverage from such information and contribute to resilience against future attacks on the systems. From the forensic point of view, IaaS instances do provide much more evidence data usable for potential forensics than PaaS and SaaS models do. This fact is caused throughthe ability of the customer to install and set up the image for forensic purposes before an incident occurs. Hence, as proposed for PaaS environments, log data and other forensic evidence information could be signed and encrypted before itis transferred to third-party hosts mitigating the chance that a maliciously motivated shutdown process destroys the volatile data. Although, IaaS environments provide plenty of potential evidence, it has to be emphasized that the customer VM is in the end still under the control of the CSP. He controls the hypervisor which is e.g. responsible for enforcing hardware boundaries and routing hardware requests among different VM. Hence, besides the security responsibilities of the hypervisor, he exerts tremendous control over how customer’s VM communicate with the hardware and theoretically can intervene executed processes on the hosted virtual instance through virtual introspection [25]. This could also affect encryption or signing processes executed on the VM and therefore leading to the leakage of the secret key. Although this risk can be disregarded in most of the cases, the impact on the security of high security environments is tremendous.a) Snapshot Analysis: Traditional forensics expect target machines to be powered down to collect an image (dead virtual instance). This situation completely changed with the advent of the snapshot technology which is supported by all popular hypervisors such as Xen, VMware ESX and Hyper-V.A snapshot, also referred to as the forensic image of a VM, providesa powerful tool with which a virtual instance can be clonedby one click including also the running system’s mem ory. Due to the invention of the snapshot technology, systems hosting crucial business processes do not have to be powered down for forensic investigation purposes. The investigator simply creates and loads a snapshot of the target VM for analysis(live virtual instance). This behavior is especially important for scenarios in which a downtime of a system is not feasible or practical due to existing SLA. However the information whether the machine is running or has been properly powered down is crucial [3] for the investigation. Live investigations of running virtual instances become more common providing evidence data that。
参考文献翻译
SBR法工艺简介序批式活性污泥法（SBR-Sequencing Batch Reactor）是早在1914年英国学者Ardern和Lockett发明活性污泥法之时，首先采用的水处理工艺。
70年代初，美国Natre Dame大学的R.Irvine教授采用实验室规模对SBR工艺进行了系统深入的研究,并于1980年在美国环保局(EPA)的资助下，在印地安那州的Culver城改建并投产了世界上第一个SBR法污水处理厂。
80年代前后，由于自动化、计算机等高新技术的迅速发展以及在污水处理领域的普及与应用，此项技术获得重大进展，使得间歇活性污泥法（也称“间歇式活性污泥法”）的运行管理也逐渐实现了自动化。
SBR工艺的过程是按时序来运行的，一个操作过程分五个阶段：进水、曝气、沉淀、滗水、闲置。
由于SBR在运行过程中，各阶段的运行时间、反应器内混合液体积的变化以及运行状态都可以根据具体污水的性质、出水水质、出水质量与运行功能要求等灵活变化。
对于SBR反应器来说，只是时序控制，无空间控制障碍，所以可以灵活控制。
因此，SBR工艺发展速度极快，并衍生出许多新型SBR 处理工艺。
90年代比利时的SEGHERS公司又开发了UNITANK系统，把经典SBR 的时间推流与连续的空间推流结合了起来SBR工艺主要有以下变形。
一、SBR工艺特点及分析SBR工艺是通过时间上的交替来实现传统活性污泥法的整个运行过程，它在流程上只有一个基本单元，将调节池、曝气池和二沉池的功能集于一池，进行水质水量调节、微生物降解有机物和固、液分离等。
经典SBR反应器的运行过程为：进水→曝气→沉淀→滗水→待机。
1、理论分析SBR反应池充分利用了生物反应过程和单元操作过程的基本原理。
（1）流态理论由于SBR在时间上的不可逆性，根本不存在返混现象，所以属于理想推流式反应器。
（2）理想沉淀理论其沉淀效果好是因为充分利用了静态沉淀原理。
经典的SBR反应器在沉淀过程中没有进水的扰动，属于理想沉淀状态。
外文参考文献(带中文翻译)
外文资料原文涂敏之会计学 8051208076Title:Future of SME finance（c）Background – the environment for SME finance has changedFuture economic recovery will depend on the possibility of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to exploit their potential for growth and employment creation.SMEs make a major contribution to growth and employment in the EU and are at the heart of the Lisbon Strategy, whose main objective is to turn Europe into the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world. However, the ability of SMEs to grow depends highly on their potential to invest in restructuring, innovation and qualification. All of these investments need capital and therefore access to finance.Against this background the consistently repeated complaint of SMEs about their problems regarding access to finance is a highly relevant constraint that endangers the economic recovery of Europe.Changes in the finance sector influence the behavior of credit institutes towards Crafts, Trades and SMEs. Recent and ongoing developments in the banking sector add to the concerns of SMEs and will further endanger their access to finance. The main changes in the banking sector which influence SME finance are:•Globalization and internationalization have increased the competition and the profit orientation in the sector;•worsening of the economic situations in some institutes (burst of the ITC bubble, insolvencies) strengthen the focus on profitability further;•Mergers and restructuring created larger structures and many local branches, which had direct and personalized contacts with small enterprises, were closed;•up-coming implementation of new capital adequacy rules (Basel II) will also change SME business of the credit sector and will increase its administrative costs;•Stricter interpretation of State-Aide Rules by the European Commission eliminates the support of banks by public guarantees; many of the effected banks are very active in SME finance.All these changes result in a higher sensitivity for risks and profits in the financesector.The changes in the finance sector affect the accessibility of SMEs to finance.Higher risk awareness in the credit sector, a stronger focus on profitability and the ongoing restructuring in the finance sector change the framework for SME finance and influence the accessibility of SMEs to finance. The most important changes are: •In order to make the higher risk awareness operational, the credit sector introduces new rating systems and instruments for credit scoring;•Risk assessment of SMEs by banks will force the enterprises to present more and better quality information on their businesses;•Banks will try to pass through their additional costs for implementing and running the new capital regulations (Basel II) to their business clients;•due to the increase of competition on interest rates, the bank sector demands more and higher fees for its services (administration of accounts, payments systems, etc.), which are not only additional costs for SMEs but also limit their liquidity;•Small enterprises will lose their personal relationship with decision-makers in local branches –the credit application process will become more formal and anonymous and will probably lose longer;•the credit sector will lose more and more i ts “public function” to provide access to finance for a wide range of economic actors, which it has in a number of countries, in order to support and facilitate economic growth; the profitability of lending becomes the main focus of private credit institutions.All of these developments will make access to finance for SMEs even more difficult and / or will increase the cost of external finance. Business start-ups and SMEs, which want to enter new markets, may especially suffer from shortages regarding finance. A European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs would have allowed at least more transparency in the relations between Banks and SMEs and UEAPME regrets that the bank sector was not able to agree on such a commitment.Towards an encompassing policy approach to improve the access of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to financeAll analyses show that credits and loans will stay the main source of finance for the SME sector in Europe. Access to finance was always a main concern for SMEs, but the recent developments in the finance sector worsen the situation even more.Shortage of finance is already a relevant factor, which hinders economic recovery in Europe. Many SMEs are not able to finance their needs for investment.Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to strengthen their efforts to improve the framework conditions for SME finance. Europe’s Crafts, Trades and SMEs ask for an encompassing policy approach, which includes not only the conditions for SMEs’ access to l ending, but will also strengthen their capacity for internal finance and their access to external risk capital.From UEAPME’s point of view such an encompassing approach should be based on three guiding principles:•Risk-sharing between private investors, financial institutes, SMEs and public sector;•Increase of transparency of SMEs towards their external investors and lenders;•improving the regulatory environment for SME finance.Based on these principles and against the background of the changing environment for SME finance, UEAPME proposes policy measures in the following areas:1. New Capital Requirement Directive: SME friendly implementation of Basel IIDue to intensive lobbying activities, UEAPME, together with other Business Associations in Europe, has achieved some improvements in favour of SMEs regarding the new Basel Agreement on regulatory capital (Basel II). The final agreement from the Basel Committee contains a much more realistic approach toward the real risk situation of SME lending for the finance market and will allow the necessary room for adaptations, which respect the different regional traditions and institutional structures.However, the new regulatory system will influence the relations between Banks and SMEs and it will depend very much on the way it will be implemented into European law, whether Basel II becomes burdensome for SMEs and if it will reduce access to finance for them.The new Capital Accord form the Basel Committee gives the financial market authorities and herewith the European Institutions, a lot of flexibility. In about 70 areas they have room to adapt the Accord to their specific needs when implementing itinto EU law. Some of them will have important effects on the costs and the accessibility of finance for SMEs.UEAPME expects therefore from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament:•The implementation of the new Capital Requirement Directive will be costly for the Finance Sector (up to 30 Billion Euro till 2006) and its clients will have to pay for it. Therefore, the implementation – especially for smaller banks, which are often very active in SME finance –has to be carried out with as little administrative burdensome as possible (reporting obligations, statistics, etc.).•The European Regulators must recognize traditional instruments for collaterals (guarantees, etc.) as far as possible.•The European Commission and later the Member States should take over the recommendations from the European Parliament with regard to granularity, access to retail portfolio, maturity, partial use, adaptation of thresholds, etc., which will ease the burden on SME finance.2. SMEs need transparent rating proceduresDue to higher risk awareness of the finance sector and the needs of Basel II, many SMEs will be confronted for the first time with internal rating procedures or credit scoring systems by their banks. The bank will require more and better quality information from their clients and will assess them in a new way. Both up-coming developments are already causing increasing uncertainty amongst SMEs.In order to reduce this uncertainty and to allow SMEs to understand the principles of the new risk assessment, UEAPME demands transparent rating procedures –rating procedures may not become a “Black Box” for SMEs: •The bank should communicate the relevant criteria affecting the rating of SMEs.•The bank should inform SMEs about its assessment in order to allow SMEs to improve.The negotiations on a European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs , which would have included a self-commitment for transparent rating procedures by Banks, failed. Therefore, UEAPME expects from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament support for:•binding rules in the framework of the new Capital Adequacy Directive,which ensure the transparency of rating procedures and credit scoring systems for SMEs;•Elaboration of national Codes of Conduct in order to improve the relations between Banks and SMEs and to support the adaptation of SMEs to the new financial environment.3. SMEs need an extension of credit guarantee systems with a special focus on Micro-LendingBusiness start-ups, the transfer of businesses and innovative fast growth SMEs also depended in the past very often on public support to get access to finance. Increasing risk awareness by banks and the stricter interpretation of State Aid Rules will further increase the need for public support.Already now, there are credit guarantee schemes in many countries on the limit of their capacity and too many investment projects cannot be realized by SMEs.Experiences show that Public money, spent for supporting credit guarantees systems, is a very efficient instrument and has a much higher multiplying effect than other instruments. One Euro form the European Investment Funds can stimulate 30 Euro investments in SMEs (for venture capital funds the relation is only 1:2).Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to support:•The extension of funds for national credit guarantees schemes in the framework of the new Multi-Annual Programmed for Enterprises;•The development of new instruments for securitizations of SME portfolios;•The recognition of existing and well functioning credit guarantees schemes as collateral;•More flexibility within the European Instruments, because of national differences in the situation of SME finance;•The development of credit guarantees schemes in the new Member States;•The development of an SBIC-like scheme in the Member States to close the equity gap (0.2 – 2.5 Mio Euro, according to the expert meeting on PACE on April 27 in Luxemburg).•the development of a financial support scheme to encourage the internalizations of SMEs (currently there is no scheme available at EU level: termination of JOP, fading out of JEV).4. SMEs need company and income taxation systems, whichstrengthen their capacity for self-financingMany EU Member States have company and income taxation systems with negative incentives to build-up capital within the company by re-investing their profits. This is especially true for companies, which have to pay income taxes. Already in the past tax-regimes was one of the reasons for the higher dependence of Europe’s SMEs on bank lending. In future, the result of rating w ill also depend on the amount of capital in the company; the high dependence on lending will influence the access to lending. This is a vicious cycle, which has to be broken.Even though company and income taxation falls under the competence of Member States, UEAPME asks the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to publicly support tax-reforms, which will strengthen the capacity of Crafts, Trades and SME for self-financing. Thereby, a special focus on non-corporate companies is needed.5. Risk Capital – equity financingExternal equity financing does not have a real tradition in the SME sector. On the one hand, small enterprises and family business in general have traditionally not been very open towards external equity financing and are not used to informing transparently about their business.On the other hand, many investors of venture capital and similar forms of equity finance are very reluctant regarding investing their funds in smaller companies, which is more costly than investing bigger amounts in larger companies. Furthermore it is much more difficult to set out of such investments in smaller companies.Even though equity financing will never become the main source of financing for SMEs, it is an important instrument for highly innovative start-ups and fast growing companies and it has therefore to be further developed. UEAPME sees three pillars for such an approach where policy support is needed:Availability of venture capital•The Member States should review their taxation systems in order to create incentives to invest private money in all forms of venture capital.•Guarantee instruments for equity financing should be further developed.Improve the conditions for investing venture capital into SMEs•The development of secondary markets for venture capital investments in SMEs should be supported.•Accounting Standards for SMEs should be revised in order to easetransparent exchange of information between investor and owner-manager.Owner-managers must become more aware about the need for transparency towards investors•SME owners will have to realise that in future access to external finance (venture capital or lending) will depend much more on a transparent and open exchange of information about the situation and the perspectives of their companies.•In order to fulfil the new needs for transparency, SMEs will have to use new information instruments (business plans, financial reporting, etc.) and new management instruments (risk-management, financial management, etc.).外文资料翻译涂敏之会计学 8051208076题目：未来的中小企业融资背景：中小企业融资已经改变未来的经济复苏将取决于能否工艺品，贸易和中小企业利用其潜在的增长和创造就业。
建筑施工质量控制外文翻译参考文献
建筑施⼯质量控制外⽂翻译参考⽂献建筑施⼯质量控制外⽂翻译参考⽂献(⽂档含中英⽂对照即英⽂原⽂和中⽂翻译)译⽂：建筑施⼯过程中质量管理的动机分析和控制⽅法的研究摘要在建筑施⼯过程中实施质量管理可以有效地防⽌在后续建筑产品使⽤过程中安全事故的发⽣。
与此同时可以减少建设供应链的总成本，这也有利于增强建筑施⼯企业的品牌知名度和声誉。
在建筑施⼯过程中结合质量管理过程和当前建筑施⼯阶段的主要质量问题，分析了建设过程中的管理动机，将供应链管理与⽬标管理理念和⽅法应⽤到质量管理中，最后提出了具体的质量控制措施。
这些都是为了在建筑施⼯过程中提⾼建筑产品的总体质量。
关键字——建筑施⼯、质量管理、质量动机、控制1.引⾔调查显⽰建筑施⼯企业主要采⽤现场控制的质量管理模式是预先控制。
⼤多企业常常使得建筑施⼯过程中与建设管理中的质量管理相同，他们通常忽略了施⼯准备阶段质量问题的预防，如供应商的选择、道路的规划和临时设施，这些因素在建筑施⼯过程中的质量管理上起着⾄关重要的作⽤。
建设质量事故频繁发⽣，引起了许多领域的⾼度关注，如各级政府部门、施⼯企业和业主，特别是重庆綦江虹桥的坍塌、五龙的滑坡和洪湖湿地路基施⼯中的⼀系列质量安全事故，⼈们开始对施⼯质量问题做全⽅位的思考。
通过研究李秀峰总结归纳了造成⼯程的质量问题并引⼊项⽬质量控制分析⽅法，Low Sui Pheng 和Jasmine Ann Teo[2] 建⽴了施⼯中的质量管理框架来通过经验分析实现项⽬的质量控制，SangHyun Lee and others[3] 利⽤系统质量动态结构和变更管理模型的编程⽅法和控制⽅法，最终实现了⼤规模的并⾏设计和施⼯项⽬的管理和控制。
⽅唐分析了建设项⽬质量管理的整个过程和控制⽅法，她认为应该实现对影响建设单位质量的⼈、材料、机械、⽅法和环境的完全控制；吴天翔研究出管理因素是影响建设项⽬质量控制的重要因素，强调了施⼯过程中需要严格控制的各个⽅⾯和整体实现加强管理的需要。
外文参考文献(带中文翻译)
外文资料原文涂敏之会计学 8051208076Title:Future of SME finance（/docs/pos_papers/2004/041027_SME-finance_final.do c）Background – the environment for SME finance has changedFuture economic recovery will depend on the possibility of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to exploit their potential for growth and employment creation.SMEs make a major contribution to growth and employment in the EU and are at the heart of the Lisbon Strategy, whose main objective is to turn Europe into the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world. However, the ability of SMEs to grow depends highly on their potential to invest in restructuring, innovation and qualification. All of these investments need capital and therefore access to finance.Against this background the consistently repeated complaint of SMEs about their problems regarding access to finance is a highly relevant constraint that endangers the economic recovery of Europe.Changes in the finance sector influence the behavior of credit institutes towards Crafts, Trades and SMEs. Recent and ongoing developments in the banking sector add to the concerns of SMEs and will further endanger their access to finance. The main changes in the banking sector which influence SME finance are:•Globalization and internationalization have increased the competition and the profit orientation in the sector;•worsening of the economic situations in some institutes (burst of the ITC bubble, insolvencies) strengthen the focus on profitability further;•Mergers and restructuring created larger structures and many local branches, which had direct and personalized contacts with small enterprises, were closed;•up-coming implementation of new capital adequacy rules (Basel II) will also change SME business of the credit sector and will increase its administrative costs;•Stricter interpretation of State-Aide Rules by the European Commission eliminates the support of banks by public guarantees; many of the effected banks are very active in SME finance.All these changes result in a higher sensitivity for risks and profits in the finance sector.The changes in the finance sector affect the accessibility of SMEs to finance.Higher risk awareness in the credit sector, a stronger focus on profitability and the ongoing restructuring in the finance sector change the framework for SME finance and influence the accessibility of SMEs to finance. The most important changes are: •In order to make the higher risk awareness operational, the credit sector introduces new rating systems and instruments for credit scoring;•Risk assessment of SMEs by banks will force the enterprises to present more and better quality information on their businesses;•Banks will try to pass through their additional costs for implementing and running the new capital regulations (Basel II) to their business clients;•due to the increase of competition on interest rates, the bank sector demands more and higher fees for its services (administration of accounts, payments systems, etc.), which are not only additional costs for SMEs but also limit their liquidity;•Small enterprises will lose their personal relationship with decision-makers in local branches –the credit application process will become more formal and anonymous and will probably lose longer;•the credit sector will lose more and more its “public function” to provide access to finance for a wide range of economic actors, which it has in a number of countries, in order to support and facilitate economic growth; the profitability of lending becomes the main focus of private credit institutions.All of these developments will make access to finance for SMEs even more difficult and / or will increase the cost of external finance. Business start-ups and SMEs, which want to enter new markets, may especially suffer from shortages regarding finance. A European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs would have allowed at least more transparency in the relations between Banks and SMEs and UEAPME regrets that the bank sector was not able to agree on such a commitment.Towards an encompassing policy approach to improve the access of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to financeAll analyses show that credits and loans will stay the main source of finance for the SME sector in Europe. Access to finance was always a main concern for SMEs,but the recent developments in the finance sector worsen the situation even more. Shortage of finance is already a relevant factor, which hinders economic recovery in Europe. Many SMEs are not able to finance their needs for investment.Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to strengthen their efforts to improve the framework conditions for SME finance. Europe’s Crafts, Trades and SMEs ask for an encompassing policy approach, which includes not only the conditions for SMEs’ access to lending, but will also strengthen their capacity for internal finance and their access to external risk capital.From UEAPM E’s point of view such an encompassing approach should be based on three guiding principles:•Risk-sharing between private investors, financial institutes, SMEs and public sector;•Increase of transparency of SMEs towards their external investors and lenders;•improving the regulatory environment for SME finance.Based on these principles and against the background of the changing environment for SME finance, UEAPME proposes policy measures in the following areas:1. New Capital Requirement Directive: SME friendly implementation of Basel IIDue to intensive lobbying activities, UEAPME, together with other Business Associations in Europe, has achieved some improvements in favour of SMEs regarding the new Basel Agreement on regulatory capital (Basel II). The final agreement from the Basel Committee contains a much more realistic approach toward the real risk situation of SME lending for the finance market and will allow the necessary room for adaptations, which respect the different regional traditions and institutional structures.However, the new regulatory system will influence the relations between Banks and SMEs and it will depend very much on the way it will be implemented into European law, whether Basel II becomes burdensome for SMEs and if it will reduce access to finance for them.The new Capital Accord form the Basel Committee gives the financial market authorities and herewith the European Institutions, a lot of flexibility. In about 70areas they have room to adapt the Accord to their specific needs when implementing it into EU law. Some of them will have important effects on the costs and the accessibility of finance for SMEs.UEAPME expects therefore from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament:•The implementation of the new Capital Requirement Directive will be costly for the Finance Sector (up to 30 Billion Euro till 2006) and its clients will have to pay for it. Therefore, the implementation – especially for smaller banks, which are often very active in SME finance –has to be carried out with as little administrative burdensome as possible (reporting obligations, statistics, etc.).•The European Regulators must recognize traditional instruments for collaterals (guarantees, etc.) as far as possible.•The European Commission and later the Member States should take over the recommendations from the European Parliament with regard to granularity, access to retail portfolio, maturity, partial use, adaptation of thresholds, etc., which will ease the burden on SME finance.2. SMEs need transparent rating proceduresDue to higher risk awareness of the finance sector and the needs of Basel II, many SMEs will be confronted for the first time with internal rating procedures or credit scoring systems by their banks. The bank will require more and better quality information from their clients and will assess them in a new way. Both up-coming developments are already causing increasing uncertainty amongst SMEs.In order to reduce this uncertainty and to allow SMEs to understand the principles of the new risk assessment, UEAPME demands transparent rating procedures –rating procedures may not become a “Black Box” for SMEs:•The bank should communicate the relevant criteria affecting the rating of SMEs.•The bank should inform SMEs about its assessment in order to allow SMEs to improve.The negotiations on a European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs , which would have included a self-commitment for transparent rating procedures by Banks, failed. Therefore, UEAPME expects from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament support for:•binding rules in the framework of the new Capital Adequacy Directive, which ensure the transparency of rating procedures and credit scoring systems for SMEs;•Elaboration of national Codes of Conduct in order to improve the relations between Banks and SMEs and to support the adaptation of SMEs to the new financial environment.3. SMEs need an extension of credit guarantee systems with a special focus on Micro-LendingBusiness start-ups, the transfer of businesses and innovative fast growth SMEs also depended in the past very often on public support to get access to finance. Increasing risk awareness by banks and the stricter interpretation of State Aid Rules will further increase the need for public support.Already now, there are credit guarantee schemes in many countries on the limit of their capacity and too many investment projects cannot be realized by SMEs.Experiences show that Public money, spent for supporting credit guarantees systems, is a very efficient instrument and has a much higher multiplying effect than other instruments. One Euro form the European Investment Funds can stimulate 30 Euro investments in SMEs (for venture capital funds the relation is only 1:2).Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to support:•The extension of funds for national credit guarantees schemes in the framework of the new Multi-Annual Programmed for Enterprises;•The development of new instruments for securitizations of SME portfolios;•The recognition of existing and well functioning credit guarantees schemes as collateral;•More flexibility within the European Instruments, because of national differences in the situation of SME finance;•The development of credit guarantees schemes in the new Member States;•The development of an SBIC-like scheme in the Member States to close the equity gap (0.2 – 2.5 Mio Euro, according to the expert meeting on PACE on April 27 in Luxemburg).•the development of a financial support scheme to encourage the internalizations of SMEs (currently there is no scheme available at EU level: termination of JOP, fading out of JEV).4. SMEs need company and income taxation systems, which strengthen their capacity for self-financingMany EU Member States have company and income taxation systems with negative incentives to build-up capital within the company by re-investing their profits. This is especially true for companies, which have to pay income taxes. Already in the past tax-regimes was one of the reasons for the higher dependence of Europe’s SMEs on bank lending. In future, the result of rating will also depend on the amount of capital in the company; the high dependence on lending will influence the access to lending. This is a vicious cycle, which has to be broken.Even though company and income taxation falls under the competence of Member States, UEAPME asks the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to publicly support tax-reforms, which will strengthen the capacity of Crafts, Trades and SME for self-financing. Thereby, a special focus on non-corporate companies is needed.5. Risk Capital – equity financingExternal equity financing does not have a real tradition in the SME sector. On the one hand, small enterprises and family business in general have traditionally not been very open towards external equity financing and are not used to informing transparently about their business.On the other hand, many investors of venture capital and similar forms of equity finance are very reluctant regarding investing their funds in smaller companies, which is more costly than investing bigger amounts in larger companies. Furthermore it is much more difficult to set out of such investments in smaller companies.Even though equity financing will never become the main source of financing for SMEs, it is an important instrument for highly innovative start-ups and fast growing companies and it has therefore to be further developed. UEAPME sees three pillars for such an approach where policy support is needed:Availability of venture capital•The Member States should review their taxation systems in order to create incentives to invest private money in all forms of venture capital.•Guarantee instruments for equity financing should be further developed.Improve the conditions for investing venture capital into SMEs•The development of secondary markets for venture capital investments in SMEs should be supported.•Accounting Standards for SMEs should be revised in order to ease transparent exchange of information between investor and owner-manager.Owner-managers must become more aware about the need for transparency towards investors•SME owners will have to realise that in future access to external finance (venture capital or lending) will depend much more on a transparent and open exchange of information about the situation and the perspectives of their companies.•In order to fulfil the new needs for transparency, SMEs will have to use new information instruments (business plans, financial reporting, etc.) and new management instruments (risk-management, financial management, etc.).外文资料翻译涂敏之会计学 8051208076题目：未来的中小企业融资背景：中小企业融资已经改变未来的经济复苏将取决于能否工艺品，贸易和中小企业利用其潜在的增长和创造就业。
外文文献翻译范例
StatusComplete
Type：Office
Location：Hong Kong
Construction started：18 April 1985
Completed：1990
Opening：17 May 1990
HeightAntenna spire：367.4 m (1,205.4 ft)
2011年6月8日
外文文献翻译（译成中文1000字左右）：
【主要阅读文献不少于5篇，译文后附注文献信息，包括：作者、书名（或论文题目）、出 版 社（或刊物名称）、出版时间（或刊号）、页码。提供所译外文资料附件（印刷类含封面、封底、目录、翻译部分的复印件等，网站类的请附网址及原文）
原文网址：/TALLEST_TOWERS/t_sears.htm
译文
建筑师：Bruce Graham, design partner, Skidmore, Owings and Merrill
地点：Chicago
甲方：Sears Roebuck and Company
工程师：Fazlur Khan of Skidmore, Owings and Merrill.项目年份：2008
香港1985年4月18日开工建设1990年完成1990年5月17日开幕高度天线尖顶三百六十七点四米2418英尺屋顶三百一十五点米10335英尺顶层二百八十八点二米九百四十五点五英尺技术细节地上楼层数724层楼建筑面积一十三点五万平方米1450000平方英尺电梯数45由奥的斯电梯公司生产的设计与施工主要承建商香港建设控股有限公司引文需要熊谷组香港贝聿铭建筑师事务所建筑师事务所谢尔曼西贡有限公司sl的托马斯博阿达莱斯利罗伯逊结构工程师协会rllp参考文献对中国塔简称中银大厦银行是中环香港最知名的摩天大楼之一
施工组织设计外文翻译参考文献
施⼯组织设计外⽂翻译参考⽂献施⼯组织设计外⽂翻译参考⽂献(⽂档含中英⽂对照即英⽂原⽂和中⽂翻译)施⼯组织设计的重要性摘要：建筑⼯程在施⼯过程中，施⼯组织⽅案的优劣不仅直接影响⼯程的质量，对⼯期及施⼯过程中的⼈员安全也有重要影响。
施⼯组织是项⽬建设和指导⼯程施⼯的重要技术经济⽂件。
能调节施⼯中⼈员、机器、原料、环境、⼯艺、设备、⼟建、安装、管理、⽣产等⽭盾,要对施⼯组织设计进⾏监督和控制,才能科学合理的保证⼯程项⽬⾼质量、低成本、少耗能的完成。
关键词：项⽬管理施⼯组织⽅案重要性施⼯组织设计就是对⼯程建设项⽬整个施⼯过程的构思设想和具体安排，是施⼯组织管理⼯作的核⼼和灵魂。
其⽬的是使⼯程速度快、质量好、效益⾼。
使整个⼯程在施⼯中获得相对的最优效果。
1．编制施⼯组织设计重要性的原因建筑⼯程及其施⼯具有固定性与流动性、多样性与单件性、形体庞⼤与施⼯周期长这三对特点。
所以，每⼀建筑⼯程的施⼯都必须进⾏施⼯组织设计。
这是因为：其它⼀般⼯业产品的⽣产都有着⾃⼰固定的、长期适⽤的⼯⼚。
⽽建筑施⼯具有流动性的特点，不可能建⽴这样的⼯⼚，只能是当每⼀个建筑⼯程施⼯时，建⽴⼀个相应的、临时性的，如同⼯⼚作⽤性质的施⼯现场准备，即⼯地。
施⼯单件性特点与施⼯流动性特点，决定了每⼀建筑⼯程施⼯都要选择相应的机具和劳动⼒组织。
选择施⼯⽅法、拟定施⼯技术⽅案及其劳动⼒组织和机具配置，统称为施⼯作业能⼒配置。
施⼯周期的特点，决定了各种劳动⼒、机具和众多材料物资技术的供应时间也⽐较长，这就产⽣了与施⼯总进度计划相适应的物资技术的施⼯组织设计内容。
由此可见，施⼯组织设计在项⽬管理中是相当重要的。
2．施⼯组织设计⽅案的重要性建筑产品作为⼀种商品，在项⽬管理中⼯程质量在整个施⼯过程中起着极其重要的作⽤。
⼯程建设项⽬的施⼯组织设计与其⼯程造价有着密切的关系。
施⼯组织设计基本的内容有：⼯程概况和施⼯条件的分析、施⼯⽅案、施⼯⼯艺、施⼯进度计划、施⼯总平⾯图。
endnote里参考文献类型的中文翻译
endnote里参考文献类型的中文翻译aggregated database 聚集数据库acient text 古文audiovisual material 视听材料bill 票据blog 博客book 书籍book section 书籍章节classical work 古典作品computer program 计程序算机conference paper 参考文章conference proceedings 会议记录dataset 数据集dictionary 词典edited book 编辑的书籍electronic article 电子文章electronic book 电书籍子electronic book section 电子书籍章节encylopedia 百科全书equation 方程figure 图像film or broadcast 电影或无线广播generic 通用government document 政府文件grant 许可hearing 听力joural article 期刊文章legal rule or regulation 法律或法规magazion article 杂志文章manuscript 手稿map 地图music 音乐newspaper article 报刊文章online database 在线数据库online multimedia 在线多媒体pamphlet 小册子patent 专利personal communication 个人通讯report 报告serial 连续的standard 标准statute 章程thesis 论文unpublished work 未出版物web page 网页。
翻译方面的参考文献
1.Bassnett, Susan & Andre Lefevere. Constructing Cultures[M]. Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.2.Hatim, Basil. Communication across Cultures[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press, 2001.3.Nord, Christiane. Translating as a Purposeful Activity[M]. Shanghai: ShanghaiForeign Language Education Press, 2001.4.Hickey, Leo(ed.). The Pragmatics of Translation[C]. Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press, 2004.5.Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation[M].Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press, 2001.6.Wilss, Wolfram. The Science of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press, 2001.7.Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press, 2001.8.Nida, A. Eugene. Language and Culture[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press, 2001.9.Snell-Hornby, Mary. Translation Studies[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press, 2001.10.Davis, Kathleen. Deconstruction and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press, 2004.11.Katan, David. Translating Cultures[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign LanguageEducation Press, 2004.12.Gutt, Ernst-August. Translation and Relevance[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press, 2004.13.Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories[M]. Shanghai: ShanghaiForeign Language Education Press, 2004.14.Nida, A. Eugene. Toward a Science of Transalting. Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press, 2004.15.Nida, A. Eugene & Taber, R. Charles. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.16.Lefevere, Andre(ed.) Translation/History/Culture[C]. Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press, 2004.17.Lefevere, Andre. Translation, Rewring and the Manipulation of Literary Fame[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.18.Reiss, Katharina. Translation Criticism (Translated by Erroll F. Rhodes)[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.19.Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press, 2004.20.Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign LanguageEducation Press, 2004.21.Williams Jenny & Chesterman Andrew. The Map[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press, 2004.22.Lefevere, Andre. Translating Literature: Practice and Theory in a ComparativeLiterature Context[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2006.23.Hermans, Theo(ed.). Crosscultural Transgressions: Research Models inTranslation Studies Ⅱ, Historical and Ideological Issues[C]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2007.24.Rose, G. Marilyn. Translation and Literary Criticism: Translation as Analysis[M].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2007.130. 罗新璋编. 翻译论集[C]. 北京：商务印书馆,1984.137. 思果. 翻译研究. [M] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2001.138. 刘重德. 文学翻译十讲[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，1998.139. 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，1998.141. 许渊冲. 翻译的艺术[M]. 北京：五洲传播出版社，2006.2004.143. 刘宓庆. 中西翻译思想比较研究[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2005. 144. 毛荣贵. 翻译美学. [M] 上海：上海交通大学出版社. 2005.145. 许渊冲. 中诗音韵探胜---从《诗经》到《西厢记》[M]. 北京：北京大学出版社，1992.146.《中国翻译》编辑部. 诗词翻译的艺术[C]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，1987.151. 思果. 翻译新究[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2001.19. 张南峰的书：中西译学批评，清华大学出版社，200420. 李文革《西方翻译理论流派研究》，中国社会科学出版社，2004。
中文参考文献提供英译文
中文参考文献提供英译文
提供中文参考文献的英译文是为了帮助国际学术界更好地理解
和利用中文研究成果。
将中文参考文献翻译成英文可以促进学术交
流和知识传播。
以下是一些常见的方法和原则来提供中文参考文献
的英译文：
1. 标题翻译，将中文文章的标题翻译成英文。
翻译时应尽量准
确地传达中文标题的含义，同时保持简洁明了。
2. 作者翻译，将中文作者的姓名翻译成英文。
通常，姓氏在前，名字在后，中间用逗号隔开。
3. 期刊名称翻译，将中文期刊名称翻译成英文。
一般情况下，
可以使用官方的英文期刊名称。
如果没有官方英文名称，可以根据
中文名称的含义进行翻译。
4. 出版地和出版社翻译，将中文参考文献中的出版地和出版社
翻译成英文。
可以使用官方的英文地名和出版社名称，或者根据中
文地名和出版社的含义进行翻译。
5. 页码翻译，将中文参考文献中的页码翻译成英文。
通常，可以使用"p."表示页码。
需要注意的是，对于某些特定的名词、术语或者专有名词，可能没有准确的英文对应词，此时可以使用拼音或者音译的方式来表示。
总之，提供中文参考文献的英译文是为了促进学术交流和知识传播，确保研究成果能够被更广泛地理解和应用。
参考文献翻译
参考文献翻译参考文献Teixeira, J.O.. (2003). Enhancing the competitiveness of the tourism industry. Annals of Tourism Research, 30(3), 827-847.这篇文章主要探讨了如何提升旅游业竞争力。
作者通过对巴西旅游业的研究发现，提高旅游业竞争力是一个复杂且独特的过程，需要多方面的因素共同作用。
文章首先介绍了旅游业竞争力的概念，并解释了其重要性。
旅游业竞争力不仅仅是指旅游目的地本身的吸引力，还包括了目的地的硬件设施、软件服务、旅游产品和营销策略等多方面因素。
提高旅游业竞争力对于经济发展和社会进步都具有重要的意义。
接下来，作者提出了提升旅游业竞争力的几个关键因素。
首先，目的地需要有适当的硬件设施，如交通运输、酒店、旅游景点等，以满足游客的需求。
其次，软件服务在提高旅游业竞争力中扮演着重要角色，包括旅游目的地的接待能力、服务质量等。
此外，旅游产品的创新和差异化也是提升竞争力的关键因素。
最后，有效的营销策略对于吸引游客和增加目的地知名度至关重要。
在探讨了这些因素后，作者提出了一些提升竞争力的具体措施。
例如，政府可以加大对旅游业的投资，提供资金支持和税收优惠等，以促进旅游业的发展。
此外，各级政府还可以通过制定旅游政策和规划来引导和规范旅游业的发展。
同时，旅游企业和行业协会也可以合作，共同制定和实施营销和推广计划，增加目的地的知名度和吸引力。
总的来说，文章提供了一些有关提升旅游业竞争力的实用建议，并认为提高竞争力是一个综合性和长期性的过程。
此外，作者还提到了巴西旅游业的一些特点和挑战，为其他国家和地区提升竞争力提供了一定的借鉴意义。
参考文献：Teixeira, J.O.. (2003). Enhancing the competitiveness of the tourism industry. Annals of Tourism Research, 30(3), 827-847.。
翻译方面的参考文献
1.Bassnett, Susan & Andre Lefevere. Constructing Cultures[M]. Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.2.Hatim, Basil. Communication across Cultures[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press, 2001.3.Nord, Christiane. Translating as a Purposeful Activity[M]. Shanghai: ShanghaiForeign Language Education Press, 2001.4.Hickey, Leo(ed.). The Pragmatics of Translation[C]. Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press, 2004.5.Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation[M].Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press, 2001.6.Wilss, Wolfram. The Science of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press, 2001.7.Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press, 2001.8.Nida, A. Eugene. Language and Culture[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press, 2001.9.Snell-Hornby, Mary. Translation Studies[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press, 2001.10.Davis, Kathleen. Deconstruction and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press, 2004.11.Katan, David. Translating Cultures[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign LanguageEducation Press, 2004.12.Gutt, Ernst-August. Translation and Relevance[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press, 2004.13.Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories[M]. Shanghai: ShanghaiForeign Language Education Press, 2004.14.Nida, A. Eugene. Toward a Science of Transalting. Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press, 2004.15.Nida, A. Eugene & Taber, R. Charles. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.16.Lefevere, Andre(ed.) Translation/History/Culture[C]. Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press, 2004.17.Lefevere, Andre. Translation, Rewring and the Manipulation of Literary Fame[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.18.Reiss, Katharina. Translation Criticism (Translated by Erroll F. Rhodes)[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.19.Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press, 2004.20.Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign LanguageEducation Press, 2004.21.Williams Jenny & Chesterman Andrew. The Map[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press, 2004.22.Lefevere, Andre. Translating Literature: Practice and Theory in a ComparativeLiterature Context[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2006.23.Hermans, Theo(ed.). Crosscultural Transgressions: Research Models inTranslation Studies Ⅱ, Historical and Ideological Issues[C]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2007.24.Rose, G. Marilyn. Translation and Literary Criticism: Translation as Analysis[M].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2007.130. 罗新璋编. 翻译论集[C]. 北京：商务印书馆,1984.137. 思果. 翻译研究. [M] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2001.138. 刘重德. 文学翻译十讲[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，1998.139. 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，1998.141. 许渊冲. 翻译的艺术[M]. 北京：五洲传播出版社，2006.2004.143. 刘宓庆. 中西翻译思想比较研究[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2005. 144. 毛荣贵. 翻译美学. [M] 上海：上海交通大学出版社. 2005.145. 许渊冲. 中诗音韵探胜---从《诗经》到《西厢记》[M]. 北京：北京大学出版社，1992.146.《中国翻译》编辑部. 诗词翻译的艺术[C]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，1987.151. 思果. 翻译新究[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2001.19. 张南峰的书：中西译学批评，清华大学出版社，200420. 李文革《西方翻译理论流派研究》，中国社会科学出版社，2004。
参考文献,中英文翻译
参考文献[1] 段汉明.城市详细规划设计[M].北京：科学出版社，2006．[2] 王受之.当代商业住宅区的规划与设计.中国建筑工业出版社.2001[3] 吴良镛.人居环境科学导论.中国建筑工业出版社.2001[4] 扬·盖尔.交往与空间EM3.北京：建筑工业出版社，2002[5] 王薇薇.居住区交往空间环境设计初探 EJ3.江苏建筑，2007,6(1)：17— 18[6] 赵庆华.浅谈居住区的户外交往空间EJ3.山西建筑，2002，28 (6)：12— 13[7] 陈向东.创造良好的居住环境一居住区归属感的探索EM3.北京：时代建筑出版社，1998[8] 张程.浅析居住区邻里交往空间设计的要点EJ3.山西建筑，2006，32(9)：21—22[9] 夏更寿.园林建筑小品的应用研究[J].安徽农业科学，2004，32(4)：640— 642[10] 陈易.自然之韵——生态居住社区设计[M].上海：同济大学出版社，2003．[11] 黄越、刘建德．“市场与经济”主导“形式与空间”[J].建筑学报，2005(10)：56—57．[12] 王彦军.走向新社区——城市居住社区整体营造理论与方法.南京：东南大学出版社，2003[13] 邓述平、王伸谷.居住区规划设计资料集.北京:中国建筑工业出版社，1996[14] 黄一如.现代居住环境的探索和实践.北京:中国国建筑工业出版社，2002[15] 王华.居住社区中的“邻里交往”与“空间环境”分析[J].建筑知识，2004(3):13—1 5．[16] 城市居住区规划设计规范 (GB50180--93)[17] GB50220-95.城市道路交通规划设计规范[S]外文资料Planning and Design of Association Space of residential AreaXiaLiangdongAbstract: The association space refers to the indoor and outdoor space for communication between residents．The article presents an overall discussion of the necessity，hierarchy and functionality of association space,with a wish to create positive and healthy association atmosphere and stimu—late good communication among residents so that the residential area can become a homeland full of love and harmony．Keywords:residential area；association space；necessity；hierarchy；Functionality0 forewordAs the housing system reform and the rapid development of real estate, urban residential areas large urban settlements have emerged on the layout of residential buildings, public buildings, public green space, life and living facilities such as roads, to provide urban residents live in the community and The establishment, is an integral part of the city. Exchanges between the living room area residents is to communicate and exchange of indoor and outdoor space.At this stage, people's living standards greatly improved the living environment of continuous improvement district. Developers should not only focus on residential construction and the reasonable comfort, paying greater attention to the construction of residential environment. However, the current environment in the construction of residential areas, they are often the natural ecology of greening the environment is much more to consider, and the promotion of exchanges between the residents of the space environment to consider less, environmental construction can not meet the occupants of the psychological characteristics and needs. From the basic physiological needs gradually to meet the psychological and cultural fields of promoting a higher level, the residential area is not only the function of living, but also people's thinking and feelings of the local exchange. Therefore, the strengthening of exchanges between the residential areas of space construction, increase residential neighbourhood affinity, should be developed in the planning and construction of residential areas should also consider the issue.How to conduct exchanges between the residential areas of space planning and design, improve people's quality of life, the author of his own real estate development experience and try to contact the living room area of need, level of functionality for aReview.A residential area of exchanges between the need for spaceExchanges between the residential areas to create space for the process, in a sense, is in the course of exchanges between the people and the natural world and define the space environment between the development process.1.1 exchanges create a space to meet the spiritual and cultural needs of residents.Jan • Gaelic i n the "contacts and space," a book, the residents will live within the community of contacts divided into three categories: ① necessity of activities (such as school, work, etc.), the participants did not have much choice, subject to very little Material and environmental impact; ②spontaneous activities (such as walking, wait-and-see stop, etc.), greatly dependent on the quality of material and the space environment: ③social activities (such as children's games, chatting and people-to-people contacts between the passive January 1 simple See, hear, etc.), also, to a certain extent, the impact of material and the space environment. Therefore, the exchanges between the residential area of the space will create a direct impact on the residents of the contacts. As people's living standards gradually improved, the residents of the spiritual and cultural needs arising from the exchanges with the requirements will be getting higher and higher.Create a space of 120 contacts is the need to maintain traditional family ties Traditional historical neighborhoods and the living units Daza Yuan on the shape of an objective to maintain and develop the neighbourhood family. As the market economy and the development of new residential development and construction, and many residents to move to multi-storey high-rise residential, the link between households and households reduce, and even people are not familiar with the portal. At the same one floor, did not know each other very common phenomenon, the traditional relations in the neighbourhood gradually indifferent. Carry forward the traditional virtues, to promote family residential, Healthy demonstration projects in the country has long been proposed for residential"High-quality, new life", which "new life", including guidance on the new concept of living, to guide the new consumer awareness, a new form of exchanges, to form a new management model, and so on five aspects. According to this standard, the exchanges create a space it is very important.Create a space of 130 contacts is the need to build a harmonious society Residential area is to build a harmonious society space unit, a harmonious society is an important part. A residential area of a harmonious society can be harmonious.Harmonious residential areas should be a moderate consumption of economic, social management, diversification and harmonious relations between the neighbours, living environment, and with the humanistic spirit and the rich local cultural characteristics of the geographical space. From the hardware side, there should be a scientific and rational planning, good construction quality, improve infrastructure, the complete establishment of contacts, good landscape. From the software side, there should be quality property management, and improve the community-based organizations, the rich cultural atmosphere, good morality. Therefore, the exchanges between the space as an integral part of residential areas, create a far-reaching significance, and China recently and residential real estate will be put on the "build a harmonious family residential district," the objective is consistent.2 residential district-level exchanges between the space ofThe living space planning and construction in accordance with people at different times, different locations, different activities in different levels of privacy, can be divided into private space, semi-private room, semi-public space, public space, the formation of four space-related fields. The level and the field of space will help create a sense of belonging among the residents and enhance the interaction and pro-neighborhood and. People from the private space into the public space, is a gradual process. In this process, after all the residents of different levels of outdoor space, making contacts to become a necessity.2.1 residential building space to create exchangesDwellers in privacy is assured and meet under the premise of hope neighbourhood close, harmonious and to mutual exchanges and contacts. Therefore, the need to have exchanges between the space settings, and create a way as follows:2.11 expand the staircase depthStaircase is home residents in the buffer space, but also public housing tenants upstairs room at the break. The platform is too small to affect the length of stay of residents, not conducive to the exchanges between the residents. Expand the staircase depth, increase platform space, will increase their contacts, exchanges of opportunity.2.12 set up home gardensGarden is home residents into the indoor space for the transition, here, achieved a semi-private room for the transition to private space, residents here can support grass flowers, reception guests. Nanjing-day Hong Villa-home platform into the home in the Garden set up a grill door, both outdoor green landscape will be conducted to the interior of the extension, for two people through the grille gate to create anopportunity for exchange.2.13 expand the unit foyer areaUnit in the entrance foyer area and configure the appropriate expansion of some facilities such as rest stool, reading Baolan, a resident contacts, rest places, and units of the immediate household contacts. Conditional foyer can also do a lobby for households in this exchange, chat.2.14 bottom overheadResidential Design for the elevated bottom of open space and ensure the smooth flow of green space on the ground. Supported by flowers, Zuodeng facilities as residents of rest, such as chat room, and in connection with outdoor landscape, easy to create a good atmosphere for exchanges. Even rainy day also will not be affected, adding unlimited life for fun.2.15 set-Gallery- Gallery of traditional Chinese architecture is a form of construction, is a form can be effective in promoting exchanges between the people of the fun of space incentives, are widely used in modern residential design, such as the Osmanthus Hangzhou City District, Guangzhou Zhuyun Villa And so on. Gallery-factor here is traffic, and the exchange of places, played a role in the integration of the adjacent space, people can chat here, the sun, and so on.2.16 exchanges of high-rise buildingThe rising high-rise building in the physical environment restrictions on the freedom of the people exchanges, to reduce contact between the residents, the elderly rest, the lack of children's play space. Therefore, the high-rise building in the interval to set up a number of similar exchanges in the Chamber of good will to solve these problems. In this way, for the elderly in the rest of the space, to provide children with a playground, and the promotion of social interaction among residents.2.17 Roof GardenOn the platform set up in the roof garden, an increase of green space, was restored to the construction of the ground. People in this walk, fitness, chat, natural contact, an increase of exchanges between the residents of places to create a multi-level exchanges between the space.220 yards, a delegation of the association space"To achieve effective settlements between the groups and the exchanges have recognized the need for clear and appropriate areas of the border and logo." China's traditional courtyard space is part of building space, the area is a strong sense of spaceand border patterns, the neighbourhood is to increase exchanges and contacts between the effective means. Beijing Da Zayuan the old mode of living, residents of harmonious relations in harmony, a human face. Renowned architect Wu Liangyong design of the Beijing-ju infants alley, inheritance and development of this form of living.Shanqiang residential use of the wrong column, platform height difference, changes in residential space, residential settings between Lianlang, plants of the tube, creating a "siege without closure, without dredging through" the group space and formed a semi-private, semi-public The field of space. In the courtyard between the layout Zuodeng, the elderly here Xiejiao, Cuxitanxin, no longer feel lonely: reserve some space, children play in the home, mothers can be seen here in the kitchen, children no longer worried about the safety of: Members of mutual Reference , And mutual exchanges, and exchanges are deep-seated. Not only enhance the feelings and prevent the formation of a collective consciousness, to effectively prevent the destruction and crime, security, have been protected.So that more people can enjoy the environmental landscape comfort, more and more developers are good attention to the landscape of the building. Pichu in the group in a space, as a delegation of the public landscape. However, they often re-design of "visual effect" light "social effect." Although the construction of a large number of hardware shops, flower beds, shrubs planted Joe, it lacks some residents to promote exchanges between the rest of the shelters, chairs, and affected the exchanges between the extension of the neighbourhood. Therefore, the delegation landscape in the strengthening of public infrastructure construction, and create a space for exchanges, will promote exchanges between the residents of outreach.2.3 exchanges between the public spaces to create spaceBy the semi-public space to public space, people exchanges between the exchanges from the neighbourhood to the public exchanges, contacts between the characteristics of exchanges between the decision to create a space for the different practices.2.3.1 open space for public relationsResidential area of central green space is often the area of public venues, as shared by the entire population, is the residential area of the "living room." Here, residents of various gatherings, community activities, fitness. Open space should be designed, without borders and at the same time, various groups in the residential area green space to the center of the road, should be easily accessible, guide the people into public space, to participate in contacts and exchanges.2.3-2 and landscape combine PiecesResidential area of landscape and people's exchanges with the interaction between people in the landscape before the stop watch, the exchanges have the desire, with the landscape, more full of vigor. Therefore, public exchanges between the space and landscape Pieces should be combined, such as sculpture on the square, around the fountain Waterscape layout Zuodeng, people appreciate the side of sculpture, fountain, while exchanges and reduce the distance between people. At the same time should play a guiding role in the landscape, emphasizing participation, attractive to flow through the landscape, gathering popularity.3 exchanges between the living room area of the building featuresDifferent groups of people because of their age, occupation, cultural background of different exchanges of the functions of space have different needs. According to the characteristics of different populations and demand for space contacts between the different functions of the building, creating a different theme of space, will help attract people from outside, spontaneous interaction.3.1 exchanges between the functions of space and building occupants should be suited to the age structureChildren naturally active, have a strong sense of curiosity, games and more activities for climbing, jumping, leisure, such as Xishua. Therefore, the venue should be set up in the slides, swings, Leisure Pool, bunkers and other facilities, taking into account the needs of adults to care for children, some blocks in the surrounding layout stool. On the one hand, children in the game was physical and mental exercise, on the other hand, care for the children of people have been exchanges.Young people like sports. Therefore, in order to increase the sports facilities, planning to basketball courts, tennis courts and other sports space. However, it should be far from some residential, so as to avoid interference on the daily life of residents. Like the elderly in the early morning fitness, such as doing Qigong, a tai chi, like the rest of the time playing chess, play cards, chat, Yangniao such activities. Therefore, to make space in the small square, booths, equipped with Taiwan, tables, chairs and other facilities.3.2 exchanges between the space to take into account the function of building barrier-free facilities layoutExchanges between the living room area is a complex environment, including roads, green space, Pieces, facilities and other environmental factors. Exchanges between the functions of building space in addition to meet the normal use, should give fullconsideration to the disabled, the elderly vulnerable groups, such as the use of a barrier-free design. Barrier-free environment of space means exchanges with no obstruction and dangerous. If the import unit designed around 1.5 m x 1.5m above the level of space for wheelchair users stay; unit foyer reserved space for wheelchairs and Childs vehicles to facilitate wheelchair and Childs vehicles stored: in public relations to the road space On both sides, who set up blind road trip on the trail for the blind walking: the sidewalk in the end, a height difference of the junction, a height difference of public platform set up the ramp for wheelchair users access; elderly morning exercises in the square, as far as possible Be flat no height difference, the use of anti-skid surfacing materials: children playing in the park, the use of soft mats and safety warning signs in different exchanges of space, by setting up the Pieces and personalized theme sculpture, to enhance space And the recognition of sexual orientation, and so on.4 ConclusionIn residential areas of planning and construction, we must be people-centered, according to create a functional level and living space area contacts at all levels, from the psychological and physical needs of starting, through the space environment to create, create a positive, healthy exchanges between the atmosphere, Residential area into a harmonious family homes. Meanwhile, the exchanges between the living room area of thinking and innovation, and developers need to continue to carry out exploration.References[1] Yang • Gaelic. Exchanges and space [M]. Beijing: China Building Industry Press.[2] Wang. Living in the community, "the neighbourhood exchanges" and "space" of [J], building knowledge, 2004 (3) :13-1 5.[3] Nielan Health, Song Kun. Create a pleasant living space - LJ. Architectural Journal, 1997 (11) :29-31中文翻译居住区交往空间规划与设计夏良东【摘要】居住区交往空间是居民进行沟通与交流的户内、户外空间：文章从交往空间营造的必要性、层次性、功能性加以综述，旨在通过交往空间的营造，创造出积极、健康的交往氛围，促进居民交往，使居住区成为亲情和谐的家园。
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窗窗是设置在房间或走廊的外壁或屋顶，为采光或换气而开的一个口（广义上的「穴」）。
现代化建筑中，通常镶嵌的是玻璃窗。
另外，也有些建筑采用彩绘玻璃之类的高级装饰品。
在汽车及火车的车体、飞机的机体等也通常设有窗户（另外、关于汽车可参看电动车窗）。
窗是以采光和通气为主要目的而设置在壁面上的开口。
但是，并不是像出入口一样可供行人通行，它的开口部高度多设置在腰以上的。
作为出入口的开口部通常设置门扇，而不是出入口的壁上的开口，不论是不是用于阻隔，都可以叫做窗。
但是，在现代化程度高的多数建筑中，设置这种可开关样式的阻隔用具是主流。
在照明技术落后的时代，这种为采集自然光而设置的窗曾是非常重要的装置。
同时，对于引入外部的空气，排出内部的空气也起着非常重要的作用。
有些窗可以用于不同的用途，有些窗是为了特殊的目的采用特殊装饰，有些窗增设了特定的技能。
窗的样式各种各样。
窗从建筑内部看，是通向外部的开口。
不过，窗原本的构造是没有任何堵塞物，通过开口部可以直接望到内部，因此，外部不受欢迎的东西也很容易侵入到屋内。
下雨时雨水会飘进屋里。
在初春或夏季时，包括昆虫等动物也会潜入屋内，秋天是落叶、冬天是寒风，都会毫无保留的灌进屋内。
甚至还有小偷等不受欢迎的闯入者。
为了应对这些情况，通常在窗上加一层盖子。
在玻璃等透光材料很昂贵的时代，一般用木质的盖子来替代。
另外，窗还有透过墙壁看风景这样的机能。
例如，在茶室中，把装在窗上的障子拉开，让被窗沿截取下的风景呈现在室内，这样就可以尽情享受别样的风雅了。
这样的情怀不仅仅局限在茶室，许多带有庭院的建筑样式，在进行庭院的设计时，都考虑到从窗内观赏庭院风景的实际效果。
坐落在中国苏州的古典庭院（→苏州古典园林）中的「漏景」这一样式，其设计意图就是使观赏者可以从陈设在壁上的窗中，享受庭院中的旖旎风景。
茶室茶室是茶会的主办者为招待客人，共同品茶而设的房间。
一般多设在日本庭园中、并建有专用庭院。
但近年来，也多设置在酒店或公共会堂、商业大厦的一角。
另外，为了成立茶道部，许多大学也在校内的角落中建茶室。
为了学习茶道、享受品茶的乐趣而设的带有壁炉的和式房间（设有榻榻米的房间）我们一般称为茶室。
此次我们将专门讲述四畳半以下的草庵风茶室。
草庵风茶室的建筑材料多使用具有田园建筑风格的材料（圆木、竹子、土墙等）。
来自走廊的采光被土墙阻隔了，因此有必要通过开设「窗（木骨胎窗、直棂窗、顶窗）」来实现光的自由演绎。
在以一间为基础的茶室内，壁龛的大小也可以根据房间的宽窄、构成来调节，根据情况做四尺、五尺的变化。
其设计业可以有「室床」「洞床」「壁床」「踏床」等等多种样式。
室内立中柱作为主座与客座的分界。
在这样狭小的空间内，主座和客座相对而设，产生稠密的空间感。
将茶室以独立的样式呈现出来的是千利休。
利休深入挖掘闲寂茶的精神。
其茶室采用二畳、三畳的小间、并设置了窝身门，且不邀请社会名流，只邀请品闲寂茶的几个人。
另外，关于二畳的想法是秀吉提出的，还是利休提出的，学术界诸说风云。
茶室待庵（国宝）据说是千利休的作品，不过它很好的诠释了闲寂茶的意境。
茶室小门（茶室设的低头俯身出入的小门）据说是千利休在河内枚方（位于大阪）的淀川河畔偶见渔夫进船篷顿生灵感而设。
但是，被认为是茶室小门原型的入口，不仅见于武野绍鸥时代的古图，并且在商家大户所设的多种小便门当中也能找到其原型，所以，不能说此为千利休的发明。
利休受托于秀吉建造了黄金茶室，此茶室可分解搬运。
虽然很多人批评道建造黄金茶室乃是秀吉的低俗趣味，但依草庵风茶室建造法的小间茶室却遵循了其凝练简约的特点。
因此，黄金茶室也是利休茶道的一部分的观点也被接受。
古田织部、小堀远州等也建造了茶室。
他们的茶室虽然空间甚小，但样式众多，具有多样的室内安置方法。
利休之孙——宗旦为追求究极的“静寂”，成功创造出“一叠台目”的极小茶室（利休尝试过但马上放弃了）。
与此相对，古田织部、小堀远州、织田有乐齐、金森宗和这些大名茶师创造出虽称为小间但大小在三叠左右的具有武家风格的书院风茶室。
千家历代都乐于尝试各种各样新式茶室，但这些尝试中却没有能达到宗旦的究极的“静寂”境界的。
因茶室很小，所以分解后在其它场所再建也相对容易。
其实现在的如庵（国宝）就由京都建仁寺签到东京三井家，后辗转大磯的三井家别墅、犬山的名铁有乐苑，被移建过多次。
另外，被评为名席的称作“写”的茶室作为模范而广为建造。
姑且认为茶室是一种孤立的缺乏趣味的建筑的话，那么对移足茶室的空间利用就显得格外重要了。
客人并不是突然进入茶室，而是先被请到休息室或者客厅中。
出来后进到庭园钻过小门。
茶庭中小路由踏脚石隔适当距离铺成，主人精心打点，在园中提前洒水扑尘以迎接客人到来。
途中备有休息室和椅凳供客人休憩。
客从主意，见出迎主人示意便走向茶室。
茶室前设有洗手盆，可用来洗手。
茶室中设茶室小门，客人从此低头俯身进入。
进入茶室小门首先映入眼帘的是壁龛，那里摆置着迎合四季的挂轴、花，并沐浴着透过“墨迹窗”照进壁龛的光。
通常壁龛前的座位为上座，是上客坐席。
客人一入席主人便从侧门出来，行礼后便开始进行茶事。
为使行茶事者眼前光线充足，特将风炉前的下地窗打开以便采光。
因天花板较低，加上透过窗的光只是用于行茶事而被最大程度限制，主客便都能集中精力于茶事。
享用茶点后暂且出茶室入茶庭，然后再入茶室，先品浓茶，其次品淡茶，而后客人从这“一生一会”的茶室退身而出。
因通过茶室小门进入时不得不低头屈伸，所以在迎接达官贵人时另多设“贵人门”。
另外，主人由“侍奉门”而非茶室侧门进入，以示尊敬之意。
玄关所谓玄关，乃是建筑物的主要入口，即正门。
原本玄关是道禅用语。
“玄关”则取“进入玄妙道义之关”的意思。
在日本，玄关是通往书院、禅寺的“客殿”或拜谒住持时建造的出入口，普遍认为，居住用书院的“玄关”在江户时代得到普及。
进入日本的房间的正门时几乎都要脱鞋。
虽然在中国或者欧美普遍都没有脱鞋的习惯，但在西方某些地区或者家庭这种习惯却也存在。
另外，东亚、东南亚、土耳其等地区也有在正门脱鞋的习惯，这种文化的普遍性恐怕要超过日本人的想象。
隔扇隔扇，是日式房间用于间隔的道具之一。
一般在木质的框架两面糊上纸或布。
虽然障子这个词是从中国传来的，但是隔扇这个词却是日本人独创的，中国和韩国都没有。
隔扇障子这个词最初，是用于天皇的寝殿中寝室的间隔。
寝室被叫做「衾所」。
「衾」原本是「棉被、寝具」的意思。
因此，也被称为「衾所的衾障子」，甚至，有的说法称：因为衾障子周围被叫做软锦的宽缘贴合的形状和衾的形状很像，所以被叫做衾障子。
自古以来，日本人认为白色是没有污染的、纯洁的颜色。
从而将白色奉为神圣的颜色。
从白色中可以感受到无限的可能性，同时也是美的原点。
目前、在正式的客室中，白底或者绘图的隔扇被称为隔扇障子，在简单的卧室或茶室建筑中，通常使用在木板上印刷的无花纹或碎花唐纸，所以也称为唐纸障子。
对唐纸障子的研究稍晚些，通常被认为是「采光障子」。
也就是今天的障子。
外廊外廊是日本和式住宅独特的构造，它是在住宅的外延部分铺上木板而形成的一道通路。
同时，从庭院等外部通过外廊可直接进入屋内。
在欧式建筑中，阳台、门廊之类的设计也有异曲同工之妙。
在文化界，也有这样的说话：与透过障子的微光，对面的人或风景若隐若现，从而能够产生的暧昧感相似，既不属于内部也不属于外部的外廊是空间间隔意识薄弱的日式住宅独有的暧昧性十足的构造。
外廊可分为横向铺钉地板和纵向铺钉地板两种。
横向铺钉地板是铺在外侧屋檐下，没有墙壁也没有防雨门的简易装置。
一般在木基梁柱上铺上木板、在外侧立梁柱、再加上廊框把廊板固定住。
这种形式的外廊通常是按照方便材料搬运的形状建造的。
横向铺钉地板所采用的木材，必须使用耐腐蚀和风化的材料。
合成板及胶合板等新兴建材并不适合，虽然有时也涂上防虫剂和防腐剂，但在人居住的空间是否适合使用这种化学物质，这也值得考虑。
纵向铺钉地板是在主屋的外侧建小屋，同时布上防雨门，是间隔外部与内部的房间。
大部分的情况下，并不建在地基上，而是建在奠基石上，同时在上面铺上可称为縁桁的圆木或方形木口的平行材，建成小屋形状。
在下面铺上地板、并沿着稍长一点的方向铺上廊板。
门户一定要设置能够收纳防雨门的防雨窗套，并用金属制或木制的做成窗格，另外，还要设置将以上合并的防水设备。
关于中国的日语教育语言这种东西并不是脱离社会而存在的，而是和人们生活密切相关的。
人类的生活是被各自的民族相对的地理位置、自然条件、历史境遇等各要素左右的，因此表现出各种各样的状态，这和文化是紧密相连的。
语言和文化有着非常密切的联系，语言这种事物可以说是由其背景所处的文化支撑的。
语言和文化的联系不仅关系到语言学习，同时也是必须切实地弄清楚。
如果理解了语言，就容易理解使用这种语言的人以及他们的文化。
相反，如果理解了他们的文化，对学习该种语言也是大有裨益。
换言之，无论发音多么准确、语法掌握得多么细致，记住了多么多的单词，如果不能对应对方的文化，特别是无法根据对方的文化场合来说话，也得不到应有的效果。
特别是像日文和中文一样全民使用的语言来说，文化以及国民的语言心理、语言习惯等语言之外的要素对语言的构造以及使用方式都有非常大的影响。
同样的，语言中也可以反映文化的特质，在语言深处也隐藏着语言心理。
从这点来看，要深入理解语言的含义，就必须要更加深入认识该种语言所在的文化。
从该种意义上来说，对于日语教育来说，深入理解日本文化是不可或缺的一个步骤。