research method in qualitive research管理学定性研究方法合集
qualititative research method -回复
qualititative research method -回复什么是质性研究方法？质性研究方法是一种在社会科学领域中广泛使用的研究方法，它以探索和理解人类行为、观点和现象为目的。
与定量研究方法相比，质性研究方法更关注个人和群体的主观经验，注重对背后的原因、动机和意义的深入理解。
质性研究方法可以通过访谈、观察、文本分析等技术来收集和分析非结构化和非数值化的数据。
质性研究方法的步骤1. 研究问题的确定：首先，研究者需要明确研究问题。
这个问题应该是精确、具体且具有一定的深入性，以便在研究过程中准确地收集和分析数据。
2. 数据收集：根据研究问题，研究者可以选择使用不同的数据收集方法。
访谈是一种常用的质性数据收集方法，它可以通过与受访者进行深入交谈来获取他们的观点、经验和态度。
观察是另一种常见的方法，研究者可以直接观察人们的行为和环境。
此外，文本分析，如对文本、文件和媒体报道的分析，也是质性研究中常用的方法。
3. 数据分析：质性研究方法的数据分析过程通常是由研究者本人进行的，他们需要仔细阅读、整理和描述收集到的数据。
数据分析的目标是从数据中提取出主题、观点和模式，并呈现出数据背后的意义和内涵。
常用的分析方法包括内容分析、比较分析和主题分析。
4. 结果呈现：根据数据分析的结果，研究者需要将他们的研究发现呈现给读者，这通常通过写作研究论文、撰写实证报告或制作多媒体展示来完成。
在这一步骤中，研究者需要清楚地描述他们的发现，支持这些发现的数据，并解释数据的意义和影响。
质性研究方法的优势和局限质性研究方法具有以下优势：1. 深入理解：质性研究方法可以提供对个体和群体的深入理解，探索其行为、动机和观点背后的原因和意义。
2. 灵活性：质性研究方法可以根据研究问题和环境的特点进行灵活调整，以适应不同的研究需求。
3. 全面性：质性研究方法可以收集一系列复杂、详细的数据，从不同的角度揭示问题的多样性和复杂性。
然而，质性研究方法也存在一些局限性：1. 主观性：由于质性研究方法侧重个体和群体的主观经验，研究者的主观立场和偏见可能会对研究结果产生影响。
QualitativeResearchMethodsResearchMethod
2) Determine the qualitative data collection method(s)
• Women prefer to shave in the shower and under dim lighting
• But men shave in front of a mirror
• Women prefer razors with a firm grip and those that give a clean, smooth shave
Qualitative Research Methods
Ipkin Anthony Wong, PhD Institute For Tourism Studies
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Three Categories of Research
1. Qualitative research: research involving collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data by observing what people do and say
• Provides extensive of the respondent’s feelings in a more personal setting
– gs:
• Women shave very differently from men
• Women shave more surface area than men but only shave two or three times per week
– Quantitative Research usually comes
Ch 8 next
qualitative research method
qualitative research methodQualitative research is a type of social science research method that focuses on understanding the subjective experiences, opinions, and perspectives of individuals. It is a form of exploratory research that aims to uncover the deeper meaning of human behavior and beliefs. This approach is often used in fields such as sociology, anthropology, psychology, and education.Step 1: Identifying research questionThe first step in conducting qualitative research is to identify the research question or problem that you wish to investigate. This can be done through literature review, observations, and conversations with stakeholders. The research question should be clear, concise, and specific to the topic of interest.Step 2: Selecting Participants and SamplingThe next step is to select the participants for the study. Qualitative research often involves small groups of participants or individuals, and sampling strategies are aimed at selecting a diverse range of people who can provide rich and varied perspectives on the research question or topic. The sampling method used in qualitative research is often non-probability, meaning participants are selected based on specific characteristics or criteria.Step 3: Data CollectionData collection in qualitative research is typically done through unstructured or semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and observations. Researchers aim togather as much data as possible to provide a comprehensive understanding of the topic being investigated. This approach allows for flexibility in data collection, as researchers can probe for more information based on participants' responses.Step 4: AnalysisQualitative data analysis involves interpreting and making sense of the data collected. This can be done through various methods such as thematic analysis, grounded theory analysis, and narrative analysis. Researchers aim to identify recurring themes and patterns within the data that arerelevant to the research question or problem being investigated. Data analysis is an iterative process wheredata is reviewed, coded, and organized until the researcher achieves data saturation, meaning that they have gathered enough information to answer the research question.Step 5: Reporting FindingsThe final step in qualitative research is reporting the findings. The results of the study should be communicated ina clear, concise, and accessible manner. This can be done through a range of mediums such as academic articles, reports, and presentations. The findings should be supported by evidence and convey the perspectives and experiences of the participants.In conclusion, qualitative research is a valuable toolfor exploring complex social phenomena. It provides insight into the subjective experiences of individuals and can aid in understanding social and cultural dynamics. By following the steps outlined above, researchers can develop a robust study that offers meaningful insights into the topic being investigated.。
qualititative research method
qualititative research method题目：探索和理解质性研究方法引言：质性研究方法是社会科学领域中一种重要的研究方法，它通过深入了解和解释社会现象及其背后的意义来增进对我们社会世界的理解。
本文将详细介绍质性研究方法，并逐步回答与该方法相关的问题。
一、质性研究方法的定义和特点（150字）：质性研究方法是一种基于文字而非数字的研究方法，旨在深入理解社会实践中的现象、事件、观点和情境。
与定量研究方法相比，它更关注于对社会现象的描述、解释和理解，强调研究对象的多样性和复杂性。
质性研究方法不仅能够帮助研究者发现隐藏在现象背后的意义，还能够提供更具丰富性和详尽性的理解。
二、质性研究方法的流程与步骤（500字）：1. 研究问题的确定：在进行质性研究之前，首先需要明确研究的目的和研究问题。
研究问题的选择应基于个人兴趣、社会需求或理论推动。
2. 文献综述：对已有的相关文献进行综述和分析，以了解研究领域的现状、研究者的观点和已有的理论框架。
这有助于研究者了解前人的研究成果、填补研究空白以及构建适当的研究设计。
3. 研究方法的选择：根据研究问题和研究目标，选择合适的研究方法，如个案研究、参与观察、深度访谈、文本分析等。
不同的方法可以帮助研究者从不同的角度深入了解研究对象。
4. 数据收集：根据所选的研究方法，采用适当的方式收集相关的数据。
例如，通过访谈、观察、文件分析等方式收集数据，并记录下来以便后续分析。
5. 数据分析：对收集到的数据进行整理、归纳和分析。
质性研究方法常见的分析方法包括主题分析、内容分析、语境分析等。
这些分析方法可以帮助研究者发现数据中的模式、主题和关系。
6. 结果解释和论证：在数据分析的基础上，研究者需要根据研究的目的和研究对象，解释和论证研究结果。
这一过程通常需要基于现有理论框架，对研究结果进行解释，与已有研究进行对比，并提出新的见解或观点。
7. 研究报告和呈现：最后，研究者应该将研究结果撰写成报告或论文，并通过适当的方式呈现给相关利益相关者。
如何做定性研究 Qualitative research
Start study with concurrent data collection and analysis. Analysis focused on identifying themes and categories-- similarities in data. Question or purpose may emerge and be refined. Data collection strategies may change
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Quota sampling
• Quota sampling begins with two decisions:
– What characteristics? – How many people?
• Characteristics are selected in order to find participants who have experience with or knowledge of the research topic.
• Your Questions
– If flexible format… list of things to be sure to talk about
– To get rich data: PROBE AND FOLLOW
• You and the Interview: attending, listening, thinking, taking
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Sampling in Qualitative Studies
研究计划中的研究方法
研究计划中的研究方法Research methods are an essential aspect of any research plan. 研究方法是任何研究计划中必不可少的一部分。
They determine how data will be collected, analyzed, and interpreted. 它们决定了数据将如何被收集、分析和解释。
Choosing the right research methods is crucial to ensure the validity and reliability of the research findings. 选择正确的研究方法对于确保研究结果的有效性和可靠性至关重要。
There are various research methods available, each with its own strengths and limitations. 有各种不同的研究方法可供选择，每种方法都有其优点和局限性。
One commonly used research method is the experimental method. 一个常用的研究方法是实验方法。
This involves conducting controlled experiments to test hypotheses and establish cause-and-effect relationships. 这涉及进行受控实验以测试假设并建立因果关系。
Experimental methods allow for high levels of control and the ability to establish causation, but they may not always be feasible or ethical. 实验方法允许高度控制和建立因果关系的能力，但它们可能并非总是可行或道德的。
Qualitative Research Methods (Research Method)
– Findings:
• Women shave very differently from men • Women shave more surface area than men but only shave two or three times per week • Women prefer to shave in the shower and under dim lighting • But men shave in front of a mirror • Women prefer razors with a firm grip and those that give a clean, smooth shave
Q u a n tita tiv e R esearch
O b je c tiv e
T o g a in a q u a lita tiv e u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e u n d e rly in g re a s o n s a n d m o tiv a tio n s
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II. Phenomenology
• It describes the meaning for several individuals of their lived experiences of a concept or a phenomenon (e.g., preference of luxury brands, pathological gambling, Internet addiction)
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Ch 8
– Quantitative Research usually comes next
Example: Gillette Supports EquShave
研究方法作文400字左右
研究方法作文400字左右英文回答：Research Methods.Research methods are the systematic and organized procedures used to collect and analyze data in order to answer research questions or test hypotheses. They provide a framework for conducting research in a rigorous and objective manner, ensuring that the results obtained are reliable and valid.There are various types of research methods that can be employed, each with its own strengths and weaknesses. The choice of method depends on the specific research question, the available resources, and the nature of the data being collected.Quantitative Research:Involves the collection and analysis of numerical data, often using statistical methods. It is characterized bylarge sample sizes, standardized data collection procedures, and the use of statistical tests to analyze the data. Examples include surveys, experiments, and correlation studies.Qualitative Research:Involves the collection and analysis of non-numerical data, such as interviews, observations, and documents. It focuses on understanding the subjective experiences, meanings, and perspectives of participants. Researchersoften adopt a naturalistic approach, observing participants in their natural settings and seeking to interpret their actions and behaviors.Mixed Methods Research:Combines quantitative and qualitative methods toprovide a more comprehensive understanding of the research question. It allows researchers to collect both numericaland non-numerical data, triangulating the results to enhance the overall validity of the research. Mixed methods designs can be sequential, concurrent, or transformative.Data Collection Methods:Surveys: Involve asking participants questions through questionnaires or interviews.Experiments: Manipulate independent variables to observe their effects on dependent variables.Observations: Involve observing participants in their natural settings or controlled environments.Interviews: In-depth conversations with participantsto gather subjective information.Document Analysis: Examining and interpreting written materials, such as letters, emails, or historical documents.Data Analysis Methods:Statistical Analysis: Uses statistical tests to identify patterns, relationships, and differences in numerical data.Thematic Analysis: Identifies and interprets recurrent themes and patterns in qualitative data.Discourse Analysis: Examines the ways in which language is used and how it shapes social interactions and understandings.Content Analysis: Analyzes the content of text or other media to identify patterns, themes, or ideologies.Grounded Theory: Inductively generates theory from qualitative data, allowing concepts and themes to emerge from the data itself.Choosing the Right Method:The choice of research method depends on severalfactors, including:Research questions.Available resources.Nature of data.Sampling strategy.Time constraints.Ethical Considerations:Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines when conducting research, including informed consent, confidentiality, and the protection of participants' rights and well-being.中文回答：研究方法。
如何做定性研究 Qualitative research
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Maxwell, 2005
Phases in Qualitative Research
Conceptualize and plan study Use literature,formulate study purpose or question, identify study site,settings where/how data collection will occur, participants and entrée to setting
• Snowball sampling is a form of purposive sampling.
• Participants refer the researcher to other potential participants.
• Snowball sampling is often used to find and recruit “hidden populations” – groups not easily accessible to researchers.
To develop detailed understanding
That might be “useful: information
That might help people “learn” about the phenomenon
That might give voice to “silenced” people
• The researcher goes into the community and selects the predetermined number of people demonstrating the pre-selected characteristics.
Qualitative Research Methods定性分析英文课件
• Choice between different research methods should depend upon what you are trying to find out.
1. Interview: types
• ‘Structured’
– Non-flexible comparisons – Numbers matter
• ‘Semi-structured’
– Flexible structure comparisons + specificities – Numbers can matter
• ‘Open-ended’
– No structure interviewees’ experience – Numbers do not matter
Qualitative Interviewing
• Setting up a situation (the interview) that allows a participant the time and scope to talk about their opinions on a subject. • To understand the participant’s point of view rather than make generalisations about behaviour. • It allows the respondent to talk freely about issues and does not constrain their responses.
EXAMPLE: Semi-structured interviews
• Barriers and challenges faced by women in the construction industry
社会研究方法 定性定量研究
小组构成
专 题 小 组 讨 论
弊端
完全参与性的秘密观察会引起严重的伦理学问题 公开以观察者的身份参与的方法会使被观察的群 组或个体意识到这是研究并且有人在观察自己 参与性观察在观察者进入和退出观察现场的任何 一个阶段都存在一些问题
观 察
法
优点：能够避免人们在言行上的不一致。
适合研究机构的工作状况及其人员是如何履行职 责的，从而揭示出机构内部人员未意识到的严重 问题。 另外，观察法也可以在定量研究的基础上开展， 从而准确地解释定量研究的结果及意义。
涵义：
观 察 法
既不同于流行病学中的观察研究（非实验的研 究设计），也不同于临床上对病人的观察。
定性观察法需要在自然状态下对行为和谈话进 行系统、详细的观察，即观察并记录人们的一 言一行。也就是说，研究者在无任何人为干涉 的情况下观察人们的言行、发生的事件及其互 动，因此又被称为“自然主义的研究”。
分类
：
即观察者完全不参与被观察对象 的活动，这仅仅是一项研究，观 察者的责任是观察并记录。
不参与性观察
观 察 法
参与性观察
指观察者加入到其所研究的对象 的活动中去，试图观察并记录他 们在“自然状况下”的行为。
参与性观察包括：
观 察
法
完全参与：长期秘密观察 以观察者的身份参与：公开观察， 无论观察者还是被观察者都意识到 这是研究 以参与者的身份观察：主要是一次 有针对性的短暂观察，不需要忍受 长期秘密观察所带来的麻烦
随着疾病谱由传染病向慢性非传染病和伤害 转变、医学模式由生物医学模式向生物-心理社会医学模式的转变，定性研究方法也逐渐进
定量研究方法(Quantitative-Research-Method)
什么是定量研究？定量研究一般是为了对特定研究对象的总体得出统计结果而进行的。
定性研究具有探索性、诊断性和预测性等特点，它并不追求精确的结论，而只是了解问题之所在，摸清情况，得出感性认识。
定性研究的主要方法包括：与几个人面谈的小组访问，要求详细回答的深度访问，以及各种投影技术等。
在定量研究中，信息都是用某种数字来表示的。
在对这些数字进行处理、分析时，首先要明确这些信息资料是依据何种尺度进行测定、加工的，史蒂文斯（S. S. Stevens）将尺度分为四种类型，即名义尺度、顺序尺度、间距尺度和比例尺度。
[编辑]定量研究的四种测定尺度及特征名义尺度所使用的数值，用于表现它是否属于同一个人或物。
顺序尺度所使用的数值的大小，是与研究对象的特定顺序相对应的。
例如，给社会阶层中的上上层、中上层、中层、中下层、下下层等分别标为“5、4、3、2、1”或者“3、2.5、2、1.5、1”就属于这一类。
只是其中表示上上层的5与表示中上层的4的差距，和表示中上层的4与表示中层的3的差距，并不一定是相等的。
5、4、3 等是任意加上去的符号，如果记为 100、50、10 也无妨。
间距尺度所使用的数值，不仅表示测定对象所具有的量的多少，还表示它们大小的程度即间隔的大小。
不过，这种尺度中的原点可以是任意设定的，但并不意味着该事物的量为“无”。
例如，O°C 为绝对温度273°K，华氏32°F。
名义尺度和顺序尺度的数值不能进行加减乘除，但间距尺度的数值是可以进行加减运算的。
然而，由于原点是任意设定的，所以不能进行乘除运算。
例如，5℃和 10℃之间的差，可以说与15℃和20℃之间的差是相同的，都是5°C。
但不能说 20℃就是比5℃高4倍的温度。
比例尺度的意义是绝对的，即它有着含义为“无”量的原点0。
长度、重量、时间等都是比例尺度测定的范围。
比例尺度测定值的差和比都是可以比较的。
例如：5分钟与10 分钟之间的差和10分钟与15分钟之间的差都是5 分钟，10 分钟是2分钟的5倍。
Qualitative research methods 定性研究方法的基本知识 英语写作技巧
Basic things you should know about qualitative researchmethods定性研究方法的基本知识Hello readers! As you are reading you will get to know the basic things about qualitative research methods. From their definition to their importance and types, you will get to know everything about them.Moreover, you can get personalised assistance if you are a newbie to research or gathering information as it is not a topic over which you have mastered. You can go to research experts for assignment help and work in a better way.Qualitative research definitionQualitative research is defined as a research method that focuses on obtaining data through open-ended and conversational communication.This method is not only about “what” people think but also “why” they think so. F or example, consider a convenience store looking to improve its patronage. A systematic observation concludes that the number of men visiting this store are more. One good method to determine why women were not visiting the store is to conduct an in-depth interview of potential customers in the category.On successfully interviewing female customers, visiting the nearby stores and malls, and selecting them through random sampling, it wasknown that the store doesn’t have enough items for women and so there were fewer women visiting the store, which was understood only by personally interacting with them and understanding why they didn’t visit the store, because there were more male products than female ones.Therefore, the qualitative research methods allow for in-depth and further probing and questioning of respondents based on their responses, where the interviewer/researcher also tries to understand their motivation and feeling.How is qualitative research conducted?1. QuestionsQuantitative research method u tilises polls and surveys to gather information on a given subject. There is a varied range of survey questions based on a nature of the research study.For Example : If you want to conduct a customer satisfaction quantitative research, the Net Promoter Survey is one of the critically acclaimed survey questions for this purpose.2. DistributionQuantitative research uses email surveys as the primary mode of gathering responses to questions. Alternatively, technology has given rise to offline distribution methods for relatively remote locations using various mobile data capture apps available online. For social sciences and psychological quantitativeresearch, social media surveys are also used to gather data.3. Statistical AnalysisQuantitative research uses a wide range of data analysis techniques such as cross tabulation, trend analysis and conjoint analysis.Qualitative research methods with examplesQualitative research methods are designed in a manner that they help reveal the behavior and perception of a target audience with reference to a particular topic. There are different types of qualitative research methods like an in-depth interview, focus groups, ethnographic research, content analysis, case study research that are usually used.The results of qualitative methods are more descriptive and the inferences can be drawn quite easily from the data that is obtained.Qualitative research methods originated in the social and behavioral sciences. Today our world is more complicated and it is difficult to understand what people think and perceive. Qualitative research methods make it easier to understand that as it is more communicative and descriptive.If you want some more examples and understand it better, you can go for assignment help online and learn the techniques and tactics by experts.Types of qualitative research methods1. One-on-One InterviewConducting in-depth interviews is one of the most common qualitative research methods. It is a personal interview that is carried out with one respondent at a time. This is purely a conversational method and invites opportunities to get details in depth from the respondent.One of the advantages of this method provides a great opportunity to gather precise data about what people believe and what their motivations are. If the researcher is well experienced asking the right questions can help him/her collect meaningful data. If they should need more information the researchers should ask suchfollow up questions that will help them collect more information.These interviews can be performed face-to-face or on phone and usually can last between half an hour to two hours or even more. When the in-depth interview is conducted face to face it gives a better opportunity to read the body language of the respondents and match the responses.2. Focus groupsFocus groups are one of the most commonly used qualitative research methods, practiced for A focus group usually includes a limited number of respondents from within your target market.The main aim of the focus group is to find answers to the why what and how questions.One advantage of focus groups is, you don’t necessarily need to interact with the group in person. Nowadays focus groups can be sent an survey online on various devices and responses can be collected at the click of a button.Focus groups are an expensive method as compared to the other qualitative research methods. Typically they are used to explain complex processes. This method is very useful when it comes to market research on new products.3. Ethnographic researchIt is the most in-depth observational method that studies people in their naturally occurring environment.This method requires the researchers to adapt to the target audiences’ environments which could be anywhere from an organization to a city or any remote location. Here geographical constraints can be an issue while collecting data.This research design aims to understand the cultures, challenges, motivations, and settings that occur. Instead of relying on interviews and discussions, you experience the natural settings first hand.This type of research method can last from a few days to a few years, as it involves in-depth observation and collecting data on those grounds. It’s a challenging and a time-consuming method and solely depends on the expertise of the researcher to be able to analyze, observe and infer the data.4. Case study researchThe case study method has evolved over the past few years and developed as into a valuable qualitative research method. As the name suggests it is used for explaining an organization or an entity.This type of research method is used within a number of areas like education, social sciences and similar. This method may look difficult to operate, however, it is one of the simplest ways of conducting research as it involves a deep dive and thorough understanding of the data collection methods and inferring the data.5. Record keepingThis method makes use of the already existing reliable documents and similar sources of information as the data source. This data can be used in a new research. This is similar to going to a library. There one can go over books and other reference material to collect relevant data that can likely be used in the research.6. Process of observationIt is a process of research that uses subjective methodologies to gather systematic information or data. Since, the focus on qualitative observation is the research process of using subjective methodologies to gather information or data. The qualitative observation is primarily used to equate quality differences.Qualitative observation deals with the 5 major sensory organs and their functioning –sight, smell, t ouch, taste, and hearing. This doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but instead characteristics.Data and analysisA. Qualitative Data CollectionQualitative data collection allows collecting data that is non-numeric and helps us to explore how decisions are made and provide us with detailed insight. For reaching such conclusions the data that is collected should be holistic, rich and nuanced and findings to emerge through careful analysis.1. Whatever method a researcher chooses for collecting qualitative data one aspect is very clear the process will generate a large amount of data. In addition to the variety of methods available, there are also different methods of collecting and recording the data.For example, if the qualitative data is collected through focus group or one-to-one discussion, there will be handwritten notes or video recorded tapes. If there are recording they should be transcribed and before the process of data analysis can begin.2. As a rough guide, it can take a seasoned researcher 8-10 hours to transcribe the recordings of an interview, which can generate roughly 20-30 pages of dialogues. Many researchers also like to maintain separatefolders to maintain the recording collected from the different focus group. This helps them compartmentalise the data collected.3. In case there are running notes taken, which are also known as field notes, they are helpful in maintaining comments, environmental contexts, nonverbal cues etc. These filed notes are helpful and can be compared while transcribing audio recorded data. Such notes are usually informal but should be secured in a similar manner as the video recordings or the audio tapes.B. Qualitative Data AnalysisQualitative data analysis such as notes, videos, audio recordings images, and text documents. One of the most used methods for qualitative data analysis is text analysis.Text analysis is a data analysis method that is distinctly different from all other qualitative research methods, where researchers analyze the social life of the participants in the research study and decode the words, actions etc.There are images also that are used in this research study and the researchers analyze the context in which the images are used and draw inferences from them. In the last decade, text analysis through what is shared on social media platform has gained supreme popularity.Characteristics of Qualitative research methods1. Qualitative research methods usually collect data at the sight, where the participants are experiencing issues or problems. These arereal-time data and rarely bring the participants out of the geographic locations to collect information.2. Qualitative researchers typically gather multiple forms of data, such as interviews, observations, and documents, rather than rely on a single data source.3. This type of research method works towards solving complex issues by breaking down into meaningful inferences, that is easily readable and understood by all.4. Since its a more communicative method, people can build their trust on the researcher and the information thus obtained is raw and unadulterated.Qualitative research methods exampleLet’s take the example of a bookstore owner who is looking for ways to improve their sales and customer outreach. An online community of members who were the loyal patrons of the bookstore were interviewed and related questions were asked and the questions were answered by them.At the end of the interview, it was realized that most of the books in the stores were suitable for adults and there were not enough options for children or teenagers.By conducting this qualitative research the bookstore owner realized what the shortcomings were and what were the feelings of the readers. Through this research now the bookstore ownercan now keep books for different age categories and can improve his sales and customer outreach.Such qualitative research method example can serve as the basis to indulge in further quantitative research which provides remedies.Difference between quantitative and qualitative research methodsQuantitative Research vs Qualitative Research Now let’s compare the two research methods : 1. Objective and flow of researchQuantitative research is used in data-oriented research where the objective of research is to derive “measurable empirical evidence” based on fixed and pre-determined questions. The flow of research, is therefore, decided before the research is conducted.Where as, qualitative research is used where the objective is research is to keep probing the respondents based on previous answers under the complete discretion of the interviewer. The flow of research is not determined and the researcher / interviewer has the liberty to frame and ask new questions.2. Respondent sample sizeRespondent s of a particular panel is much larger for quantitative research such that enoughverifiable information is gather to reach a conclusion without opinion bias. In large scale quantitative research, sample size can be in thousands.Where as, qualitative research inherently uses less sample size because a large sample size makes it difficult of the research to probe respondents. For instance, a typical political focus group study evaluating election candidates involves no more than 5-10 panelists.3. Information gatheringQuantitative research uses information gathering methods that can be quantified and processed for statistical analysis techniques. Simply put –quantitative research is heavily dependent on “numbers”, data and stats.Where as, qualitative research uses conversational methods to gather relevant information on a given subject.4. Post-research response analysis and conclusionsQuantitative research uses a variety of statistical analysis methods to derive quantifiable research conclusions. These are based on mathematical processes applied on the gather data.Where as, qualitative researc h depends on the interviewer to derive research conclusions based on qualitative conversations held with the respondents. This conclusion is effectively subjective in nature. This is why quantitative research recordings are often reviewed bysenior researchers before the final research conclusion is drawn.Let’s know a little more:It’s well-established that all forms of research come with their own theories and implementation methods, qualitative research is much the same. Qualitative research is conducted to understand the thought process of both, the respondents as well as researchers. It usually is conducted in a natural setup where respondents will be their true selves and would respond transparently. Results achieved from this research will not be generalized to be the representation of the entire population but asked questions and their vocabulary gives away the motive of research which makes it easier forrespondents to participate in qualitative market research.Qualitative research methods survey questions are created to have a better understanding of a particular topic or to inspect a new subject to understand the nerve of respondent experiences.<h2 >What should be the process of forming Qualitative research questions and questionnaires?1. Mention the purpose of conducting qualitative research. It can be in form of either of these sentencesThis study will be on the topic of ….Reason for conducting this research is ….2. Create qualitative statements with a defined objective that can be easily communicated to the targeted audienceKeep these pointers in mind while designing this statement:Try and form single sentence statements. Single statements can be much more effective than elaborate ones as they help in communicating important messages in an impactful manner in a short and succinct sentence.Clarify the purpose of conducting qualitative research in clear words so that respondents understand their contribution towards this research.Mention the main topic of research that would prompt respondents to have a clearer idea about what they’re getting into.It’s the words that make all the difference. Use qualitative words that demonstrate quality or feeling behind your purpose, such as understanding, describe, explore.Specify details that you would want to communicate to your respondents.Mention the name of the research website.3. Other than the primary qualitative question, you must create sub-questions so that the purpose is executed in a better mannerThe main question might be –“What is the state of illiteracy in your state?”You can create sub-questions s uch as: “How does illiteracy hamper progress in your state?” or “How would you best describe your feelings about illiteracy?”4. Highlight these questions using ‘qualitative’ wordsStart the questions with “What” or “How” to make sure the respondents provide details about their feelings.Communicate on what you’re trying to “understand”, “explore” or “identify” using this Qualitative research online survey questionnaire.Questions such as “what happened” can be asked to develop a description of the topic.Questions about “how did respondents interpret the what happened question” can be asked to examine the outcome.Understand the entire qualitative research process by asking questions about “what happened to you with time?”Why qualitative research methods are useful?Develop hypotheses for further testing and for quantitative questionnaire development,Understand the feelings, values, and perceptions that underlie and influence behaviorIdentify customer needsCapture the language and imagery customers use to describe and relate to a product, service, brand, etc.Perceptions of marketing/communication messagesInformation obtained in quantitative study and to better understand the context/meaning of the dataGenerate ideas for improvements and/or extensions of a product, line, or brandUncover potential strategic directions for branding or communications programsUnderstand how people perceive a marketing message or communication pieceDevelop parameters (i.e., relevant questions, range of responses) for a quantitative studyWhen you should use qualitative research methods?New product idea generation and developmentInvestigating current or potential product/service/brand positioning and marketing strategyStrengths and weaknesses of products/brandsUnderstanding dynamics of purchase decision dynamicsStudying reactions to advertising and public relations campaigns, other marketing communications, graphic identity/branding, package design, etc.Exploring market segments, such as demographic and customer groupsStudying emotions and attitudes on societal and public affairs issuesAssessing the usability of websites or other interactive products or servicesUnderstanding perceptions of a company, brand, category and productDetermining consumer language as a preliminary step to develop a quantitative surveyWhen you should not use qualitative research methods?Count, measure or offer statistical validationDetermine the best product concept or price point; or establish the importance of specific customer needs or satisfaction criteriaBe a substitute for quantitative research because of time and/or budgetary constraints when quantitative evaluation is criticalConclusionIn this blog we dealt with mutiple aspects of a qualitative research methods. Starting from the Qualtitative research definition we moved to know How is Quantitative research conducted.In order to understand it better we discussed qualitative research methods with examples. Thereafter, came the six types of qualitative research methods, which are as follows: one -on-one interview, Focus groups, Ethnographic research, Case study research, record keeping and process of observation.After these basics we read a little about data collection and analysis. The next was the process of forming Qualitative research questions and questionnaires.。
论量的研究方法(quantitative_research)与质的研究方法(qualitative_research)的不同
论量的研究方法与质的研究方法的不同[摘要]质的研究和量的研究都是社会学方法，两者因在理论渊源、研究方法、手段及方法论方面有很大差异，在西方方法论学者之间引起了一场比较大的争论。
本文从几个方面来分析质的研究和量的研究的区别与联系，指出只有通过两者的灵活结合，才能达到最佳效果。
[关键词]质的研究量的研究方法论定量研究与定性研究在西方方法论研究者之间发生了一场“大战”，其原因主要是在理解方面存在着很大分歧。
如果对一些研究兴趣不在方法论的人来说，当他们接触有关方法论的文章时，只从字面理解，“quantitative”是“定量的”，“qualitative”是“定性的”，很容易按照习惯性的思维去理解。
但在西方方法论学家笔下定量研究与定性研究有其特殊的含义。
我们要分析两者之间的关系必须弄清它们的发生、发展及其特征。
(一) 理论基础不同。
定量研究的理论基础是西方哲学史上发展了一百多年的实证主义哲学。
而定性研究的理论基础则包括建构主义、后实证主义、解释学、现象学等各种理论流派,虽然这些理论流派之间的观点有着不同之处,但与实证主义有着本质的区别。
这主要体现在以下三个方面: 第一,对本体论两者有着不同的前提假设。
实证主义认为,现实事物是不以人们的意志为转移的,是客观存在的,不受主观价值因素的影响。
主体和客体是两个截然分开的实体,主体可以通过对一套工具的操作而获得对客体的认识。
在对客体的认识上,必须建立在经验的基础之上,社会现象可以被经验地感知,一切概念必须还原为直接的经验内容,理论的真理性必须由经验来验证。
而以现象学为代表的哲学流派则认为,社会现实的本质并不是客观存在的,而是因不同的人在不同的时空赋予各不相同的意义。
主体对客体的认识实际上是主体在和客体的互动关系中对客体的重新建构,主体和客体两者是一个互为主体的关系。
第二,在认识论上,实证主义极力推崇经验的作用,认为主体对客体的认识必须建立在经验的基础上,一切概念必须还原为直接的经验内容,理论的真理性必须由经验来验证,认为“知识”有其客观的规律,具有可重复性。
qualitative research 研究方法
MethodologyThis study is set in the qualitative research paradigm as defined by Strauss and Corbin (1990) to refer to research about “persons’ lives, stories, behaviour…organizational functioning, social movements or interactional relationships” (p.17). The methods used in this study were influenced by the constructs of grounded theory where the purpose is to “reveal participants’ views, feelings, intentions, and actions as well as the contexts and structures of their lives” (Charmaz, 2006, p.26) in order to form ideas from the data. That is, my goal was to understand the writing challenges for students from the perspectives of both students and instructors and in doing so, I needed to consider the social, individual and educational factors that contribute d to the participants’ opinions.I chose interviews as my main data gathering instrument, as according to Creswell (1997), these “play a central role in the data collection in a grounded theory study” (p.122) and I relied on emergent design, integral to a grounded theory study (Charmaz, 2006), where “one begins with an area of study and what is relevant to that area is allowed to emerge” (Strauss & Corbin, 1990, p.23), to design a set of questions that served as a guide for conducting semi-structured interviews with the participants (see Appendix 1 and 2). The interview questions followed the participants’ train of thought and at times, wandered from the pre-scripted questions I had prepared.ParticipantsAll participants in this qualitative study were situated at a medium sized Canadian University within the Faculty of Arts & Social Sciences. They included five second year individual students, a group of nine first year students and five professors. My sampling of participants was strategic, as is suggested by Geisler (2004) to be a more defensible means(rather than merely convenient sampling) with which to “guide (my) choice of cases within a site” (p.18). I first used criterion-based sampling that “specif(ied) a certain relevant criteria” (Geisler, 2004, p.18), in choosing the study participants. Thus, the student participants were drawn from first and second year, which enabled me to acquire perceptions from first year students on their current experiences and comparative reflections from second year students on their experiences with academic writing in the first and second year. The professors are instructors of both first year seminars and regular first year courses, which are described below. This duality provided an opportunity to gather data on their perceptions of students’ writing needs from each of these classroom environments.After choosing the samples based on these criteria, I then used a stratified sampling strategy to “take advantage of knowing something about the existing variations in a site” (Geisler, p.18) and chose both student and instructor participants from a variety of disciplines. This choice allowed me to compare the perceptions of professors and students on a disciplinary basis. Further stratifying amongst the second year students based on varying first year experiences allowed for examination of a variety of pedagogical environments that could affect first year students’ writing ability. These experiences included enrollment in one of the following:(1) First Year Experience, which is an innovative attempt to facilitate the transition for first year students to university by providing smaller classes (maximum 100 students) that are enmeshed ina cluster of four pre-determined courses and then a fifth course of the student’s choice(2) First year seminar, either within or outside of the FYE, which provides an even smaller environment of approximately 25 students where the instructor is expected to provide greater focus on writing development.(3) Mandatory writing course, which is established as one semester of an English literature course.(4) Academic Support Program, which provides the opportunity for university study to students whose high school grades were below the acceptable standard.(5) Regular first year course, which does not have any particular focus on writing and in this study, may have up to 100 students enrolled.The study participants and programs of study are identified by a pseudonym in this thesis for the purposes of maintaining confidentiality. The participants are described as follows: Student Participants. “I mean even if I get a good mark I think that anytime you get a mark less than perfect there has to be a comment or else why didn’t you get perfect?” (March 25, 2009). Alana is 19 years old and English is her first language. Her major is Human Rights and her minor is Mass Communications. Alana is more interested in Mass Communications than Human Rights and plans to switch her major accordingly for next year. Alana was an above average student in high school where she was on the honour roll for two years. Her grades were lower in math and the sciences than in the arts or social science courses as she claimed “they (those subjects) just came easier to me.” Both of her parents have university degre es and they encouraged her to go to university. Alana described herself as an active reader who enjoys reading popular fiction in her spare time. In addition to reading, Alana is a competitive dancer, works as a server in a restaurant and is a volunteer with a local youth organization. Alana was selected for this study as she had participated in a mandated first year writing course at the university she previously attended.“I think it’s (writing) one of the cornerstones of education in university” (February 25, 2009). Ryan is 20 years old and English is his second language, which he began learning at theage of 7. His major is History and his minor is Applied Language Studies. He described himself as a motivated student who is interested in learning about the discipline of history. Ryan described his high school academic experience as “pretty good” and he did not perceive any major problems adapting from high school to university. Both of his parents have university degrees and they expected him to go to university. Ryan enjoys reading, particularly fiction, listening to music, boxing, working out at the gym, camping, cycling, reading the news and surfing the Internet. Ryan was chosen for this study as he participated in a first year seminar outside of the First Year Experience program.“I expect the professors to give a very clear definition of what their expectations are so that I’m not going off in a direction that won’t be beneficial towards the end product” (February 26, 2009). Danielle is 39 years old and both English and French are her first languages. Her major is Political Science and her minor is Religion. She is a highly motivated student and anticipated that a background in political science would give her a better knowledge base from which to understand the historical component of present day political issues and the Religion courses would help her to understand the perspectives of other people’s cultures. Danielle was an average achieving student in high school and did not find it very challenging. Her mother did not finish high school and her father completed one year of college. Her parents are impressed and supportive of Danielle’s decision to return to school. Danielle enjoys reading, particularly books of a philosophical nature. When she’s not a full time student during the academic year, Danielle is an officer in the Canadian Forces, specifically in the field of logistics for the army where she engages in military training during the summer months. Danielle was selected for this study as she participated in a first year seminar within the First Year Experience program.“She kinda directed us through it and showed…like…this is one of the perfect papers, we didn’t really go over it in detail but she definitely gave us access” (February 27, 2009). Paul is 22 years old and English is his first language. He took two years off between high school and university and now feels highly motivated to be in school. His major is philosophy, which he believes he is well suited for as he claims this discipline allows him the freedom to argue his opinions rather than regurgitating facts. Paul enjoys school and is intending to do graduate work in this discipline. Paul was not a high achieving student in high school due to lack of motivation and is grateful that his teachers encouraged him to go to university. His parents were also encouraging, as his father, who has a university degree and his mother, who is in the midst of attaining one, both value higher education. Paul enjoys reading for interest but is consumed with academic reading during the school year. He also plays guitar and video games, enjoys on-line chatting and hanging out with friends. Paul was selected for this study as he was enrolled in the First Year Experience program in first year but did not take a first year seminar.“First year was harder, obviously, and I didn’t have that much to go on…because in high school you don’t do anything, you really don’t” (March 14, 2009). Sarah is 19 years old and her first language is English although she was living in an Arabic speaking environment for the first two years of her life. Her major is Sociology, which she does not seem to have much interest in. She feels there is too much of a focus on writing assignments, which she finds cumbersome and research methods, which she finds boring. She intends to stay with Sociology as she does not know what else to do. Sarah was not motivated in high school and her performance reflected that. Her parents, who both have university degrees, were very supportive of Sarah going to university. Sarah enjoys reading, drawing, painting, playing guitar, editing online music videos and hangingout with friends. She was selected for this study as she participated in the Academic Support Program for first year.In addition to the identified second year students, there was a focus group of nine First Year Experience students in a first year seminar (in English) who participated in an open discussion within the context of their classroom. Initially, I was to observe this class during regular class instruction but their professor had suggested that I conduct an open discussion with the students about their writing needs. She had offered this opportunity as the students had completed their writing assignments for the year and therefore, she did not anticipate much relevant discussion in her class regarding writing instruction.Faculty Participants. The professors range in teaching experience from five to twenty-five years and in the disciplines of English, Philosophy, Language Studies, Psychology and History. They all currently teach first year students both within first year seminars and outside. In addition, four of the five participants have also taught these seminars within the First Year Experience program.DataThe university ethics committee approved this study and I prepared and had completed consent forms for the participants. The data gathering instruments used in this study included: (1) interviews, (2) class discussion, and (3) samples of students’ academ ic writing. Pre-designed questions guided the interviews and class discussion, yet the semi-structure nature of the interviews allowed for divergences as necessary (see interview questions in Appendix 1 and 2).The writing samples that were used included two graded papers from each second year student; one they had written in first year and one in second year, which facilitated our discussion on their writing styles, changes to their writing that may have occurred between firstand second year and written instructor feedback that may have hindered or helped their writing. An additional aim for the collection of student texts was for the purposes of data triangulation, which Tashakkori & Teddlie (1998) refer to as a technique of data collection to study the same phenomenon within the same study (p.18). Furthermore, Lincoln and Guba (1985) insist on triangulation as a requirement to shed some validity on study revelations: “As the study unfolds and particular pieces of information come to light, steps should be taken to validate each against at least one other source (for example, a second interview) and/or a second method (for example, an observation in addition to an interview). No single item of information . . . should ever be given serious consideration unless it can be triangulated” (p. 283). Thus, in this study, I reviewed students’ texts as a means to discover if what the students’ were identifying as writing problems and reasons for such problems, were supported by the texts they produced. ProcedureThe interviews of all of the study participants occurred over a two-month period. I met with each of the individual student participants, on two occasions, each approximately 30 minutes in length. All of the students appeared to be at ease during the interviews and seemingly excited for the opportunity to express their thoughts on this topic. The interviews took place in a private office on the university campus and were audio recorded and later transcribed into MS Word documents, which served as the basis for analytical coding. I also made observational notes that were added to the participants’ documents.The interview questions for the individual student participants were comprised of three parts and were divided over two interviews. The initial interview concentrated on the first and second parts that covered questions on personal history such as language and family background, academic motivation and performance, and extracurricular interests, as well as perceptions onstudents’ academic writi ng needs and the support they have received to meet these needs. The second interview centred on the third part of the questions, which focused on the differences in the students’ writing as per their two provided assignments and corresponding feedback.Prior to the second interview, I read the student’s texts; highlighted the editorial marks, corrections and comments that were made on the papers; and noted differences on style, structure and form between the texts. The second interview had two purposes and was conducted using a discourse based interview approach (Odell, Goswami & Herrington, 1983), “to help uncover writers’ tacit knowledge of, and motivation for, texts” (Prior, 2004, p.196). The first purpose was to see how the students interpreted and were affected by the comments made on their papers and the second, was to gain insight on how the students knew how to write within a particular genre. For example, Sarah had to write a comparative analysis of theoretical approaches to understanding a sociological phenomenon.I met with the focus group of nine first year seminar students on one occasion for approximately 30 minutes. During this time, the professor had purposely exited the classroom to encourage her students to express their thoughts freely. I had arranged the seats in a semi-circle, placing myself at the top-middle position in an attempt to create a more intimate and comfortable environment for the students. The discussion was guided by the following four questions I had prepared: (1) What is the role of writing in the university and the world at large? (2) What are your attitudes about school writing? (3) What are your greatest obstacles to you becoming better writers? (4) What are some sources of help you have received or could receive to improve your writing? In keeping with the emergent design of the study methods, further questions and topics for consideration emerged throughout the discussion.The discussion was audio recorded after having asked the students for their permission to do so. During the discussion, I initiated the questions and asked for the students’ opinions. Five out of the nine students verbally participated in the discussion. I avoided asking specific students their opinions not only because I didn’t know their names but also I intended this discussion to be a comfortable means for the students to express themselves and was not interested in putting anyone on the spot. Before leaving, I invited the students to contact me by email if anyone had some afterthoughts that they’d like to share. For the record, I have not received any further commentary.I met with each of the five professors in their offices on the university campus. We met on one occasion for approximately 40 minutes where the interviews were audio recorded. The interviews focused on the professors’ opinions on the writing needs of first year students and what supports should be in place on campus to meet these needs. All of the participants were seemingly open, comfortable and eager to partake in the interviews.Following the transcription of each interview for both the individual students and the professors, I forwarded the participants a copy of their transcribed session to ensure member checks, which is, according to Lincoln and Guba (1985) “to be the most critical technique for establishing credibility” (as cited in Cresswell, 1998, p.203). The participants reported an overall satisfaction with the text and only requested minor changes to ensure their personal confidentiality.AnalysisStudents’ perceptions of their writing needs are the main focus for this study, therefore I began the analysis with the data that emanated from these participants and then afterwards, compared it to the data from the professors. Geisler (2004) informs us that, “although manystrains of qualitative analysis exist, most involve coding segments of verbal data as a way of locating phenomenon of interest” (p.xix). Therefore to analyze my data for this study, I used the coding premise of Grounded Theory which Strauss & Corbin (1990) define as a theory that is “inductively derived from the study of the phenomenon it represents” (p. 23) with a purpose “to build theory that is faithful to and illuminates the area under study” (p.24). Furthermore, Charmaz asserts that Grounded Theory coding is an essential tool for data analysis, referring to it as “the pivotal link between collecting data and developing an emergent theory to explain these data” (Charmaz, 2006, p.46).Strauss and Corbin (1990) inform us that, “coding represents the operations by which data are broken down, conceptualized, and put back together in new ways” (p.57). For data analysis in this study, I used their method of open coding, which they defined as “the part of analysis that pertains specifically to the naming and categorizing of phenomena through close examination of data” (p.62). At the first stage of the coding process, I followed Strauss and Corbin’s recommendation of making concepts my basic unit of analysis, which entailed labeling phenomena as follows:Taking apart an observation, a sentence, a paragraph and giving each discrete incident, idea or event, a name, something that stands for or represents a phenomenon. Just how do we do this? We ask questions about each one, like: What is this? What does it represent? We compare incident with incident as we go along so that similar phenomena can be given the same name. (p. 63)(See the excerpt from an interview with a student in Figure 1 below as an illustration of this coding).Figure 1: Labeling Data with Descriptive CodesAfter conceptualizing the data, I engaged in Strauss and Corbin’s second suggested stage in the open coding process, discovering categories. Strauss and Corbin describe the categorization stage in the following way: “Once we have identified particular phenomena in the data, we can begin to group our concepts around them. This is done to reduce the number of units with which we have to work. The process of grouping concepts that seem to pertain to the same phenomena is called categorizing” (p. 65). These scholars then suggest that the categories be given conceptual names that are more abstract than the concepts that are grouped under them. For example, in Figure 1, I grouped the identified concepts into a category called clear expectations (See Figure 2 below as a presentation of further conceptual categories identified from the interviews with students).Figure 2: Categorizing ConceptsAfter categorizing the concepts, I began a third stage of coding, which is based on Strauss & Corbin’s (1990) premise of axial coding as “a set of procedures whereby data are put back together in new ways after open coding, by making connections between categories” (p.96) but differs in intent. Strauss and Corbin’s focus is on specifying a sub-category “in terms of the conditions that give rise to it; the context in which it is embedded; the action/interactional strategies by which it is handled…and the consequences of those strategies” (p.97) whereas I have chosen to simply reassemble the identified categories to form overarching themes. I based this strategy on Charmaz’s (2006) suggestion that “those who prefer simple, flexible guidelines-and can tolerate ambiguity-do not need to do axial coding. They can follow the leads that they define in their empirical materials” (p.61). (See Figu re 3 below for an illustration of the overarching themes that resulted from combining the categorized concepts in figure 2).Figure 3: Overarching ThemesIn addition to analyzing the data from the interviews of the participants, I analyzed two samples of written work from each of the second year students using the existing DELNA (Diagnostic English Language Needs Assessment) rating scale as a guide which according to Knoch (2009) includes nine traits (organization, cohesion, style, data description, interpretation, development of ideas, sentence structure, grammatical accuracy, vocabulary and spelling) each consisting of six band levels ranging from four to nine (p.279). (See Appendix 3 for a replication of the DELNA rating scale and Appendix 4 for my analysis of the students’ texts using this scale).。
qualitative research methods
AEF 801 Research Methods and n@ 18/2/2005
Session Aim and Objectives
• Aim To introduce students to the analysis of qualitative data • Objectives By the end students will have an appreciation of: The principles of analysing qualitative data The Qualitative Analytical Process Qualitative Data Management Tools How to present qualitative results Part1: Theory Part 2: Qualitative Analysis: A worked example
The Creativity of Qualitative Inquiry
• ‘..the human element of qualitative inquiry is both is strength and weakness - its strength is fully using human insight and experience, its weakness is being so heavily dependent on the researcher’s skill, training, intellect, discipline, and creativity. The researcher is the instrument of qualitative inquiry, so the quality of the research depends heavily on the qualities of that human being’ (Patton, 1988)
qualititative research method -回复
qualititative research method -回复什么是质性研究方法（Qualitative Research Methods）？质性研究方法是一种广泛应用于社会科学领域的研究方法，通过收集和分析非数值化的数据，旨在深入理解和揭示研究对象的本质、意义和背后的社会现象。
质性研究方法的目标是通过对个案的详细描述和解释，获得有关主题的丰富和深入的理解，而非仅依赖于量化数据的分析。
质性研究方法适用于那些无法用统计方法准确刻画的观点、信念、态度和行为等主观体验。
如何选择质性研究方法？选择质性研究方法时，研究人员应考虑以下几个关键因素：1. 研究问题的本质：质性研究方法适用于那些需要理解现象背后原因和意义的问题。
如果研究目的是说明某一现象的特征，或者直接回答可量化的问题，则量化研究方法可能更合适。
2. 可行性和可接近性：质性研究方法通常需要研究人员与研究对象建立深入的互动和交流。
因此，若研究对象数量庞大或难以接触，量化研究方法可能更具可行性。
3. 研究者的角色：质性研究方法要求研究人员充当调查员和解释员，并积极参与研究对象的日常生活。
因此，适合具备较高社交技巧和沟通能力的研究人员。
常见的质性研究方法有哪些？质性研究方法包含了多种方法论和技术，以下是其中几种常见的方法：1. 深度访谈（In-depth Interviews）：通过与受访者进行面对面或电话交谈，深入了解其观点、态度和经验的方法。
2. 文本分析（Textual Analysis）：通过对个案、文件、书籍、报纸、广告或其他文字材料进行系统的内容分析，以了解其隐含信息和意义。
3. 历史研究（Historical Research）：通过对历史事件、人物、社群或文化进行综合分析，获取历史背景和演变过程中的含义。
4. 人类学观察（Anthropological Observation）：通过直接观察和参与社会群体的日常生活、行为和文化，获取对社会现象的深入洞察。
如何做定性研究 Qualitative research
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Maxwell, 2005
Phases in Qualitative Research
Conceptualize and plan study Use literature,formulate study purpose or question, identify study site,settings where/how data collection will occur, participants and entrée to setting
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What to Observe or Study
• Behaviors or practices • Episodes, common events (death, birth, etc.) • Encounters –when groups or people interact • Roles • Relationship roles – mother/daughter;
• We use “… methods that try to describe and interpret people’s feelings and experiences in human terms rather than through quantification and measurement” (Terre Blanche & Kelly, 1999: 123).
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Management Schools of Thought:
Ontological
Epistemology:
Status of Human
Behaviour/action:
Ontological Status of Social Reality:
Methodological Commitments:
To illustrate the dangers of using particular evaluation criteria, constituted by particular philosophical conventions, to assess all management research;
values, attitudes, and knowledge base of those we study as expressed in their natural habitat?” (Cicourel, 1982: 15)
Raises questions around:
the extent to which the social setting in which data has been collected is typical of informants’ normal “everyday” lives?
Historical dominance of quantitative methodology in anglophone countries;
Nevertheless qualitative management research has a long established pedigree;
Meaningful
3. Critical Theory
Meaningful
4. Post modernism
Discursive
Objectivist Subjectivist Subjectivist
Realist Realist Subjectivist
Qualitative methods to enable verstehen
Constituting evaluation criteria in management research (1). Positivism
Popper’s modified positivist methodology emphasizes objectivity and unbiased data collection in order to test hypotheses against an accessible independent social reality in order to protect against “fanciful theorizing in management research” (Donaldson, 1996: 164).
Evaluating Qualitative Management Research: a Contingent Criteriology.
Workshop Number 7 ESRC Workshops for Qualitative Research in Management
Identification of training need
Objectives
By the end of the session you should be able to:
Outline the problems associated with criteriology with regard to competing processes of research evaluation;
Qualitative research management research characterized by:
substantive diversity; competing philosophical assumptions.
Confusion arises when evaluation criteria constituted by particular philosophical conventions are universally applied to this heterogeneous field;
Inappropriate assessment criteria is frequently applied to qualitative research.
Concerns exist about how to assess qualitative research
Aims
To illustrate how competing philosophical perspectives underpin different ways of evaluating management research and different research agendas;
Hence 4 key evaluation criteria:
Internal validity - whether what are interpreted as the “causes” produce the “effects” in a given piece of research - necessitates creating, or simulating, conditions of closure which allow empirical testing;
Task: Evaluate the different research methods in terms of their relative strengths in regard to the 4 criteria below:
Criteria:
Methods: e.g Laboratory Experiment e.g. Surveys
Key research questions:
1. Positivism Determined
Objectivist
Realist
Quantitative methods to enable erklaren
What are the causes of variable x?
2. Neoempiricism
To develop a contingent criteriology where appropriate evaluation criteria might be used which vary according to the philosophical assumptions informing the research.
Testing hypotheses requires the operationalization of abstract concepts causally related by the theory into indicators that measure what they are supposed to measure - construct validity.
are research findings artefacts of the social scientist’s methods of data collection and analytical tools?
(2) Neo-Empiricism
Through verstehen, and the collection of qualitative data, aims to inductively develop thick descriptions of the patterns actors use to make sense of their worlds - sometimes to also generate grounded theory.
How do people subjectively experience the world?
Qualitative methods to enable a structural phenomenology
Qualitative methods to enable deconstruction
How do people subjectively experience the world and how can they free themselves from domination? How and why are particular discourses being voiced while others aren抰?
Need to preserve distance between the researcher and the researched reliability of findings through replication - this refers to the consistency of research findings and refers to the extent to which it is possible for another researcher to (i) replicate the research design with equivalent populations; (ii) find the same results.
A key concern is external population validity - generalizing findings to a defined population beyond those respondents participating in the research.