曼昆微观经济学chapter13讲义资料
曼昆第13章
实际工资，W/P
(a)劳动需求
4、和产出
收入，产出，Y
(b)生产函数
W/P1
W/P2 L1
2、使一个既定 名义工资时的实 际工资下降
3、这增加了就业
Y2 Y1 L1 物价水平，P L2
Y=F(L)
L=Ld(W/P) L2 劳动，L
劳动，L
Y=Y0+(P-Pe)
1、物价水平上升
P2 P1
得到 P=Pe+(1/)(Y-Y0) 然后用三个步骤：
第一，在方程式右边加上一项供给冲击v
，代表改变物价水平并使短期总供给曲 线移动的外生事件。 P=Pe+(1/)(Y-Y0)+v
第二，为了从物价水平转变到通货膨胀
率，两边减去上一年的物价水平P-1 (P-P-1)=(Pe-P-1)+(1/)(Y-Y0)+v =e +(1/)(Y-Y0)+v
在第9章，我们通过把短期总供给曲线画为一 条水平线而采用了一个关于价格黏性的简化观 点，表示了所有价格都固定的极端情况。 现在我们的任务是加强对短期总供给的这种理 解。 经济学家对什么引起短期与长期总供给曲线的 不同有一些共同的命题，而且都得出了短期总 供给曲线向右上方倾斜这个共同的结论。
1、菲利普斯曲线的现代形式说明了通货
膨胀率取决于三种力量： 预期的通货膨胀；失业与自然率的背离 ，被称为周期性失业；供给冲击。 这三种力量可以用下式表述： =e-(u-un)+v 通货膨胀＝预期的通货膨胀－（ ×周 期性失业）＋供给冲击
2、可以用总供给方程式推导出来： 由Y=Y0+(P-Pe)
§13.1 三种总供给模型
微观经济13PPT课件
© 2010 Pearson Education Canada
Monopoly and How It Arises
How Monopoly Arises A monopoly has two key features: No close substitutes Barriers to entry No Close Substitute If a good has a close substitute, even if it is produced by only one firm, that firm effectively faces competition from the producers of the substitute. A monopoly sells a good that has no close substitutes.
© 2010 Pearson Education Canada
Monopoly and How It Arises
In a natural monopoly, economies of scale are so powerful that they are still being achieved even when the entire market demand is met.
The LRAC curve is still sloping downward when it meets the demand cu
Monopoly and How It Arises
Ownership Barriers to Entry An ownership barrier to entry occurs if one firm owns a significant portion of a key resource. During the last century, De Beers owner 90 percent of the world’s diamonds.
《曼昆—微观经济学》重点总结材料(含重点图表)
《曼昆—微观经济学》重点总结第1篇导言经济学家研究：人们如何作出决策；人们如何相互交易；影响整体经济的力量和趋势。
效率是指经济蛋糕的大小，而平等如此是指如何分割这块蛋糕。
理性人通常通过比拟边际利益与边际本钱来做出决策。
当且仅当一种行为的边际利益＞边际本钱时，一个理性决策者才会采取这种行动。
在经济学中，激励起着中心作用。
价格是“看不见的手〞用来指引经济活动的工具。
产权包括所有权，使用权，处置权，收益权。
市场失灵的原因：垄断；信息不对称；外部性；市场势力。
生产率取决于设备，劳动者的技能以与可用的技术。
·经济学十大原理人们如何做出决策1、人们面临权衡取舍2、某种东西的本钱是为了得到它所放弃的东西3、理性人考虑边际量4、人们会对激励做出反响人们如何相互交易5、贸易可以使每个人的状况都变得更好6、市场通常是组织经济活动的一种好方法7、政府有时可以改善市场结果整体经济如何运行8、一国的生活水平取决于它生产物品与劳务的能力9、当政府发行了过多货币时，物价上升10、社会面临通货膨胀与失业之间的短期权衡取舍第2章像经济学家一样思考·循环流向图：一个说明货币如何通过市场在家庭与企业之间流动的直观经济模型。
P26生产可能性边界：表示在可得到的生产要素与生产技术既定时，一个经济所能生产的产品数量的各种组合的图形。
P28生产可能性边界明确在某一特定时期内生产不同物品之间的权衡取舍，但随着时间的推移，这种权衡取舍可以改变。
·大多数经济学家一致同意的十个主X第3章相互依存性与贸易的好处当每个人专门生产自己有比拟优势的物品时，经济的总产量就增加了。
贸易可以使社会上每个人都获益，因为它使人们可以专门从事他们具有比拟优势的活动。
第2篇市场如何运行第4章供给与需求的市场力量完全竞争市场必须具备两个特征：1.可供销售的物品时完全一样的；2.买者和卖者人数众多，以至于没有任何一个买者或卖者可以影响市场价格。
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)【核心讲义】(第13章 生产成本)
第13章生产成本跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。
以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。
一、成本1．总收益、总成本和利润总收益（total revenue）：企业从销售其产品中得到的货币量。
总成本（total cost）：企业用于生产的投入品的市场价值。
利润（profit）：企业的总收益减去其总成本。
经济学家通常假设，企业的目标是利润最大化，而且这个假设在大多数情况下都能很好地发挥作用。
2．作为机会成本的成本一种东西的机会成本是指为了得到某种东西所必须放弃的所有东西。
当经济学家提到某个企业的生产成本的时候，它们包括该企业生产其物品与劳务的所有机会成本。
显性成本（explicit costs）：需要企业支出货币的投入成本。
隐性成本（implicit costs）：不需要企业支出货币的投入成本。
经营的总成本是显性成本和隐性成本之和。
经济学家关注于研究企业如何做出生产和定价决策。
由于这些决策既考虑了显性成本又考虑了隐性成本，因此，经济学家在衡量企业的成本时就包括了这两种成本。
与此相反，会计师的工作是记录流入企业和流出企业的货币。
因此，他们衡量显性成本，但往往忽略隐性成本。
3．作为一种机会成本的资本成本几乎每一个企业都有一项重要的隐性成本，那就是已经投资于企业的金融资本的机会成本。
经济学家和会计师以不同的方式来看待和处理成本。
4．经济利润与会计利润由于经济学家和会计师用不同的方法衡量成本，他们也用不同的方法衡量利润。
经济学家衡量企业的经济利润（economic profit），即企业的总收益减去生产所销售物品与劳务的总机会成本（显性的与隐性的）。
微观经济学第( 曼昆)13、14章
$0
$2,000 $4,000 $6,000 $8,000
5
3000
$1,000 $10,000
$11,000
18
THE COSTS OF PRODUCTION
例 1: 农民 Jack 的总成本曲线
Q (蒲式 耳小麦)
$12,000
总成本 $1,000
$3,000 $5,000 $7,000 $9,000
17
例 1: 农民Jack的成本
L Q 土地的成 劳动的成 (工人的 (蒲式耳小 本 本 数量) 麦)
总成本 $1,000
$3,000 $5,000 $7,000 $9,000
0
1 2 3 4
0
1000 1800 2400 2800
$1,000
$1,000 $1,000 $1,000 $1,000
例 2: 平均总成本
Q TC ATC
n/a $170 110
AFC
n/a $100 50
AVC
n/a $70 60 53.33 52.50 56.00 63.33
0 $100 1 2 3 4 5 6 170 220
平均总成本(ATC) ： 等于总成本除以产量 ATC = TC/Q
260 86.67 33.33 310 77.50 380 480 76 25 20
13
经济学原理
N.格里高利.曼昆 著
生产成本
主动学习
1
关于成本的头脑风暴
你在开通用汽车 • 列出你的三种不同的成本 • 列出影响你成本的三种不同的商业决策
2
本章我们将探索这些问题的答案：
• 什么是生产函数？什么是边际产量？它们之间有什 么关系？ • 可变成本有哪些？可变成本之间有什么样的联系以 及它们与产出又有什么关系？ • 短期成本与长期成本之间有什么不同？ • 什么是规模经济？
曼昆微观经济学第13章习题答案
第13章生产和成本(一)单项选择题1.总产量曲线的斜率是（ C ）A.总产量B.平均产量C.边际产量D.以上都不是2.当TP下降时，（D ）A.AP L递增B.AP L为零C.MP L为零D.MP L为负3.当AP L为正且递减时，MP L是（ A ）A.递减B.负的C.零D.以上任何一种4.生产过程中某一可变要素的收益递减，这意味着（ B）A.可变要素投入量的增长和产量的增长等幅变化B.产量的增长幅度小于可变要素投入量的增长幅度C. 可变要素投入量的增长幅度小于产量的增长幅度D产量的增长幅度大于可变要素投入量的增长幅度5.某厂商每年从企业的总收入中取出一部分作为自己所提供的生产要素的报酬，这部分资金被视为（B ）。
A.显性成本B.隐性成本C.经济利润 D生产成本6.对应于边际报酬的递增阶段，STC曲线（C ）。
A.以递增的速率上升B. 以递增的速率下降C. 以递减的速率上升 D以递减的速率下降7.短期平均成本曲线成为U形的原因与（C ）有关A.规模报酬B.外部经济与不经济C.要素的边际报酬 D固定成本与可变成本所占比例8.在从原点出发的射线与TC 曲线的相切的产量上，必有（ D）。
A.AC值最小B.AC=MCC.MC曲线处于上升段D.A、B、C、9.如果生产10单位产品的总成本是100美元，第11单位产品的边际成本是21美元，那么（ C）。
A.第11单位产品TVC是21美元B.第10单位产品的边际成本是大于21美元C.11个产品的平均成本是11美元D第12单位产品的平均成本是21美元10.当边际成本小于平均成本时，产量的进一步增加将导致（ B）。
A.平均成本上升B.平均可变成本可能上升也可能下降C.总成本下降D平均可变成本一定是处于减少的状态11.长期平均成本曲线呈U型原因是（A ）。
A.规模报酬的变化所致B.外部经济与不经济所致C.生产要素的边际生产率所致 D固定成本与可变成本所占比重所致12.如果一个厂商的生产是处于规模报酬不变的阶段，则其LAC曲线一定是处于（ C）。
微观经济学-第十三章(曼昆)精选全文
© 2007 Thomson South-Western
总成本
• 总成本Total Costs
• 总固定成本Total Fixed Costs (TFC) • 总可变成本Total Variable Costs (TVC) • 总成本Total Costs (TC)
投入总成本 （工厂成本+ 工人成本)(美 元）
© 2007 Thomson South-Western
生产函数 • 边际产量
• 边际产量是指增加的一单位投入所引起的产量 增加。
© 2007 Thomson South-Western
生产函数 边际产量递减：一种投入的边际产量随着
投入量增加而减少的特征。
产量
© 2007 Thomson South-Western
总成本、总可变成本与总固定成本曲线
• 总固定成本：当产量等于零时，总固定 成本等于总成本。随着产量的增加，在 短期内总固定成本不变。它是一条平行 与横轴的直线。
• 总可变成本：当产量等于零时，总可变 成本也为零。随着产量的增加，总可变 成本也增加。
数量
300000 130000
10000 50000 10000
经济学家的算法
项目 销售收益 原材料费用 水电费 工资 银行利息
数量
300000 130000
10000 50000 10000
隐含租金 隐含利息 隐含工资
50000 10000 40000
会计成本 会计利润
200000 经济成本 100000 经济利润
–在短期内不随产量变化而变化的成本，即不 变投入带来的成本。
曼昆经济学原理英文版文案加习题答案13章(最新整理)
221WHAT’S NEW IN THE SEVENTH EDITION:There are no major changes to this chapter.LEARNING OBJECTIVES:By the end of this chapter, students should understand:what items are included in a firm’s costs of production. the link between a firm’s production process and its total costs.the meaning of average total cost and marginal cost and how they are related. the shape of a typical firm’s cost curves.the relationship between short-run and long-run costs.CONTEXT AND PURPOSE:Chapter 13 is the first chapter in a five-chapter sequence dealing with firm behavior and the organization of industry. It is important that students become comfortable with the material in Chapter 13 because Chapters 14 through 17 are based on the concepts developed in Chapter 13. To be more specific, Chapter 13 develops the cost curves on which firm behavior is based. The remaining chapters in thissection (Chapters 14-17) utilize these cost curves to develop the behavior of firms in a variety of different market structures—competitive, monopolistic, monopolistically competitive, and oligopolistic.The purpose of Chapter 13 is to address the costs of production and develop the firm’s cost curves. These cost curves underlie the firm’s supply curve. In previous chapters, we summarized the firm’s production decisions by starting with the supply curve. While this is suitable for answering manyquestions, it is now necessary to address the costs that underlie the supply curve in order to address the part of economics known as industrial organization —the study of how firms’ decisions about prices and quantities depend on the market conditions they face.KEY POINTS:The goal of firms is to maximize profit, which equals total revenue minus total cost.THE COSTS OF PRODUCTION222 ❖ Chapter 13/The Costs of Production∙When analyzing a firm’s behavior, it is important to include all the opportunity costs of production. Some of the opportunity costs, such as the wages a firm pays its workers, are explicit. Other opportunity costs, such as the wages the firm owner gives up by working at the firm rather than taking another job, are implicit. Economic profit takes both explicit and implicit costs into account, whereas accounting profits consider only explicit costs.∙A firm’s costs reflect its production process. A typical firm’s production function gets flatter as the quantity of an input increases, displaying the property of diminishing marginal product. As a result, a firm’s total-cost curve gets steeper as the quantity produced rises.∙A firm’s total costs can be divided between fixed costs and variable costs. Fixed costs are costs that do not change when the firm alters the quantity of output produced. Variable costs are costs that change when the firm alters the quantity of output produced.∙From a firm’s total cost, two related measures of cost are derived. Average total cost is total cost divided by the quantity of output. Marginal cost is the amount by which total cost rises if output increases by one unit.∙When analyzing firm behavior, it is often useful to graph average total cost and marginal cost. For a typical firm, marginal cost rises with the quantity of output. Average total cost first falls as output increases and then rises as output increases further. The marginal-cost curve always crosses the average-total-cost curve at the minimum of average total cost.∙A firm’s costs often depend on the time horizon considered. In particular, many costs are fixed in the short run but variable in the long run. As a result, when the firm changes its level of production, average total cost may rise more in the short run than in the long run.CHAPTER OUTLINE:I.What Are Costs?A.Total Revenue, Total Cost, and Profit1.The goal of a firm is to maximize profit.Chapter 13/The Costs of Production ❖ 2232.Definition oftotal revenue: the amount a firm receives for the sale of its output.3.Definition of total cost: the market value of the inputs a firm uses in production.4.Definition of profit: total revenue minus total cost.B.Costs as Opportunity Costs1.Principle #2: The cost of something is what you give up to get it.2.The costs of producing an item must include all of the opportunity costs of inputs used inproduction.3.Total opportunity costs include both implicit and explicit costs.a.Definition of explicit costs: input costs that require an outlay of money by thefirm.b.Definition of implicit costs: input costs that do not require an outlay of moneyby the firm.c.The total cost of a business is the sum of explicit costs and implicit costs.d.This is the major way in which accountants and economists differ in analyzing theperformance of a business.e.Accountants focus on explicit costs, while economists examine both explicit and implicitcosts.C.The Cost of Capital as an Opportunity Cost1.The opportunity cost of financial capital is an important cost to include in any analysis of firmperformance.2.Example: Caroline uses $300,000 of her savings to start her firm. It was in a savings accountpaying 5% interest.3.Because Caroline could have earned $15,000 per year on this savings, we must include thisopportunity cost. (Note that an accountant would not count this $15,000 as part of the firm'scosts.)224 ❖ Chapter 13/The Costs of Production4.If Caroline had instead borrowed $200,000 from a bank and used $100,000 from her savings,the opportunity cost would not change if the interest rate stayed the same (according to the economist). But the accountant would now count the $10,000 in interest paid for the bank loan.D.Economic Profit versus Accounting Profit1.Figure 1 highlights the differences in the ways in which economists and accountants calculateprofit.2.Definition of economic profit: total revenue minus total cost, including both explicitand implicit costs .a.Economic profit is what motivates firms to supply goods and services.b.To understand how industries evolve, we need to examine economic profit.3.Definition of accounting profit: total revenue minus total explicit cost .4.If implicit costs are greater than zero, accounting profit will always exceed economic profit.II.Production and CostsA.The Production Function1.Definition of production function: the relationship between quantity of inputs usedto make a good and the quantity of output of that good.2.Example: Caroline's cookie factory. The size of the factory is assumed to be fixed; Carolinecan vary her output (cookies) only by varying the labor used.Number ofWorkersOutputMarginal Productof LaborCost of Factory Cost of WorkersTotal Cost of Inputs 00---$30$0$30150503010402904030205031203030306041402030407051501030508061555306090Chapter 13/The Costs of Production ❖ 2253.Definition of marginal product: the increase in output that arises from an additionalunit of input.a.As the amount of labor used increases, the marginal product of labor falls.b.Definition of diminishing marginal product: the property whereby the marginalproduct of an input declines as the quantity of the input increases.4.We can draw a graph of the firm's production function by plotting the level of labor (x -axis)against the level of output (y -axis).226 ❖ Chapter 13/The Costs of Productiona.The slope of the production function measures marginal product.b.Diminishing marginal product can be seen from the fact that the slope falls as theamount of labor used increases.B.From the Production Function to the Total-Cost Curve1.We can draw a graph of the firm's total cost curve by plotting the level of output (x-axis)against the total cost of producing that output (y-axis).a.The total cost curve gets steeper and steeper as output rises.b.This increase in the slope of the total cost curve is also due to diminishing marginalproduct: As Caroline increases the production of cookies, her kitchen becomesovercrowded, and she needs a lot more labor.Chapter 13/The Costs of Production ❖ 227III.The Various Measures of CostA.Example: Conrad’s Coffee ShopOutputTotal Cost Fixed Cost Variable Cost Average Fixed Cost Average Variable Cost AverageTotalCostMarginal Cost 0 $3.00 $3.00 $0------------1 3.30 3.000.30$3.00$0.30$3.30$0.302 3.80 3.000.80 1.500.40 1.900.503 4.50 3.00 1.50 1.000.50 1.500.704 5.40 3.00 2.400.750.60 1.350.905 6.50 3.00 3.500.600.70 1.30 1.1067.80 3.00 4.800.500.80 1.30 1.3079.30 3.00 6.300.430.901.33 1.50228 ❖ Chapter 13/The Costs of Production811.00 3.008.000.38 1.00 1.38 1.70912.90 3.009.900.33 1.10 1.43 1.901015.003.0012.000.301.201.502.10B.Fixed and Variable Costs1.Definition of fixed costs: costs that do not vary with the quantity of outputproduced.2.Definition ofvariable costs: costs that do vary with the quantity of outputproduced.3.Total cost is equal to fixed cost plus variable cost.C.Average and Marginal Cost1.Definition of average total cost: total cost divided by the quantity of output.2.Definition ofaverage fixed cost: fixed costs divided by the quantity of output.3.Definition of average variable cost: variable costs divided by the quantity of output.4.Definition of marginal cost: the increase in total cost that arises from an extra unitof production.Chapter 13/The Costs of Production ❖ 2295.Average total cost tells us the cost of a typical unit of output and marginal cost tells us thecost of an additional unit of output.D.Cost Curves and Their Shapes1.Rising Marginal Costa.This occurs because of diminishing marginal product.b.At a low level of output, there are few workers and a lot of idle equipment. But as outputincreases, the coffee shop gets crowded and the cost of producing another unit of outputbecomes high.2.U-Shaped Average Total Costa.Average total cost is the sum of average fixed cost and average variable cost.b.AFC declines as output expands and AVC typically increases as output expands. AFC ishigh when output levels are low. As output expands, AFC declines pulling ATC down. Asfixed costs get spread over a large number of units, the effect of AFC on ATC falls andATC begins to rise because of diminishing marginal product.c.Definition of efficient scale: the quantity of output that minimizes average totalcost.3.The Relationship between Marginal Cost and Average Total Costa.Whenever marginal cost is less than average total cost, average total cost is falling.Whenever marginal cost is greater than average total cost, average total cost is rising.b.The marginal-cost curve crosses the average-total-cost curve at minimum average totalcost (the efficient scale).230 ❖ Chapter 13/The Costs of Production4.Typical Cost Curvesa.Marginal cost eventually rises with output.b.The average-total-cost curve is U-shaped.c.Marginal cost crosses average total cost at the minimum of average total cost.IV.Costs in the Short Run and in the Long RunA.The division of total costs into fixed and variable costs will vary from firm to firm.B.Some costs are fixed in the short run, but all are variable in the long run.1.For example, in the long run a firm could choose the size of its factory.2.Once a factory is chosen, the firm must deal with the short-run costs associated with thatplant size.C.The long-run average-total-cost curve lies along the lowest points of the short-run average-total-cost curves because the firm has more flexibility in the long run to deal with changes in production.D.The long-run average-total-cost curve is typically U-shaped, but is much flatter than a typicalshort-run average-total-cost curve.E.The length of time for a firm to get to the long run will depend on the firm involved.F.Economies and Diseconomies of Scale1.Definition of economies of scale: the property whereby long-run average total costfalls as the quantity of output increases.2.Definition of diseconomies of scale: the property whereby long-run average totalcost rises as the quantity of output increases.3.Definition of constant returns to scale: the property whereby long-run average totalcost stays the same as the quantity of output changes.4.FYI: Lessons from a Pin Factorya.In The Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith described how specialization in a pin factoryallowed output to be greater than it would have been if each worker attempted toperform many different tasks.b.The use of specialization allows firms to achieve economies of scale.V.Table 3 provides a summary of all of the various cost definitions used throughout this chapter.SOLUTIONS TO TEXT PROBLEMS:Quick Quizzes1.Farmer McDonald’s opportunity cost is $300, consisting of 10 hours of lessons at $20 an hourthat he could have been earning plus $100 in seeds. His accountant would only count theexplicit cost of the seeds ($100). If McDonald earns $200 from selling the crops, thenMcDonald earns a $100 accounting profit ($200 sales minus $100 cost of seeds) but incursan economic loss of $100 ($200 sales minus $300 opportunity cost).2.Farmer Jones’s production function is shown in Figure 1 and his total-cost curve is shown inFigure 2. The production function becomes flatter as the number of bags of seeds increasesbecause of the diminishing marginal product of seeds. The total-cost curve gets steeper asthe amount of production increases. This feature is also due to the diminishing marginalproduct of seeds, since each additional bag of seeds generates a lower marginal product, andthus, the cost of producing additional bushels of wheat rises.Figure 1Figure 23.The average total cost of producing 5 cars is $250,000/5 = $50,000. Since total cost rosefrom $225,000 to $250,000 when output increased from 4 to 5, the marginal cost of the fifthcar is $25,000.The marginal-cost curve and the average-total-cost curve for a typical firm are shown inFigure 3. They cross at the efficient scale because at low levels of output, marginal cost isbelow average total cost, so average total cost is falling. But after the two curves cross,marginal cost rises above average total cost, and average total cost starts to rise. So thepoint of intersection must be the minimum of average total cost.Figure 34.The long-run average total cost of producing 9 planes is $9 million/9 = $1 million. The long-run average total cost of producing 10 planes is $9.5 million/10 = $0.95 million. Since thelong-run average total cost declines as the number of planes increases, Boeing exhibitseconomies of scale.Questions for Review1.The relationship between a firm's total revenue, profit, and total cost is profit equals totalrevenue minus total costs.2.An accountant would not count the owner’s opportunity cost of alternative employment as anaccounting cost. An example is given in the text in which Caroline runs a cookie business, butshe could instead work as a computer programmer. Because she's working in her cookiefactory, she gives up the opportunity to earn $100 per hour as a computer programmer. Theaccountant ignores this opportunity cost because money does not flow into or out of thefirm. But the cost is relevant to Caroline’s decision to run the cookie factory.3.Marginal product is the increase in output that arises from an additional unit of input.Diminishing marginal product means that the marginal product of an input declines as thequantity of the input increases.4.Figure 4 shows a production function that exhibits diminishing marginal product of labor.Figure 5 shows the associated total-cost curve. The production function is concave becauseof diminishing marginal product, while the total-cost curve is convex for the same reason.Figure 4Figure 55.Total cost consists of the costs of all inputs needed to produce a given quantity of output. Itincludes fixed costs and variable costs. Average total cost is the cost of a typical unit of output and is equal to total cost divided by the quantity produced. Marginal cost is the cost of producing an additional unit of output and is equal to the change in total cost divided by the change in quantity. An additional relation between average total cost and marginal cost is that whenever marginal cost is less than average total cost, average total cost is declining; whenever marginal cost is greater than average total cost, average total cost is rising.Figure 66.Figure 6 shows the marginal-cost curve and the average-total-cost curve for a typical firm.There are three main features of these curves: (1) marginal cost is U-shaped but risessharply as output increases; (2) average total cost is U-shaped; and (3) whenever marginal cost is less than average total cost, average total cost is declining; whenever marginal cost is greater than average total cost, average total cost is rising. Marginal cost is increasing for output greater than a certain quantity because of diminishing returns. The average-total-cost curve is downward-sloping initially because the firm is able to spread out fixed costs over additional units. The average-total-cost curve is increasing beyond some output levelbecause as quantity increases, the demand for important variable inputs increases; therefore, the cost of these inputs increases. The marginal-cost and average-total-cost curves intersect at the minimum of average total cost; that quantity is the efficient scale.7.In the long run, a firm can adjust the factors of production that are fixed in the short run; forexample, it can increase the size of its factory. As a result, the long-run average-total-costcurve has a much flatter U-shape than the short-run average-total-cost curve. In addition,the long-run curve lies along the lower envelope of the short-run curves.8.Economies of scale exist when long-run average total cost decreases as the quantity ofoutput increases, which occurs because of specialization among workers. Diseconomies ofscale exist when long-run average total cost rises as the quantity of output increases, whichoccurs because of the coordination problems inherent in a large organization.Quick Check Multiple Choice1. a2. d3. d4. c5. b6. aProblems and Applications1. a.opportunity cost; b. average total cost; c. fixed cost; d. variable cost; e. total cost; f.marginal cost.2. a.The opportunity cost of something is what must be given up to acquire it.b.The opportunity cost of running the hardware store is $550,000, consisting of $500,000to rent the store and buy the stock and a $50,000 implicit cost, because your aunt wouldquit her job as an accountant to run the store. Because the total opportunity cost of$550,000 exceeds the projected revenue of $510,000, your aunt should not open thestore, as her economic profit would be negative.3. a.The following table shows the marginal product of each hour spent fishing:Hours Fish Fixed Cost Variable Cost Total Cost Marginal Product 00$10$0$10---11010515102181010208324101525642810203045301025352b.Figure 7 graphs the fisherman's production function. The production function becomesflatter as the number of hours spent fishing increases, illustrating diminishing marginalproduct.Figure 7c.The table shows the fixed cost, variable cost, and total cost of fishing. Figure 8 shows the fisherman's total-cost curve. It has an upward slope because catching additional fish takes additional time. The curve is convex because there are diminishing returns to fishing time because each additional hour spent fishing yields fewer additional fish.Figure 84.Here is the completed table:WorkersOutputMarginal Product Total Cost Average Total Cost Marginal Cost00---$200------12020300$15.00$5.00250304008.00 3.3339040500 5.56 2.50412030600 5.00 3.33514020700 5.00 5.00615010800 5.3310.0071555900 5.8120.00a.See the table for marginal product. Marginal product rises at first, then declines becauseof diminishing marginal product.b.See the table for total cost.c.See the table for average total cost. Average total cost is U-shaped. When quantity islow, average total cost declines as quantity rises; when quantity is high, average totalcost rises as quantity rises.d.See the table for marginal cost. Marginal cost is also U-shaped, but rises steeply asoutput increases. This is due to diminishing marginal product.e.When marginal product is rising, marginal cost is falling, and vice versa.f.When marginal cost is less than average total cost, average total cost is falling; the costof the last unit produced pulls the average down. When marginal cost is greater thanaverage total cost, average total cost is rising; the cost of the last unit produced pushes the average up.5.At an output level of 600 players, total cost is $180,000 (600 × $300). The total cost ofproducing 601 players is $180,901. Therefore, you should not accept the offer of $550, because the marginal cost of the 601st player is $901.6. a.The fixed cost is $300, because fixed cost equals total cost minus variable cost. At anoutput of zero, the only costs are fixed cost.b.Quantity TotalCost VariableCostMarginal Cost(using total cost)Marginal Cost(using variable cost)0$300$0------135050$50$50239090404034201203030445015030305490190404065402405050Marginal cost equals the change in total cost for each additional unit of output. It is also equal to the change in variable cost for each additional unit of output. This relationship occurs because total cost equals the sum of variable cost and fixed cost and fixed costdoes not change as the quantity changes. Thus, as quantity increases, the increase intotal cost equals the increase in variable cost.7.The following table illustrates average fixed cost (AFC), average variable cost (AVC), andaverage total cost (ATC) for each quantity. The efficient scale is 4 houses per month,because that minimizes average total cost.Quantity VariableCost FixedCostTotalCostAverageFixed CostAverageVariable CostAverageTotal Cost0$0.00$200.00$200.00---------110.00200.00210.00$200.00$10.00$210.00220.00200.00220.00100.0010.00110.00340.00200.00240.0066.6713.3380.00480.00200.00280.0050.0020.0070.005160.00200.00360.0040.0032.0072.006320.00200.00520.0033.3353.3386.677640.00200.00840.0028.5791.43120.008. a.The lump-sum tax causes an increase in fixed cost. Therefore, as Figure 10 shows, onlyaverage fixed cost and average total cost will be affected.Figure 10b.Refer to Figure 11. Average variable cost, average total cost, and marginal cost will all begreater. Average fixed cost will be unaffected.Figure 119. a.The following table shows average variable cost (AVC), average total cost (ATC), andmarginal cost (MC) for each quantity.Quantity VariableCost TotalCostAverageVariable CostAverageTotal CostMarginalCost0$0.00$30.00---------110.0040.00$10.00$40.00$10.00225.0055.0012.5027.5015.00345.0075.0015.0025.0020.00470.00100.0017.5025.0025.005100.00130.0020.0026.0030.006135.00165.0022.5027.5035.00b.Figure 12 shows the three curves. The marginal-cost curve is below the average-total-cost curve when output is less than four and average total cost is declining. Themarginal-cost curve is above the average-total-cost curve when output is above four and average total cost is rising. The marginal-cost curve lies above the average-variable-cost curve.Figure 1210.The following table shows quantity (Q), total cost (TC), and average total cost (ATC) for thethree firms:Firm A Firm B Firm CQuantity TC ATC TC ATC TC ATC1$60.00$60.00$11.00$11.00$21.00$21.00270.0035.0024.0012.0034.0017.00380.0026.6739.0013.0049.0016.33490.0022.5056.0014.0066.0016.505100.0020.0075.0015.0085.0017.006110.0018.3396.0016.00106.0017.677120.0017.14119.0017.00129.0018.43Firm A has economies of scale because average total cost declines as output increases. Firm B has diseconomies of scale because average total cost rises as output rises. Firm C has economies of scale from one to three units of output and diseconomies of scale for levels of output beyond three units.。
《经济学原理·曼昆·第三版》第13章
called industrial organization—the study of how firms’ decisions regarding prices
and quantities depend on the market conditions they face. The town in which you live, for instance, may have several pizzerias but only one cable television company. How does this difference in the number of firms affect the prices in these markets
买面粉花了1000美元
糕点工人的工资
海伦放弃程序员工作（100美元/小时）
13.1.3 作为机会成本的资本成本 Costs as Opportunity Costs
资本成本核算
购买糕点厂的方案
economist 动用储蓄30万元 存款利率5% 动用储蓄10万元，贷款20 万元，存贷利率5% accountant
Prologue
In previous chapters we used the supply curve to summarize firms’ production
decisions. According to the law of supply, firms are willing to produce and sell a
投入总成本 (工厂成本+工人成本) (美元) 30 40 50 60 70
5
150
10
30Байду номын сангаас
曼昆宏观经济学课件第13章
考虑一个典型企业所面临的定价决策。企业的合意价格p取决于两个宏 观经济变量: ● 价格总体水平P。更高的价格水平意味着更高的企业成本。因此,价格 总体水平越高,企业对自己的产品想要收取的价格也越高。 ● 总收入水平Y。更高的收入水平提高了对企业产品的需求。由于在更 高的生产水平上边际成本增加,所以,需求越大,企业的合意价格也越高。 我们把企业的合意价格写为
终的目的地是如下形式的短期总供给方程:
Y=¯Y+α(P-EP), α>0
式中,Y为产出;¯ Y为自然产出水平;P为价格水平;而EP为预期的价格水平。
这个方程是说,当价格水平偏离预期的价格水平时,产出就会偏离其自然水平。
参数α表明产出对未预期到的价格水平变动作出的反应有多大,1/α是总供给 曲线的斜率。
这个方程的两项可以解释如下: ● 当企业预期高价格水平时,它们也预期高成本。事前将价格固定的企业 设定高的价格。这些高价格引起其他企业也设定高价格。因此,高的预期价格 水平EP导致高的实际价格水平P。 ● 当产出高时,对产品的需求也高。那些价格有弹性的企业设定高的价格, 这就导致高价格水平。产出对价格水平的效应取决于价格有弹性的企业所占 的比例。
p=EP+a(EY-E¯ Y)
其中,和以前一样,E代表一个变量的预期值。为了简化起见,假设这些企 业预期产出处于其自然水平,因此最后一项a(EY-E¯ Y)为零。这样,这些企业 设定的价格是:
p=EP
也就是说,具有黏性价格的企业根据自己对其他企业收取价格的预期设
定自己的价格。
我们可以用这两组企业的定价规则来推导总供给方程。为此,我们找到经 济的价格总体水平,它是这两组企业所设定的价格的加权平均。如果s是具有黏 性价格的企业所占的比例,1-s是具有弹性价格的企业所占的比例,那么,价格总 体水平是
曼昆《经济学原理》(微观经济学分册)整理
第1章经济学十大原理1.经济学经济学是研究如何将稀缺的资源有效地配置给相互竞争的用途，以使人类的欲望得到最大限度满足的科学。
稀缺性是指社会拥有的资源是有限的，因此不能生产人们希望拥有的所有物品与服务。
正因为稀缺性的客观存在，就存在着资源的有限性和人类欲望的无限性之间的矛盾。
因此，经济学家研究人们如何做出决策，如何相互影响以及分析影响整个经济的力量和趋势。
经济学研究的问题和经济物品都是以稀缺性为前提的。
2.人们如何做出决策由于-个经济的行为反映了组成这个经济的个人的行为，所以我们的经济学学习就应该从个人做出决策的四个原理开始：原理一：人们而临权衡取舍为了得到一件喜爱的东西，通常就不得不放弃另一件喜爱的东西。
做出决策要求人们在一个目标与另-个目标之间权衡取舍。
效率（efficient）：是指社会能从其稀缺资源中得到最大的利益。
平等（equality）：是指将这些利益平均地分配给社会成员。
原理二：某种东西的成本是为了得到它所放弃的东西在很多情况下，某种行动的成本并不像乍看时那明显。
一种东西的机会成本是为了得到这种东曲所放弃的东西。
机会成本（opportunity）：为了得到某种东西所必须放弃的东西。
原理三：理性人考虑边际量经济学家通常假设，人是理性的。
在机会成本为既定的条件下，理性人（rational people）系统而有目的地尽最大努力去实现其目标。
边际变动（marginal change）：对现有行动计划的微小增量调整。
理性人通常比较边际收益（marginal benefit）与边际成本（marginal cost）来做决策。
当且仅当一种行为的边际收益大于边际成本，一个理性决策者才会采取这种行为。
原理四：人们会对激胁做出反应激励（incentive）是引起一个人做出某种行为的某种东西（如惩罚或奖励的预期）。
由于理性人通过比较成本与收益做出决策，所以，他们会对激励做出反应。
当成本或收益变动时，他们的行为也会随之发生改变。
曼昆中级宏观经济学(英文) (13)
K K and L L
In chapters 7 and 8 (Economic Growth I and II), we will relax these assumptions
Determining GDP
Output is determined by the fixed factor supplies and the fixed state of technology:
l Intuition: L while holding K fixed
fewer machines per worker lower productivity
Check your understanding:
Which of these production functions have diminishing marginal returns to labor?
Factors of production
K = capital, tools, machines, and structures used in production
L = labor, the physical and mental efforts of workers
to keep our model simple
a) F (K ,L) 2K 15L b) F (K ,L) K L c) F (K ,L) 2 K )
L
Suppose W/P = 6.
0
1
d. If L = 3, should firm hire
2
more or less labor? Why? 3
How factor prices are determined
曼昆微观经济学ch13
THE COSTS OF PRODUCTION
15
THE COSTS OF PRODUCTION
16
The slope of the production function
measures the marginal product of a worker. As the number of workers increases, the marginal product declines, and the production function becomes flatter.
THE COSTS OF PRODUCTION
2
What Are Costs?
The firm’s objective
The economic goal of the firm is to
maximize profits.
THE COSTS OF PRODUCTION
3
Total Revenue, Total Cost, Profit
工人 数量 0 1 2 3
总成本函数
产量 0 50 90 120
工厂 成本 30 30 30 30
工人 成本 0 10 20 30
总成 本 30 40 50 60
4
5
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
We assume that the size of facቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱory is fixed
and we can vary the quantity of goods produced only by changing the number of workers. This assumption is realistic in the short run, but not in the long run.
经济学原理曼昆课后答案chapter13
经济学原理曼昆课后答案chapter13 Problems and Applicat ions1. a. opportunity cost; b. average total cost; c. fixed cost; d. variable cost; e. total cost;f. marginal cost.2. a. The opportunity cost of something is what must be forgone to acquire it.b. The opportunity cost of running the hardware store is $550,000, consisting of $500,000 to rent the store and buy the stock and a $50,000 opportunity cost,since your aunt would quit her job as an accountant to run the store. Sincethe total opportunity cost of $550,000 exceeds revenue of $510,000, your aunt shouldn't open the store, as her profit would be negative she would losemoney.3. a. Since you'd have to pay for room and board whether you went to college or not, that portion of your college payment is not an opportunity cost.b. The explicit opportunity cost is the cost of tuition.c. An implicit opportunity cost is the cost of your time. You could work at a jobfor pay rather than attend college. The wages you give up represent an opportunity cost of attending college.4. a. The following table shows the marginal product of each hour spent fishing:b. Figure 13-7 graphs the fisherman's production function. The production function becomes flatter as the number of hours spent fishing increases, illustrating diminishing marginal product.Figure 13-7c. The table shows the fixed cost, variable cost, and total cost of fishing. Figure 13-8 shows the fisherman's total-cost curve. It slopes up because catching additional fish takes additional time. The curve is convex because there are diminishing returns to fishing time each additional hour spent fishing yields fewer additional fish.5. Here’s the table of costs:a. See table for marginal product. Marginal product rises at first, then declinesbecause of diminishing marginal product.b. See table for total cost.c. See table for average total cost. Average total cost is U-shaped. Whenquantity is low, average total cost declines as quantity rises; when quantity ishigh, average total cost rises as quantity rises.d. See table for marginal cost. Marginal cost is also U-shaped.e. When marginal product is rising, marginal cost is falling, and vice versa.f. When marginal cost is less than average total cost, average total cost is falling;when marginal cost is greater than average total cost, average total cost isrising.6. Fixed costs include the cost of owning or renting a car to deliver the bagels and thecost of advertising; they're fixed costs because they don't vary with output. Variable costs include the cost of the bagels and gas for the car, sincethose costs will increase as output increases.7. a. The fixed cost is 300, since fixed cost equals total cost minus variable cost. b.Marginal cost equals the change in total cost or the change in variable cost. That's because total cost equals variable cost plus fixed cost and fixed cost doesn't change as the quantity changes. So as quantity increases, the increase in total cost equals the increase in variable cost and both are equal to marginal cost.8. a. The fixed cost of setting up the lemonade stand is $200. The variable cost per cup is 50 cents.Figure 13-9b. The following table shows total cost, average total cost, and marginal cost. These are plotted in Figure 13-9.9. The following table illustrates average fixed cost (AFC), average variable cost (AVC), and average total cost (ATC) for each quantity. The efficient scale is 4 houses per month, since that minimizes average total cost.10. a. The following table shows average variable cost (AVC), average total cost (ATC), and marginal cost (MC) for each quantity.b. Figure 13-10 graphs the three curves. The margi nal cost curve is below the average total cost curve when output is less than 4, as average total cost is declining. The marginal cost curve is above the average total cost curvewhen output is above 4, as average total cost is rising. The marginal costcurve is always above the average variable cost curve, and average variablecost is always increasing.Figure 13-1011. The following table shows quantity (Q), total cost (TC), and average total cost (ATC)for the three firms:Firm A has economies of scale since average total cost declines as output increases.Firm B has diseconomies of scale since average total cost rises as output rises. Firm C has economies of scale for output from 1 to 3, then diseconomies of scale for greater levels of output.。
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Fixed and Variable Costs
PART 5
FIRM BEHAVIOR AND THE ORGANIZATION OF INDUSTRY
The Costs of Production
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13
Learning Objectives
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Figure 1 Economic versus Accountants
How an Economist Views a Firm
How an Accountant Views a Firm
● Total Cost
➢ The market value of the inputs a firm uses in production.
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Total Revenue, Total Cost, and Profit
● Accountants measure the accounting profit as the firm’s total revenue minus only the firm’s explicit costs.
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● Profit is the firm’s total revenue minus its total cost.
Profit = Total revenue – Total cost
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Copyright © 2006 Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Ltd.
WHAT ARE COSTS?
● According to the Law of Supply:
➢ Firms are willing to produce and sell a greater quantity of a good when the price of the good is high.
● Consider the shape of a typical firm’s cost curves ● Examine the relationship between short-run and
long-run costs
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➢ A firm’s cost of production include explicit costs and implicit costs. • Explicit costs are input costs that require a direct outlay of money by the firm. • Implicit costs are input costs that do not require an outlay of money by the firm.
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From the Production Function to the TotalCost Curve
● The relationship between the quantity a firm can produce and its costs determines pricing decisions.
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Figure 2 Hungry Helen’s Production Function
Quantity of Output
(cookies per hour)
150 140 130 120 110 100
➢ This results in a supply curve that slopes upward.
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WHAT ARE COSTS?
● The Firm’s Objective
➢ The economic goal of the firm is to maximize profits.
● The Production Function
➢ The production function shows the relationship between quantity of inputs used to make a good and the quantity of output of that got
Implicit costs
Explicit costs
Total opportunity costs
Accounting profit
Revenue
Explicit costs
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PRODUCTION AND COSTS
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The Production Function
● Diminishing Marginal Product
➢ Diminishing marginal product is the property whereby the marginal product of an input declines as the quantity of the input increases. • Example: As more and more workers are hired at a firm, each additional worker contributes less and less to production because the firm has a limited amount of equipment.
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Total Revenue, Total Cost, and Profit
● Total Revenue
➢ The amount a firm receives for the sale of its output.
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Figure 3 Hungry Helen’s Total-Cost Curve
Total Cost
$80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
0
Production function
1
2
3
4
5Number of Workers Hired
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The Production Function
● Diminishing Marginal Product
Total-cost curve
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 Quantity of Output
(cookies per hour)
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THE VARIOUS MEASURES OF COST
● Examine what items are included in a firm’s costs of production
● Analyze the link between a firm’s production process and its total costs
● Learn the meaning of average total cost and marginal cost and how they are related
● Fixed costs are those costs that do not vary with the quantity of output produced.
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Economic Profit versus Accounting Profit
● Economists measure a firm’s economic profit as total revenue minus total cost, including both explicit and implicit costs.