二语习得论文

College of Foreign Languages and LiteratureNorthwest Normal University题目：Motivation and Second Language Acquisition 班级：12级英语5班姓名：王文秀任课教师：曹依民提交日期：2015年7月3日评语及成绩：签名：日期：Motivation and Second Language Acquisition摘要在对第二语言学习的研究中，学习动机被认为是语言学习者个体因素中最具能动性的因素之一，它受到了众多研究者和教育工作者的关注。

随着全球化的发展，第二语言的重要性显而易见。

这就要求我们要深入研究了解动机与第二语言学习。

本文将从理论和实际应用的角度研究第二语言习得中的动机问题。

本文先从学习动机的定义出发阐述不同语言学家对动机不同角度的定义，包括被语言学家公认为合理的由Gardner & Lambert所下的定义，以及从人本主义角度出发的马斯洛的需求理论中对动机的定义，从而发现这些定义的局限性。

在阐述定义的基础上，文章从行为主义、人本主义及认知角度分别运用强化理论、需求理论及归因理论来研究及分析动机，说明对第二语言研究的意义。

随后采用语言学家Keller对影响学习动机的四大主要因素的划分，从兴趣、相关性、期待及对结果的满意度简要阐述影响学习的因素及其影响。

本文旨在帮助第二语言学习者意识到动机在二语习得的重要性。

关键字：动机，第二语言习得，定义，影响因素AbstractMotivation is one of the important affective factors widely studied on the second language acquisition by language learning researchers in the past years. With the development of globalization, the importance of the second language acquisition is obvious. So it is necessary for us to profound motivation and second language acquisition.This paper will research motivation in the second language acquisition from the theory to application, beginning with its different definitions given by different linguists on the base of various theories. It includes the well-accepted definition given by Gardner & Lambert, popular one defined by Maslow from humanistic perspective and other definitions proposed respectively by different linguists. In the process, the limitation of these definitions will be found. Then, the thesis focuses on the study and analysis of motivations from behavioral, humanistic and cognitive perspectives with the application of reinforcement theory, need theory and attribution theory to prove the significance of researching second language acquisition. Then, the author analyses affecting motivation factors，including interest, relevance, expectance and satisfaction or outcomes, which are divided by linguist Keller. This paper aims to help language learners realize theimportance of motivation in the second language acquisition.Key words: motivation, second language acquisition, definition, affecting factors1. IntroductionMotivation plays a vital role in the foreign language acquisition. A lot of linguists and psychologists believe motivation is one factor affecting language learning efficacy, the impulse stimulating persons to conduct certain activities, a kind of inner power promoting foreign language learning, and a type of conscious and positive state of psychology in learning activity. Regarded as one important element in language learning, motivation has been explored for more than fifty years by a lot of linguists, but the awkward situation still exists in present language learning setting. Many experts have done a lot of research around it and made contributions to it.With the development of globalization, the importance of the second language acquisition is obvious. So it is necessary for us to profound motivation and second language acquisition. This paper aims to explore and analyses language learning motivation from different perspectives: behaviorism, humanism and cognition, making reference to various classifications and definitions of motivation.The thesis is made up of six parts besides an introduction, a conclusion and a bibliography. Part two is literature review. Part three presents some basic theories in motivation. In this part, behaviorism, humanism and cognition are discussed. Part four is analysis of factors affecting motivation in detail. It consists of interest, relevance, expectance and satisfaction or outcomes.This paper pays attention on three questions:1.What is the definition of motivation?2.What are factors affecting motivation?3.How does the motivation affect second language acquisition?2. Literature reviewAlthough the term "motivation" is frequently used in education contexts, there is little agreement among experts as to its exact meaning. Various definitions of motivation have been proposed over the course of decades of research. What we concern about motivation is mainly confined to EFL study, so we should put our emphasis on specific category.From the middle of 20th century, especially around 1990s, new definitions appeared with the developments in psychology. Motivation was then redefined as a dynamic process rather than astatic inner state. However, there is still disagreement about the definition of motivation.2.1 Definitions of MotivationMotivation is one of the main determinants of second language learning achievement and, accordingly, the last three decades have seen a considerable amount of research investigating the nature and role of motivation in the L2 learning process. Much of this research has been initiated and inspired by two Canadian psychologists, Robert Gardner and Wallace Lambert, who, together with their colleagues and students, grounded motivation research in a social psychological framework.2.1.1 Gardner's DefinitionIt's the fact that Gardner's definition of motivation in Second Language Acquisition (SLA) is the best known, frequently-quoted and under revision with the time passing. Gardner and Lambert (1972) define ‘motivation’ in terms of the L2 learner’s overall goal or orientation. Gardner also proposed that all these three components were necessary to properly describe motivation in language learning. Any single one of them cannot reflect true motivation, so they must co-exist with each other.Eight years later, Gardner and Maclntyre (1993) defined motivation as "the desire to achieve a goal, effort extended in this direction and satisfaction with the task." Gardner's definition is based on social psychology stressing the social nature of L2 learning. In his view, apart from learning grammar and language skills, the learning of an L2 involves an alteration in self-image, the adoption of new social and cultural behaviors which have a significant impact on the social nature of the learner. As we know, Gardner and his colleagues' researches are conducted among typically bilingual setting---Canada, where learners' language learning is greatly influenced by the learners' attitude towards the target language, therefore there is inevitable limitations existing in this definition by nature. Besides its shortcomings, Gardner and his colleagues had made great contributions to the motivation research in the late 1980s; other theorists began to challenge his theory and re-conceptualize the construct of L2 learning motivation.2.1.2 Brown’s DefinitionBrown (1981) identifies three types of motivation: (1) global motivation, which consists of a general orientation to the goal of learning a L2; (2) situational motivation, which varies according to the situation in which learning takes place (the motivation associated with classroom learning is distinct from the motivation involved in naturalistic learning); (3) task motivation, which is themotivation for performing particular learning tasks.2.1.3Williams and Burden's DefinitionWilliams and Burden (1997) defined motivation as "a state of cognitive and emotional arousal, which leads to a conscious decision to act, and which gives rise to a period of sustained intellectual and/or physical effort, in order to attain a previously set goal or goals.” In order to make this definition more clearly, Williams and Burden (1997) presented a three-stage model of interactive factors within the social context: reasons for doing something----deciding to do something---sustaining the effort or persisting.From this model, we can see that firstly there must be some reasons to impel learners to undertake a particular activity; secondly, we should consider what is actually involved in deciding to do something and an individual may have strong reasons for doing something but without taking actual action; thirdly, people need to sustain the effort required to complete the activity. In this model, "deciding to do something" plays a central role.2.1.4 Maslow's DefinitionAccording to Maslow, "motivation is constant, never ending, fluctuating and complex, and it is an almost universal characteristic of particularly every organic state of affairs.” And his "need theory" can clearly and satisfactorily explain the language learners' motivation in all the learning environments. The need hierarchy is as follows (S.S.Chauhan, 1985):2.1. 5 Dornyei and Otto's DefinitionDornyei and Otto (1998) stated that "in a general sense, motivation can be defined as the dynamically changing initiates, directs, coordinates, amplifies, cumulative arousal in a person thatterminates and evaluates the cognitive processes whereby initial wishes and desires are selected, prioritized, operationalized and successfully or unsuccessfully acted out" In this definition, motivation is viewed as a dynamic process in which many variables influence the learner's performance but they do not mention the sustaining of the learning motivation.2.1. 6 Keller's DefinitionKeller (1983) defined motivation as "Motivation refers to the choices people make as to what experiences or goals they will approach or avoid, and the degree of effort they will exert in this respect."Besides definitions given above, Kanfer and Ackerman (1989) made it more explicit by defining motivation as "the direction of attentional effort, the proportion of total attentional effort directed to the task (intensity), and the extent to which attentional effort toward the task is maintained over time (or persistence)." Oxford defined motivation as "what makes students want to learn languages and what causes them to put forth the effort to persist in this difficult adventure" (Oxford, 1996, p. 1). According to H.W Bernard, "motivation refers to all those phenomena which are involved in the stimulation of action towards particular objectives where previously there was little or no movement towards those goals."In view of all these definitions, we can get the information that language learning motivation is the reason for learning the language, the central force or inner power that impulses people to go in the language learning process, how much conscious intellectual and physical effort the learners make to attain a previously set goal and how long the learner keeps this effort.3. Theories on MotivationMotivation is a vast and complicated subject with many theories in educational psychology. The main approaches are behavioral, humanistic and cognitive ones, which highlight different dimensions of motivation. However, there is no absolutely, straightforwardly and unanimously accepted concept of motivation, let alone the description of its nature within one framework. Different from the instinct theory studying the innate characteristics of motivation born in human beings, the behaviorism attaches more importance to the external factors for the study of motivation.3.1 BehaviorismBehaviorism, a theory about animal and human learning way which only focuses onobjectively observable behaviors and discounts mental activities, has an important impact on psychology, education and language teaching.Behaviorists like Skinner take the notion that behavior is a function of its consequences, so the learners will repeat the desired behavior if positive reinforcement (a pleasant consequence) follow the behavior. Behaviorists prefer to explain human behaviors with formula S---R, believing motivation is a kind of impulsive force aroused by outside stimuli. According to Skinner, motivated behavior results from the consequences of the similar previous behavior and in other words, the consequences of previous behavior influence learners. Once learners obtain positive reinforcement for certain behavior, they tend to repeat it with vigor, vice versa learners tend to lose interest, and evade their performance and study.Behavioral interpretations of learning can provide reasons to explain why some learners react favorably to particular subjects but dislike others. Some learners may enter a classroom with a feeling of delight, while others feel uncomfortable or aversive to it. B.F.Skinner suggested that such differences could be traced back to their previous experiences, arguing that the learner who loved this subject had been shaped to respond that way by a series of positive experiences with the subject while the learner disliking the subject might have suffered a series of negative experiences.In brief, reinforcement methods are probably best used with learners who exhibit high anxiety about learning, poor motivation to learn, or a history of academic failures. And it is effective methods frequently used by teachers in classroom setting.3.2 HumanismMotivation and needs are closely related. On the one hand, we regard motivation as the fulfillment of a kind of needs, and on the other hand, human needs serve as drives or incentives which impulse one to take an action.When we study motivation from the perspective of humanism, it is necessary to mention hierarchy of needs proposed by Maslow. He formulated a five-fold hierarchy of human needs which began with biological needs and made progress upward to the self-actualization. According to Maslow, "motivation is constant, never ending, fluctuating and complex and that it is an almost universal characteristic of particularly every organic state of affairs." His need theory can clearly and satisfactorily explain the language learners' motivation in all learning environments. The need hierarchy is as follows (S.S.Chauhan, 1985):Although Maslow's theory has been confronted with a number of critiques and contradictions, it provides a useful way of thinking about the factors that activate human action. In terms of Maslow's needs hierarchy，needs for foreign or second language learning would mainly center on the psychological aspects of the second level in the hierarchy and, when those needs are satisfied, would relate to the third, fourth, and fifth levels in the pyramid. Additionally, as the needs at one level are met, their importance in motivating individual decreases, and the next higher level of needs becomes the strongest source of goal-directed behaviors.In view of Maslow's need hierarchy，failure to satisfy students' needs for safety and security in the foreign or second language learning setting probably hinder their risk-taking, accordingly, these psychological insecurity will make L2 learners very anxious ( MacItyre & Gardner, 1991) and they will regress in their needs, motivation, and performance in the classroom.3.3 CognitionAs its name implies, cognitive approach, emphasizing mental processes places itself in processes. Since the 1960s, the mechanistic approach to human motivation has given way to a more cognitive approach. The common element shared by particular cognitive theorists is the belief that it is necessary to examine a class of intervening variables when explaining behavior. The theoretical foundation of a cognitive approach can be traced to the writings of Kant (31) and to phenomenological thinking. Uan de Geer and Jaspers note that cognitive theory ranges from neobehavioristic mediation to phenomenological interpretation.A cognitive theory of behavior assumes that the first stage in the chain of events initiated bythe stimulus situation and resulted in the behavioral act is the construction of cognitive representation of the distal environment. The later events in the chain are aroused, modified and guided by this cognitive representation. The cognitive representation thus acts as the effective environment which arouses motives and emotions, and guides overt behavior toward its target or goal.The famous theory annotating motivation is attribution theory. People, after finishing one task, are likely to look for the reason why he can succeed or suffer failure, which is the first objective base, on which psychologist attribution. F. Heider, the one proposing attribution theory, believed explore people possessed two needs of understanding world and controlling environment. Ability and effort are internal characteristics; task difficulty and luck belong to external factors; task difficulty and ability are stable factors, whereas effort and luck change with variable situations. According to attribution theory, higher satisfaction occurs when success is self-attributed than those attributed to external factors. When people believe themselves---rather than luck, fate, the teachers, or an easy test have created the successful performance, they are happier with themselves and their skills.Attribution theory can explain, to some extent, the phenomenon that failure or success can have different effects on different individuals. It also gives implications for teachers in teaching by helping students setting up correct attribution.Many theorists advocate that the construct of motivation is not as a single entity but as a multifactoral one and they apply different ways to probe into motivation. Besides the motivation theories discussed above, Heider's naïve psychology, Jones & Davis' correspondence theory and Kelley's covariation theory all shed light on the motivation, explaining human beings learning motivation from different perspectives.4. Analysis of factors affecting motivationFor the last few decades, research on motivation in the field of second language has been strongly influenced by Gardner's Socio-Educational Model. However, other researchers, such as Crookes and Schmidt (1991), regard motivation as a much more complex construct than the one culturally related dichotomy, especially in different contexts of foreign language learning.Crookes and Schmidt (1991) then proposed an expanded definition of language learning motivation by applying Keller's education-oriented theory of motivation as their base. Keller(1983) identified four major determinants of motivation:①interest in the language based on existing attitudes, experience, and background knowledge on the learners' part;②relevance, which involves perception that personal needs, such as achievement, affiliation and power being met by learning the language;③expectancy of success or failure; and ④outcomes, i.e., the extrinsic or intrinsic rewards felt by the learner.4.1 InterestInterest, one of important inner incentives, plays a very important role in the language learning process. Interest in learning can be defined as a desire to acquire new information and to find out new objects, events and ideas. This may involve approaching and acquiring information about something new, seeking new information concerning something that the students have already known about (Katherine, 1981).4.1.1 Direct Interest vs. Indirect InterestInterest can be divided into two categories---direct interest and indirect one. Direct interest, resulting from direct learning materials and the learning process, can attract learners' attention and arouse their interest quickly, but it cannot last for a long time. For example, new information can provoke learners' interest directly, but when learners meet difficulties in the learning process or have not made any progress for a long time, they will lose the interest in it even abandon it Indirect interest, resulting from students themselves and lasting much longer, can spur learners to devote more strength and energy to study. With indirect interest, highly motivated students can set their own learning goals and tasks, adopt various learning strategies and make full use of any chances to enhance their ability or enlarge their knowledge horizon. Hence, cultivating students' indirect interest can do favor for language learning.4.1.2 Significance of InterestDeci and Ryan held that interest was "an important direct role in intrinsically motivated behavior in which people naturally approach activities that attract them". In other words, interest is believed to be a necessary and efficient means to provoke learners' intrinsic motivation, so it is a manifestation of inborn capabilities in terms of competency, self-assessment as well as personal accomplishments. It is acknowledged that whether the students are interested in English language learning directly influences the success or failure of English teaching and students' performance. Only students' interest in language learning is inspired, will they take the initiative or become active in learning English well.4.2 RelevanceThe second element is relevance, which refers to the extent to which the students feel that the instruction is connected with important personal needs, values, or goals. It is a prerequisite for "sustained motivation" and requires the perception of the learners that their personal needs are satisfied by the learning situation. Relevance, at a macro-level, associates with the motivation theories of needs hierarchy, achievement motivation, competence motivation, and reinforcement value; at the level of learning situation, it refers to the extent to which the classroom instruction and course content are seen to be conductive to achieving the goal, that is，to master the L2There are several kinds of learners' needs: instrumental needs, which are met when the learners have the belief that the content of a lesson is what they want; needs for achievement, for autonomy, for affiliation, for endurance, for aggression, for power, and so on.Keller (1983a, 1983b) proposed that motivation could be enhanced when students perceived that the learning activities could satisfy their basic needs, such as needs for achievement, power, or affiliation. In other words, teaching materials, teaching methods, level of difficulty should be correspondent to or related with students' needs and learning goals.4.3 ExpectanceThe third determinant is expectancy which refers to students' perceived likelihood of achieving success through personal control and is related to the learner's self-confidence and self-efficacy at a general level; it concerns perceived task difficulty, the amount of effort required, the amount of available assistance and guidance, the teacher's presentation of the task, and familiarity with the task type at the level of the learning situation. According to Keller (1983a), this category encompasses the motivation theories of locus of control, attribution theory, learned helplessness, personal causation, and self-efficacy.4.4 Satisfaction or OutcomesThe fourth determinant of motivation is satisfaction or outcomes that are related with the extrinsic or intrinsic reward felt by the learner. Activities for which the motivating forces are outcomes have been referred to as extrinsically motivated, as opposed to those which are intrinsically motivated. Satisfaction or outcomes include the satisfaction of goal fulfillments and its effects on motivation for involving in similar activities in the future. The learners will become unmotivated or less motivated once the outcomes of their great efforts are inconsistent with theiroriginal expectations, the grading system is subjective and arbitrary, or the intrinsically motivated person is confined into an externally controlled contingency system.Different factors and various teaching methods have close relationship with outcomes. Keller deemed that unexpected, noncontingent rewards rather than anticipated, salient, task-contingent rewards; verbal praise and informative feedback rather than threats, surveillance, or external performance evaluation could give learner better satisfaction or outcomes. In order to maintain a good learning setting to meet learner's satisfaction, consistent standards and consequences for task accomplishment should be held. Allowing students to use a newly learnt skill in a realistic setting can arouse their senses of satisfaction to a large degree.5. ConclusionThis paper has explored and analyzed language learning motivation from different perspectives: behaviorism, humanism and cognition, making reference to various classifications and definitions of motivation. On the basis of the above discussion, we know that motivation is one of the important affective factors widely studied on the second language acquisition. The influence of motivation to the foreign language learners is profound. This paper presents a study of motivation and second language acquisition. After studying this paper, we can conclude that: First, the definition of motivation is various from different perspectives. And there is some limitation for these definitions, such as narrow perspectives on motivation. So it is necessary for human being to research deeply.Second, factors affecting motivation play much important role in second language acquisition. Strong motivation and confidence can let learners pay much attention and time on learning and hold positive attitude and help them keep in touch with native speakers and go into society. So, it is the key of mastering second language to help learners to build correct affective.Third, Motivation plays a vital role in the second language acquisition. The question is how to deal with them properly. Therefore, it is the key to help language learners to establish correct motivation.In conclusion, in view of present studies emphasizing excessively the theoretical research, and the notion that theory serves application, researchers come up with some implications for the interests of learning, serving as methods to arouse learning motivation, improving the presentsituation and enhancing language learners' awareness of motivation.Bibliography1.Alma C. Spithill, Motivation and Language Teaching. Hispania, V ol. 63, No (Mar., 1980), pp.72-76.2.Fred W. Danner; Edward Lonky, A Cognitive-Developmental Approach to Effects of Rewardson Intrinsic Motivation. Child Development, V ol. 52, No.3. (Sep., 1981), pp.1043一1052. 3.Gardner, R. C. Language Learning Motivation: The Student, the Teacher and the Researcher,University of Western Ontario, 2001.4.Gardner, R. C. & Tremblay, P.F. On Motivation: Measurement and Conceptual Consideration.The Modern Language Journal, V ol. 78, No.3. 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