大学语言学基础 英语复习资料
英语语言学复习专题
英语语⾔学复习专题英语语⾔学复习专题A Review on English LinguisticsTiger ZhouSchool of Foreign Languages,Shanghai Dianji University⼀.Explain the following terms1.dualityDuality refers to the fact that language is a system,which consists of two sets of structures,or two levels.At the lower level,there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by themselves. At the higher level,there is a structure of meanings where the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning./doc/6b316456657d27284b73f242336c1eb91b37336b.html plementary distributionWhen two or more than two allophones of the same phoneme do not distinguish meaning and occur in different phonetic environments,then the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution.3.categoryCategory refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same of familiar functions in a particular language such as sentence,a noun phrase or a verb.4.phrase structure ruleA certain word can only co-occur with certain other words.There must be certain grammatical mechanism that ensures the appropriate positions that specifiers,heads and complements occupy in phrase structure.Such special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.5.homonymyHomonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e.different words are identical in sound or spelling,or in both.6.displacementDisplacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present,real or imagined matters in the past,present,or future,or in far away places.In other words,language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place.7.minimal pairsWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings,the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.8.deep structureIt is the structure that is formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s sub-categorization properties and that corresponds most closely to the meaningful grouping of words.9.contextIt is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.10.hyponymyHyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive word and a more specific word.(The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate,and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.)⼆.Short AnswersChapter1Introduction2.What are the major branches of linguistics?What does each of them study?The major branches of linguistics are:(1)phonetics:it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2)phonology:it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3)morphology:it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4)syntax:it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5)semantics:it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6)pragmatics:it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as“traditional grammar.”Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly,modem linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second,modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the written.Traditional grammarians,on the other hand,tended to emphasize,maybe over-emphasize,the importance of the written word,partly because of its permanence.from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic?Why?In modem linguistics,a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied,it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.6.How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar,they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions,and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.8.What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C.Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?The main features of human language are termed design features.They include:a)ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary.This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.b)ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences,including sentences they have never heard before.c)DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures,or two levels.At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by themselves.But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning,which are found at the higher level of the system.d)DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present,real or imagined matters in the past,present,or future,or in far-away places.In other words,language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.This is what “displacement”means.e)Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity能⼒for language has a genetic basis,i.e.,we were all born with the ability to acquire language,the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted,but instead have to be taught and learned.Chapter2Phonology2.What is voicing and how is it caused?Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription.This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes.The latter,i.e.the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription.This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the finedetails as it is necessary for their purpose.The example is the consonant[p].We all know that[p]is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit.In the word pit,the sound[p]is pronounced with a strong puff of air,but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent.In the case of pit,the[p]sound is said to be aspirated and in the case ofspit,the[p]sound is unaspirated.This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription,a small raised“h”is used to show aspiration,thus pit is transcribed as [p?it]and spit is transcribed as[spit].3.What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?Vowels may be distinguished as front,central,and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest.To further distinguish members of each group,we need to apply another criterion,i.e. the openness of the mouth.Accordingly,we classify the vowels into four groups:close vowels, semi-close vowels,semi-open vowels,and open vowels.A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips.In English,all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels,i.e.,without rounding the lips,and all the back vowels,with the exception of[a:],are rounded.Then theEnglish vowels can also be classified according to the length of the sound.The long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are lax vowels. 4. A.Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1)voiced palatal affricate[?]2)voiceless labiodental fricative[f]3)voiced alveolar stop[d]4)front,close,short[?]5)back,semi-open,long[?:]6)voiceless bilabial stop[p]B.Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1)[d]voiceless alveolar stop2)[l]voiced alveolar liquid3)[?]voiceless palatal affricate4)[w]voiced bilabial glide5)[?]back,close,(rounded)short6)[?]front,open,(unrounded)short9.Explain with examples the sequential rule,the assimilation rule,and the deletion rule.Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English.For example,if a word begins with a[l]or a [r],then the next sound must be a vowel.That is why[lbik][lkbi]are impossible combinations in English.They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by“copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.Assimilation of neighboring sounds is, for the most part,caused by articulatory or physiological processes.When we speak,we tend to increase the ease of articulation.This“sloppy慵懒的;马虎的”tendency may become regularized as rules of language.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.Wehave noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign,design,and paradigm,there is no[g]sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g.But in their corresponding formssignature,designation,and paradigmatic,the[g]represented by the letter g is pronounced.The rule can be stated as:Delete a[g]when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.Given the rule,the phonemic representation of the stems in sign–signature,resign–resignation,paradigm–paradigmatic will include the phoneme/g/,which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10.What are suprasegmental features?How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features.The main suprasegmental features include stress,intonation,and tone.The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.There are two kinds of stress:word stress and sentence stress.For example,a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun,to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged.Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English.When spoken in different tones,the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter3Morphology1.Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a“+”between each morpheme and the next:a.micro+filmb.be+draggle+edc.announce+mentd.pre+digest+ione.tele+communicate+ionf.fore+fatherg.psycho+physics h.mechan+ist6.The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes.Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle(blacken)the inflectional affixes.a)The farmer’s cow s escap ed.b)It was rain ing.c)Those sock s are inexpensive.d)Jim need s the new er copy.e)The strong est rower continu ed.f)She quickly clos ed the book.g)The alphabetization went well.Chapter4Syntax1.What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2.What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements(i.e.specifiers,heads, and complements)that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP,VP,AP,and PP can be written as follows:NP→(Det)N(PP)...VP→(Qual)V(NP)...AP→(Deg)A(PP)...PP→(Deg)P(NP)...The general phrasal structural rule(X stands for the head N,V,A or P):The XP rule:XP→(specifier)X(complement)3.What is category?How to determine a word’s category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence,a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word’s category,three criteria are usually employed,namely meaning, inflection and distribution.A word’s distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4.What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.Coordinate structures exhibits four important properties:a)There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to theconjunction.b)A category at any level(a head or an entire XP)can becoordinated.c)Coordinated categories must be of the same type.d)The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of theelements being conjoined.6.What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure.The first,formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s sub-categorization properties,is called deep structure(or D-structure).The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations,is called surface structure(or S-structure).8.The following phrases include a head,a complement,and a specifier.Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.13.The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation.Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of thesesentences.a)Would you come tomorrow?b)What did Helen bring to the party?c)Who broke the window?Chapter5Semantics1.What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?1)The naming theory was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.According to this theory,the linguistic forms or symbols,in other words,the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.So words are just names or labels for things.2)The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times.This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to(i.e.,between language and the real world);rather,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.3)Contextualism holds that meaning should be studied in terms of situation,use,context ––elements closely linked with language behavior.The representative of this approach was J.R. Firth,famous British linguist.4)Behaviorism attempts to define the meaning of a language form as the“situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.”This theory,somewhat close to contextualism,is linked with psychological interest.2.What are the major types of synonyms in English?The major types of synonyms are dialectal synonyms,stylistic synonyms,emotive or evaluative synonyms,collocational synonyms,and semantically different synonyms.3.Explain with examples“homonymy”,“polysemy”,and“hyponymy”.1)Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e.,different words are identical in sound or spelling,or in both.When two words are identical in sound,they are homophones.When two words are identical in spelling,they are homographs.When two words are identical in both sound and spelling,they are complete homonyms.2)While different words may have the same or similar meaning,the same one word may have more than one meaning.This is what we call polysemy,and such a word is called a polysemic word.There are many polysemic words in English,The fact is the more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning.3)Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive word anda more specific word.The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called itshyponyms.Hyponyms of the same superordinate areco-hyponyms to each other.Hyponymy is a relation of inclusion;in terms of meaning,the superordinate includes all its hyponyms.5.Identify the relations between the following pairs of sentences:1)“T om’s wife is pregnant”presupposes“T om has a wife.”2)“My sister will soon be divorced”presupposes“My sister is a married woman.”3)“He likes seafood”is entailed by”He likes crabs.”4)“They are going to have another baby”presupposes“They have a child.”8.Try to analyze the following sentences in terms of predication analysis:1)The man sells ice-cream.MAN,ICE-CREAM(SELL)2)Is the baby sleeping?BABY(SLEEP)3)It is snowing.(SNOW)4)The tree grows well.TREE(GROW)Chapter6Pragmatics1.What does pragmatics study?How does it differ from traditional semantics?Generally speaking,pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context.It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as a process.In order to have a successful communication,the speaker and hearer must take the context into their consideration so as to effect the right meaning and intention.The development and establishment of pragmatics in the1960s and1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study of semantics.However,it is different from the traditional semantics.The major difference between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way,while semantics studies meaning in a static way.Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does not.Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.2.Why is the notion of context essential in the pragmatic study of linguistic communication?The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language.It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.Various contents of shared knowledge have been identified,e.g.knowledge of the language they use,knowledge of what has been said before,knowledge about the world in general,knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place,and knowledge about each other.Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the heater’s interpretation of what is said to him. Without such knowledge,linguistic communication would not be possible,and without considering such knowledge,linguistic communication cannot be satisfactorily accounted for in a pragmatic sense.Look at the following sentences:(1)How did it go?(2)It is cold in here.(3)It was a hot Christmas day so we went down to the beach in the afternoon and had a good time swimming and surfing.Sentence(1)might be used in a conversation between two students talking about an examination,or two surgeons talking about an operation,or in some other contexts;(2)might be said by the speaker to ask the hearer to turn on the heater,or leave the place,or to put on more clothes,or to apologize for the poor condition of the room,depending on the situation of context;(3)makes sense only if the hearer has the knowledge that Christmas falls in summer in the southern hemisphere.3.How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related,and how do they differ?A sentence is a grammatical concept,and the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract,intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication.But if we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication,it becomes an utterance, and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered(or used).So it is impossible to tell if“The dog is barking”is a sentence or an utterance.It can be either.It all depends on how we look at it and how we are going to analyze it.If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation from context,then we are treating it as a sentence.If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.Therefore,while the meaning of a sentence is abstract,and decontextualized,that of anutterance is concrete,and context-dependent.The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning;it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication,or simply in a context.Now,take the sentence“My bag is heavy”as an example. Semantic analysis of the meaning of the sentence results in the one-place predication BAG(BE HEAVY).Then a pragmatic analysis of the utterance meaning of the sentence varies with the context in which it is uttered.For example,it could be uttered by a speaker as a straightforward statement, telling the hearer that his bag is heavy.It could also be intended by the speaker as an indirect,polite request,asking the hearer to help him carry the bag.Another possibility is that the speaker is declining someone’s request for help.All these are possible interpretations of the same utterance “My bag is heavy”.How it is to be understood depends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.While most utterances take the form of grammatically complete sentences,some utterances do not,and some cannot even be restored to complete sentences.5.According to Austin,what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an utterance.Give an example.According to Austin’s new model,a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking:locutionary act,illocutionary act,and perlocutionary act.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words,phrases,clauses.It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon and phonology.An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention;it is the act performed in saying something.A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something;it is the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance;it is the act performed by saying something.Let’s look at an example:You have left the door wide open.The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of the words“you”,“have”,“door”,“open”,etc.,thus expressing what the words literally mean. The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking,i.e.asking someone to close the door,or making a complaint, depending on the context.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance.If the hearer gets the speaker’s message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door,the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to;then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.7.What is indirect language use?How is it explained in the light of speech act theory?When someone is not saying in an explicit and straightforward manner what he means to say, rather he is trying to put across his message in an implicit,roundabout way,we can say he is using indirect language.8.What are the four maxims of the CP?Try to give your own examples to show how flouting these maxims gives rise to conversational implicature? Cooperative Principle,abbreviated as CP.It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific,there are four maxims under this general principle:1)The maxim of quantitya)Make your contribution as informative as required(for the current purpose of the exchange).b)Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.2)The maxim of qualitya)Do not say what you believe to be false.b)Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.3)The maxim of relationa)Be relevant.4)The maxim of mannera)Avoid obscurity of expression.b)Avoid ambiguity.c)Be brief(avoid unnecessary prolixity).d)Be orderly.。
大学英语专业语言学重点概念复习
术语解释：Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific and systematic study of language.Design features（甑别性特征）: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communicationArbitrariness(任意性): It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and soundsProductivity /creativity (创造性）: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by its users.Recursiveness(递归性）: according to some linguistic theories , the capacity that enables the grammar of a language to produce an infinite number of sentences.Cultural transmission（文化传递性）：It refers to the fact that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. Language is not transmitted biologically from generation to generation.Interchangeability(可交替性）：means that any human being can be both a producer and receiver of messages.Displacement（移位性）: Displacement means that human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present(in time and space) at the moment of communication.Duality（二元性）: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings.Informative(信息功能）: The use of language to record facts to state what things are like, and to exchange information.Interpersonal Function(人际功能）: It is the most important sociological use of language, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.Performative(行为功能）:Language can be used to do things, to change the social status or the immediate state of affairs of people.Emotive Function(情感功能）：Language can be used to express the emotional state of the speaker.Phatic Communion(交流功能）:This function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations.Ritual exchange: exchange that have little meaning but help to maintain our relationships with other people.Recreational Function(娱乐功能）: the use of language to have fun.Metalingual Function(元语言功能）：language can be used to explain or describe itself or other languages.研究语言学坚持的原则：Exhaustiveness穷尽性Consistency一致性Economy 经济性Objectivity客观性Phonetics（语言学）: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. / the characteristics of speech sounds and provide methods for their description, classification, transcriptionPhonology(音韵学): The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication.Morphology（形态学）: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.Syntax（句法）: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. / the rule governing the combination of words into sentencesSemantics（语义学）: It studies how meaning is encoded in a language. / The study of meaning in language is called semantics.Pragmatics(语用学): The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. Macrolinguistics(宏观语言学）: the interdisciplinary study of language.Psycholinguistics（心理语言学）: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.Anthropological Linguistics(人类语言学）: It mainly concerned with the change of language, the different between language in the past and in the present, and its evolution.Computational Linguistics(计算机语言学）: an interdisciplinary branch of study in which mathematical techniques and concepts are applied often with the aid of a computer.Applied linguistics（应用语言学）: Finding in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.Neurolinguistics(神经语言学）：It studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.Descriptive(描述的）:If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyse the language people actually use.Prescriptive(规定的）：It aims to lay down rules for "correct and standard" behavior in using language.Competence（能力）: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal speaker's knowledge of the underlying system of rules in a language,Performance(表现）: refers to the actual use of the language by a speaker in a real communicational context.Synchronic(共时性）：study of language takes a fixed instant as its point of observation. It refers to the description of a language at some point of time in history.Diachronic(历时性）：study examines language through the course of time. It studies the development or history of language.In other words, it refers to the description of a language as it changes through time.langue（语言）: refers to the speaker's understanding and knowledge of the language that he speaks.It's a social phenomenon,an abstraction shared by all the members within a speech community.Parole（言语）: Parole refers to the actual speaking of language by an individual speaker. It's an individual linguistic phenomenon .Differences: Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language use rs all have to follow; Parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is relatively stable, while Parole varies fro m person to person, from situation to situation. Langue is abstract; Parole is concrete.第二章Articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）: is the study of the production of speech sounds.Acoustic phonetics（听觉发音学）: is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds.Auditory/Perceptual phonetics（感知语音学）: is concerned with the perception of …Speech Organs（发音器官）: Organs in human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds.International phonetic alphabet（国际音标）: It is a standardized and internation ally accepted system of phonetic transcription.Consonants(辅音):The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the airstream at some point of the vocal tract.Vowels(元音）:sounds in the production of which no two articulators come very close together and no airstream is obstructed at any point of vocal tractVowel glides/ Diphthongs(双元音）: It's produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.It's has an audible change of quality.Coarticulation(协同发音）：when such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process coarticulation.Complementary distribution(互补分布）：when two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution.Free variation(自由变体）;when the substitution of one sound for the other does not produce a new word.Phoneme(音素）: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features. / minimal linguistic unit of sound that can distinguish.Allophone（音位变体）: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Phonetic similarity(语音相似性）：means that the allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance.Intonation（声调）: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.phone （音子）: Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.phonemic contrast（音位对立）: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.Tone（语气）: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.minimal pair（最小音差）: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.。
英语语言学复习整理
nguage and Linguistics1.What are design features of language? (P 2-P 12)nguage is systematicnguage is symbolicnguage is arbitrarynguage is primarily vocalnguage is human specificnguage is used for communication2.What are general functions of language? Please illustrate your point with examples.(P 14-P 17)a.physiological functionb.phatic functionc.recording functiond.identifying functionmunicating functionf.pleasure functiong.reasoning function3.4.a.The diachronic study refers to the description of the historical development of alanguage.b.The synchronic study refers to the description of a particular state of a language at asingle point of time. It is necessary for the synchronic description to find out these systematic rules as they operate in the language at a particular time.5.Distinctions between competence and performance (P 33)petence refers to the know that native speakers have of their language as system ofabstract formal relations.b.Performance refers to what we do when we speak or listen, that is, the infinite variedindividual acts of verbal behavior with their irregularities, inconsistences, and errors.2.Phonetics and Phonology1.What is phonetics and its three subdivisions? (P 43)a.Phonetics is the scientific study of speech and is concerned with defining andclassifying speech sounds.b.Articulatory phoneticsAcoustic phoneticsAuditory phonetics2.Distinctions among bilabial, dental, alveolar, labiodental, velar sounds. (P 47-P 49)a.Bilabial are articulations made with the upper and lower lips brought together./p/,/b/,/m/.b.Dentals are produced by the front of the tongue touching the back of the upper frontteeth. th→/ð/,/ø/.biodentals are articulations produced with the lower lip approximating to theunderside of the upper front teeth. /f/,/v/.d.Alveolars are sounds produced by the tip and/or blade of the tongue touching or nearlytouching the gum ridge behind the upper teeth. /t/,/d/,/n/,/s/,/z/,/l/.e.Velar sounds are produced with the back of the tongue dorsum raised up to the softpalate (or velum) at the back of the mouth. /k/,/g/,/w/.3.What is phonology? (P 56)Phonology is the study of the sound patterns in human language. (The term phonology is used in two ways, either as the study of the sound patterns in language or as the sound patterns of a language.)4.Distinctions between phonemes (P 56) and allophones (P 58).a.The segments of an underlying representation are called phonemes.Phoneme is the minimum phonetic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller units.Phoneme is the abstract set of units as the basis of our speech.Phonemes are said to be the distinctive sounds.A phoneme may have its variants.b.There is only one phoneme between two words and it turns up in two variant forms inthese two words. These phonetics variants of phoneme are called allophones.5.What are minimal pairs? (P 58)a. A pair of phonemes is also known as a minimal pair.b.When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment thatoccurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called minimal pairs.6.What are components of a syllable? (P 66)Structurally, the syllable may be divided into three parts: the onset, the peak, the coda.3.Morphology and Lexicon1.What is morphology? (P 73)Morphology studies morphemes and their different forms and the way they combine in word formation.2.Distinctions between word (P 74)/morpheme (P 81)/lexeme (P 91).a.Word is the smallest form that can occur by itself. (“a minimum free form”—Bloomfield)A word is a sound or combination of sounds which we produce voluntarily with our vocalequipment.A word is symbolic, i.e. it stands for something else, such as objects, happenings, orideas.Words are part of the large communication system we call language.Words help human beings interact culturally with one another.b. A morpheme is a smallest linguistic unit that carries grammatical and/or semanticmeaning. That means it cannot be further divided into smaller grammatical units.A morpheme may undergo certain phonetic changes when combined with the baseword.c. A lexeme is referred to the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can bedistinguished from other smaller units.A lexeme is an abstract unit and may occur in many different forms in actual spoken orwritten texts.Collocation is an important feature in the combination of lexemes.3.What are open-class words? (P 79)We can add new words to these classes of nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.4.What are closed-class words? (P 79)It is not easy to think of new pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, or prepositions that enter the language recently.5.Distinctions between bound morpheme and free morpheme. (p 83)a.If a morpheme can constitute a word by itself, it is called a free morpheme, like room,bottle, stand, large.b.If a morpheme has meaning only connected with at least another morpheme, it is calledbound morpheme, like un- in unlucky, and the plural –s in bags.A bound morpheme is also called an affix in the sense that it is always added to anothermorpheme. Affix can be divided into prefixes, suffixes and infixes.6.Distinctions between inflectional morpheme and derivative morpheme (P 84)a.Bound morphemes can be divided into two types according to whether they provide thelexical item to which they are added any further grammatical meaning and/or lexical meaning.b.An inflectional morpheme provides further grammatical information about an existinglexical item. English inflectional morphemes are largely in the form of suffix. Only in some few irregular plurals can we identify the existence of infixes.c. A derivative morpheme refers to one that creates an entirely new word. It may take theform of a prefix or a suffix.7.Distinctions between prefixes and suffixes. (P 83)a. A prefix is one that added to the beginner of the stem, like un- in unlucky, in- ininappropriate, dis- in disorder.Prefixes generally do not change the grammatical categories of the stem. They only add some lexical meanings to the stem.b. A suffix is one that is added to the end of the stem, like –ing in waiting, -ful in useful,-less in meaningless.Most suffixes have two functions: (1) to add some grammatical meanings to the stem or(2) to change its grammatical categories.Sometimes suffixes do not change the grammatical categories of the stem.8.What are major processes of word-formation? Give each one or two examples. (P 86)pounding (refers to the process of conjoining two or more free morphemes toform a new word. The new word form is called a compound.i.e. fifteen, Sunday, Monday.b.Derivation i.e. antislavery, deprogram, disapprove, robotics.c.Conversion i.e. n.→v. elbow →to elbowv.→n. to doubt →doubtadj./adv.→v. dry →to dryadj. →n. native →two nativesd.Abbreviation i.e. bicycle →bikegymnasium →gymomnibus →busUNWTOe.Back formation i.e. to audit ←auditionto donate ←donationto enthuse ←enthusiasmf.Neologism i.e. moonwalker, software, internetg.Borrowing i.e. paper tiger, moonrise, cold war4.Syntax1.What are constituents in syntactic analysis? (P 98)Constituents are structural units, i.e. any linguistic form, such as words or word groups.When constituents are considered as part of the successive unraveling of a sentence, they are known as its immediate constituents.2.What is immediate Constituent Analysis? (P 98)The segmentation of the sentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary cuttings until its ultimate constituents are obtained is an important approached to the realization of the nature of language, called Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis). The analysis can be carried out in ways of tree diagrams, bracketing, or any other.3.According to their structures and forms, what are major types of English sentences?According to their structures and forms, sentences can be divided into simple sentences, coordinate sentences, and complex sentences. (P 100)a. A simple sentence is a group of words which expresses a single independent thought.b. A coordinate sentence or compound sentence is a group of words which expresses twoor more connected and coordinate thoughts.c. A complex sentence is a group of words which expresses two or more unified thoughts,one of which is the main or principle thought dependent on it one or more subordinate thoughts.4.According to functional approach, what are major types of English sentences? List themwith examples. (P 101)a.declarativePauline gave Mary a digital watch for her birthday.b.interrogativeDid Pauline give Tom a digital watch for his birthday?c.imperativeGive me a digital watch for my birthday.d.exclamatoryWhat a fine watch he received for his birthday!5.Semantics1.What is semantic field? (P 134)Semantic field refers to the organization of related lexemes into a system which shows their relationship to one another.2.Distinctions between conceptual meaning and associative meaning. (P 126)a.Conceptual meaning refers to the definition given in the dictionary.It is widely assumed to be the central factor in linguistic communication and is integral to the essential functioning of language.b.Associative meaning refers to the meaning associated with the conceptual meaning,which can be further divided into following five types:Connotative meaningSocial meaningAffective meaningReflected meaningCollocative meaning3.Distinctions among synonymy (P 136), antonym (P 138), meronymy (P 140), hyponymy(P 140).a.Words or expressions with the same or similar meaning are said to be synonymous.Synonyms are words or expressions that share common semantic features.Synonyms can be used as a rhetorical device to make the expressions coherent, varied and/or more colorful.b.Antonymy is the relationship of oppositeness of meaning.Antonyms can be used as a rhetorical device to make the expressions more contrastive and impressive.c.Meronymy is a term used to describe a part-whole relationship between lexical items.Meronymy reflects hierarchical classifications in the lexicon.d.Hyponymy is used to refer to a specific-general semantic relationship between lexicalitems.A word may be the meronymy of one term but the hyponymy of another. Hyponymydiffers from meronymy in transitivity. Hyponymy is always transitive in the sense that there is a hierarchical relation between different terms. In contrast, meronymy may or may not be hierarchical. Meronymy and hyponymy are important routes of semantic relations along which lexical-semantic changes occur. Meronymy and hyponymy are among the widely used rhetorical devices to make the expressions more varied andcolorful.4.Distinctions between sentence meaning and utterance meaning (P 132)a.sentence meaning is directly predictable from the grammatical meaning and utterancefeatures of the sentence.b.Utterance meanings may not be directly related with them. You have to depend onvarious contextual factors to comprehend the utterance meaning.5.Distinctions between lexical meaning and grammatical meaning. (P130)a.lexical meaning is expressed by those “meaningful” parts of speech, such as noun. verb,adjectives, and adverbs, and is given in the dictionary.b.Grammatical meaning is expressed by such syntactic categories as the distinctionbetween the subject and the object of a sentence, oppositions of definiteness, tense and number, and function words and intonation.c.The total meaning constitute the linguistic meanings, not the total meaning. The totalmeaning of our utterance consists always of the linguistic meanings plus the social-cultural meanings.6.Pragmatics and Text Analysis1.What is the cooperative principle? Please give some examples flouting these four maximswhich may cause the conversational implicature. (P 169)a.According to the cooperative principle, the participants in a conversation normallycommunicate in a maximally efficient, rational and cooperative way. They should speak sincerely, relevantly, and clearly, while providing sufficient information.b.The maxim of qualityc.The maxim of quantityd.The maxim of relevancee.The maxim of manner2.Identify the cohesive ties (grammatical devices or lexical ones) in a discourse. 如课后练习会找出语篇中的衔接手段(P 184)nguage and Social Culture1.What is dialect? (P 204) (regional (P 206), social (P 207), ethnic (P 209))a.Dialect refers to any regional, social, or ethic variety of a language.The dialects of a single language may be defined as mutually intelligible forms of a language that differ in systematic ways from each other.b.Regional dialect refers to the language variety used in a geographical region.c.Social dialect is used to describe differences in speech associated with various socialgroups or classes.d.Ethnic varieties are used by ethnic groups and regarded as social dialect.2.Features of Black English. (P 210)a.Consonant deletion rule is used.b.In syntax, the frequent absence of various forms of “be” is one of its prominent syntacticfeatures.c.Another syntactic feature of black English is the systematic use of the expression “it is”where Standard English uses “there is” in the sense of “there exists”.d.Another syntactical feature of black English is the use of double negation constructions.3.Shifts of meaning (P 219) and syntactical change (P 222) in language change process.a.More productive as a way enlarging the vocabulary than borrowing and creating newwords from native elements is expanding the meaning of word that already exists in the language.(by amelioration; the opposite of amelioration; through generalization; through specialization and refer to a smaller class of objects; through all of these.)b.Some differences between the sentence structures in Old English and those in ModernEnglish involve word order. (the loss of a large number of inflectional affixes from many part of speech; the loss, the addition, and the modification of rules; the syntactic behavior of auxiliary verbs and negation.)nguage Acquisition and Thought1.Can you identify two major causes for learners’ errors in second or foreign languagelearning? Please illustrate with examples when necessary.(P 271)a.Interlingual transfer.b.Intralingual transfer2.What are three major syllabuses for foreign language teaching? (classification anddefinition) (P 254—P 257)a.Grammatical syllabus takes grammar as the basis for (foreign) language teaching. To theadvocates of this syllabus, grammar is primary in the study of a foreign language, and the study of grammar is not only beneficial to the learner’s comprehension and translation of the target language but also to the development of the learner’s intelligence.b.Situational syllabus refers to a syllabus in which the instruction of language teaching isplanned around the situations in which the linguistic forms to be taught are normally used. It has sociolinguistics as its theoretical basis.municative syllabus focuses language teaching on the development of the learner’scommunicative competence. The communicative syllabus is based on the assumption that language is used for communication, and that learning a language is learning to communicate.。
语言学复习资料
第一章绪论A.Define the following terms, giving examples for illustration.1. linguistics2. langue3. parole4. arbitrariness5. displacement6. language7. design features 8. performance 9. competence 10. semanticsB.Fill in each blank with one word.1.Linguistics is the scientific study of ＿＿＿.2.In professional usage, the ＿＿＿is a scholar who studies language objectively,observing it scientifically, recording the facts of language, and generalizing from them.3.When the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of use, itbecomes another branch of linguistic study called ＿＿＿.4.The study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society from thecore of the branch is called ＿＿＿.5.If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is ＿＿＿.6.The branch of study related to sounds is called ＿＿＿.7.＿＿＿relates the study of language to psychology. Modern linguistics carried out inthe century is mostly ＿＿＿, it differs from the linguistic study normally known as “grammar”.nguage refers to the ＿＿＿linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity.9.Chomsky defines ＿＿＿as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language and＿＿＿of the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.10.Five of the design features of human language are ＿＿＿, ＿＿＿, ＿＿＿, ＿＿＿,＿＿＿.C.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.1.The study of language as a whole is often called ＿＿＿.A. general linguisticsB. sociolinguisticsC. psycholinguisticsD. applied linguistics2.The study of language meaning is called ＿＿＿.A. syntaxB. morphologyC. semanticsD. pragmatics3.The description of a language at some point in time is a ＿＿＿.A. diachronicB. synchronicC. descriptiveD. prescriptive4.＿＿＿made the distinction between langue and parole.A. ChomskyB. SapirC. HallD. Saussure5.Which of the following isn’t the design features of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. PerformanceC. DualityD. Displacement6.Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of some practicalproblems, the study of such applications is known as ＿＿＿.A. anthropological linguisticsB. computational linguisticsC. applied linguisticsD. mathematical linguistics7.＿＿＿refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity.A. ParoleB. LangueC. SpeechD. Writing8.The definition “language is a purely human and non-instinctive method ofcommunicat ing ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols”was proposed by ＿＿＿.A. SapirB. HallC. ChomskyD. Bloomfield9.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a goodillustration of the ＿＿＿nature of language.A. arbitrarinessB. productivityC. dualityD. cultural transmission10.Which of the following isn’t a major branch of linguistics?A. PhonologyB. SyntaxC. PragmaticsD. SpeechD.Indicate the following statements true or false.1.Linguistics studies a particular language.nguage is an isolated phenomenon.3.The language a person uses often reveals his social background.nguage is human-specific.nguage is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets, and it is possible forlinguists to deal with it all at once.6.The study of sounds used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.7.The study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society is calledsociolinguistics.8.Today, the grammar taught to learners of a language is basically prescriptive, so modernlinguistics is mostly prescriptive.9.In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.10.The distinction between langue and parole is the same as the distinction betweencompetence and performance.11.Linguists Sapir and Hall both treated language as a purely human institution.12.“lblk” is not a possible sound combination in English.参考答案：B. 1. language 2. linguist 3. pragmatics 4. sociolinguistics5.descriptive6. phonology7. psycholinguistics, descriptive8. abstract9. competence, performance 10. arbitrariness, productivity, duality, displacement,cultural transmissionC. 1-5ACBDB 6-10CBAADD. 1-5FFTTF 6-10TTFTF 11-12TT第二章音系学A.Define the following terms, giving examples if necessary:1.Phonetics2.Stops3.Voicing4.Allophone5.Suprasegmental features6.Phonology7.Tone8.Consonant9.Vowel10.Narrow transcriptionB.Indicate the following statements true or false:1.Of the media of language, writing is more basic than speech.2.There have been over 5,000 languages in the world, about two thirds of which have nothad written form.3.Speech sounds are limited in number.4.Of the three branches of phonetics, the longest established, and until recently the mosthighly developed, is acoustic phonetics.5.Sound [l] in the word leaf is a dark [\].6.Sound [p] in the word “spit” is an unaspirated stop.7.In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels.8.Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a language; it aims to discover howspeech sounds form patterns and how they differ from each other.9.In English, the position of word stress distinguishes meaning.10.English is a typical tone language.11.Phonetics is of a general nature.12.Corresponding to the distinction of long and short vowels is the distinction of tense andloose vowels.C.Fill in each of following blanks.1.In linguistic evolution, ＿＿＿prior to writing.2.The three branches of phonetics are: ＿＿＿phonetics, ＿＿＿phonetics and ＿＿＿phonetics.3.The major suprasegmental features in English are: ＿＿＿＿＿＿, ＿＿＿＿＿＿and ＿＿＿.4.The major rules in phonology are ＿＿＿rule, ＿＿＿rule, and ＿＿＿rule.5.Clear [l] and dark [\] are the ＿＿＿of the phoneme [l].6.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called ＿＿＿.7.The transcription with letter-symbols only is called ＿＿＿＿＿, the transcription withdiacritics is called ＿＿＿＿＿＿.8.In English these are two affricates, ＿＿＿and ＿＿＿.9.All the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are ＿＿＿.10.＿＿＿can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language.D.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1.The ＿＿＿is the most flexible, and is responsible for more varieties of articulationthan any other.A. lipsB. nasal cavityC. tongueD. oral cavity2.Liquids is classified in the light of ＿＿＿.A. manner of articulationB. place of articulationC. place of tongueD. none of the above3.In English, there is only one glottal. It is ＿＿＿.A. [l]B. [h]C. [k]D. [f]4.The phonetic symbol for “voiced, labiodental, fricative” is ＿＿＿.A. [v]B. [d]C. [f]D. [m]5.The difference between [u] and [u:] is caused by ＿＿＿.A. the openness of the mouthB. the shape of the lipsC. the length of the vowelsD. none of the above6.What kind of tone is used when what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-factstatements?A. The rising toneB. The falling toneC. The fall-rise toneD. None of the above7.In a sentence, which of the following is usually not stressed?A. NounsB. Demonstrative pronounsC. Personal pronounsD. All of the above8.Which of the following is a typical tone language?A. EnglishB. ChineseC. FrenchD. All of the above9.Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in ＿＿＿.A. phonemic contrastB. complimentary distributionC. minimal pairD. None of the above10.The sound [v] can be described as ＿＿＿.A．voiced, labiodental, fricativeB．voiceless, labiodental, affricateC．voiced, alveolar, fricativeD．None of the above参考答案: A. 1-5 FTTFF 6-10TTFTF 11-12TF C. 1-5 CABAC 6-10 BCBBAB. 1. speech 2. articulatory, auditory, acoustic 3. word stress, sentence stress,intonation 4.sequential, assimilation, deletion 5. allophone 6. voicing 7. broadtranscription, narrow transcription 8. [] [] 9. rounded 10. Phone第3章形态学A.Decide whether each of the following statements is T (true) or F (false).（）1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.（）2. Inflectional morphology is one of the two sub-branches of morphology.（）3. The structure of words is not governed by rules.( ) 4. A morpheme is the basic unit in the study of morphology.( ) 5. Free morphemes are the same as bound morphemes.( ) 6. Sometimes bound morphemes can be used by themselves.( ) 7. There is only one type of affixes in the English language.( ) 8. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.( ) 9. Compounding is the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.( ) 10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.B.Fill in each blank below with one word.1. __________ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.2. The affix "-es" conveys a __________ meaning.3. __________ morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all bythemselves.4. __________ affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such asnumber, degree, and case.5. The affixes occurring at the beginning of a word are called __________.6. The combination of two or sometimes more that two words to create new words is called__________7. Semantically, the meaning of a __________ is often idiomatic, not always being the sum totalof the meanings of its components.8. __________ morphology studies word-formation.9. A __________ can never stand by itself although it bears clears, definite meaning.10. __________ are added to the end of stems.C.There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that canbest complete the statement.( ) 1. The word "boyish" contains two ____________.A. phonemesB. morphsC. morphemesD. allomorphs( ) 2. Inflectional ____________ studies inflections.A. derivationB. inflectionC. phonologyD. morphology( ) 3. ____________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. FreeB. BoundC. RootD. Affix( ) 4. ____________ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes( ) 5. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of ____________to froma new word.A. rootB. affixC. stemD. word参考答案：A．1-5 TTFTF 6-10 FFTFTB. 1. Morpheme 2. grammatical 3. Free 4. Inflectional5. prefixes6. derivation7. compound8. Derivational9. root 10. SuffixesC．1-5 CDBAC第5章语义学A．Indicate the following statements T (true) or F (false).( ) 1. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation ofmeaning they are linked through the meditation of concepts in the mind.( ) 2. Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of meaning.( ) 3. There are words with more or less the same meaning based in different regional dialects. ( ) 4. Componential analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can not be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.( ) 5. One advantage of componential analysis is that by specifying the semantic features of certain words, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning. ( ) 6. Among the approaches to the study of meaning, the naming theory is better than others.( ) 7. Kid and child are stylistic synonyms.( ) 8. "furniture" is the superordinate of "bed".( ) 9. Antonyms contrast each other only on a single dimension, such as "live" and "die".( )10. "Cold" and "hot" are complementary antonyms.( )11. In English, there is no argument in some sentences.( )12.The sentence "Tom, smoke!" and "Tom smokes." have the same semantic predication. ( )13. The sentences that contain the same words are same in meaning.( )14. The meaning of a word is the combination of all its elements, and so is the sentence. ( )15. The meaning of the word we often use is the primary meaning.( )16. Meaning is central to the study of communication.( )17. The naming theory of meaning was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.( )18. In the classic semantic triangle, the symbol is directly related to the referent.( )19. Sense and reference are the same.( )20. Complete synonyms are rare in language.( )21. Stylistic synonyms differ in style because they come from different regions.( )22. Polysemy is the same as homonymy.( )23. Homophones are words which are identical in sound.( )24. The superordinate term is more general in meaning than its hyponyms.( )25. In a pair of gradable antonyms, the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.( )26. In componential analysis, the plus sign is used to indicate that a certain semantic feature is present.( )27. The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality.( )28. All the grammatically well-formed sentences are semantically well-formed.( )29. A predicate is something said about an argument.( )30. There is only one argument in the sentence "Kids like apples".B. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word.1.In semantic analysis, ___________ is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.2.___________ restrictions are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.3.___________ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided intomeaning components4.___________ is a relation of inclusion.5.For ___________ antonyms, it is a matter of either one or the other.6.There are often intermediate form between the two members of a pair of ___________antonyms.7.The various meanings of a ___________ word are related to some degree.8.Synonyms which differ in the words they go together with are called___________synonyms.9.Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different ___________ in differentsituations.10.___________ is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.11.___________ is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from observablecontexts.12.There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to according to the___________ view.13.According to Wittgenstein, for a large class of cases, the meaning of a word is its___________ in the language.14.In the study of meaning, ___________ focus their interest on understanding the human mindthrough language.15.According to the ___________ theory of meaning, the words in a language are taken to belabels of the objects they stand for.16.Autumn and Fall are two ___________ ___________.17.The words of English are classified into ___________ words and ___________ words.18.Hyponymy is the relation of ___________, superordingate entails all ___________.19.“Father” and “son” are ___________ ___________.20.In the sentences of entailment, if X is true, Y is ___________.21.___________ is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.22.___________ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.23.The same one word may have more that one meaning, this is what we called ___________,and such a word is called ___________ word.24.___________ refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and amore specific word.25.In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called ___________.C．Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:( ) 1. “Lorry” and “truck” are ____________.A. dialectal synonymsB. stylistic synonymsC. synonyms that differ in their emotive meaningD. none of the above( ) 2. Which pair is the emotive synonyms ____________.A. dad, fatherB. flat, apartmentC. mean, frugalD. charge, accuse( ) 3. In the collocational synonyms, "rebuke" is collocated by ____________.A. withB. forC. ofD. against( ) 4. The noun tear and the verb tear are ____________.A. homophonesB. homographsC. complete homonymsD. none of the above( ) 5. The sentence John likes ice-cream contains ____________ arguments.A. oneB. twoC. noneD. three( ) 6. The classic semantic triangle reflects ____________.A. the naming theoryB. the conceptual viewC. the contextualist viewD. the behaviorist view( ) 7. ____________ concerns with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form; it's abstract and de-contextualized.A. ReferenceB. SemanticC. SenseD. none of the above( ) 8. The same word may have more than one meaning, which is called ____________.A. synonymyB. homonymyC. hyponymyD. polysemy( ) 9. ____________ analysis is a way to analyze sentence meaning.A. ComponentialB. PredicationC. SyntacticD. none of the above( )10. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called ____________.A. selectional restrictionsB. grammatical rulesC. phrase structure rulesD. all of the above( ) 11. Semantics can be defined as the study of ____________.A. namingB. meaningC. communicationD. context( ) 12. In the study of meaning, the ____________ are interested in understanding the relations between linguistic expressions and what they refer to in the real world.A. linguistsB. philosophersC. psychologistsD. phoneticians( ) 13. The linguistic ____________ is sometimes known as co-text.A. contextB. situationC. contextualizationD. situation of context( ) 14. Bloomfield drew on _____________ psychology when trying to define the meaning of linguistic forms.A. contextualB. conceptualistC. behavioristD. naming( ) 15. Sense and reference are two related ______________ different aspects of meaning.A. butB. andC. orD. as well as( ) 16. ____________ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.A. SenseB. ReferenceC. MeaningD. Semantics( ) 17. Dialectal synonyms are synonyms used in different ____________ dialects.A. personalB. regionalC. socialD. professional( ) 18. Hyponyms of the same ____________ are co-hyponyms.A. wordB. lexical itemC. superordinateD. hyponymy( ) 19. Words that are opposite in meaning are ____________.A. synonymsB. hyponymsC. antonymsD. homophones( ) 20. An ____________ is a logical participant in a predication.A. argumentB. predicateC. predicationD. agentD. Define the following terms, giving examples for illustration.1. semantics2. the naming theory3. superordinate4. complete homonym5. hyponymy参考答案：A. 1-5 TTTFT 6-10 FFTFF 11-15 TTFFF 16-20 TTFFT21-25 FFTTF 26-30 TTFTFB. 1. predication 2. Selectional 3. componential 4. Entailment5. complementary6. gradable7. polysemic8. collocational9. references 10. Sense 11. Contextualization 12. conceptualist13. use 14. psychologists 15. naming 16. stylistic synonyms17. native, loan 18. entailment, hyponyms 19. relational opposites20. true 21. Sense 22. Reference 23. polysemy, polysemic24. Hyponymy 25. predicationC. 1-5 ACBBB 6-10 BCDBA 11-15 BBACA 16-20 BBCCA第6章语用学A．Decide whether each of the following statements is T (true) or F (false). ( ) 1. The contextualist view is often considered as the initial effort to study meaning in a pragmatic sense.( ) 2. Pragmatics is related to and also different from semantics.( ) 3. The notion of context is not important to the pragmatic study of language.( ) 4. All utterances take the form of sentences.( ) 5. Speech act theory was proposed by the British philosopher John Austin in the late 1950s ofthe 20th century.( ) 6. Grice made a distinction between what he called "constatives" and "performatives". ( ) 7. A locutionary act is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology.( ) 8. In their study of language communication, linguists are only interested in how a speaker expresses his intention and pay no attention to how his intention is recognized by thehearer.( ) 9. Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something.( ) l0. The Cooperative Principle was proposed by John Searle.( ) 11. There are four maxims under the Cooperative Principle.( ) 12. The violations of the maxims make our language indirect.( ) 13. All the utterances take the form of sentences.( ) 15. According to the speech act theory, when we are speaking a language, we are doing something, or in other words performing acts; and the process of linguisticcommunication consists of a sequence of acts.( ) 16. All the acts that belong to the same category of illocutionary act share the same purpose or the same illocutionary act, and they are the same in their strength or force.( ) 17. All the utterances that can be made to serve the same purpose may vary in the syntactic form.( ) 18. Conversation participants nearly always observe the CP and the maxims of the CP. ( ) 19. A sentence is a grammatical concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication.( ) 20. Utterance is based on sentence meaning, it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication or simply in a context.( ) 22. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.( ) 23. Gradually linguists found that it would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.( ) 24. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.( ) 25. Without the shared knowledge both by the speaker and the hearer, linguistic communication would not be possible, and without considering such knowledge,linguistic communication cannot be satisfactorily accounted for in a semantic sense. ( ) 26. An perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention.( ) 27. According to Paul Grice's idea, in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. ( ) 28. An illocutionary act is the consequence of or the change brought about by the utterance.B. Fill each of the following blanks with one word.1. The shared knowledge which constitutes context is of two types; the knowledge of the _____they use, and the knowledge about the _____, including the general knowledge aboutthe word and specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communicationis taking place.2. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, itbecomes an _____, and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actuallyused.3. The idea of Paul Grice is that in making conversation, the participants must first of all bewilling to _____; otherwise, if would be impossible for them to carry on the talk. Thegeneral principle is called the ______ ______, abbreviated as CP.4. There are four maxims under the CP: the maxim of quantity, the maxim of ______, themaxim of relation and the maxim of ______.5. The maxim of relation requires that what the conversation participants say must be ______.6. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certaincontext, ______can be regarded as a kind of meaning study.7. If ______ is not considered, the study of meaning is restricted to the area of traditionalsemantics.8. The meaning of an _______is concrete and context-dependent.9. An ______ is not considered, the study of meaning is restricted to the area of traditionalsemantics.10. According to Searle, ______ acts fall into five general categories.11. ______ are those speech acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course ofaction.12. To ask someone to pass a book is obviously a ______.13. According to Paul Grice, in making ______, the participants must first of all be willing tocooperate.14. Most of the violations of the four maxims give rise to ______ implicatures.15. The significance of Grice’s ______ Principle lies in that it explains how it is possible for thespeaker to convey more than is literally said.C．There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.( ) 1. __________ resulted mainly from the expansion of the study of linguistics, especially that of semantics.A. PragmaticsB. PragmatismC. PhonologyD. Practicalism( ) 2. Once the notion of __________ was taken into consideration, semantics spilled into pragmatics.A. meaningB. contextC. formD. content( ) 3. If a sentence is regarded as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes __________.A. a sentenceB. an actC. a unitD. an utterance( ) 4. A __________ analysis of an utterance will reveal what the speaker intends to do with it.A. semanticB. syntacticC. pragmaticD. grammatical( ) 5. __________ act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language.A. SpeakingB. SpeechC. SoundD. Spoken( ) 6. __________ act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something.A. A locutionaryB. An illocutionaryC. A perlocutionaryD. A speech( ) 7. One of the contributions Searle has made is his classification of __________ acts.A. IocutionaryB. illocutionaryC. perlocutionaryD. speech( ) 9. All the utterances that can be made to serve the same purpose may vary in their __________ form.A. syntacticB. semanticC. grammaticalD. pragmatic( ) 10. The Cooperative Principle is proposed by __________.A. John SearleB. John AustinC. Paul GriceD. John Lyons( ) 11. Linguists found that it would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the __________ of language use was left unconsidered.A. brevityB. contextC. accuracyD. none of the above( ) 12. Of the three speech acts, linguists are most interested in the __________.A. locutionary actB. perlocutionary actC. illocutionary actD. none of the above( ) 13. The maxim of quantity requires: __________A. make your contribution as informative as required.B. do not make contribution more informative than is required.C. do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.D. Both A and B.( ) 14. The maxim of quality requires: do not say what you believe to be __________.A. falseB. trueC. briefD. orderly( ) 15. Most of the violations of the maxims of the CP give rise to __________.A. utterance meaningB. speech act theoryC. conversational implicatureD. all of the above( ) 16. The significance of Grice's CP lies in that it explains how it is possible for the speaker to convey __________ is literally said.A. more thanB. less thanC. the same asD. none of the aboveD. Define the following terms, giving examples for illustration:1. context2. utterance meaning3. locutionary act4. illocutionary act5. perlocutionary art参考答案：A. 1-5 TTFFT 6-10 FTFTF 11-16 TTFTT 16-20 FTFTT 21-25 FTFTF 26-28 FTFB. 1. language, world 2. utterance 3. cooperate, Cooperative Principle4. quality, manner5. relevant6. pragmatics7. context8. utterance 9. illocutionary 10. speech 11. Commissives12. directive 13. conversation 14. conversational 15. CooperativeC. 1-5ABDCB 6-10 CBCAC 11-15 BCDAC 16 A。
语言学复习资料 英语专业
I. Multiple Choice1. The study of language as a whole is often called _____ linguistics.A. particularB. generalC. ordinaryD. generative2. A _____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle3. 3. The low, back and tense, unrounded vowel is ____.A. [ ɑ:]B. [ɔ:]C. [ə: ]D. [u:]4. ____ are sometimes called “semivowels”.A. vowelsB. fricativeC. glidesD. nasals5. _____ is a typical tone language.A. EnglishB. ChineseC. FrenchD. American English6. Human beings are the only species that learns and acquires language ____ explicit instruction.A. withB. withoutC. withinD. through7. According to F. de Saussure, _____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. language8. Acoustic phonetics try to describe the _____ properties of the stream of sounds which a speakers issues.A. oralB. mentalC. physicalD. recorded9. _____ is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.A. PhonologyB. phoneticsC. MorphologyD. Phonemics10. _____ transcription is the use of more specific symbols to sow more phonetic details.A. BroadB. DetailedC. WideD. Narrow11. The word “motel” is formed via word formation rule of _____.A. clippingB. blendingC. acronymD. coinage12. If a linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct” behavior, i.e., to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be ______.A. productiveB. arbitraryC. prescriptiveD. creative13. _____ is a kind of abbreviation of otherwise longer words or phrases.A. AbbreviationB. AcronymC. ClippingD. Blending14. Since the phonetic contrast between /k/ in the word “kill” and /k/ in the word “coal” is not a distinctive one, the two /k/-s are only ____.A. phonemesB. phonesC. segmentsD. allophones15. When /p/ and /b/ occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in _____.A. minimal pairB. minimal setC. phonemic contrastD. complementary distribution16. ____ at the end of stems can modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.A. RootsB. PrefixesC. SuffixesD. Free morphemes17. As /k/ in the word “came” and /g/ in the word “game” are said to form a distinctive opposition in English, they are _____.A. soundsB. phonemesC. allophonesD. varieties18. The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are _____ sounds.A. consonantalB. voicedC. vowelD. voiceless19. _____ are added to an existing form to create a word, which is a very common way to create new words in English.A. Inflectional affixesB. Free morphemesC. Derivational affixesD. Stems20. _____ studies how sounds are put together to convey meaning in communication.A. PhonologyB. MorphologyC. LexicologyD. Phonetics21. A compound word consists of ______.A. two wordsB. two morphemesC. two root morphemesD. two or more morphemes22. “alive” and “dead” are _____ .A. gradable antonymsB. relational oppositesC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above23.The meaning carried by inflectional morphemes is _____.A. lexicalB. grammaticalC. morphemicD. semanticII. Fill in each blank with ONE word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue.1.The affixes occurring at the beginning of a word are called p___________.2.The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are calleds_______________ features.3.C_______________ is a process of combining two or more words into a new word.4.If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to bed________________.5.F________ morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all bythemselves.6.B___________ is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.7.C______________ distribution means that the allophones of the same phoneme always occurin different phonetic environment.8.Affixes like “im-”, “il-”, “un-”, “-tion”, are called d___________ affixes.9.P________ occur at the beginning of a word and suffixes at the end.10.Linguistics is generally defined as the s____________ study of language.11.D______________ means that language can be used to refer to things present or not present,real or imagined in the past, present, or future, or in faraway places.12.I____________ affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories suchas number, degree and case.13.The four sounds /p/, /b/, /m/, /w/ have one feature in common, i.e., they are all b__________.14.M______________ is branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words andthe rules by which words are formed.15.S____________ can be define as the study of meaning.III. Judge if each of the following is true or false:1.The root of a word is the smallest meaningful unit of language.2.Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: wordstress and sentence stress.3.An acronym is a shorthand form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form.4.Suffixes, in contrast with prefixes, are added to the end of stems.5.It is the property of arbitrariness that provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about awide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and place.6. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.7.The location of one of the suprasegmental features in English ---- stress does not distinguishmeaning.nguages vary in the order of the subject, the verb and the object.9.Words are the smallest unit of language that can not be broken down into even smallercomponents.10.Blending is process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.IV. Explain the following terms briefly:2. Duality: one design feature of human language which refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such as units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.3. Displacement: one design feature of human language which means human language enables their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present in time and space at the moment of communication.4. Creativity: one design feature of human language by which we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.6. Langue: According to Saussure, refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.9. Assimilation: a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.V. Questions:1. What are the major functions of language according to Holliday?Language functions include informative function, interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic function, recreational function and metalingual function.4. How are pure vowels classified?There are four ways to classify simple vowels: (1) According to the height of the tongue raising: high, middle, low. (2) According to the position of the highest part of the tongue: front, central, back. (3) According to the shape of the lips (the degree of lip-rounding): rounded, unrounded. (4) According to the length or tenseness of the vowel: long v.s short or tense v.s lax.。
英语专业语言学期末复习资料
Phonetics (sound)语音学；phonology(sounds) 音系学；morphology(word) 形态学；syntax(words, sentence)句法学；semantics(meaning)语义学；pragmatics(meaning ina context)语用学1. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive (modern). If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.2. Synchronic static state grammer; diachronic dynamic historical developmentngue (language): the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, stable.; Parole (speaking): the realization of langue in actual use, concrete, specific, changeable. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole.sociological or sociolinguistic point of view4. American linguist N. Chomsky Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,stable,prerequisite; Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situations,changeable.psychologically or psycholinguistically.5.Traditional grammar ---- prescriptive, written, Latin-based frameworkModern linguistics ----- descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based framework nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Design Features of Language.1:Arbitrariness2:duality:The structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e. g. words in written language) and meaningless segments (e. g. sounds, letters in spoken language).1. Combine meaningless sounds into meaningful linguistic unitsbine small units into big units3.productivity/creativity:Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to create new meanings.4.Displacement: which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.5.cultural transmission7.Six Functions of language:Addresser---Emotive the addresser expressed his attitude to the topic or situation of communication; Addressee---Conative使动xx aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking；Context---referentia所指, xx conveys a message or informationl;Message---Poetic xx uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself;Contact--Phatic communication寒暄, xx tries to establish or maintain good interpersonalrelationships with the addressee；Code--Metalingual xx uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself.8.M. A. K. Halliday.Metafunctions of Language:Ideational function:About the natural world in the broadest sense, including our own consciousness; Relates to the context of culture. Interpersonal function:About the social world, especially the relationship between speaker and hearer ; Relates to the context of situation. Contextual function:About the verbal world, especially the flow of information in a text; Relates to the verbal context.9.A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But a phone doesn’t necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don’t. A phoneme is a phonological unit;It is aunit that is of distinctive value;It is an abstract unit;It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.10. phones are placed within square brackets: [ ], and phonemes in slashes: / /.11./p/ in [pi:k] (peak) : an aspirated [ph]12./p/ in [spi:k] (speak): an unaspirated [p]13.Both [ph] and [p] are called as allophones of /p/14. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called allophones. [p, ph] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme.15. Minimal pairs: Pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound; More precisely: two words which are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string.16.Sequential rules The patterning of sounds in a particular language is governed by rules;The phonological system determines which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other.Refer to the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.17.Assimilation rule—assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, e.g. the prefix in-18. When pitch, stress, and sound length are tried to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, the rise-fall tone.19.单元音monophthongs 双元音diphthongs20.Morpheme: the minimal unit of meaning. It is the smallest unit that carries grammatical and /or semantic meaning.Morphs:The smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance on the level of parole.The phonological or orthographic forms which realize morphemes. Allomorphs:A member of a set of morphs which represent the same morpheme. Allomorphs are phonological or orthographic variants of the same morpheme.21.Free morpheme is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc.Bound morpheme is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme, such as “-s”in “dogs”, “-al”in “national”, “dis-”in “disclose”, “-ed”in “recorded”, etc.22.Derivational morphemes—the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class,or meaning of words. e.g. modern —modernizeInflectional morphemes:purely grammatical markers;signifying tense, number, and case;not changing the syntactic category; never adding any lexical meaningpounding (合成词) blackboard; Derivation(派生词) --ful ---able;Back-formation逆构词法television televise; Borrowing—loan words (外来词); Clipping（缩略词）labtory lab; Blending（混成法）motel; Acronym（词首字母）APEC；Coinage/Invention (Neologism) 创新词nylon24.Open: n. V. Adj. Adv. Bound morphemes :roots and affixes25.①traditional categories: n., v., adj., adv., prep., conj., aux., pronoun….②non-traditional categories: determiner (Det限定词), degree words (Deg程度词), qualifier (Qual修饰语).26.Three criteria are used to determine a word’s category: meaning, inflection, distribution.27.the structure or elements of phrases:XP rule specifier+head+complement28.NP (Det) + N + (PP)…29.VP (Qual) + V + (NP)…30.AP (Deg) + A + (PP)…31.PP (Deg) + P + (NP)…32.S →NP VP33.Deep structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties, is called ds. Surface structure: corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called ss. Do insertion, WH movement.34.Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformation. A special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.35.Head: A V N P36. Semantics is generally considered to be the study of meaning in language.37. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form And what it refers to (i.e.between language and real world ); rather, in the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Semantic triangle by ogden and richards: symblo/form, thought/ reference/, refrent.38.Contextualism: Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context ---- elements closely linked with language behavior. JR forth39.Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. The relationship between sense and reference:And, if等只有sense, 而无reference.一个sense可以有许多reference同一referenece可有不同的sense，Mrs Thatcher, & the Iron Lady. Morning Star & Evening Star.40.Major sense relations: Synonymy (同义关系)Antonymy (反义关系)Polysemy (多义关系)Homonymy (同音/形异义) Hyponymy (上下义关系)41.Antonymy: Complementary antonyms (互补反义词)非A即B; Gradable antonyms (程度反义词) :AB有中间, very .. How..; Relational opposites （关系对立词）丈夫妻子42.Sense relations between sentences: Synonymy (同义关系) inconsistency (自相矛盾)Entailment (蕴涵)Presupposition (预设)X is a contradiction (自相矛盾)X is semantically anomalous (反常的43.man [+HUMAN +ADULT +MALE] women [+HUMAN +ADULT －MALE]girl [+HUMAN －ADULT －MALE] child [+HUMAN －ADULT OMALE]father: PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x)x is a parent of y, and x is male.take: CAUSE (x, (HA VE (x, y)))x causes x to have y.give: CAUSE (x, (~HA VE (x, y)))x causes x not to have y.44.predication analysis: G.leech: argument 名词predicate 动词45. Pragmatics --- the study of the intended meaning of a speaker (taking context into consideration). Pragmaticists regard meaning as something that is realized in the course of communication.Semantics --- the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration).Semanticists take meaning to be an inherent property of language. Essential difference is that whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. 不senmantics.46.Sentence meaning: It is abstract and context-independent; it’s the literal meaning of a sentence. Utterance meaning: It is concrete and context-dependent; It’s the intended meaning of a speaker.It is the product of sentence meaning and context. Therefore, it is richer than the meaning of the sentence.47.John Austin’s speech act theory.Performatives (行事话语): I promise Constatives (述事话语)48.A locutionary act (言内行为) is the act of saying words, phrases, clause; it is an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.An illocutionary act (言外行为) is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. 关注A perlocutionary act (言后行为) is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.act performed by saying sth.49.Searle’s classification of speech acts:Representatives (陈述) Directives (指令)Commissives (承诺) Expressives (表达) Declarations (宣布)50.CP Grice:The maxim of quality: ck adequate evidence.The maxim of quantity信息充足; The maxim of relation继续下去; The maxim of manner方式表达清楚模糊词绕口1. P_________ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Pragmatics2. The notion of c_________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.context3. The meaning of a sentence is a_______, and decontexualized.abstract4. P________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.Performatives1. An i__________ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the actperformed in saying something.illocutionary2. A c_________ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.commissive3. An e________ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.expressive4. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of q_______, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.quantity4. ____C______ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act5. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is _B_____.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs1. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent. F2. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. T3. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is. F4. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle. F5. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century. T6. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative. T7. Perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention. F1. A __bound_____ morpheme is one that cannot constitute a word by itself.2. On, before and together are__close_____words—they are words which do not take inflectional endings.3. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __affix__ and __root__ root.4. Pronouns, prepositions,conjunctions and articles are all_close__class items.5. handsome consists of 2 morphemes, one is the _free___ morpheme hand, the other is the __bound__ morpheme some.1.There are _C__ morphemes in the word denationalization?A. 3B. 4.C. 5.D. 62. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called___A_ morphemes.A. inflectionalB.freeC. boundD. Derivational1. Major lexical categories are___N__, __V__, __adj__and____prep_.2. The deep structure refers to ____.3. when the affirmative sentence "Jack sold his textbooks to jill after the final examination' is transformed into "When did jack sell his textbooks to Jill?", three transformational rules are applied. they are__Do insertion__, subject-aux inversion and __Wh movement__.4. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called __transformation______.5. The head is the word __n v a p___.1. Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words.F2. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase. F3. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.T1. Phonetics studies the phonic medium of a certain language. ( F )2. The long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are all lax vowels. ( T )3. In English, pill and bill are a minimal pair, and so are pill and till, pin and ping. ( T )4. The phoneme /p/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, therefore they’re in phonetic complementary distribution. ( F )5. The sequential rules in English can apply to all the other languages. For example, the velar nasal /N/ never occurs in the initial position in English nor in Chinese.( F )The pharynx refers to the space of cavity between the larynx and the end of the __C____.A. tongueB. hard palateC. soft palateD. vocal cords2. A sound produced when the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration is said to be___B__.A. resonantB. voicelessC. voicedD. vowel3. The obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sound ___A___.A. /t/ and /d/B. /k/ and /g/C. /p/ and /b/D. / N/ and / W/4. The phoneme is an abstract ___B_ unit.A. phonicB. phonologicalC. phoneticD. grammatical5. The sound /k/ and /g/ are separate __B____.A. allophonesB. phonemesC. morphemesD. Allomorphs。
英语语言学复习提纲
英语语言学复习提纲ⅠIndicate the following statements true or false1 Linguistics studies one specific language. F2 Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because it sets rules for language users to follow. F3 When we say synchronic descriptions of a language are prior to diachronic descriptions, we mean in describing one state of the language, some knowledge of its previous state is unnecessary. F4 the vowel /e/ can be described as front, semi-open and unrounded. F5 In English, pill and bill are a minimal pair, and so are pill and till, pin and ping.F6 the long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are all lax vowels. T7 The phoneme /p/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning. F8 Free morphemes may be subdivided into inflectional and derivational morphemes. F9 the word “standing” is made up of two bound morphemes; “stand” and “ing ”. F10 Comparing with he specific phonological rules, the morpholongical rules can be generalized. F11 the part of a sentence which comprises an infinite verb or a verb phrase is grammatically called predicate. F12 A coordinate sentence contains two finite classes joined by a conjunction. F13 The D-structure of a sentence and S-structure of a sentence may look the same. T14 All the lexical items have certain combinational properties that allow them to combine with words of different categories to form phrases. F15 by using move a rule, we can move any constituents to any positions we 21want without any restrictions. F16 Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of meaning. T17 One advantage of componential analysis is that by specifying the semantic features of certain words, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning. T18 Componential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze sentence meaning. F19 The fact is the more commonly used word is, the more likely it has acquired only one meaning. F20 Utterance is based on sentence meaning: it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, of simply in a context. T21 as the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain contest, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. T22 a perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention. F23 acconding to Paul Grice’s idea, in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate: otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. T24 in general language, acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is , the native language of the Community in which a child has been brought up. T25 A Certain amount of conscious instruction from the part of the parents and peers may have no effect on the language of a child. F26 SLA is primarily the study of how learners acquire or learn an additional language after they have acquired their first language. T27 a SIMILE is a way of comparing one thing with another, of explaining what one thing is like by showing how it is similar to another thing, and it explicitly signals itself in a text , with the words as as or like. T28 most people are familiar with the idea of RHYME in poetry, indeed for some, this is what defines poetry. T29 according to Krashen’s INPUT HYPOTHESIS, learners acquire language as a result of comprehending input addressed to them. T30 Syllabus design is a bridge between language teaching theory and language teaching practice. T Ⅱin each of the following questions, there are four choices. Decide which one would be the best answer to the question or best complete sentence.1 The distinction between langue and parole was made by _____.A. N.ChomskeyB. F.de.SaussureC. Charles HockettD. Sir William jones2 The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language is the language _____.A .competenceB performanceC acquisitionD genetical transmission3 The obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sound _____.A. /p/ and /b/B. /k/ and /g/C. /t/ and /d/D. /θ/ and /η/4 when the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly with the friction resulting from partial obstruction, the sounds thus produced are _____.A affricatesB fricativesC liquidsD alveolar5 The smallest meaningful unit of language is _____.A allomorphemeB phoneC phonemeD morpheme6 The word “modernizers” is composed of _____ morphemes.A 4B 3C 6D 57 The syntactic components provide the _____for a sentence.A lexiconB structureC meaningD sound8 Transformational rules do not change the basic _____ of sentences.A meaningB structureC formD sound pattern9 Transformational grammar is a type of grammar first proposed by _____ in his book language.A Noam ChomskyB SapirC HjelmslevD Bloomfield10 The study of the linguistic meaning of words phrases and sentences is called _____.A. pragmaticsB. semanticsC. linguisticsD. syntax11 The pair of words “lend” and “borrow” are _____.A. gradable oppositesB. relational oppositesC. synonymsD. co-hponyms12 What is the meaning relationship be tween the two words “flower/tulip”?A. polysemyB. homonymyC.hyponymyD. antonymy13 The word “railway” and “railroad” are _____.A. synonyms differing in emotive meaningB. dialectal synonymsC. collocationally-restricted synonymsD. synonyms differing in styles14 The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degree centigrade ” is _____.A. interrogativeB. directive performativeC. informativeD. phatic15 In the sentence “You have left the door wide open.” the speaker has expressed his intention of speaking. i.e, asking someone to close the door. This intention of speaking belongs to _____ act.A. locutionaryB. illocutionaryC. speechD. perlocutionary16 _____ describes syllables with a common vowel (cVc)A. AlliterationB. RhymeC. AssonanceD. consonance17 In English “-ise” and “-tion” are called _____.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. free morphemesⅢ. Explanation of Terms1 phonetics (P24)2 the manner of articulation (P30)3 the place of articulation (P31)4 minimal pairs (P39)5 syllable (P50)6 stress (P51)7 morpheme (P61)8 morphology (P61)9 inflection (P64)10 derivation (P67)11 relation of substitutability (P85)12 relation of co-occurrence (P86)13 syntactic function (P92)14 synonymy (P109)15 antonymy (P110)16 cognitive linguistics (P129)17 language acquisition (P142)18 pragmatics (P185)19 simile (P214)20 metaphor (P214)21 interlanguage (P271)Ⅳanswer the following questions in English1 what are the design features of language? (P3-P8)2 how can consonants be classified? (P29-P30)3 types of morphemes and give examples (P62-64)4 explain “semantic change” (P78-P80)5 Quirk ct al. introduce seven sentence types according to the grammatical functions of theconstituents involved in a sentence. What are they? (P101)6 draw the syntactic description of the sentence in Chomsky theory. “the man hits the colorful ball ” (P119)7 how many stages are there in children’s language acquisition? (P131-P134)8 how to teach culture in language teaching classroom? (P169)9 illustrate “co-operative principle” (P190-P192)10 how to analyse poetry ? (P221-P223)11 how to analyse the language of fiction? (P230)12 types of syllabus (P278-P285)13 components of syllabus (P285-P286)14 current trends in syllabus design (P286-P287)15 Halliday and systemic-functional grammar (P306-P316)16 transformational- generative grammar (P326-338)。
英语专业语言学复习资料.doc
1Arbitrariness: Human language is arbitrary. This refers to the f act that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, f or the same animal dog, in English we call it /d0g/, inCh inese as “gou”, but “yilu” in Japanese.2Duality:To human language, the way meaningless elements of language at one level (sounds and letters) combine to f orm meaningf ul units (words) at anotherlevel.3A descriptive linguisticsattempts to tell what is in the language, it attempts to describe the regular structures of the language as they are used, not according to some view of how they should be used. While the prescriptive linguistics tells people what should be in the language and tries to lay down rules to tell people how to use a language. Most modern linguistics is descriptive, whereas traditional grammars are prescriptive.4Immediate constituent analysis: The approach to divide the sentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents is called immediate constituent analysis. IC analysis is a hierarchical analysis showing the dif ferent constituents at dif ferent structural levels based on the distribution of linguistic f orms. The best way to show IC structure is to use a tree diagram. The f irst divisions or cuts are known as the immediate constituents(ICs), and the f inal cuts as the ultimate constituents(UCs).5Assimilation:Sounds belonging to one word or one syllable can cause changes in sounds belonging to neighboring words or syllables. As the f ollowing sounds bring about the change, this process is called regressive assimilation.e.g. a vowel becomes [+nasal] when f ollowed by a [+nasal] consonant.6Phonetics: The study of linguistic speech sounds that occur in all human languages , how they are produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties, is called phonetics. The task of phonetics is to identif y what are speech sounds in a language, and then to study their characteristics. It includes three main areas: articul atory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.7 Phonology: It is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. It is based on a theory of what every speaker of a language unconsciously knows about the sound patterns of that language. 8 Allophone is a phonetic variant of a phoneme in a particular language.9Recursiveness：It refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any def inite limit. The rules introducing prepositional phrases also introduce the important concept of recursion.10 Stress: The prominence given to certain sounds in speech. When a word has more than one syllables, one of them will be pronounced with more prominence than others. This brings us to another speech sound phenomenon, that of stress. When a word belongs to dif ferent word classes, the stress of the word will be sometimes placed on diff erent syllables. When all the words above are stressed on thefirst syllables, they are nouns, but if they have the second syllables stressed, the words become verb s. Stress may also have af unction at the sentence level. In this case, the phonetic f orm of word stress may be show which part of sentence is in f ocus.11Morphology: is thus the study of the internal structure, f orms and classes of words, intended structure relevant rule f or word f ormation.12Allomorph: An allomorph is a member of a set of morphs which represent the same morpheme. Allomorphs are phonological or orthographic variants of the same morpheme. Allophones are in complementary distribution, allomorphs are also in complementary distribution, that is to say, they cannot occur in the same environment. e.g. -s, -es, and -en are all allomorphs (in writing) of the plural morpheme.13Derivation: the f ormation of new words by adding aff ixes to other words or morphemes in morphology and word f ormation.14Acronym: words which are composed of the first letter of a series of words and are pronounced as single words. Exmples: NATO, radar and yuppy.15blending: A single new word can be f ormed by combining two separate f orms. Typically, blending is finished by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of another word. For example, brunch is f ormed by the shortened f orms of breakfast and lunch.16Compounding:is the f ormation of new words by joining two or more stems. We have three types of compounds: 1, noun compounds:noun+noun: armchair, rainbow; 2, verb compounds: verb+verb: to sleep-walk; 3, adjective compounds: verb+adjectives: stir-crazy17Root: Some morphemes like car, talk, f riend and tour can stand alone as words. Such morphemes are called f ree morphem es. A word must contain an element that can stand by itself, that is a free morpheme, such as talk. Such an element is called a root. remains when all aff ixes are stripped from a complex word, e.g. system f rom un- + system + atic + ally. 18Minimal pairs and sets: The phonologist is concerned with what differences are signif icant, or technically speaking, distinctive. A distinctive diff erence is one that brings about the change of meaning. In order to determine which are distinctive sounds, the customary practice is to set up minimal pairs-pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound.19Stem: A “stem” is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an aff ix can be added. It may be the same as , and in other cases, dif ferent from, a root. For example, in the w ord “f riends” , “f riend” is both the root and the stem, but in the word “f riendships”, “f riendships” is its stem, “f riend” is its root. Some words (i. e., compounds ) have more than one root ,e.g., “mailman” , “girlf riend” ,ect.20Suffix: Af f ixes can be joined to the end of the root or stem, in which case they are called suff ixes.An “affix” is the collective term f or the type of f ormative that can be used, only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem). Aff ixes are limited in number in a language, and are generally classif i ed into three subtypes: pref ix, suff ix and inf ix, e. g. , “mini-”, “un-”, ect.(pref ix); “-ise”, “-tion”, ect.(suff ix).21Syntax: the term used to ref er to the structure of sentences and to the study of sentence structure.22IC analysis: the approach to divide the sentence up into its immediate constituents byusing binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents. 23Semantics: the study of linguistic meaning.24Sense: the inherent part of an expression’s meaning, to gether with the context, determines its ref erent. 25Reference: (in semantics) the relationship between words and \ the things, actions, events and qualities they stand f or. An example in English is the relationship between the word tree and the object “tree” (ref erent) in the real world.26Seven types of meaning: Conceptual meaning; thematic meaning ; connotative meaning; social meaning; affective meaning；ref l ective meaning; collocative meaning;后5种称associ ative meaning27Lexical gap: the absence of a word in a particular place in a semantic field of a language. For instance, in English we have brother versus sister, son versus daughter, but no separate lexemes f or “male” and“f emale” cousin.28Pragmati cs: can be def ined as the study of languages in use. It deals with how speakers use languages in ways which cannot be predicted f rom linguistic knowledge alone, and how hearers arrive at the intended meaning of speakers. In a broad sense, pragmatics studies the principles observed by human beings when communicate with each other. We can roughly say that pragmatics takes care of meaning that is not covered by semantics. So people use the f ormula as itsdef inition:PRAGMATICS=MEANING-SEMANTICS. 29Anaphora: a process where a word or phrase (anaphor) refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation.30Cohesion: the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different elem ents of a text. This may be the relationship between di ff erent sentences or different parts of a sentence.31Coherence: the relationship that links the meanings of utterances in a discourse or of the sentences in a text.32Prototype: what members of a particular community think of as the best example of a lexical category, e.g. f or some English speakers “cabbage” (rather than, say, “carrot”) might be the prototypical vegetable. 33 Prototype theory: a theory of human categorization that was posited by Eleanor Rosch. Following this theory, natural categories are organized according to prototypes which are considered as the most typical or representative of the category. A robin or sparrow is regarded as a prototype of the category of “bird”. People decide whether an entity belongs to a category by comparing that entity with a prototype.34iconicity: a feature of a language which means that the structure of language reflects in some way the structure of experience, that is, the structure of the world, including the perspective imposed on the world by the speaker. Caesar’s historic words “Veni, vidi, vici (I ca me, I saw, I conquered)” is a good case to prove the iconicity of order(the similarity between temporal events and the linear arrangement of elements in a linguistic construction). Iconicity of distance a ccounts f or the fact that things which belong together conceptually tend to be put together linguistically, and things that do not belong together are put at a distance. This entails that conceptual distance corresponds to linguistic distance not merely physical distance. eg: a, I killed the chicken. b, I caused the chicken to die. Iconicity of complexity: The phenomenon that linguistic complexity ref lects conceptual complexity is usually called iconicity of complexity.35Reflective meaning: is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meanings, when one sense of a word f orms part of our response to another sense. Ref lective meaning is the product of people’s recognition and imagination.36Ambiguity: It refers to the phenomenon that an expression has more than one meaning. Two diff erent types of ambiguity can be distinguished on the basis of what is causing it: lexical ambiguity (more than one word meaning) and structural ambiguity (more than one synt actic structure) 37The diacritics: are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in theirpronunciation38Complementary distribution: [p.pH] are two different phones and are varivants of the phoneme /p/such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution, because they never occur in the same context. [p] occurred af ter [s] while [ph] occurs in other places.39syllable: A unit in speech which isof t en longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.41 the difference between derivational affix and inflectional affix (1)Inf lectional aff ixes very of t en add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem. E.g. toys, walks, John’s, etc. In contrast, derivational aff ixes of ten change the lexical meaning.E.g. cite, citation, etc.(2)Inf lectional aff ixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational aff ixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness f or the f ormer, and that between brother and brotherhood f or the latter. (3)In English, inf lectionalaff ixes are mostly suffixes, which are always wordf inal. E.g. drums, walks, etc. But derivational aff ixes can be prefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart, teacher, etc.定义：Derivational morphemes which are used to make new words in the language and are of ten used to make words of a di ff erent grammatical category from the stem Inflectional morphemes, which are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical f unction of a word.。
大学英语语言学教程知识点
大学英语语言学教程知识点英语语言学知识点.语言学 LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.1.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.2.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
3.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system ofcommunication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness 任意性Productivity 多产性Duality双重性Displacement 移位性Cultural transmission文化传递（l）arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for languageto have an unlimited source of expressions（2）ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.（3）DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷ DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.（5）Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we haveto be taught and learned the detailsof any language system, this showed that language is culturally transmitted, not by instinct, animals are bornwith the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.4.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user' s knowledge of the rules of his language.5.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
英语语言学复习资料
语言学Linguistic各章重点,学习资料整理1.1What is language？Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.2Design features of language①Arbitrariness任意性：The property of language by which there is in general no natural (i。
e。
logical）relation between the form of a single lexical unit and its meaning。
②Duality二重性Language consists of two levels of structures. The lower (secondary）level is a definite set of meaningless sounds, which combine to form meaningful units which constitute a higher (primary) level。
③Creativity创造性Language is creative in the sense that its users can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before。
④Displacement移位性By displacement is meant that language can be used to refer to things that are not present (in time and space）at the moment of communication。
1.3Functions of language①Informative信息功能Language serves an informative function when it is used to express the speaker’s opinion, to state a fact，or to reason things out。
英语语言学期末复习1
期末考试语言学复习范围2：名词解释复习范围language，speech community, bilingualism, semantics, context, locutionary act, language acquisition, phonology, psycholinguistics, langue, phoneme, culture, intercultural communication, linguistics, phonetics, competence，interlanguage, neurolinguistics, sense, morphology3：术语翻译都选自教材最后的glossary；4：简答题复习范围（主要限定在第一章、第五章、第六章、和第十章）1.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?2.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?3.What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?4.What is sense and what is reference? How are they related?5.What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?6.According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an utterance? Give an example.7.What are the three variables that determine register? Interpret them with an example.8.In what way is componential analysis similar to the analysis of phonemes into distinctive features?9.What are the major types of synonyms in English?10.What are the five design features of language specified by C. Hockeet to show that human language is essentially differentfrom any animal communication system?11.What are the four major views concerning the study of meaning?12.Why is the notion of context essential in the pragmatic study of linguistic communication?13.What are the four maxims of the Cooperative Principle (CP)? List their names and explain them briefly.14.To what extent is second language learning similar to first language learning? Can you list some proof from your ownlearning experience?15.What is the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) concerning language acquisition?16.Explain the definition：“Linguistics is the scientific study of language”.17.What are suprasegmental features? Use examples to illustrate your points.18.What is grammaticality? Is a grammatically meaningful sentence necessarily a semantically meaningful sentence?19.How are “sentence” and “utterance” and “sentence meaning” and “utterance meaning” related and how d o they differ?20.What distinction, if any, can you draw between bilingualism and diglossia?Ⅰ.For each question, there is only ONE correct answer. Choose the one from A, B, C and D.1.Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle____A. arbitrariness and creativityB. generalizations and abstractionsC. interpersonal relationshipD. performative functions2. Using language for the sheer joy of using it shows that language has a ____ function.A. recreationalB. metalingualC. informativeD. performative3. According to_____, the task of a linguist is to determine from the data of performance the underlying system of rules that has been mastered by the language user.A. Roman JacobsonB. Leonard BloomfieldC. Kenneth PikeD. Noam Chomsky4. Whose Cardinal V owel system is still in use?A. A.J. EllisB. A.M. BellC. Daniel JonesD. A. C. Gimson5. Which of the following words involves“nasalization”?A. rapB. readC. roseD. running6. Which of the following words is likely to have stress in sentences?A. aB. andC. toD. sun7. “_______” is the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language.A. WordB. LexemeC. MorphemeD. Vocabulary8. Word Class is known as in traditional grammar as _______.A. ConstructionB. parts of speechC. inflectionD. categories9. Which of the following are NOT prefixes?A. paraB. disC. irD. ion10._________is NOT included in the studies of traditional grammar.A. Classifying words into parts of speechB. Defining the properties of sentencesC. Identifying the functions of wordsD. Recognizing certain categories, like number and tense11. “Concord” has the same meaning as_____A. perfectiveB. progressiveC. agreementD. government12. Which of the following is NOT related to Noam Chomsky?A. Deep StructureB. Surface StructureC. Transformational ComponentD. Theme and Rheme13. The “semantic triangle” was proposed by______A. Plato and AristotleB. Ogden and RichardsC. Chomsky and HalleD. Leech and Palmer14. Which of the following are NOT converse antonyms?A. clever: stupidB. boy: girlC. give: receiveD. teacher: student15. “ I can refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2000 years ago.” This shows that language has the design feature of ________A. arbitrarinessB. creativityC. DualityD. Displacement16. “Don’t end a sentence with a preposition.” This is an example of _____ rules.A. prescriptiveB. descriptiveC. transformationalD. functional17. According to G.B. Shaw’s ridicule of English orthography, the non-existed word ghoti can be pronounced in the same way as______A. goatB. hotC. fishD. floor18. Which of the following is the correct description of [v]?A. voiceless labiodental fricativeB. voiced labiodental fricativeC. voiceless labiodental stopD. voiced labiodental stop19. “New elements are not to be inserted into a word even though there are several parts in a word.” This is known as ________A. uninterruptibilityB. stabilityC. extremityD. variability20. Which of the following word class is the closed-class?A preposition B. adverb C. adjective D. noun21. Which of the following are NOT suffixesA. inB. iseC. lyD. ful22. Traditional grammar sees a sentence as _________A. a sequence of morphemesB. a sequence of clausesC. a sequence of wordsD. a sequence of phrases23. _________meaning is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it refers to.A. ConnotativeB. DenotativeC. AffectiveD. Reflective24. Which of the following are gradable antonyms?A. good---badB. male----femaleC. alive----deadD. buy-----sell25. The fact that sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages proves the ________of language.A. dualityB. creativityC. arbitrarinessD. displacement26. Which of the following are correct descriptions of Langue and Parole?A. It was Chomsky that distinguished langue from parole.B. It was Martin Joo that distinguished langue from parole.C. Langue constitutes the immediately accessible data.D. The linguist’s proper object is the langue of each community.27. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in ________.A. the manners of articulationB. the places of articulationC. the position of the soft palateD. the obstruction of airstream28. When the different forms, such as tin and din, are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form_______A. allophonesB. a minimal pairC. a maximal pairD. phonemes29. The process of word formation in which a verb, for example, blacken, is formed by adding–en to the adjective black, is called_____A. inflectionB. derivationC. compoundD. backformation30. The sense relation between rose and flower is _________A. synonymB. polysemyC. hyponymyD. homonymy31.Which of the following are NOT instances of blending?A. transistorB. classroomC. boatelD. brunch32. The one that is NOT one of the suprasegmental features is ________A. syllableB. stressC. coarticulationD. intonation33. What the element”-es”indicates is third person singular, present tense, and the element “-ed”past tense, and “-ing”progressive aspect. Since they are the smallest unity of language and meaningful, they are also called_______A. phonemesB. phonesC. allophonesD. morphemes34. The term“_______”in linguistics may be defined as a way of referring to the approach which studies language change over various periods of time and at various historical stages.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. comparativeD. historical comparative35. Since early 1990s, Noam Chomsky and other generative linguists proposed and developed a theory of universal grammar known as the _______theoryA. speech actB. TGC. minimalist programD. principles-and- parametersII Decide whether the following statements are true(T) or false (F) .1.Arbitrariness means you can use languages in any way you like.（F）2.“Radar” is an invented word.(F)3.The consonant [x] existed in Old English.(T)4.Today, we normally say that English has two tenses: present and past.(T)5.Leech’s conceptual meaning has two sides: sense and reference.(T)6.Historical linguistics is a synchronic study of language.(F)7. A good method to determine the phonemes in a language is the Minimal Pairs Test.(T)8.Phonology is concerned with speech production and speech perception.(F)9.Leech uses the term “connotative” in the same sense as that in philosophical discussion.(F)10.Duality is the physical manifestation of the “ infinite use of finite terms”(T)11.The idea of a system of cardinal vowels was first suggested by Danniel Jones.(T)12.Word is the smallest unit of meaning which can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.(T)Ⅲ. Fill in each blank with ONE word.1. There are two aspects to meaning: denotation and connotation .2. Phonology is the branch of theoretical linguistics concerned with speech sounds at a higher level thanPholotics i.e. their structure and organization in human languages.3. The fact that a word may have more than one meaning is called___ in semantics.4. There are at least 4 design features of language: Arbitrariness, , __________, and ___________5 Relational antonyms are pairs in which one describes a relationship between two objects and the otherdescribes the same relationship when the two objects are reversed, such as parent and child, teacher and student.6 antonyms are pairs that express absolute opposites, like mortal and immortal.7. F.de Saussure , founder of modern linguistics, taught linguistics in Geneva University during 1907-1911.His theory has put great influence on semiotics, humanities study and literary studies.8. Lexical semantics is concerned with the meanings of words and the meaning among words; and phrasal or semantics is concerned with the meaning of syntactic units larger than the word.9. Reference theory in semantics holds the viewpoint that there is a___direct__ relation between forms of language and those the relevant language forms refer to.10.Nominalism refers to the idea that there is no conventional relation or link between the words that people choose and the objects that the words refer to. That is to say, language is .11. Complementery antonyms are pairs that express absolute opposites, like mortal and immortal.12. 荀子（约公元前298～前238）在《正名篇》中说，“名无固宜，约之以命。
英语语言学复习资料整理
语言学重要概念梳理1. Language (语言) is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. Linguistics(语言学)is generally defined as the scientific study of language.3. General linguistics(普通/一般语言学) The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.4. Phonetics(语音学) the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics.5. Phonology(语音体系) how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.6. Morphology(形态学) these symbols are arranged and combined to form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.7. Syntax(句法学) then the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules. The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies called syntax.8. Semantics(语意学) the study of meaning is known as semantics.9. Pragmatics(语用学) when the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of language use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.10. Phone(音素) is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.11. Phoneme(音位)is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.12. Allophones(音位变体) the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones.13. IPA(International Phonetic Alphabet国际音标) It’s a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.14. Diacritics(变音符) it is a set of symbols which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions.15.broad transcription(宽式标音) one is the transcription with letter-symbols only.16.narrow transcription(严式标音) the other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.17. open class words(开放类词)In English , open class words are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. We can regularly add new words to these classes.18. closed class words(封闭类词) In English , closed class word are conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns. New words are not usually added to them.19. Morpheme(词素) the most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme.20. bound morpheme(黏着词素) morphemes which occurs only before other morphemes. They cannot be used alone.21. free morpheme(自由词素)it is the morphemes which can be used alone.22. suprasegmental features(超音段特征) the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features.23. Category(范畴) it refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence ,a noun phrase or a verb.24. Phrases(短语) Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases.1. Three distinct of phonetics(语音学的三个分支？)Articulatory phonetics发音语音学; auditory phonetics听觉语音学; acoustic phonetics声光语音学.2. Main features of language(语言的主要特征？)Language is a system. Language is arbitrary. Language is vocal. Language is human-specific.3. Synchronic vs. diachronic(共识语言学与历史语言学的区别？)Language exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.4. Speech and writing (言语与文字的区别？)Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. Written language is only the “revised” record of speech.5. What are the branches of linguistic study?(语言学研究领域中的主要分支有哪些？)1) sociolinguistics; 2) psycholinguistics; 3)applied linguistics and so on.6. Traditional grammar and modern linguistics(传统语法与现代语言学的区别？)Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.7. Prescriptive vs. descriptive (语言学中描写性与规定性的特征是什么？)Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive.8. Design features of language (语言的识别特征？)Arbitrariness随意性，productivity生产性, duality 二重性, displacement 不受时空限制的特征, cultural transmission 文化传递系统.9. Competence and performance (语言能力与语言行为的区别？)Competence is defined as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performan ce the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.10. Organs of speech (发音器官)Pharyngeal cavity—the throat, oral cavity—the mouth, nasal cavity—the nose.11. Word-level categories(决定词范畴的三个标准)To determine a word’s category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.1. Some rules in phonology(音位学规则)sequential rules(序列规则)；assimilation rule (同化规则) ；deletion rule(省略规则)。
英语语言学复习资料
英语语言学复习资料注: 1.试题类型为选择题,填空题,语料分析题和问答题.2.未标习题的章节为一般了解.Chapter 1Language and Linguistics: An Overview1.1 What is language?1.2 Features of human languages(i) Creativity (or productivity)Productivity is the first and foremost striking feature of human language._________ is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.A. DualityB. ArbitrarinessC. CreativityD. Displacement(ii) Duality( ) Language contains two subsystems, one of speaking and the other of writing. (iii) Arbitrariness( ) The Swiss linguist de Saussure regarded the linguistic sign as composed of sound image and referent.(iv) Displacement( ) Modern linguistics is prescriptive rather than descriptive.( ) Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future.(v) Cultural transmission(vi) Interchangeability(vii) Reflexivity1.3 Functions of language(i) The ideational function(ii) The interpersonal function(iii) The textual functionWhich of the following does not belong to the language metafunctions illustrated byM.A.K. Halliday?A.Ideational functionB. Interpersonal functionC．Textual function. D. Logical function1.4 Types of language( ) Chinese is an agglutinating language.1.5 The myth of language: language origin1.6 Linguistics: the scientific study of language1.6.1 Linguistics as a science1.6.2 Branches of linguistics(i) Intra-disciplinary divisions(ii) Inter-disciplinary divisions1.6.3 Features of modern linguisticsChapter 2 Phonetics: The Study of Speech Sounds2.1 The study of speech soundsThe study of speech sounds is called ________.A. PhoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. PhonologyD. Acoustic Phonetics2.2 The sound-producing mechanism2.3 Phonetic transcription of speech sounds2.3.1 Unit of representation2.3.2 Phonetic symbols2.4 Description of English consonants2.5 Description of English vowels( ) Not all vowels are voiced.2.6 Phonetic features and natural classesI. Write the phonetic symbol that corresponds to the articulatory description. (10%) Example: vowel front high [i:]1．bilabial nasal2．voiced labiovelar glide3．literal liquid4．voiced bilabial stop5．front high laxII. Transcribe the sound represented by the underlined letter(s) in the words and then describe it. (10%)Example: heat [i:] vowel front high1．write2．actor3．city4．worry1．yesChapter 3 Phonology: The Study of Sound Systems and Patterns3.1 The study of sound systems and patterns( ) The study of speech sounds is called Phonology.3.2 Phonemes and allophones3.3 Discovering phonemes3.3.1 Contrastive distributionSip and zip, tip and dip, map and nap, etc, are all ______.A. minimal pairsB. minimal setsC. allophonesD. phomes3.3.2 Complimentary distribution( ) The voiceless bilabial stop in pin and the one in spin are in complementary distribution.Pronounce the words key and core, ski and score, paying attention to the phoneme /k/. What difference do you notice between the first pair and the second pair in terms of the phonetic features of the voiceless velar stop? (10%)3.3.3 Free Variation( ) If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.3.3.4 The discovery procedure3.4 Distinctive features and non-distinctive features3.5 Phonological rules3.6 Syllable structureEvery syllable has a(n) _______, which is usually a vowel.A. onsetB. nucleusC. codaD. rhyme3.7 Sequence of phonemes3.8 Features above segments3.8.1 Stress3.8.2 Intonation3.8.3 Tone( ) Tone is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.Which of the following does not belong to suprasegmental features?B.Stress B. IntonationC. ToneD. Syllable3.8.4 The functioning of stress and intonation in EnglishI.How would you read the phrases in the two columns? What does each of them mean? (10%)Column I Column IIa. a bluebird a blue birdb. a lighthouse keeper a light housekeeperII.Explain the ambiguity of the following sentences. (10%)1. Those who went there quickly made a fortune.2. A woman murdererChapter 4 Morphology: The Study of Word Structure4.1 Words and word structure1.________ is defined as the study of the internal structure and the formation of words.A. MorphologyB. SyntaxC. LexiconD. Morpheme4.2 Morpheme: the minimal meaningful unit of language4.3 Classification of morphemes4.3.1 Free and bound morphemes( ) In the phrases a herd of cattle, a flock of sheep, both cattle and sheep contain only onemorpheme.In the phrases a herd of cattle, a flock of sheep, both cattle and sheep contain _____ morphemes.A. oneB. twoC. threeD. four4.3.2. Inflectional and derivational morphemes4.4 Formation of English words4.4.1 Derivation4.4.2 Compounding( ) The meaning of compounds is always the sum of meaning of the compounds. ( ) A greenbottle is a type of bottle.( ) Compounding, the combination of free morphemes, is a common way to form words.4.4.3 Other types of English word formationTell the process of word formation illustrated by the example and find as many words as you can that are formed in the same way. (10%)a) flub) OPECc) Nobeld)televisee) better (v.)_____ is a process that puts an existing word of one class into another class.A. ClippingB. BlendingC. EponymD. ConversionChapter 5 Syntax: the Analysis of Sentence Structure5.1 Grammaticality5.2 Knowledge of sentence structure5.3 Different approaches to syntax5.4 Transformational-generative grammar5.4.1 The goal of a TG grammar5.4.2 Syntactic categories5.4.3 Phrase structure rules5.4.4 Tree diagramsDraw two tree diagrams of the following ambiguous sentence. (10%)Pat found a book on Wall Street.5.4.5 Recursion and the infinitude of language5.4.6 Subcategorization of the lexicon5.4.7 Transformational rules5.5 Systemic-functional grammar5.5.1 Two perspectives of syntactic analysis: chain and choice5.5.2 The three metafunctions5.5.3 Transitivity: syntactic structure as representation of experienceMaterial processesRelational processesMental processesVerbal processesBehavioral processesExistential processesIdentify the type of transitivity process in each of the following sentences. (10%)1. John washed the car.2. John likes the car.5.5.4 Mood and modality: syntactic structure as representation of interaction5.5.5 Theme and rheme: syntactic structure as organization of message Chapter 6 Semantics: the Analysis of Meaning6.1 The study of meaning6.2 Reference and sense6.2.1 Reference6.2.2 Sense6.3 Classification of lexical meaningsBoth pretty and handsome mean good-looking but they differ in ________ meaning.A. collocativeB. socialC. affectiveD. reflected6.3.1 Referential meaning and associative meaning6.3.2 Types of associative meaning6.4 Lexical sense relations6.4.1 Synonymy6.4.2 Antonymy6.4.3 Homonymy6.4.4 Polysemy6.4.5 HyponymyExplain the relation between bank1(the side of a river) and bank2(the financial institute). (5%)6.5. Describing lexical meaning: componential analysis6.6 Words and concepts6.6.1 Categorization6.6.2 Prototypes6.6.3 Hierarchies6.7 Semantic relations of sentencesTell the semantic relation within the given sentence and that between the two sentences.(15%)a)My uncle is male.b)The spinster is married.c)Jim is an orphan. Jim lives with his parents.d)Sam is the husband of Sally. Sally is the wife of Sam.e)He has gone to London. He has gone to England.6.8 Metaphors6.8.1 From rhetorical device to cognitive device6.8.2 The components of metaphors6.8.3 Features of metaphorsChapter 7 Pragmatics: Analysis of Meaning in Context7.1 The pragmatic analysis of meaning7.2 Deixis and reference7.3 Speech ActsWhat are the three dimensions that a speech act consists of?7.4 Cooperation and implicatureWhat are the four maxims of the Cooperative Principle?7.5 The politeness principle7.6 The principle of relevance7.7 Conversational structure______ refers to having the right to speak by turns.A．Adjacency pairs B. Turn-talkingC．Preferred second parts D. Insertion sequencesChapter 8 Language in Social Contexts8.1 Sociolinguistic study of languageHow do sociolinguists classify the varieties of English?8.2 Varieties of a language1. ______ is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to “varieties according to use.”A. RegisterB. FieldC. ModeD. Tenor2. British English and American English are ______ varieties of the English language.A. functionalB. socialC. regionalD. standard8.3 Grades of formality8.4 Languages in contactHow do you distinguish pidgin from Creole?8.5 Taboos and euphemisms8.6 Language and culture8.7. Communicative competenceChapter 9 Second Language Acquisition9.1 What is second language acquisition?In _____ stage, children use single words to represent various meanings.A. telegraphicB. two-wordC. holophrasticD. babbling9.2 Factors affecting SLA9.3 Analyzing learners' language_____ is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for use in communication through the target language.A. MetalanguageB. InterlanguageC. SignD. Esperanto9.4 Explaining second language acquisitionChapter 10 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching10.1 Foreign language teaching as a system10.2 Contribution of linguistics: applications and implications10.3 Linguistic underpinning of syllabus design10.4 Method as integration of theory and practice10.5 Linguistics in the professional development of language teachers[文档可能无法思考全面，请浏览后下载，另外祝您生活愉快，工作顺利，万事如意!]。
英语语言学复习资料(名词解释)
英语语言学复习资料（名词解释）1 language: language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1 interlanguage:The type of language produced by nonnative speakers in the process of learning a second language or foreign language.1 Linguistics : Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics.For example,vowels and consonants3 Phonology” : The study of how sounds are put togeth er and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone.4 Morphology 形态学:The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher.5 Syntax 句型: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.”6 Semantics语义学: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.”Here the word seal means different things.7 Pragmatics语用学: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context.二音系学1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distin guish meaning; some do,some don’t.4 Phoneme音素: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value.5 allophone同位音: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in thestings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.10 intonation朗诵: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English{$isbest} 三形态学1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.3 derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.4 morpheme词素: Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.5 free morpheme: Free morpheme are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselces or in combination with other morphemes.6 bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.7 root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear,definite meaning; it must be combined withanother root or an affix to form a word.8 affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.9 prefix: Prefix occur at the beginning of a word.10 suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.11 derivation: Derivation affixes are added to an existing form to creat a word.Derivation can be viewed as the adding of affixes to stem to form nes words.12 compounding: Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to creat new words.四句法学1 linguistic competence: Comsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2 sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.3 transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.4 D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure.五语义学1 semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.2 sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized.3 reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4 synonymy 同义词: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy.5 polysemy一词多义: Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word.6 antonymy : Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.7 homonymy : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that wordshaving different meanings have the same form,i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.8 hyponymy : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.9 componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze wprd meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists.10 grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality,i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of asentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.11 semantic meaning : The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.12 predication : In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication. The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.{$isbest}六语用学1 pragmatics词的活用: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2 context: The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that isshared by the speaker and the hearer.3 utterance meaning: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4 locutionary act:言内行为A locutionary act is the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexion and phonology.5 illocutionary act言外行为: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; It is the act performed in saying something.6 perlocutionary act: 言后行为 A illocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something: it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.十语言习得1 language acquisition: Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, t hat is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.4 acquisition: According to Krashen,acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.。
大学英语语言学复习资料
Chapter 11.The main features of human languageare termed design features. They include: 1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what"displacement" means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.2.The major functions of language:Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function,the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function, also called the emotive or attitudinal function, supplies information about the user's feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her.”The social function, also referred to as the interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. For example: "We are your firm supporters."Chapter 21.How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [l], [p] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language—the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other,what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.2. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particularsound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [l], clear [l], etc. Which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.3. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules. There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by "copying" a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. We all know that nasalization does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, i.e. [d] is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is avelar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are, so to speak, "copying" a featureof the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g]represented by the letter g is pronounced.The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. The deletion rule also accounts for the regular deletion of the sound represented by the letter b in words like tomb, comb, and bomb.Chapter 41. What is category? How to determine a word’s category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word’s category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. A word’s distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.2. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.Conjunction exhibits four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or anentire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.3. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure.The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure).The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).Chapter 51. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.(1) Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e.,different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms.(2) While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and sucha word is called a polysemic word.(3) Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. Hyponymy is a relation of inclusion; in terms of meaning, the superordinate includes all itshyponyms.2.In what way is componential analysis similar to the analysis of phonemes into distinctive features?They both base on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components.Chapter 61.What does pragmatics study?How does it differ from traditional semantics? Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as aprocess. In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context into their consideration so as to effect the right meaning and intention.The development and establishment of pragmatics in 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics. However, it is different from the traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way, while semantics studies meaning in a static way. Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.2.According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an utterance. Give an example.According to Austin's new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something.A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance. Let’s look at an example: You have left the door wide open.The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of the words”you”, “have”, “door”, “open”, etc. Thus expressing what the words literally mean.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking, i.e. asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets the speaker's message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.3. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is the illocutionary point of each type?(1) representatives: stating ordescribing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something’s being the case, to the truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating,believing, swearing, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class.Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical cases. The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings about or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating. The last class “declarations” has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality.4.What is indirect language use? How is it explained in the light of speech act theory?When someone is not saying in an explicit and straightforward manner what he means to say, rather he is trying to put across his message in an implicit, roundabout way, we can say he is using indirect language.5.What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how flouting these maxims gives rise to conversational implicature? Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:(1) The maxim of quantityMake your contribution as informativeas required (for the current purpose of the exchange).Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of qualityDo not say what you believe to be false.Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.(4) The maxim of mannerAvoid obscurity of expression.Avoid ambiguity.Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).Be orderly.。
《英语语言学》复习要点
《英语语⾔学》复习要点Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics/doc/db631432580216fc700afdee.html nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.To give the barest definition language is a means of verbal communication. It is instrumental social and conventional. Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or alternatively as the scientific study of language. It concerns with the systematic study of language or a discipline that describes all aspects of language and formulates theories as to how language works.2.Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement etc.Arbitrariness refers to forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning Language is arbitrary. There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds even with onomatopoeic words.Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structure. The units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.the lower or the basic level---- the sound units or phonemes which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words.the higher level ----morphemes and words which are meaningfulCreativity refers to Words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before.Displacement refers to the fact that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present real or imagined matters in the past present or future or in far-away places. It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects events and concepts which are not present in time and space at the moment of communication3. Jakobson’s classification of functions of language.Jakobson : In his article Linguistics and Poetics (1960) defined six primary factors of any speech event:speaker, addressee, context,message, code, contact.1).Referential function 所指功能2).Poetic function诗学功能3).Emotive function感情功能4).Conative function意动功能5).Phatic function交感功能6).Metalingual元语⾔功能Hu Zhuanglin? classification of functions of language and use some examples to illustrate them.1).Informative function 信息功能2).Interpersonal function ⼈际功能3).Performative function 施为功能4).Emotive function 感情功能5).Phatic communion 交感性谈话6).Recreational function 娱乐性功能7).Metalingual function 元语⾔功能4.What is the major differences between Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole and Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?According to Saussure,(1) Langue is abstract, parole is specific to the speaking situation;(2) Langue is not actually spoken by an individual , parole is always a naturally occurring event;(3) Langue is relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation.According to N. Chomsky,Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities;A speaker?s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker's performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence;Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1.Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and received. It is concerned with the actual physical articulation, transmission and perception of speech sounds.Phonology is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds. It isconcerned with the abstract and mental aspect of the sounds in language.Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication1. Lips2. Teeth3. Teeth ridge (alveolar)齿龈4. Hard palate 硬腭5. Soft palate (velum) 软腭6. Uvula ⼩⾆7. Tip of tongue8. Blade of tongue ⾆⾯9. Back of tongue10. V ocal cords 声带11. Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 12. Nasal cavity ⿐腔2.Phone （⾳素): the smallest perceptible discreet segment of sound in a stream of speech. (in the mouth)Phoneme （⾳位）：A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. (in the mind)allophone (⾳位变体) : phonic variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme. / / = phoneme [ ] = phone { } = set of allophones IPA:the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet .Minimal pairs 最⼩对⽴体Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs:1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different;3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment.e.g. a minimal pair: pat -fat; lit-lip; phone-toneminimal set:pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etc3. complementary distribution 互补分布 Phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways.If they are two distinctive phoneme, they might form a contrast; e.g. /p/and /b/ in [pit] and [bit]; If they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they don?t distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic contextSuprasegmental features 超⾳段特征—features that involve more than single sound segment, such as stress （重⾳）， length （⾳程）, rhythm （节奏）， tone （⾳调），intonation （语调）及 juncture （⾳渡）．Chapter 3 Lexicon/Morphology1. Word1.1 Three senses of “word”(1) A physically definable unit:a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pause or blank.(2) Word both as a general term and as a specific term.(3) A grammatical unit1.2 Identification of wordsSome factors can help us identify words:(1) Stability(2) Relative uninterruptibility(3) A minimum free form1.3 The classification of wordWords can be classified in terms of:(1) V ariable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (语法词/词汇词)(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words (封闭词/开放词)(4) word class(词类)(1) V ariable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)the former refers to words having inflective changes（屈折变化）while the latter refers to words having no such endings.V ariable words: follow; follows; following; followedInvariable words: since; when; seldom; through; hello(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (function words and content words.语法词/词汇词)The former refers to those words expressing grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions(连词), prepositions（介词）, articles(冠词), and pronouns（代词）;the latter refers to words having lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action etc. such as n., v., adj., and adv..(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words (封闭词/开放词)the former refers to words whose membership is fixed or limited; e.g. pron., prep., conj., article.the latter of which the membership is infinite or unlimited. e.g.: n., v., adj., adv.(4) word class (词类)The traditionally recognized word classes are: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection, article, etc. More word classes have been introduced into grammar: particles ⼩品词/语助词(go by, look for, come up);auxiliaries 助词(can, be, will);pro-form 替代词(do, so);determiners 前置词/ 限定词(all, every, few, plenty of, this).2. The formation of word2.1 Morphology 形态学Definition：Morphology is a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. The two fields (p64)Inflectional morphology: the study of inflectionsDerivational morphology: the study of word-formation3. Lexical change3.1 Lexical change proper（词本⾝的变化）Invention 新造词Blending混合词Abbreviation 缩合词Acronym⾸字母缩略词back-formation 逆构词analogical creation 类⽐造词Borrowing 借词、外来词definition:1) Morphology:Morphology is a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2) Terminology 术语解释Morpheme: the smallest unit of meaning, which can not be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Free morphemes: morphemes which may constitute words by themselves．Bound morphemes:morphemes which can not be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form words Inflectional morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes which manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case.Derivational morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes, added to existing forms to create new words. There are three kinds according to position: prefix, suffix and infix.Chapter 4 Syntax From Word to TextSyntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.Endocentric Constructions:is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Exocentric Constructions:refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group Category: refers to the defining properties of these general units: Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countabilityCategories of the verb: tense, aspect, voicethree kinds of syntactic relations:relations of position位置关系Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.relations of substitutability 可替代性关系The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure. relations of co-occurrence 同现关系It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis)Immediate constituent analysis is a form of linguistic review that breaks down longer phrases or sentences into their constituent parts, usually into single words. This kind of analysis is sometimes abbreviated as IC analysis, and gets used extensively by a wide range of language experts.Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents: Coordination and subordination Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.Characteristics of subjectsA) Word order: Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statementB) Pro-forms(代词形式) : The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subjectC) Agreement with the verb: In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verbD) Content questions (实意问句): If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchangedE) Tag question (反意问句): A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence.Explain the difference between sense and reference from the following four aspects:1) A word having reference must have sense;2) A word having sense might not have reference;3) A certain sense can be realized by more than one reference; 4) A certain reference can beexpressed by more than one senseThe distinction between “sense” and “reference” is comparable to that between “connotation” and “denotation”. The former refers to some abstract properties, while the latter refers to some concrete entities.Firstly, to some extent, we can say that every word has a sense, i.e., some conceptual content; otherwise we would not be able to use it or understand it. Secondly, but not every word has a reference. There are linguistic expressions which can never be used to refer to anything, for example, the words so, very, maybe, if, not, and all. These words do of course contribute meaning to the sentences in which they occur and thus help sentences denote, but they themselves do not identify entities in the world. They are intrinsically non-referring terms. And words like ghost and dragon refer to imaginary things, which do not exist in reality. Thirdly, some expressions will have the same reference across a range of utterances, e.g., the Eiffel Tower or the Pacific Ocean. Such expressions are sometimes described as having constant reference. Others have their references totally dependent on context. Expressions like I, you, she, etc. are said to have variable references. Lastly, sometimes a reference may be expressed by more than one sense. For instance, both …evening star? and …morning star?(晚星，启明星), though they differ in sense, refer to V enus.Chapter 6 Language and cognition1.What is Cognition?In psychology it is used to refer to the mental processes of an individual with particular relation to a view that argues that the ming has internal mental states and can be understood in terms of information processing.Another denefition is mental process or faculty of knowing, including awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.2.Cognitive LinguisticsCognitive linguistics is the scientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think.It is an approach to language that is based on our experience of the world and the way we perceive and conceptualize it.3.What are the differences between metaphor & metonymy? Give some examples. Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another （从⼀个语域到另⼀个语域）, not from a word to another.Metonymy is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（⽬标域）, within the same domain. The reference point activates the target.1.Metaphor is used for substitution, while metonymy is used for association.2.Metaphor can mean condensation and metonymy can mean displacement.3.A metonymy acts by combining ideas while metaphor acts by suppressing ideas.4.In a metaphor, the comparison is based on the similarities, while in metonymy thecomparison is based on contiguity.--For example, the sentence …he is a tiger in class? is a metaphor. Here the word tiger is used in substitution for displaying an attribute of character of the person. The sentence …the tiger called his students to the meeting room? is a metonymy. Here there is no substitution; instead the person is associated with a tiger for his nature..Metaphors are actually cognitive tools that help us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us..Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another（从⼀个语域到另⼀个语域）, not from a word to another.Metonymy（换喻，转喻）.It is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（⽬标域）, within the same domain.3.Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language;it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity with the use of language.Language acquisition (1) Holophrastic stage（单词句阶段）–Language?s sound patterns–Phonetic distinctions in parents? language.–One-word stage: objects, actions, motions, routines.2) Two-word stage: around 18m3) Three-word-utterance stage4) Fluent grammatical conversation stageChapter 7 Language, culture and society1.the relationship between language and thought?Generally, the relation of L to C is that of part to whole, for L is part of C.The knowledge and beliefs that constitute a people?s cultu re are habitually encoded and transmitted in L.There exists a close relationship between language and culture. This is evidenced by the findings of anthropologists such as Malinowski, Firth, Baos, Sapir and Whorf. The study of the relation between language and the context in which it is used is the cultural study of language.2.What’s Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis? Give your comment on it.Edward Sapir (1884 - 1939) and Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941)Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express speakers’unique ways of understanding the world.Linguistic determinism: L may determine our thinking patterns.Linguistic relativity: a. Similarity between language is relative; b. the greater their structural differentiation is, the diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.Chapter 8 Language in usePragmatics:The study of language in use.The study of meaning in context.The study of speakers? meaning, utterance meaning& contextual meaning..What?s your understanding of conversational implicature? Using one or two examples to discuss the voilation of its maxims.People do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them.CP is meant to describe whatactually happens in conversation.People tend to be cooperative and obey CP in communication.Since CP is regulative, CP can be violated.Violation of CP and its maxims leads to conversational implicature.What are the main differences between pragmatics and semantics?Semantics and pragmatics are both lingustic studies of meaning. The essential difference lies in whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. If it is not, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is,the study is carried out in the area of pragmatics. Semantics studies sentences as units of the abstract linguistic system while pragmatics studies utterances as instances of the system.The former stops at the sentence level; the latter looks at bigger chunks of conversation. The formar regards sentences as stable products; the latter treats utterances as dynamic processes. The former analyses sentences in isolation; the latter analyses utternaces in close connnection with their contexts of situation.Chapter 9 Language and literatureWhat is ‘foregrounding’?In a purely linguistic sense, the term …foregrounding? is used to refer to new information, in contrast to elements in the sentence which form the background against which the new elements are to be understood by the listener / reader.In the wider sense of stylistics, text linguistics, and literary studies, it is a translation of the Czech aktualisace (actualization), a term common with the Prague Structuralists.The English term ‘foregrounding’has come to mean several things at once:-the (psycholinguistic) processes by which - during the reading act - something may be given special prominence;-specific devices (as produced by the author) located in the text itself. It is also employed to indicate the specific poetic effect on the reader;-an analytic category in order to evaluate literary texts, or to situate them historically, or to explain their importance and cultural significance, or to differentiate literature from other varieties of language use, such as everyday conversations or scientific reports.Literal language and figurative language-A language is called literal when what is meant to be conveyed is same as what the word to word meaning of what is said. In contrast the figurative language, the words are used to imply meaning which is other than their strict dictionary meaning.-Literal language refers to words that do not deviate from their defined meaning. Figurative language refers to words, and groups of words, that exaggerate or alter the usual meanings of the component words. Figurative language may involve analogy to similar concepts or other contexts, and may involve exaggerations. These alterations result in figures of speech.Chapter 11 LinguisticsApplied linguistics:the study of the relation of linguistics to foreign language teaching, of the ways of applying linguistic theories to the practice of foreign language teaching.Universal Grammar:is a theory in linguistics that suggests that there are properties that all possible natural human languages have. Usually credited to Noam Chomsky, the theory suggests that some rules of grammar are hard-wired into the brain, and manifest themselves withoutbeingtaught. There is still much argument whether there is such a thing and what it would be. Syllabus:a syllabus is a specification of what take place in the classroom,which usually contains the aims and contents of teaching and sometimes contains suggestions of methodology. Interlanguage:the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage.contrastive analysis:A way of comparing L1 and L2 to determine potential errors for the purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what not. Its goal is to predict what areas will be easy tolearn and what will be difficult.Associated in its early days with behaviorism and structuralism. the Input Hypothesis:according to krashen's input hypothessis,learners acquire language as a result of comprehending input addressed to them.Chapter 12 Theories & schools of modern linguisticsTransformational-Generative GrammarThe five stages of development of TG Grammar:1) The classical theory (1957)2) The standard theory (1965)3) Extended standard theory4) GB/PP theory (1981)5) The Minimalist ProgramInnateness hypothesis: Chomsky believes that language is somewhat innate, and that children are born with what he calls a Language Acquisition Device(LAD), which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning.CHOMSKY?S TG GRAMMAR DIFFERS FROM THE STRUCTURAL GRAMMARIN A NUMBER OF WAYS1 rationalism 2innateness 3 deductive methodology4 emphasis on interpretation 5formalization 6.emphasis on linguistic competence 7.strong generative powers 8.emphasis on linguistic universals。
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Chapter 1:1.What are the design features of language?The features that define our human language can be called Design Features.2.What is Arbitrariness?Saussure first refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs(symbol forms) bear no natural relationship to their meaning.3.What are onomatopoeia words?Words that sound like the sounds they describe.4.How do you understand of clauses language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level?The order of elements in a sentence follows certain rules,and there is a certain degree of correspondence between the sequence of clauses and the real happenings.5.What is duality?By duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures,such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(Lyons)6.What is the advantage of duality?It lies in the great productive power our language is endowed with.A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements.And out of the huge number of words,there can be endless number of sentences,which in turn can form unlimited number of texts.7.How do you understand language is a system?In terms of internal structure,language is hierarchical.There are 6 level.Speech sounds,morpheme,word,phrase,sentence,text.8.What is creativity?By creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness.(Chomsky Noam).The recursiveness refers to the potential of language to create endless sentences.9.What is displacement?Displacement means that human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.10.What is the benefit of displacement?Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalization and abstractions.11.What are the 3 theory concerning to the origin of language?First,the divine origin theory:Language is created by God.Second,the invention theory:Language is created by man.(①The bow-wow theory拟声说the evidence is onomatopoeic words.②The pooh-pooh theory感叹说the evidence is interjections③The yo-ho-yo theory劳动喊声说some rhythmic grunt.)Third,the evolutionary theory:when men involved in a certain degree,they have the cognitive ability.There are two basices:Psychical basic(speech organ) and social basises(cooperate communication ),then language came into being.12.What are the seven functions of language?Informative信息功能,Interpersonal人际，Performative施为，Emotion感情，Phatic communion 交感,recreational娱乐，meta-lingual元语言。
13.What are the six factors of speech event?Speaker、addressee(listener)、context、message、code、contact(Jakobson)Speech event is consisted of two or more than two speech acts.14.What are the metafuntions of language?Halliday think language has ideational,interpersonal and textual functions.15.What is informative/interpersonal/performative/emotion/expressive/phatic/recreational meta-lingual function?When language is used to record the facts or to reason things out,it serves the informative function.(ideational function)When language is used to establish and maintain people’s status in a society,it serves the interpersonal function.Austin and Searle think when language is used to perform acts or do things,it serves the performative functionWhen language is used to change the emotional status of an audience for or against sb or sth.(Crystal).The expressive function can often be entirely personal and totally without any implication of communication to others.Malinowski think that when language is used to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content.(Greeting,farewells,compliments,comments on weather,invitations)When language is used for the hearty joy of using it,it serves the recreational function.When language is used to talk about itself,it serves the meta-lingual function.16.What is linguistic? How it classified?Linguistic is the scientific study of language.It classified into two parts:Micro-linguistic(general linguistic)普通语言学is a study of internal structure of language；Macro-linguistic is a study of language in connection with other disciplines.17.What is Phonetics?(语音学）languagePhonetics studies speech sounds,including the production of speech,that is,how speech sounds are actually made,transmitted and received,the description and classification of speech sounds,words and connected speech,etc.There are three branches.Articulatory phonetics(发音语音学）is a study of organs and how they move to produce speech sounds.Acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）investigate the properties of the sound waves.Auditory phonetics(听觉语言学）focus on the way in which a listener analyses or processes a sound wave.18.What is phonology?(音位学）languagePhonology studies the rules governing the structure,distribution,and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllable.It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure.Phoneme(45个) is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. 19.What is morphology?(形态学）wordsMorphology is concerned with the internal organization of words.It studies the minimal units of meaning-morphemes and word-formation processes.Morphemes refer to the minimal units of meaning.20.How do you study morphological morphemes?21.What is syntax(grammar)?（句法）sentenceSyntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences.22.What is semantics?(语义学）概念意义（literal meaning/conceptional)Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.23.What is pragmatics?(语用学）语境意义（implied meaning/contextual)Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context.24.What the ship between semantics and pragmatics?They all focus on the meaning.The difference is....25.What is psycho-linguistic and socio-linguistic?Psycholinguistic investigates the interrelation of language and mind.Sociolinguistic is a study of language in relation to society.26.What is descriptive and prescriptive study of language?The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules,or norms,of correctness.To say that linguistics is a prescriptive is to say that the linguist seeks to impose upon member of speech community other rules,or norms,of correctness.(Lyons)27.What is the difference between traditional grammar and modern linguistic?①方法不同。