二语习得作业..

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聊大《第二语言习得》复习题及参考答案

《第二语言习得》练习题一、术语解释1、语内语言错误2、语言能力3、情感策略二、简答题1、中介语产生的主要来源？2、语言错误分析的主要作用？3、语言错误产生的主要原因？··················密···················封·····················线··················三、论述题：试析学习者个体差异对语言习得的影响。

《第二语言习得》练习题答案一、术语解释1、语内语言错误语内语言错误，指的是由于学习者对目的语规则理解不对或学习不全面而引起的错误，不同母语背景的学生在学习同一外语时会犯相似的错误。

2、语言能力Chomsky认为语言能力是指人们所具有的语言知识，是一种内化了的包括语音、词汇、语法等的语言规则体系。

3、情感策略指学习者在英语学习过程中控制和调整自己心情、态度、动机等的方法与能力。

二、简答题1、中介语产生的主要来源？Selinker 认为中介语产生的来源有五种：语言迁移、对第二语言的过度概括化、语言训练的迁移、学习第二语言的策略和交际的策略。

二语习得作业

Improvement of Second Language Acquisition comes from supplying communicative and comprehensible input.The input hypothesis:It states simply that we acquire (not learn) language by understanding input that is a little beyond our current level of (acquired) competenceInput is used to refer to the language that is addressed to the L2 learner either by a native speaker or by another L2 learner. what learners hear and read. Methods:The methods for investigating input and interaction is that colecting data to study learner language .These data consisted of transcriptions of the interactions in which the learners took part, involving both detailed linguistic analyses and discourse and conversational analysis.Three different views about input: The Behaviourist view that input is the primary mechanism in language acquisition.Without input, learning cannot occur. The nativist view that learners have internal systems that construct language in a particular order, regardless of the input. The nativist view minimizes the role of the input and explains language development primarily in terms of the learner’s internal processing mechanisms. The interactionist treats acquisition of language as the result of and interaction between the learner’s mental abilities and the linguistic environment. The learner’s processing mechanisms both determine and are determined by the nature of the input.The behaviourist view emphasizes the importance of the linguistic environment, which is treated in terms of stimuli and feedback. The nativist view minimizes therole of the input and explains language development primarily in terms of the learner’s internal processing mechanisms. The interactionist view sees language development as the result both of input factors and of innate mechanisms. Language acquisition derives from the efforts of the learner and his interlocutors and involves a dynamic interplay between external and internal factors.Input and interaction in natural settingsCaretaker talkWhen caretakers speak to young children who are in the process of acquiring their L1, they typically adjust their speech in a number of ways. The register that results has been referred to variously as ‘baby-talk’, ‘motherese’, ‘caretaker talk’, and ‘child-directed language’Motherese concentrates on the “here and now”rather than on the abstract and remote.The features of caretaker talkIt is more ungrammatical than speech addressed to adults;It is simpler;It is more redundant.Foreigner talkIn natural settings, input has been considered in terms of foreigner talk. When native speakers address learners, they adjust their normal speech in order to facilitate understanding. These adjustments, which involve both language form and language function, constitute ‘foreigner talk’. The modified speech used by native speakers when talking to L2 learners. It was first studied by CharlesFerguson in 1975. It can promote communication. Gass and Varonis (1994) have found that native speaker modifications are more frequent in two-way communication because conversation provides the native speaker with feedback from the learner and thus enables him to estimate the amount of adjustment required. It can signal speakers' attitude towards their interlocutors. It can teach the target language implicitly.Input and interaction in classroom settingsTeacher talkAs the main source of input in classroom setting, teacher talk is the speech produced by the teacher in the classroom in order to pass on knowledge or to organize the class or for some interpersonal purposes. Teacher talk parallels that of foreign talk.Teacher talk refers to the language of teaching tasks as prescribed in textbooks and the language the teacher uses to perform such teaching tasks as paragraphing words or sentences or illustrating grammar rules.In general, the research confirms the finding for L1 classroom --- namely, that the teacher takes up about two-thirds of the total time. There is considerable evidence of variability among teachers and programs, but the general picture is again one of teacher dominance in that teachers are likely to explain, question and command and learners to respond. Teachers, like native speakers in general, slow down their rate of speech when talking to learners in comparison to other native speakers and also do so to a greater extent with less proficient learners. However,there is considerable variability among teachers. Teachers are likely to make use of longer pauses when talking to learners than to other native speakers. There have been few studies which have attempted to quantify these aspects of teacher talk, but teachers appear to speak more loudly and to make their speech more distinct when addressing L2 learners. teachers vary their choice of words in accordance with the learners’proficiency level.Firstly, a teacher can improve his Teacher talk to create harmonious atmosphere in foreign language teaching. Secondly, a good teacher needs to make sure that all students get the feeling of being encouraged. It is the best way for teacher to use the linguistic tools to verbally encourage students, not by pointing out that students’weaknesses do not matter, but by highlighting their strengths. Interlanguage talkThe language that learners address to each other (ILT constitutes the primary source of input for many learners). ILT provides learners with opportunities for negotiating meaning as occur in foreigner talk.Interaction HypothesisInteraction Hypothesis claims that learners acquire through talking with others. According to this hypothesis, learners are likely to have misunderstandings in their interaction because they do not know the language perfectly. In this situation, the learner will try to use some strategies to express his idea clearly, such as repeating, using other words and simple structures.Through negotiation of meaning, both the speaker and the listener clarify thecontents, verify the understanding, make communicative respond and give feedback to each other, as well as a chance to examine his own assumption.The Interaction hypothesis is a theory of second-language acquisition which states that the development of language proficiency is promoted by face-to-face interaction and communication.The idea existed in the 1980s, but is usually credited to Michael Long for his 1996 paper The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. There are some principles about interaction hypothesis1. The linguistic characteristics of target language input need to be made salient.2. Learners should receive help in comprehending semantic and syntactic aspects of linguistic input.3. Learners need to have opportunities to produce target language output.4. Learners need to notice errors in their own output5. Learners need to correct their linguistic output.6. Learners need to engage in target language interaction whose structure can be modified for negotiation of meaning.7. Learners should engage in L2 tasks designed to maximise opportunities for good interaction.OutputOutput (producing language) is also necessary for language learning - Output Hypothesis (Swain, 1995). Understanding language and producing language are different skills, and the comprehensible input is not enough to push the learner’slinguistic competence to a higher level.Output, the language that the learner himself produces, is an important part of the language acquisition as well. output is the result of learning which actually exists in oral or written forms. Output is also of great significance to L2 acquisition. There are three functions about output. Attention function indicates that the target language output causes the learner to pay more attention to the difference between what he wants to say and what he has said, which will stimulate the conscious learning. Confirmation function stresses that learner has the upper hands to identify and correct. Meta-language function means that when producing the language, the learner realizes his own problems which the feedback system in the brain makes the learner to respond and correct.Language acquisition is a bilateral interaction process in which the input and output are closely related. To cultivate the linguistic competence, the learners not only need to listen, but also need to open their mouths to speak and pick up their pens to write. In practice, learners can build up their language sense and perfect their communications, which are favorable conditions for the language study.The balance between language input and language output plays an important role i n second language we notice the balance between language input and output,we will become more efficient in language learning .If we ignore this balance, especially only focus on language input,most of us are incapable in oral speaking and sum up,teachers should adopt different kinds of teaching methods on the basis of the balance between language input and output,so that their students can have an all-round development capability in second language acquisition.。

二语习得作业

二语习得理论在初中英语听力教学中的应用初中二年级听力教学环节设计听力练习Ⅰ听力前（五分钟）：1.学生热身活动：听一些英语流行歌曲，或英语小故事或英语幽默小笑话。

2.教师对听力材料的相关背景知识加以解释Ⅱ听力阶段听力材料安排学生听三遍，每一遍听完都会有不同的任务。

第一遍听完后，为学生设计一个简单地任务，并确保大多数学生都能找到答案。

第二遍听完后，要求学生从听力材料中获取更多的信息，学生可以与同伴一起讨论回答。

第三遍教师播放录音，让学生核对答案。

Ⅲ听力后教师就听力中出现的一些关于说话人态度和推理性质的问题组织学生探讨交流，并补充一些学生感兴趣或不常涉及的听力文章作为课外知识。

理论分析本次听力教学环节设计依据的是克拉申krashen的二语习得相关理论。

1.输入假说(the input hypothesis):是外语习得的中心部分。

它有几个主要的特点:○1可理解性（comprehensibility）：指理想输入的语言是语言习得的必备条件。

不可理解的语言对习得者无用。

○2既有趣又有关(interesting and relevant): 指的是输入的语言材料既要有趣还要相关。

○3足够的输入量(input enough)：习得一门语言需要广泛地阅读和许多的会话。

2.情感过滤假说(the affective filter hypothesis)：从教育心理学角度看，学习过程中影响学习效果的因素之一是学习者的情感控制，这里包含学习者的动机、焦虑、态度和自行心等心理因素。

而这些因素都具有积极和消极两个方面的影响，因此有了可理解性输入还远远不够。

在此假说中，krashen把情感因素看成是可以调节的过滤器，它让语言输入自由通过或阻碍其通过。

如果习得者的消极情感因素强，即情感过滤水平趋强时，对语言的吸收量就低；与之相反，当学习者处于积极的情感之中，即情感过滤水平趋弱时，这种状态就会十分有助于输入的语言变为习得者内在化的语言吸收。

二语习得期末作业

Communicative Language TeachingAbstract:As long as the Communicative Language Teaching was introduced into China, it had been applied to language teaching immediately and gradually subsitute for our traditional teaching methods. This paper ,first of all,introduces Communicative Language Teaching in an all-round way by elaborating the primary principles of communicative language approach from five aspects.Then it go on to deal with the Communicative Approach in China and list some useful class activities that may utilize in the teaching process. At last, the passage also give some comments and suggestions on this approach.Key words:CLT;principle;class activities;evaluation1.IntroductionThe origins of the Communicative Language Teaching are to be found in the changes in the British language teaching tradition dating from the late 1960s. In the late sixties, the current situational approach was questioned. British applied linguistics began to emphasize the fundamental dimension of language teaching at that time- the functional and communicative potential of language. Scholars like Christopher Candlin and Henry Widdowson drew on the work of British functional linguistics such as John Firth, and Halliday, American work in socioliguiticis like Dell Hymes as well as work in philosophy and argue for focus in language teaching on communicative proficiency rather thanon mere mastery of structures.In 1971, a group of experts began to investigate the possibility of developing language courses on a unit-credit system. At that time, Wilkins,a British linguist proposed a functional or communicative syllabus for language teaching. He attempted to demonstrate the systems of meaning that lay behind the communicative uses of language. He described two types of meanings, the notional categories and categories of communicative functions. He had his ideas published in Notional Syllabus (Wilkins 1976).Chomsky had demonstrated, in Syntactic Structures (1957),that the current standard structural theories of language were incapable of accounting for the fundamental characteristic of language--the creativity and uniqueness of individual sentences.Consequently, a new language teaching approach is needed that not only should emphasize on mere mastery of structures but also on communicative proficiency.Communicative Language Approach(CLA) is a system of teaching method that takes language function as the key link to cultivate students’ communicative ability. The theoretical origin of this approach can be traced back to the work of anthropological linguists (e.g. Hymes, 1972) and the functional linguist (e.g. Halliday, 1973), who take the view that language is for interaction and communication and language has functions related to society. In this light, language study has to look at the use(function) of language both in its linguistic and its social or situational text.Communicative Language Teaching (or Communicative Approach) is an approach to foreign or second language teaching which emphasizes that the goal of language teaching is communicative competence. Communicative language teaching can be understood as a set of principles about the goals of language teaching, how learners learn a language, the kinds of classroom activities that best facilitate learning, and the roles of teachers and learners in the classroom. Although CLT is regarded by many linguists and teachers as the most effective approach among those currently used in ELT, the question of whether it is adaptable for English language teaching in China is still an controversial issue that has aroused lots of heated discussions.2.Primary Principles of CLACLA has to follow some primary principles, which are illustrated below.2.1 ApproachCLA accepts the structural view of language and added a functional view to it. Structural view focuses on the grammatical forms of language, while the functional view looks at what the structural forms express in specific context. Accordingly, social context is important in deciding whatlinguistic forms to use. In addition, the awareness of culture is viewed as sociocultural competence.2.2 Teacher and student roles in CLA2.2.1 The Role of the TeachersCommunicative language teaching is the generally accepted norm in the field of second language teaching. In CLT the teacher serves as more of a facilitator, allowing students to be in charge of their own learning. 2.2.1.1 OrganizerIn the communicative language teaching, the teacher should organize the communicative activities, during which the students can have interactions according to the topics. Consequently, at the beginning of each class, the teacher should design various communicative activities that can arouse students’ interests.2.2.1.2 AdviserDuring the classroom communicative activities, the students may encounter different kinds of expressing difficulties, or sometimes even can not continue their conversation due to the limits of their language skills or lack of certain knowledge. When this happened, the teacher should help the students either by giving them the direct expressing or inspire them to express their ideas in another way.2.2.1.3 Facilitator and ParticipantBreen and Candlin pointed out that in communicative language teaching, there are two important roles the teacher should act as.The first role is to facilitate the communication process between all participants in the classroom, and between these participants and the various activities and texts. The second role is to act as an independent participant within the learning-teaching group. Thelatter role is closely related to the objectives of the first role and arises from it.2.2.2 The Role of the StudentsIn CLT, students practice real-life situations. In these exercises,the goal is for the student to communicate his or her needs and thoughts, without worrying about having perfect grammar.Consequently, in interactive classroom teaching, students can act as the master, cooperator and respondent in the classroom teaching activities.2.2.2.1 ManagerIn CLT, the classroom is like a public place; every student can have a discussion on a certain topic or make a role play according to one situation. CLT can give students access to a chance of free learning. In this kind of class, the learning and communicating of students become an active and meaningful process.2.2.2.2 ParticipantDuring the process of communicative activities, students learn and use language by discussing, communicating and cooperating. That means, the language learning depends on the cooperation with other students. One’s expression or discussion can have an influence on others as well as being inspired by others. Thus, the whole process of learning a language is also the course of cooperation.2.3 The role of learner’s native languageLearner’s language p lays absolutely no role in target language learning for the simple reason that classroom interaction should be conducted entirely in the target language in order to learn the language through genuine communication.2.4 Views on learners’ errorsErrors are regarded as a natural part of language development and are therefore regarded tolerated. Unless an error hinders communication, it is usually not corrected. So with CLA,learners will have ample opportunities in class to share their ideas, opinions and feelings with their peers.2.5 Characteristics of teaching and learning processCLA is most noted for the following features:1) It uses a need-based communicative syllabus, often a functional one. A lesson is usually organized through communicative activities and language functions, from which the necessary linguistic forms and structures, as well as the pragmatic elements of language, will be derived.2) It employs quantity of communicative activities that are purposeful, meaningful and that allow choice: CLA uses almost any activity that engages learners in authentic communication because it is believed that activities that involve real communication promote learning; activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning.3) Materials are authentic. CLA considers it very important to choose study material that is authentic from the target language community for the reason that it renders the opportunity for learners to cope with the target language as it is actually used.Generally speaking, major distinctive features concluded by Finocchiaro and Brumfit(1983: 91-3) are that learners learn a language through using it to communicate; authentic and meaningful communication should be the goal of classroomactivities;fluency is an important dimension of communication; communication involves the integration of different language skills; learning is a process of creative construction that involves trial and error.3.Classroom Activities in CLTA wild variety of materials can be used to support communicative approaches to language teaching. The followings are some methods we can utilize during the communicative language teaching.3.1 Scrambled sentencesThe students are given a passage in which the sentences are in ascrambled order. This may be a passage they have worked with or one they have not seen before. They are told to unscramble the sentences so that the sentences are restored to their original order.This type of exercise teaches students about the cohesion and coherence properties of language.3.2 Picture strip storyMany activities can be done with picture strip stories. In the activity, one student in a small group can be given a strip story. He shows the first picture of the story to the other members of his group and asks them to predict what the second picture would look like. An information gap exists-the students in the groups do not know what the picture contained. They have a choice as to what their prediction would be and how they would word it.3.3 Role playRole plays are very important in CLT because they give students an opportunity to practice communicating in different social contexts and in different social roles. Role plays can be set up so that they are very structured or in a less structured way. The latter is more in keeping with CLT, of course, because it gives the students more of a choice.4.the Communicative Approach in ChinaIn the history of EFL teaching, China saw its first movement toward communicative language teaching (CLT) in secondary schools in the early 1990s. In 1992 the State Education Development Commission (SEDC)introduced a functional syllabus that set the goal of communicative teaching and listed the communicative functions to be taught. In the same year, in cooperation with the publisher Longman, the SEDC published a new textbook series for communicative teaching. The syllabus and the textbooks required teachers to teach communicatively in classrooms.The movement toward CLT was not accidental. It came from an educational problem that needed to be solved: the widespread use of the traditional grammar-oriented method. Because teachers focused on grammar and structure, the traditional method produced unsatisfactory teaching results. Students became almost "structurally competent but communicatively incompetent"). Faced with this backward situation, the SEDC felt an urgent need to change.The SEDC is the official authority for setting educational policy. It is the representative of the highly centralized Chinese system of education. Because the SEDC has so much power, it may seem that every teacher would have switched to CLT. However, because CLT was new in every way, it met with considerable resistance from the start. Many teachers tried to change the dominant teaching procedures but quickly got frustrated, lost their initial enthusiasm, and returned to tradition. As a result, CLT did not gain popularity in the early 1990s.The key word underlying the use of CLT was feasibility: Was the use of CLT feasible? Opponents of CLT held that CLT was neither possiblenor feasible in China because of specific conditions there. Proponents argued that CLT was indeed feasible if there was a sweeping change of curriculum. The SEDC authorities supported this favorable view and took some measures to ensure that CLT was used effectively.First, the SEDC authorities suggested using an eclectic method that includes various elements of many methods according to the teachers' actual situation. Teachers were required to use CLT as a main method while accepting elements of other methods. The authorities pointed out that in the mid-1980s some key schools in Beijing and Shanghai had already shown some tendency toward eclecticism, so teachers should follow this trend. An advantage of using an eclectic method was that it could help teach students knowledge of both the language's usage and its use and meet students' differing needs.Second, in the late 1990s the Matriculation English Test (MET), one of the National College Entrance Exams developed by the SEDC, began to include the Language Use Section so that teachers could teach to the test. This section was added to measure the four language skills used for communication and included such elements such as role plays, reading comprehension, and communicative writing. Passing the MET in order to be able to attend colleges and universities is secondary students' most important consideration while learning English. The test has beenidentified as the single most powerful influence in the resistance to innovation in educational practice in China.Third, teacher training was conducted. One reason to reject reform was the inability of the teachers to do their jobs well. Most Chinese teachers, especially those in rural schools, lack a sufficient level of English proficiency. Many teachers attended in-service training in teachers' colleges and normal universities. Apart from learning the English language, teachers also learned about the principles of CLT. Before CLT was introduced into China, not many teachers were familiar with the trends in teaching methodology. As a result of this training, many teachers came to realize that teaching English does not consist only of teaching grammar but that the true mastery of a language involves communicative competence.Fourth, the authorities publicized the advantages of using CLT. For example, CLT views language as a tool for communication, insists that interactional speaking activities in classrooms be instances of real communication, and ensures that students have sufficient exposure to the target language. All these would develop in students an ability to use English for communication. Li (1984), one of the first defenders of CLT in China, argued that using CLT would be of great benefit to students. Her arguments in favor of CLT had a big influence on Chinese teachers' attitudes toward CLT.As a result of these measures, more teachers accepted CLT. In the mid-1990s, "there [was] widespread awareness of more communicative approaches"). The efforts of the educational authorities in China thus had a big influence on EFL teaching, causing CLT to be accepted as the main teaching method in China.The traditional language teaching method has been prevalent in Chinese college English classroom for years. English teaching in China is dominated by teacher-centered and book-centered grammar-translation method. The teacher dominates the classroom by explaining the usage of language during all the class hours with less participation of learners.Some language teachers in China have now realized that learning is for communication. Since CLA came into China in the 1970s, after being studied and practiced for more than twenty years, its fundamental theories and thoughts have been the mainstream that exerts great impacts on the foreign language teaching in China and have been widely used in Chinese English classroom in current days.5.Evaluations of CLTCommunicative Language Teaching focus on student-centered teaching practice. It simulates various situations according to real life, provides opportunities for students to communicate with each other.5.1 The Advantages of CLTThe interaction between teachers and students are greatly enhancedin CLT. One of the obvious characteristic of CLT is that the students are more responsible of their own learning than in a traditional teacher-centered classroom. The relationship between students and teachers is interactive and harmonious.The strong version of communicative approach advances the claim that language is acquired through communication, so that it is merely a question of activating an existing but inert knowledge of the language, but of stimulating the development of the language system itself. Within this version, one uses English to learn it.Communicative language teaching is a new approach in China,it emphasizes on the communicative competence and can stimulate students interest more than traditional teaching methods. However,it also has some shortcomings.5.2 The disadvantages of CLTOverdoing certain CLT features.The weak version of communicative approach stresses the importance of providing learners with opportunities to use their English for communicative purposes and characteristically attempt to integrate such activities into a wider program of language teaching. In the weak version, one learns to use English. Moderation is needed in combination with common sense and a balanced approach.6.Conclusion and SuggestionsToday CLT can be seen as describing a set of core principles aboutlanguage learning and teaching, as summarized above,assumptions which can be applied in different ways and which address different aspects of the processes of teaching and learning. Today CLT continues in its classic form as seen in the huge range of course books and other teaching resources that cite CLT as the source of their methodology. In addition, it has influenced many other language teaching approaches that subscribe to a similar philosophy of language teaching. However, it is faced lotsof challenges.Due to the several challenges which are faced in the CLT,the author believe that first of all, English teachers should continue to learn advanced teaching theory, improve their professional knowledge, know the correct meaning of communicative competence, understanding the substance of CLT , and master the ways and means of teaching. In the teaching process, teachers need to correctly handle the students' ability of listening and speaking and the relationship between reading and writing skills, to encourage students to participate in oral and written communication, not only to meet their current needs and meet the use of English in their future. In addition, teachers have to correct attitude towards grammar teaching in CLT. With the appropriate classroom time to the systematic teaching of grammar knowledge,teachers should provide some meaningful opportunities for students to communicate in the real situation, so that students can learn grammar structures, whiletraining their communicative competence.CLT focuses on teaching students the ability to make comprehensive use of language, the communicative ability as the ultimate goal of teaching. With the development of modern information technology, CLT continues to play an effective and active role. The author believes that CLT is an effective approach to improve the student's speaking ability. In present English teaching in China, Communicative Approach is a widely spread teaching method, but it still needs improving.Some challenges still remain to be tackled.References:[1]Chomsky Syntactic Structures [M].Dutch:Mouton＆CO.,1957.[2]Finocchiaro M,Brumfit C.The Functional-Notional Approach:From Theory to Practice[M].New York:Oxford:Oxford University Press,1983.[3]Larsen-Freeman.Techniques and principles in language teaching[M].Oxford:Oxford University Press,1986.[4]Halliday M A K.Explorations in the Functions of Language [M].London:Edward Arnold,1973.[5]Hymes D.On Communicative Competence[C]//Pride J B,Holmes,1972.[6] Jack C. Richards and Theodore S. Rodgers:Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008。

张剑的二语习得作业

经过三个月的教学活动。我们对实验组和参照组的60名同学举行了一次考试，将学习过的单词以填空题（考察拼写），单选题（考察搭配），正确形式填空（考察变形），完型填空（考察概念）的形式考察学生，结果得出了以下两组数据；
考察项目实验组参照组均值
拼写 5.2 3.6 4.4
变形 4.6 4.4 4.5

1:研究目的：通过对非英语专业学生在词汇学习中的语言磨蚀现象，给英语教师的教学活动提供有效的建议。

2：研究对象选择两个大四的非英语专业的班级。一个是实验组，一个是参照组。实验为期三个月，两个班级每班30人，配备相同水平的英语教师和教材
3：研究过程

在为期三个月的教学活动中。教师每周上两次英语课，每节课都是先以词汇教学为主，学习单词的拼写、读法、语音和概念。然后回到相应的课文中习得单词的用法和搭配。实验组的教师在课后总会布置相应的单词背诵任务，并且在下一节课后对学生听写，而参照组的老师只是单纯的教授单词的各项，却不会在下一节课后对上一节课的单词进行复习。而且，实验组的教师会对实验班级每月进行一次单词小测验以迫使学生每月都对单词复习一次。
2：语言磨蚀的发展现状

1980年“语言技能流损会议”（conferrence on the attrition of language skills）在美国宾夕法尼亚大学召开。第一次在国际学术领域确立了“语言磨蚀”作为语言学的一个重要研究领域。该项研究自从1980年起在国外已经被大量学者所研究，产生了许多知名学者如：lambert, de bot, hansen, van els, weltens, paul meara等。但是该项研究在国内的研究还处在起步阶段。

对外汉语《二语习得》题库及答案

对外汉语《二语习得》题库及答案第一章单元测试1、判断题：习得与学习二者之间的关系是割裂的。

（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】2、单选题：最早发现习得与学习存在区别的是语言学家（）选项：A:乔姆斯基B:斯蒂芬?克拉申C:洪堡特D:斯韦恩答案: 【斯蒂芬?克拉申】3、多选题：关于习得与学习的关系，下列说法正确的是（）选项：A:可以用两个三角形表示；B:这两个三角形是倒置的；C:这两个三角形是部分交叠的；D:这两个三角形是完全重叠的。

答案: 【可以用两个三角形表示；;这两个三角形是倒置的；;这两个三角形是部分交叠的；】成人完全可以做到和儿童一样习得外语。

（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】5、判断题：儿童习得外语的能力总体上高于成人。

（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】6、判断题：传统语言课堂收到的质疑越来越多，我们应该遵循习得规律，改革创新教学模式和方法。

（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】7、判断题：最早获得的语言一定是最熟悉的。

（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】一个在外国出生的华裔儿童，他最早接触的是汉语，成长过程中主要说英语，那么，下列说法正确的是（）选项：A:他的母语是汉语；B:他的第一语言是汉语；C:他的第二语言是英语；D:他的母语是英语。

答案: 【他的母语是汉语；;他的第一语言是汉语；;他的第二语言是英语；】9、多选题：一个在外国出生的华裔儿童，他成长过程中只接触和说英语，那么，下列说法正确的是（）选项：A:他的母语是英语；B:他的第一语言是英语；C:他没有外语；D:他的外语是英语。

答案: 【他的母语是英语；;他的第一语言是英语；;他没有外语；】10、判断题：第一语言是语言学的概念，母语更多的牵涉到民族学问题。

（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】11、判断题：语言学多是理论研究，心理学、心理语言学等多是实验研究。

（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】第二章单元测试1、多选题：关于大脑和语言习得，行为主义心理学派有两个非常著名的观点，分别是（）。

二语习得文献综述作业样本

英师11101班201100495姓名：关于年龄因素与二语习得研究的文献综述姓名：摘要：年龄问题是二语习得研究领域一个热点话题，其研究主要集中在探讨语言学习有无一个敏感期（sensitive period）或临界期（critical period，有人译做关键期）的问题上。

通过对近20年来一些具有代表性的论文的分析，大概可将这些研究分为两类，一是翻译和评介外国理论，二是探讨年龄差异与外语教学。

关键词：年龄因素，二语习得，文献，综述。

第二语言习得（Second Language Acquisition）是一个相对比较年轻的一个领域。

但是，在过去的四、五十年间该领域的各项研究已有了一个长足的发展与进步。

年龄问题是二语习得研究领域一个热点话题，其研究主要集中在探讨语言学习有无一个敏感期（sensitive period）或临界期（critical period，有人译做关键期）的问题上。

（王初明，2001）我国学者除了翻译介绍国外理论以外，还主要探讨了所谓临界期或关键期对于外语教学的启示等问题，这方面已有大量文章问世。

下面，笔者将对近20年来关于二语习得年龄问题的论文作一综述，疏漏不当之处，敬请指教。

一、翻译、评介国外理论的论著国外有关二语习得年龄研究的理论成果大多围绕着所谓的关键假说（Critical Period Hypothesis，或译临界期假说）展开的。

这一理论最初的构想来自Lennenberg（1967），后来围绕此理论形成支持派和反对派。

我国学者对国外理论的引进主要集中在对支持派和反对派观点的介绍和评述上。

戴曼纯介绍了C .Snow和M. Hoefnagel-hohle（1978）有关关键期假说的相关试验及研究，以及一些学者有关“敏感期”假设的实验研究（戴曼纯，1994）。

王初明就国外语言习得临界期的研究所取得的成果进行了大致介绍（王初明，2001）。

王立非和李瑛就美国二语习得专家David Birdsong在1999年出版的《第二语言习得与关键期假设》（Second Language Acquisition and the Critical Period Hypothesis）一书作了评介（王立非、李瑛，2002）。

第二语言习得 (中文版)

第二语言习得 (中文版)第二语言习得是指在已经谙熟自己的母语后开始接触学习另外的一门语言。

这种语言习得与母语习得不同，因为母语即是个人的文化和生活背景的一部分，而第二语言则需要通过各种学习环境、工具和方法才能够完成。

第二语言的学习有其特殊性，因为它需要不同的學習技巧或是包含不同的学习过程。

而且，因为第二语言的习得通常是在成人的时期开始的，所以这种语言习得需要分析并改变人的思维方式习惯。

就像一个中国人学英语，需要用到英语的语法规则，同时又逃不掉中文惯用的方式和表达方式。

为了掌握第二语言，我们需要通过各种途径去了解和学习它。

这些途径包括学校、网上资源、语言交流等等。

最好的途径当然是去一个使用第二语言的国家，并在那里生活，这样可以最好的体验到语言的环境，也能适应新的生活和文化。

对于那些没有这个机会的人，透过各种在线资源来学习和练习也是同样有效的。

第二语言习得可能会改变我们的思维方式和认知水平。

通过学习这门外语，我们可以认识不同的语言文化和习惯，扩宽自己的眼界。

同时，通过不同语言的丰富表达方式，也可以更加深入的理解和描述世界。

第二语言的习得也会对我们的就业竞争力产生积极影响。

因为在全球化的时代背景下，英语已经成为商业和学术合作的重要语言。

如果我们能够掌握这种第二语言，我们的就业机会和工作效率也会更高。

总之，第二语言习得是非常重要和有价值的。

这种习得需要时间、耐心和努力。

不过通过积极的学习和交流，我们能够顺利掌握一门外语，并获得更多的机会和认知。

第二语言习得的过程通常被认为是相对困难的，原因在于以下一些方面。

首先，个体的母语背景、学习历史和文化习惯对于学习另一门语言的效果产生重要影响。

这些因素往往会阻碍个体从母语中摆脱出来进入到新学习的语言环境中。

其次，学习语言的词汇和语法规则是一个长期而复杂的过程。

除了需要内化表达方式外，学习者还需要理解并适应新的文化习惯和社会背景。

而这种适应需要耗费大量的时间和精力。

第二语言习得试题及答案

第二语言习得试题及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共10分）1. 第二语言习得理论中，克拉申的“输入假说”主张学习者需要接收到什么样的语言输入？A. 完全理解的输入B. 可理解的输入C. 无理解的输入D. 超过理解的输入答案：B2. 根据斯金纳的操作条件反射理论，语言习得主要依赖于什么？A. 模仿B. 强化C. 内化D. 社会互动答案：B3. 在语言习得中，“临界期”假说主张语言学习的最佳时期是？A. 任何年龄B. 儿童时期C. 青少年时期D. 成年时期答案：B4. 语言习得的“自然顺序假说”认为语言技能的发展遵循一定的顺序，以下哪项不是该假说的内容？A. 语法结构的习得顺序是固定的B. 词汇的习得顺序是固定的C. 发音的习得顺序是固定的D. 语言习得的速度是个体差异决定的答案：D5. 语言习得的“社会文化理论”强调以下哪个因素在语言学习中的作用？A. 认知发展B. 社会互动C. 语言输入D. 语言输出答案：B二、填空题（每空1分，共10分）1. 语言习得的“监控假说”是由________提出的。

答案：克拉申2. 语言习得中的“输入假说”认为，学习者需要接收到________的输入。

答案：可理解的3. 语言习得的“自然顺序假说”认为，语言技能的发展遵循一定的________。

答案：顺序4. 根据斯金纳的操作条件反射理论，语言习得主要依赖于________。

答案：强化5. 语言习得的“社会文化理论”强调________在语言学习中的作用。

答案：社会互动三、简答题（每题5分，共20分）1. 简述克拉申的“输入假说”。

答案：克拉申的“输入假说”认为，为了习得第二语言，学习者需要接收到略高于其当前语言水平的可理解输入，这样的输入被称为“i+1”输入。

2. 描述斯金纳的操作条件反射理论在语言习得中的应用。

答案：斯金纳的操作条件反射理论认为，语言习得是通过强化机制实现的。

当学习者正确使用语言时，他们会受到奖励（强化），这会增强他们使用正确语言形式的倾向。

二语习得案例及分析(1)

二语习得作业（1）一、请阅读下面的材料，根据题目要求回答问题。

这是一个留学生的作文：在我旅行的过程中，遇到的第一个人是一位警察。

这时我刚下火车，买回北京的火车票，这是我旅行时的习惯，可是我买不到，因为当时我只会一点点汉语，加上从外表上一看就知道我是个外国人。

这时候幸亏我遇见一位警察了，他了解我的情况后，十分热情地帮我的忙，这样我才买到回北京的火车票。

他非常关心我，三番五次地提醒我，要注意旅途安全。

我记得当时天总下雨，他还送给我一把雨伞，欢迎我再访问中国。

1．请找出文中的病句，并改正过来。

2．请结合上文举例说明什么是“语义偏误”、“语篇偏误”和“语用偏误”。

3．文中的那位“警察”在与作者交流时，是否会对自己的语言作出调整？这种调整是否会对二语习得产生影响？参考答案：1．(1)改：那时我刚下火车。

(2)改：而且从外表一看就知道我是个外国人。

(3) 改：这时候幸亏我遇见了一位警察。

(4) 改：我记得当时天一直在下雨。

(5) 改：欢迎我再来中国。

2．语义偏误是指没有准确表达说话者的意图的偏诶，例如，“我记得当时天总下雨”虽然也是正确的句子，但是没有准确表达出说话者的意图，这种就单个句子而言，没有语法问题，通过语境因素，我们才能看出问题所在的偏误，就是语义偏误。

语篇偏误是指违背语篇衔接原则的偏误，例如文中的句子，“这时我刚下火车，买回北京的火车票”和“因为当时我只会一点点汉语，加上从外表上一看就知道我是个外国人”都是在上下文衔接上出了问题。

语用偏误是指跟听话人、说话人身份、地位、关系不相符合，或者跟交际功能和话题不相符合的偏误。

例如，文中的“欢迎我再访问中国际汉语教师证书考试模拟题集国”，“访问”是非常正式的语体，意思也不适用于该文的语境。

3．这位警察为了能够和只会一点点汉语的作者进行交流，不仅要进行会话形式的调整，还要进行话语结构和功能的调整，调整话题结构和功能的目的都是为学习者提供“可理解输入”，以顺利完成交际任务。

二语习得练习

SLA选择题练习选择题练习1：1) Target language refers to __________ .A. the language that one is learningB. one's mother tongueC. one's foreign language2) Second language acquisition takes place normally __________, so the process becomes more complicated.A. after one has already acquired L1B. before one has already acquired L1C. after one has already acquired target language3) Cognitive school theory believes that __________ . Language learning is a process of attaining cognitive skills.A. adults learn L2 by problem-solving cognitive patterns.B. children learn L2 by problem-solving cognitive patterns.C. both adults and children learn L2 by problem-solving cognitive patterns.4) Affective factors are considered ________ .A. unnecessary in L1 acquisition, but necessary in L2 acquisition.B. necessary in L1 acquisition, but unnecessary in L2 acquisition.C. necessary in both L1 and L2 acquisition.5) Critical Period Hypothesis believes that ______ is a important factor that affect L2 acquisition.A. ageB. social classC. sex6) In term of second language acquisition, it is often believed that ________ .A. educational settings will lead to higher levels of L2 proficiency than natural settings.B. natural settings will lead to higher levels of L2 proficiency than educational settings.C. natural settings and educational settings can lead to same level of L2 proficiency7 In terms of second language acquisition, it is often believed that ________ .A. Adults and children are initially and finally the sameB. Children initially faster and adults finally betterC. Adults initially faster and children finally better8) Explicit knowledge is acquired from _______ while implicit knowledge is acquired from _____ .A. acquisition … learningB learni ng … acquisitionC. learning … practice9) A schema, in psychology and cognitive science, is _______ structure that represents some aspects of the world in a person's mind.A. a mentalB. a physicalC. a grammatical10) Listening and reading aloud can strengthen one's ________ .A. auditory memoryB. visual memoryC. sensory memory11) Under submersion settings, a language learner is expected to confronted with instruction situation in which ______ . while under immersion settings the teacher is supposed to be bilingual.A. the teacher and all other classmates do not understand the learner's L1B. the teacher does not understand the learner's L1C. all other classmates not understand the learner's L112) Learning that takes place in natural and educational settings is supposed ________ .A. to be the sameB to be very differentC. to be very easy13) The speculation of Universal Grammar derives from ________ .A. the language acquisition deviceB. the overall success of language acquisitionC. the phenomenon of "poverty-of-the- stimulus"选择题练习2：Acquisition is different from learning: Acquisition occurs ____ 1 ( A. consciously B. unconsciously ) in ______2 ( A. natural B. educational ) setting and learners normally pay attention to _____ 3 ( A. meaning; B. form ).Universal Grammar refers to a set of _____ 4 (A. principle and parameters;B. grammar rules) which human are born with and which ensure the natural occurance of _____ 5 ( A. L1 acquisition; B. L2 acquisition ). But the accessibility of UG is still a controversial issue in ____ 6 ( A. L1 acquisition; B. L2 acquisition )Cognitive school theory believes that ________ 7. (A. adults learn L2 by problem-solving cognitive patterns; B. children learn L2 byproblem-solving cognitive patterns ) and. language learning is a process of attaining cognitive skills.Affective factors are considered ______ 8. (A. unnecessary in L1 acquisition, but necessary in L2 acquisition; B. necessary in L1 acquisition, but unnecessary in L2 acquisition; ) and four most important factors in affective filter are _____ 9 ( A. motivation; B. creation ), attitude, self-confidence and anxiety. A _____ 10 ( A. high B. low ) affective filter is favorable to L2 learning.Learners of instrumental motivation normally concern with _____ 11 ( A. the process; B. the practical rewards ) of learning. So most of them tend to ____ 12 ( A. give up B. work on ) when the process is too long.Language competence refers to ______ 13 ( A. inside language intuition;B. outside language abi lity ). As for L1, people’s language competenceis believed to be equal but their ____ 14 ( A. language styles; B. language performance ) are different.Critical Period Hypothesis believes that _____ 15 ( A. age B. sex ) is a important factor that affect L2 acquisition. And it is generally believed that ____ 16 ( A. children start slower but end better and adults normally start faster but end failure; B. adults start slower but end better and children start faster but end failure. )Memory is normally divided into short-term memory and long-term memory. Long-term memory is stored as our _____ 17 ( A. knowledge; B. task).SLA 名词解释练习1) Acquisition and Learning Acquisition refers to the learning of a language unconsciously under natural settings where learners pay attention only to the meanings or contents rather than forms or grammars; learning refers to the learning of a language consciously under educational settings where learners mainly pay attention to forms or grammars;2) InterlanguageInterlanguage refers to L2 leaner's language. It is so called, because it is a language leaner’s L1 and the learner’s target language.The term "interlangauge" has two levels of meaning, first, it refers to the whole system of language, and second, it also refers to the language level at a certain point along the continuum of interlangauge system. Interlanguage has at least five characte ristics: …3) Behaviorism: 行为主义学派Behaviorism is a school of theory in the study of second language acquisition which insists that mere imitation can ensure the happening of language acquisition. Output is determined by input. Learners can achieve language by mere imitation of the input. Language acquisition is a process of stimulate-response process. "Stimulate" refers to input stimulation and "response" means "learning". So learning comes from merestimulation. This school ignores the inherited linguistic property of human beings and the cognitive process of human mind.4) Mentalism ( Nativism )：天生主义或先天主义学派Mentalism is a school of theory in the study of second language acquisition which argues that language acquisition relies on universal grammar, which is a set of principles and parameters that human are born with. Input just triggers the wake of UG and the choice of parameters. And UG will eventually develop into a specific language. This school ignores the function of input and believe that the inside factors determine the language acquisition. Input does not help a lot.5) Cognitivism ( Or cognitive interactionism ):认知主义学派Believe that L2 acquisition relies on interaction between the inside and outside factors. And this school differentiate the differences between children's and adults' L2 acquisition, believing that adults usually learn and do not acquire L2 as a child does, so UG does not exist in adults' L2 learning. Adult people learn L2 by problem-solving cognitive patterns. Language learning is a process of attaining cognitive skills, similar to learning swimming and driving.6) Affective Filter Affective filters refer to motivation, confidence, attitude and anxiety, which form a groups of psychological factors that influence the process of second language acquisition. It is universally believed that low level of affective filters is more favorable to second language acquisition than higher ones. We call them affective filter because these psychological factors can filter the passage of input in accordance with different levels of affective.7) Implicit knowledge and explicit knowledgeImplicit knowledge refers to the knowledge that one attains as the result of L2 acquisition, while explicit knowledge refers to the knowledge that one attains as the result of L2 learning. So implicit knowledge is procedural knowledge, a kind of language skills. Explicit knowledge refers to rules and principles of L2.8) Schema Schema refers to one's mental structure of the world in his (her) mind. The deposit of knowledge in one's mind creates a picture or a stereotype of the structure of the outside world, which in turn provides a framework for future understanding.9) Fundamental Difference HypothesisA cognitive theory in second language acquisition put forward byBley-Vroman and representing the opinions of cognitivist school. The theory believes that in second language acquisition adults and children are different from each other. Children acquire a second language in the process of which universal grammar may, to certain degree, still exist while adults use cognitive problem-solving process in which UG is unaccessible and so cause general failure.10) FossilizationFossilizable linguistic phenomena are linguistic items, rules and subsystems which speakers of a particular native language will tend to keep in their inerlanguage relative to a particular target language, no matter what the age of the learner or amount of explanation and instruction he receives in the target language. Or fossilization refers to a state in which L2 learners' language development stops or get stuck no matter how much effort they give or how much instruction they reveive. It is a kind of universal phenomenon in interlanguage.11）Social settings in SLASocial settings refer to natural settings and educational settings in L2 acquisition. Educational settings are further divided into submersion and immersion settings.Immersion setting refers to a setting in which …. While submersi on setting is a setting in which …12）Universal GrammarUniversal Grammar refers to a set of highly abstract principles and parameters that human are born with. It is also called language acquisition device, which ensure the happening of language acquisition. The theory was first put forward by Noam Chomsky to explain the occuranceof L1 acquisition. Some linguists applied it to L2 acquisition, believing that UG is still accessible in L2 acquisition.13) Integrative motivationIntegrative motivation refers to sincere personal interest in learning L2 because of the language itself and the culture represented by the language. Integrative motivation has been shown strongly related to L2 achievement.14) Instrumental MotivationInstrumental Motivation concern with the practical rewards of learning such as certificates, making money. Learners with an instrumental reason for learning L2 can be successful. In some 'second' as opposed to 'foreign' settings, an instrumental orientation may be the most important one. Learners with instrumental motivation may stop learning when they failed to receive expected rewards.15) language transferTransfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously ( and perhaps imperfectly) acquired. Transfer is divided into positive transfer and negative transfer. Positive transfer can facilitate L2 learning while errors occurred as a result of negative transfer.。

二语习得练习题

二语习得练习题二语习得练习题在当今全球化的时代，学习第二语言已经成为许多人的追求。

无论是为了工作需要、旅行方便还是为了丰富自己的知识储备，掌握一门第二语言都是非常重要的。

然而，学习第二语言并不是一件容易的事情，需要付出大量的努力和时间。

为了提高二语习得的效果，许多人选择进行练习题的训练。

练习题在二语习得中起着重要的作用。

它们可以帮助学习者巩固所学的语法规则、词汇和句型。

通过做练习题，学习者可以更好地理解和运用所学的知识。

练习题还可以帮助学习者发现自己在语言运用中的问题和不足之处，从而有针对性地进行学习和提高。

在选择练习题时，学习者应该根据自己的水平和需求进行选择。

如果是初学者，可以选择一些基础的练习题，如词汇选择、语法填空等。

这些练习题可以帮助初学者掌握基本的语言知识和运用能力。

如果是中级或高级学习者，可以选择一些更具挑战性的练习题，如阅读理解、写作等。

这些练习题可以帮助他们提高语言的理解和表达能力。

在做练习题时，学习者应该注重练习的质量而不是数量。

每一道练习题都应该仔细思考和分析，找出正确的答案并理解其背后的语言规则。

如果遇到不懂的地方，可以查阅相关的语法书籍或咨询老师和同学。

此外，学习者还可以利用练习题来进行口语和写作的练习。

通过口语和写作的练习，学习者可以更好地运用所学的语言知识，提高自己的语言表达能力。

练习题不仅可以帮助学习者提高语言水平，还可以增加学习的乐趣。

通过做练习题，学习者可以不断挑战自己，充实自己的知识储备。

同时，练习题也可以帮助学习者培养自学能力和解决问题的能力。

在解答练习题的过程中，学习者需要思考和分析，找出正确的答案，这样可以培养学习者的思维能力和逻辑思维能力。

总之，二语习得练习题对于提高语言水平和运用能力非常重要。

通过做练习题，学习者可以巩固所学的知识，发现问题并加以解决，提高自己的语言表达能力。

因此，我们应该充分利用练习题来辅助我们的二语学习，让我们的语言能力得到更好的提升。

二语习得期末作业.doc

Communicative Language TeachingAbstract:As long as the Communicative Language Teaching was introduced into China, it had been applied to language teaching immediately and gradually subsitute for our traditional teaching methods. This paper ,first of all,introduces Communicative Language leaching in an all-round way by elaborating the primary principles of communicative language approach from five aspects.Then it go on to deal with the Communicative Approach in China and list some useful class activities that may utilize in the teaching process. At last, the passage also give some comments and suggestions on this approach. Key words:CLT;principIe;class activities;evaluation1 .Introd actionThe origins of the Communicative Language Teaching are to be found in the changes in the British language teaching tradition dating from the late 1960s. In the late sixties, the current situational approach was questioned. British applied linguistics began to emphasize the fundamental dimension of language teaching at that time- the functional and communicative potential of language. Scholars like Christopher Candlin and Henry Widdowson drew on the work of British functional linguistics such as John Firth, and Halliday, American work in socioliguiticis like Dell Hymes as well as work in philosophy and argue for focus in language teaching on communicative proficiency rather than on mere mastery of structures.In 1971, a group of experts began to investigate the possibility ofdeveloping language courses on a unit-credit system. At that time, Wilkins,a British linguist proposed a functional or communicative syllabus for language teaching. He attempted to demonstrate the systems of meaning that lay behind the communicative uses of language. He described two types of meanings, the notional categories and categories of communicative functions. He had his ideas published in Notional Syllabus (Wilkins 1976).Chomsky had demonstrated, in Syntactic Structures (1957),that the current standard structural theories of language were incapable of accounting for the fundamental characteristic of language—the creativity and uniqueness of individual sentences.Consequently, a new language teaching approach is needed that not only should emphasize on mere mastery of structures but also on communicative proficiency.Communicative Language Approach(CLA) is a system of teaching method that takes language function as the key link to cultivate students, communicative ability. The theoretical origin of this approach can be traced back to the work of anthropological linguists (e.g. Hymes, 1972) and the functional linguist (e.g. Halliday, 1973), who take the view that language is for interaction and communication and language has functions related to society. In this light, language study has to look at the use(function) of language both in its linguistic and its social or situational text.Communicative Language Teaching (or Communicative Approach) is an approach to foreign or second language teaching which emphasizes that the goal of language teaching is communicative competence. Communicativelanguage teaching can be understood as a set of principles about the goals of language teaching, how learners learn a language, the kinds of classroom activities that best facilitate learning, and the roles of teachers and learners in the classroom. Although CLT is regarded by many linguists and teachers as the most effective approach among those currently used in ELT, the question of whether it is adaptable for English language teaching in China is still an controversial issue that has aroused lots of heated discussions.2.Primary Principles of CLACLA has to follow some primary principles, which are illustrated below.2.1ApproachCLA accepts the structural view of language and added a functional view to it. Structural view focuses on the grammatical forms of language, while the functional view looks at what the structural forms express in specific context. Accordingly, social context is important in deciding what linguistic forms to use. In addition, the awareness of culture is viewed as sociocultural competence.2.2Teacher and student roles in CLA2.2.1The Role of the TeachersCommunicative language teaching is the generally accepted norm in the field of second language teaching. In CLT the teacher serves as more of a facilitator, allowing students to be in charge of their own learning.2.2.1.1OrganizerIn the communicative language teaching, the teacher should organize the communicative activities, during which the students can have interactions according to the topics. Consequently, at the beginning of each class, the teacher should design various communicative activities that can arouse students9 interests.2.2A.2 AdviserDuring the classroom communicative activities, the students may encounter different kinds of expressing difficulties, or sometimes even can not continue their conversation due to the limits of their language skills or lack of certain knowledge. When this happened, the teacher should help the students either by giving them the direct expressing or inspire them to express their ideas in another way.Facilitator and ParticipantBreen and Candlin pointed out that in communicative language teaching, there are two important roles the teacher should act as.The first role is to facilitate the communication process between all participants in the classroom, and between these participants and the various activities and texts. The second role is to act as an independent participant within the learning-teaching group. Thelatter role is closely related to the objectives of the first role and arises from it.2.2.2The Roie of the StudentsIn CLT, students practice real-life situations. In these exercises,the goal is for the student to communicate his or her needs and thoughts, without worrying about having perfect grammar.Consequently, in interactive classroom teaching, students can act as the master, cooperator and respondent in the classroom teaching activities.2.2.2.1ManagerIn CLT, the classroom is like a public place; every student can have a discussion on a certain topic or make a role play according to one situation. CLT can give students access to a chance of free learning. In this kind of class, the learning and communicating of students become an active and meaningful process.2.2.2.2ParticipantDuring the process of communicative activities, students learn and use language by discussing, communicating and cooperating. That means, the language learning depends on the cooperation with other students. One's expression or discussion can have an influence on others as well as being inspired by others. Thus, the whole process of learning a language is also the course of cooperation.2.3The role of learner's native languageLearner's language plays absolutely no role in target language learning for the simple reason that classroom interaction should be conducted entirelyin the target language in order to learn the language through genuine communication.2.4Views on learners9 errorsErrors are regarded as a natural part of language development and are therefore regarded tolerated. Unless an error hinders communication, it is usually not corrected. So with CLA,learners will have ample opportunities in class to share their ideas, opinions and feelings with their peers.2.5Characteristics of teaching and learning processCLA is most noted for the following features:It uses a need-based communicative syllabus, often a functional one. A lesson is usually organized through communicative activities and language functions, from which the necessary linguistic forms and structures, as well as the pragmatic elements of language, will be derived.It employs quantity of communicative activities that are purposeful, meaningful and that allow choice: CLA uses almost any activity that engages learners in authentic communication because it is believed that activities that involve real communication promote learning; activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning.Materials are authentic. CLA considers it very important to choose study material that is authentic from the target language community for the reason that it renders the opportunity for learners to cope with the target language as it is actually used.Generally speaking, major distinctive features concluded byFinocchiaro and Brumfit(1983: 91-3) are that learners learn a language through using it to communicate; authentic and meaningful communication should be the goal of classroom activities;fluency is an important dimensionof communication;communication involves the integration of different language skills; learningis a process of creative construction that involves trial and error.3.Classroom Activities in CLTA wild variety of materials can be used to support communicative approaches to language teaching. The followings are some methods we can utilize during the communicative language teaching.3.1Scrambled sentencesThe students are given a passage in which the sentences are in a scrambled order. This may be a passage they have worked with or one they have not seen before. They are told to unscramble the sentences so that the sentences are restored to their original order.This type of exercise teaches students about the cohesion and coherence properties of language.3.2Picture strip storyMany activities can be done with picture strip stories. In the activity, one student in a small group can be given a strip story. He shows the first picture of the story to the other members of his group and asks them to predict what the second picture would look like. An information gap exists-the students in the groups do not know what the picture contained. They have a choice as to what their prediction would be and how they would word it.3.3Role playRole plays are very important in CLT because they give students anopportunity to practice communicating in different social contexts and in different social roles. Role plays can be set up so that they are very structured or in a less stmctured way. The latter is more in keeping with CUT, of course, because it gives the students more of a choice.4.the Communicative Approach in ChinaIn the history of EFL teaching, China saw its first movement toward communicative language teaching (CLT) in secondary schools in the early 1990s. In 1992 the State Education Development Commission (SEDC) introduced a functional syllabus that set the goal of communicative teaching and listed the communicative functions to be taught. In the same year, in cooperation with the publisher Longman, the SEDC published a new textbook series for communicative teaching. The syllabus and the textbooks required teachers to teach communicatively in classrooms.The movement toward CLT was not accidental. It came from an educational problem that needed to be solved: the widespread use of the traditional grammar-oriented method. Because teachers focused on grammar and structure, the traditional method produced unsatisfactory teaching results. Students became almost "structurally competent but communicatively incompetent1'). Faced with this backward situation, the SEDC felt an urgent need to change.The SEDC is the official authority for setting educational policy. It is the representative of the highly centralized Chinese system of education. Because the SEDC has so much power, it may seem that every teacher would have switched to CLT. However, because CLT was new in every way, it met with considerable resistance from the start. Many teachers tried to change thedominant teaching procedures but quickly got frustrated, lost their initial enthusiasm, and returned to tradition. As a result, CLT did not gain popularity in the early 1990s.The key word underlying the use of CLT was feasibility: Was the use of CLT feasible? Opponents of CLT held that CLT was neither possible nor feasible in China because of specific conditions there. Proponents argued that CLT was indeed feasible if there was a sweeping change of curriculum. The SEDC authorities supported this favorable view and took some measures to ensure that CLT was used effectively.First, the SEDC authorities suggested using an eclectic method that includes various elements of many methods according to the teachers* actual situation. Teachers were required to use CLT as a main method while accepting elements of other methods. The authorities pointed out that in the mid-1980s some key schools in Beijing and Shanghai had already shown some tendency toward eclecticism, so teachers should follow this trend. An advantage of using an eclectic method was that it could help teach students knowledge of both the language's usage and its use and meet students* differing needs.Second, in the late 1990s the Matriculation English Test (MET), one of the National College Entrance Exams developed by the SEDC, began to include the Language Use Section so that teachers could teach to the test. This section was added to measure the four language skills used forcommunication and included such elements such as role plays, reading comprehension, and communicative writing. Passing the MET in order to be able to attend colleges and universities is secondary students* most important consideration while learning English. The test has been identified as the single most powerful influence in the resistance to innovation in educational practice in China.Third, teacher training was conducted. One reason to reject reform was the inability of the teachers to do their jobs well. Most Chinese teachers, especially those in rural schools, lack a sufficient level of English proficiency. Many teachers attended in-service training in teachers1colleges and normal universities. Apart from learning the English language, teachers also learned about the principles of CLT. Before CLT was introduced into China, not many teachers were familiar with the trends in teaching methodology. As a result of this training, many teachers came to realize that teaching English does not consist only of teaching grammar but that the true mastery of a language involves communicative competence.Fourth, the authorities publicized the advantages of using CLT. For example, CLT views language as a tool fbr communication, insists that interactional speaking activities in classrooms be instances of real communication, and ensures that students have sufficient exposure to the target language. All these would develop in students an ability to use English for communication. Li (1984), one of the first defenders of CLT in China,argued that using CLT would be of great benefit to students. Her arguments in favor of CLT had a big influence on Chinese teachers* attitudes toward CLT.As a result of these measures, more teachers accepted CLT. In the mid-1990s, H there [was] widespread awareness of more communicative approaches"). The efforts of the educational authorities in China thus had a big influence on EFL teaching, causing CLT to be accepted as the main teaching method in China.The traditional language teaching method has been prevalent in Chinese college English classroom for years. English teaching in China is dominated by teacher-centered and book-centered grammar-translation method. The teacher dominates the classroom by explaining the usage of language during all the class hours with less participation of learners.Some language teachers in China have now realized that learning is for communication. Since CLA came into China in the 1970s, after being studied and practiced for more than twenty years, its fundamental theories and thoughts have been the mainstream that exerts great impacts on the foreign language teaching in China and have been widely used in Chinese English classroom in current days.5.EvaIuations of CLTCommunicative Language Teaching focus on student-centered teaching practice. It simulates various situations according to real life, provides opportunities for students to communicate with each other.5.1The Advantages of CLTThe interaction between teachers and students are greatly enhanced in CLT. One of the obvious characteristic of CLT is that the students are more responsible of their own learning than in a traditional teacher-centered classroom. The relationship between students and teachers is interactive and harmonious.The strong version of communicative approach advances the claim that language is acquired through communication, so that it is merely a question of activating an existing but inert knowledge of the language, but of stimulating the development of the language system itself. Within this version, one uses English to learn it.Communicative language teaching is a new approach in China,it emphasizes on the communicative competence and can stimulate students interest more than traditional teaching methods. However,it also has some shortcomings.5.2The disadvantages of CLTOverdoing certain CLT features.The weak version of communicative approach stresses the importance of providing learners with opportunities to use their English for communicative purposes and characteristically attempt to integrate such activities into a wider program of language teaching. In the weak version, one learns to use English. Moderation is needed in combination with common sense and a balanced approach.6.Conclusion and SuggestionsToday CLT can be seen as describing a set of core principles about language learning and teaching, as summarized above,assumptions which can be applied in different ways and which address different aspects ofthe processes of teaching and learning. Today CLT continues in its classic form as seen in the huge range of course books and other teaching resources that cite CLT as the source of their methodology. In addition, it has influenced many other language teaching approaches that subscribe to a similar philosophy of language teaching. However, it is faced lots of challenges.Due to the several challenges which are faced in the CLT,the author believe that first of all, English teachers should continue to learn advanced teaching theory, improve their professional knowledge, know the correct meaning of communicative competence, understanding the substance of CLT , and master the ways and means of teaching. In the teaching process, teachers need to correctly handle the students' ability of listening and speaking and the relationship between reading and writing skills, to encourage students to participate in oral and written communication, not only to meet their current needs and meet the use of English in their future. In addition, teachers have to correct attitude towards grammar teaching in CLT. With the appropriate classroom time to the systematic teaching of grammar knowledge,teachers should provide some meaningful opportunities for students to communicate in the real situation, so that students can learn grammar structures, while training their communicative competence.CLT focuses on teaching students the ability to make comprehensive use of language, the communicative ability as the ultimate goal of teaching. With the development of modem information technology, CLT continues to play an effective and active role. The author believes that CLT is an effective approach to improve the student's speaking ability. In present English teachingin China, Communicative Approach is a widely spread teaching method, but it still needs improving.Some challenges still remain to be tackled. References:Chomsky Syntactic Structures [M].Dutch:Mouton & CO., 1957.Finocchiaro M,Brumfit C.The Functional-Notional Approach:From Theory to PracticefM].New York:Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1983.[3 ] Larsen-Freeman .Techniq ues and principles in languageteaching[MJ.Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1986.Halliday M A K.Explorations in the Functions of Language[M].London :Edward Arnold, 1973.Hymes D.On Communicative Competence[C]//Pride JB,Holmes,1972.Jack C. Richards and Theodore S. Rodgers:Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Foreign Language leaching and Research Press, 2008。

二语习得功能派作业

助于培养学生综合的语言运用能力。
三、发挥学生的主体性作用。促进学生积极参与语言交流活动，启发想像力和创造性思维，有
利于发挥学生的主体性作用。
四、更好的实现面向全体学生进行教学。在任务型教学中有大量的小组或双人活动，每个人
都有自己的任务要完成，可以更好地面向全体学生进行教学。
五、拓宽知识面。活动内容涉及面广，信息量大，有助于拓宽学生的知识面。六、促进全面发展。在活动中学习知识，培养人际交往、思考、决策和应变能力，有利于学生
氛围，在教师的引导和启发下，把“要我学”变成“我要学”，鼓励学习者积极参与具
有开放性的交际任务，通过在活动中完成学习性任务，获取语言学习的自信心和成就感，
全方位提高学习者的语言运用能力，促进学习者的个性全面发展。
（四）意义性特点。任务式教学法注重表达意义，并且最大程度的平衡了语言意义和
形式之间的关系。
二、任务的系统性和延续难以把握。比如，任务的难易程度，任
务之间的衔接等问题。
三、独立思考的能力减弱。任务型教学中，学生习惯小组讨论，
相对而言，学生独立思考的能力减弱，依赖他人的意识增强。
教学思考
12
该教学法给我们什么启示？
任务式教学法的教学特点对对外汉语教学的启示
（一）真实性特点。“真实性是语言教学的一大特点，主要是指任务和活动的真实性。
包括朗读，根据对话的话题与情境进行问答，并进一步以对话的主题为中心结合学习者的个人经验做问答练习
学习对话中出现的基本交际表达法及其相应的语言结构
帮助学习者发现并总结用于表达功能的结构规则
在交际情境中，让学生运用学过的语言形式从有指导的到完全自由的表达自己的思想
常采用游戏、谈话、讲故事、讨论、扮演角色、即兴表演等解决问题的活动，以培养学生在实际生活中的交际能力。

答案二语习得(DOC)

1、第一语言习得和第二语言习得的异同？（1）相同点：（反映了语言习得的普遍规律）A、两种语言的习得都必须具备一定的主观条件和客观条件。

主观：健全的大脑、语言器官；客观：一定的语言环境。

两种语言习得都是主客观条件相互作用的结果。

B、两种语言习得都是为了培养语言的交际能力。

C、两种语言习得都必须掌握语音、词汇、语法等要素和受文化制约的语用规则，都必须形成一定的听说读写技能D、两种语言习得大体上都经过感知、理解、模仿、记忆、巩固和应用阶段。

（2）不同点：A、习得动力不同：儿童是出于本能、生存和发展的需要；成人动机等多方面B、习得的环境和方式不同：儿童是在天然语言环境中习得的，充满感情、有丰富体势语，体现 i+1 式特点的“照顾式”语言，是以交际活动的参加者身份在真实交际中运用第一语言；成人在课堂中习得要从学发音、基本的词汇和语法开始，进展取决于教学计划和老师的指导，缺少真实的交际环境。

C、习得的过程不同儿童从接触实际事物开始，同时建立有关概念（包括时间、地点、空间等）。

语言能力与思维能力同时发展成人要学一种新的表达方式，要经过第一语言的思维，借助已有的系统知识和经验来帮助习得第二语言，有时有益，有时干扰。

D 文化因素的习得不同儿童通过交际自然习得语言的同时也自然习得了文化和社会价值；第二语言习得过程中特别是在非目的语环境中，如果没有专门安排则不一定能同时习得该目的语文化，而且不同文化之间还可能产生文化冲突。

E 主体的生理、心理特点不同第一语言习得过程伴随着学习者的认知、情感、生理等方面的发展变化，而第二语言习得则是在上述变化基本完成以后进行的，两者习得的条件也不同。

成人第二语言习得的特殊规律需要进行充分研究。

2、一个成功第二语言学习者的特点？成功的第二语言学习者应该做到:1.有明确的学习目的目标,有较强的学习动力,有浓厚的学习兴趣,有克服困难的毅力。

2.积极用所学的语言进行交际,不怕犯错误,也就是“脸皮厚”,“不怕丢丑”。

二语习得作业

浅谈“显/隐性学习结果孰优孰劣之争”摘要：显性学习与隐性学习是人类学习知识的两种必然途径，也是二语习得领域的基本问题之一。

因此，理清显/隐性学习的关系在理论和实践上都具有重要意义。

比较学习结果的优劣能够在学习第二语言时产生重要的影响。

本文阐述了显/隐性学习研究中争议焦点，重点讨论了显/隐性学习在不同学习主体、客体、学习对象中的作用，来论述显/隐性学习结果的孰优孰劣。

1.引言：二十世纪六十年代人们开始提出内隐学习的概念。

内隐/外显学习（也称为显性/隐性学习）贯穿于学习过程、知识在大脑中的储存及随后的信息检索机制。

Michael Polanyi也同时提出人类的知识体系分为显性知识和隐性知识两种（江新等，2005）。

二语习得领域中的内隐/外显学习研究主要集中在二者的内涵、有无接口之争以及它们对语言学习的作用，尤其是对于一语和二语的学习机制是否相同等方面（N. Ellis， 2005）。

三十多年来，显性知识能否转化成隐性知识这一问题一直深受二语习得研究者的关注。

可是，从近年的情况看，虽然对该课题的研究成果不断，但仍然主要围绕显性/隐性教学与二/外语水平的相关性展开研究，而对于显性知识与隐性知识两者之间的关系则还是仅仅从理论上加以论证或解释，所以至今尚无根据具体至各受试或/和各语法测试项的隐性/显性知识的掌握情况来证实或证伪某一观点。

2.显/隐性学习的定义隐性学习机制是自发地起作用的，不需意识参与概括复杂的逻辑关系，也不需任何有意识的控制加工来完成。

与之相反，显性学习就是学习者有意识、有目的地发现所学材料中隐含的抽象规则。

检验办法就看让学习者用元语言规则或日常语言表述些规则（verbalize），(Williams， 2005； De Jong，2005）。

Reber从心理学的角度出发，认为隐性学习就是通过对有效理解高频率输入的诱导因素获得相关规则的过程。

DeKeyser（2005）对上述定义提出两点补充：隐性学习同样是学习者有意图的学习，只不过是注意力不一定在句法规则上。

二语习得期末论文作业

二语习得期末论文作业On Krashen’s Second Language Acquisition TheoriesAbstract : Krashen’s Second Language Acquisition Theories consist of five main hypothesizes : the acquisition-learning hypothesis ,the natural order hypothesis ,the monitor hypothesis ,the input hypothesis ,and the affective fliter hypothesis .These hypothesizes have certain directive significance to teaching practice ,but also has some limitations : ignore the output acquisition process ,lack of operability in actual teaching in some degree.Key words : acquisition-learning hypothesis , natural order hypothesis , monitor hypothesis ,input hypothesis ,and affective fliter hypothesisⅠ.IntroductionAs a part of Second Langua ge Acquisition ,Krashen’s Second Language Acquisition Theories is very significant in Second Language Acquisition According to his theories second acquisition has two quite different systems : acquisition and learning systems .Acquisition is the subconscious development of language rules ,just like in first language development .It focuses on meaning ,instead of on language form . Learning involves formal knowledge (and teaching ) of a language ,including error correction .It is a conscious development of languagerules .Krashen argues that error correction and learning does not lead to acquisition of fluency ,and that acquisition is more important than learning .Next we will have detailed analysis of his hypothesizes .Ⅱ.General Understanding of Krashen’ Se cond LanguageAcquisition TheoriesAcquisition-Learning HypothesisThis hypothesis is what Krashen considers to be perhaps the most fundamental of all hypothesizes .And it has been highly influential, and still remains the source of much debate today. The starting point ,also the core of this hypothesis is the distinction between acquisition and learning, and the different roles they play in second language acquisition. When learners acquire a second language they will internalize the language rule subconsciously .They will not pay much attention to the language forms ,but to the meaning they want to express and understand. Learning (usually refers to the formal classroom context ) is the process of conscious study of language uncover knowledge ,such as language rules. It is systematical and formal. According to Krashen, only acquired knowledge is readily available for natural fluent communication, and learned knowledge can only play as a monitor using language.Monitor HypothesisThis hypothesis has a close relationship with acquisition –learning hypothesis. It states that ,only language acquisition system ,also the potential language knowledge ,is the real knowledge competence, and that conscious learning has extremely limited function in adult L2 performanc e. Acquisition” innates “ the speaker’s utterances and is responsible for fluency .While learning has only one function –as a monitor or editor, making minor changes and polishing what the acquired system hasproduced .This monitor comes before ,while ,and after the language output (speaking and writing).There are three kinds of monitor users ,monitor over-users ,monitor under users ,andmonitor optimal users. Learners should properly use this monitor according to their personal situations. While have a conversation with others, we should focus on meaning not language forms. And the conversation will not be fluent if we overuse the monitor. However, while writing it is necessary for us to use the monitor to avoid expressing faults. There are three conditions for us to use monitor：Time (best applied when there is enough time)Focus on form (not on communication)Know the rules.Natural Order HypothesisStudents acquire (not learn) grammatical structures in a predictable order, that is certain grammatical structures tend to be learned early and others later. It appears that the order of acquisition for first language acquisition is not identical for second language acquisition, but there are some similarities. The naturalorder hypothesis reflects Noma Chom sky’s revolutionary notion that we all have a built-in Language Acquisition Device (LAD).Because of the LAD we tend to learn different language structure at different levels/stages as young learners ( also the same for older learners).Equipped with this innatedevice ,language learning follows a its natural route .For example, when children and adults learn English as a second language, they will acquire the present continue tense earlier than past tense, and 名词复数 earlier than 名词所有格Input HypothesisAccording to Krashen , the input hypothesis attempts to answer what is perhaps the most important question in Second Language Acquisition filed ,that is ,how we acquirelanguage .Thus this notion has become the central part of Krashen’s theories. The input hypoth esis states that one can acquire language in only one way –by exposure to comprehensible input. If the input contains forms and structures just beyond the learners’ current level of competence in the language (what Krashen calls i+1).Then both comprehension and acquisition will occur. Input which is either too simple (i + i) or too complex (i + 2/3/4) will not be useful for acquisition.” i” represents learners’ current language level .1 represents the input that is slightly higher than learners’ current le vel. Krashen also provide the requirements of the idealinput :first,the input should be comprehensible. Second, it should be sufficient .third, it should be interesting and relevant to learners.Affective FilterKrashen believes that comprehensible alone is not sufficient for language acquisition. Learners also need to” let that input in “ .The affective filter determines how receptive to comprehensive input a learner is going to be. Learners with high motivation ,high self-confidence ,a good self- image ,and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in Second Language .Low motivation, ,low self- esteem ,and debilitating anxiety can combine to raise “affective filter” and form a “mental block” that prevents comprehensive input from entering the individual’s language acquisition device. The hypothesis is based on the theory of an “affective filter “ which states that successful secondlanguage acquisition depends on the learners’ feeling. Negative attitudes are said to act as a filter ,preventing the learners from making use of input, and thus hindering success inlanguage learning. So to help students let that input in ,teachers should try to creat positive atmosphere in language teaching, try to activate learners’ positive feeling ,like interest,good motivation, and attitude and desire to learn by encouragement, humanitycare ,vivid design of teaching ,extra-curricular activities.Ⅲ.ConclusionKrashen’s theories are very significant in that ,first , it makes a clear distinction between acquisition and learning ,second , it emphases the importance of the comprehensibility of the input , and that it should be slightly higher than learners’ present level, third , it attaches importance to learners’ feeling factors, like motivation, interest , anxiety and ect , and their influence on learners’ acquisition of a second language.。

二语习得作业

三、L2 学习者语言变异的研究范式
3.3 双重能力范式(dual competence paradigm)
用心理语言学的方法来解释产生变异的原因；采用这种范式的学者认为，某些因素影响了学
习者在不同的使用环境下对第二语言知识的掌握能力； • 如：第二语言学习者的语言中是否存在系统差异，取决于它是有计划还是无计划的； • 两个研究模式：言语计划模式、言语监控模式
能力连续统范式
3.2.1 拉波夫学派模式
语体（speech styles) ----语言风格连续体(Torane) 变项规则（variable rules）
最早把变项规则分析法（variable rule analysis）应用于SLA语料分析的是亚当斯和科瓦克（Adamson& Kovac, 1981）:
二、L2 学习者语言变异的分类
2.1.2 情境变异（正式场合与非正式场合）
He plays basketball.(situation A)
(formal, careful style)
He play_ basketball. (situation B)
(informal, vernacular)
分析了一位33岁西班牙籍蓝领男性工人使用“NO +VERB”和“DON'T VERB”的变项规则；
分析结果表明，在描述特定的因素是如何影响中介语的发展时，利用变项规则分析法来分析材料是有效的。
能力连续统范式
3.2.2 动态研究模式
内容--（1）语言变化即变异的某个来源（2）环境权重（3）代码转换（4）语法内部变异和自由变异
2.1.3 心理语言环境变异

指学习者言语产出计划的时间，即学习者有多少

二语习得考试题库

二语习得考试题库二语习得笔记一、二语习得1、什么是二语习得？（p3）人们学习母语外的一种语言的途径。

这种学习可以是课堂上的，也可以是课堂外的。

2、第二语言习得的目的是什么？（p4）二语习得的目标之一是对二语习得进行描述，另一个目标是对二语习得进行解释，鉴别内部因素和外部因素，这些因素可以用来解释二语习得者在二语习得过程中所使用的方法。

外部因素之一是学习发生的社会环境，社会环境影响二语习得者必须使用目的语进行交流(听和说)的机会，并且影响学习者对于二语习得的态度；另一个外部因素是学习者接收到的语言输入。

内部因素是指学习者的认知机制，而认知机制受学习者的母语、百科知识、交际策略以及它的语言普遍性知识的影响。

最后一个内部因素是学习者的个体差异，这包括学习者的一些常规因素的差异，比如，学习者的语言学能以及学习动机的不同，另外学习策略的不同也属于学习者的个体差异。

总的来说，二语习得的目标是描述二语习得的进程，并且对之进行解释，解释为什么有的学习者看起来要好于其他的学习者。

二、偏误和偏误分析1、偏误分析的作用是什么？（p14）①它们是学习者语言的一个显著特色，这就提出了“学习者为什么会产生偏误？”的重要问题。

②有助于教师了解学习者产生的偏误，便于教学。

③学习者在自我改错时有助于学习者习得。

2、偏误分析的步骤①偏误的辨别②偏误的描写③偏误的解释④偏误的评估3、偏误归类的方法（p18）①按语法范畴归类：我们可以把所有关于动词的偏误聚集起来，然后在我们的案例中识别出不同种类的动词偏误（比如过去时态的动词偏误）。

②按识别学习者的话语与重建的目的语的差异的一般方法归类，包括遗漏（漏掉了句中应有的语法成分而导致的偏误）、误用（用一种语法形式代替另一种语法形式）、错序（在话语中，把词语按错误的顺序排列）三、行为主义和心理主义在看待语言习得方面有何不同？(p31)行为主义：根据行为主义理论，语言习得就和任何其他种类的习得一样，包括习惯的形成。

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