外文资料及中文翻译
关于杜邦分析法的外文翻译
外文资料及中文译文作者姓名***专业财务管理指导教师姓名***专业技术职务副教授外文资料FIVE WAYS TO IMPROVE RETURN ON EQUITYThe Du Pont Model: A Brief HistoryThe use of financial ratios by financial analysts, lenders, academic researchers, and small business owners has been widely acknowleged in the literature. (See, for example, Osteryoung & Constand (1992), Devine & Seaton (1995), or Burson (1998) The concepts of Return on Assets (ROA hereafter) and Return on Equity (ROEhereafter) are important for understanding the profitability of a business enterprise. Specifically, a “return on” ratio illustrates the relationship between profits and the investment needed to generate those profits. However, these concepts are often “too far removed from normal activities” to be easily understood and useful to many managers or small business owners. (Slater and Olson, 1996)In 1918, four years after he was hired by the Du Pont Corporation to work in its treasury department, electrical engineer F. Donaldson Brown was given the task of untangling the finances of a company of which Du Pont had just purchased 23 percent of its stock. (This company was General Motors!) Brown recognized a mathematical relationship that existed between two commonly computed ratios, namely net profit margin (obviously a profitability measure) and total asset turnover (an efficiency measure), and ROA. The product of the net profit margin and total asset turnover equals ROA, and this was the original Du Pont model, as illustrated in Equation 1 below.Eq. 1: (net income / sales) x (sales / total assets) = (net income / total assets) i.e. ROAAt this point in time maximizing ROA was a common corporate goal and the realization that ROA was impacted by both profitability and efficiency led to the development of a system of planning and control for all operating decisions within a firm. This became the dominant form of financial analysis until the 1970s. (Blumenthal, 1998)In the 1970s the generally accepted goal of financial management became “maximizing the wealth of the firm’s owners” (Gitman, 1998) and focus shifted from ROA to ROE. This led to the first major modification of the original Du Pontmodel. In addition to profitability and efficiency, the way in which a firm financed its activities, i.e. its use of “leverage” became a third area of attention for financial managers. The new ratio of interest was called the equity multiplier, which is (total assets / equity). The modified Du Pont model is shown in Equations 1 and 2 below.Eq. 2: ROA x (total assets / equity) = ROEEq. 3: (net income / sales) x (sales / total assets) x (total assets / equity) = ROE The modified Du Pont model became a standard in all financial management textbooks and a staple of introductory and advanced courses alike as students read statements such as: “Ultimately, the most important, or“bottom line” accounting ratio is the ratio of net income to common equity (ROE).” (Brigham and Houston, 2001)The modified model was a powerful tool to illustrate the interconnectedness of a firm’s income statement and its balance sheet, and to develop straight-forward strategies for improving the firm’s ROE.More recently, Hawawini and Viallet (1999) offered yet another modification to the Du Pontmodel. This modification resulted in five different ratios that combine to form ROE. In their modification they acknowlege that thefinancial statements firms prepare for their annualreports (which are of most importance to creditorsand tax collectors) are not always useful tomanagers making operating and financialdecisions. (Brigham and Houston, p. 52) T heyrestructured the traditional balance sheet into a“managerial balance sheet” which is “a moreappropriate tool for assessing the contribution ofoperating decisions to the firm’s financialperformance.” (Hawawini and Viallet, p.68)This restructured balanc e sheet uses the conceptof “invested capital” in place of total assets, andthe concept of “capital employed” in place oftotal liabilities and owner’sequity found on thetraditional balance sheet. The primary differenceis in the treatment of the short-ter m “workingcapital” accounts. The managerial balance sheet uses a net figure called “working capital requirement” (determined as: [accounts receivable + inventories + prepaid expenses] – [accounts payable + accrued expenses]) as a part of invested capital. These accounts then individually drop out of the managerial balance sheet. A more detailed explanation of the managerial balance sheet is beyond the scope of this paper, but will be partially illustrated in an example. The “really” modified Du Pont mode l is shown below in Equation 4.Eq. 4: (EBIT / sales) x (sales / invested capital) x (EBT / EBIT) x (invested capital / equity) x (EAT / EBT) = ROE(Where: invested capital = cash + working capital requirement + net fixed assets) This “really” modified model still maintains the importance of the impact of operating decisions (i.e. profitability and efficiency) and financing decisions (leverage) upon ROE, but uses a total of five ratios to uncover what drives ROE and give insight to how to improve this important ratio.The firm’s operating decisions are those that involve the acquisition and disposal of fixed assets and the management of the firm’s operating assets (mostly inventories and accounts receivable) and operating liabilities (accountspayable and accruals). These are captured in thefirst two ratios of the “really” modified Du Pontmodel. These are:1. operating profit margin: (Earnings Before Interest & Taxes or EBIT / sales)2. capital turnover: (sales / invested capital)The firm’s financing decisions are those that determine the mix of debt and equity used to fund the firm’s operating decisions. These are captured in the third and fourth ratios of the “really” modified model. These are:3. financial cost ratio: (Earnings Before Taxes or EBT / EBIT)4. financial structure ratio: (invested capital / equity)The final determinant of a firm’s ROE is the incidence of business taxation. The higher the taxrate applied to a firm’s EBT, the lower its ROE. This is cap tured in the fifth ratio ofthe “really”modified model.5. tax effect ratio: (Earnings After Taxes or EAT / EBT)The relationship that ties these five ratios together is that ROE is equal to their combined product. (See Equation 4.)Example of A pplying the “Really” Modified Du Pont ModelTo illustrate how the model works, consider the income statement and balance sheet for the fictitious small firm of Herrera & Company, LLC.Income StatementNet Sales …………………………………………………….. $766,990C ost of Goods Sold ………………………………………….. (560,000) Selling, General, & Administrative Expenses ………………. (143,342) Depreciation Expense ……………………………………….. (24,000) Earnings Before Interest & Taxes …………………………… $ 39,648Interest Expense ……………………………………………... (12,447) Earnings Before Taxes ………………………………………. $ 27,201Taxes ………………………………………………………… (8,000) Earnings After Taxes (net profit) ……………………………. $ 19,201Balance SheetCash ……………………….$ 40,000 Notes Payable ………………… $ 58,000 Pre-paid Expenses ………... 12,000 Accounts Payable …………….. 205,000 Accounts Receivable ……… 185,000 Accrued Expenses ……………. 46,000 Inventory ………………….. 200,000 Current Liabilities ……………. $309,000 Current Assets ……………. $437,000 Long-Term DebtL and/Buildings …………… 160,000 Mortgage ……………………. 104,300Equipment ………………… 89,000 8-Year Note ………………… 63,000Less: Acc. Depreciation …... (24,000) Owner’s Equity ……………….. 185,700Net Fixed Assets ………….. $225,000 Total Liabilities & Equity …….. $662,000 Total Assets ………………. $662,000Computation of ROE1. Operating Profit Margin = $39,648 / $766,990 = .05172. Capital Turnover = $766,990 / $411,000* = 1.86623. Financial Cost Ratio = $27,201 / $39,648 = .68614. Financial Structure Ratio = $411,000 / $185,700 = 2.21325. Tax Effect Ratio = $19,201 / $27,201 = .7059ROE = .0517 x 1.8662 x .6861 x 2.2132 x .7059 = .1034** or 10.34%* Invested Capital = Cash ($40,000) + Working Capital Requirement [$185,000 + $200,000 + $12,000] –[$205,000 + $46,000] (or $146,000) + Net Fixed Assets ($225,000) = $411,000** Note that this is the same as conventional computation of ROE: $19,201 / $185,700 = .1034Conclusions & ImplicationsThe “really” modified Du Pont model of ratio analysis can demystify relatively complex financial analysis and put strategic financial planning at the fingertips of any small business owner or manager who takes the (relatively little) time needed to understand it. Each operating and financial decision can be made within a framework of how that decision will impact ROE. Easily set up on a computer model (such as a spreadsheet), one can see how decisions “flow through” to the bottom line, which facilitates coordinated financial planning. (Harrington & Wilson,1986).In its simplest form, we can say that to improve ROE the only choices one has are to increase operating profits, become more efficient in using existing assets to generate sales, recapitalize to make better use of debt and/or better control the cost of borrowing, or find ways to reduce the tax liability of the firm. Each of these choices leads to a different financial strategy.For example, to increase operating profits one must either increase sales (in a higher proportionthan the cost of generating those sales) or reduce expenses. Since it is generally more difficult toincrease sales than it is to reduce expenses, a small business owner can try to lower expenses by determining: 1) if a new supplier might offer equivalent goods at a lower cost, or 2) if a website might be a viable alternative to a catalog, or 3) can some tasks currently being done by outsiders be done in-house. In each case net income will rise without any increase in sales and ROE will rise as well. Alternatively, to become more efficient, one must either increase sales with the same level of assets or produce the same level of sales with less assets. A small business owner might then try to determine: 1) if it is feasible to expand store hours by staying open later or on weekends, or 2) if a less expensive piece of equipment is available that could replace an existing (more expensive) piece of equipment, or 3) if there is a more practical way to produce and/or deliver goods or services than is presently being used.Further, small business owners can determine if they are using debt wisely. Refinancing an existing loan at a cheaper rate will reduce interest expenses and, thus, increase ROE. Exercising some of an unused line of credit can increase the financial structure ratio with a corresponding increase in ROE. And, taking advantage of tax incentives that are often offered by federal, state,and local taxing authorities can increase the tax effect ratio, again with a commensurate increase in ROE.In conclusion, ROE is the most compre-hensive measure of profitability of a firm. It considers the operating and investing decisions made as well as the financing andtax-related decisions. The “really” modified Du Pont model dissects ROE into five easily computed ratios that can be examined for potential strategies for improvement. It should be a tool that all business owners, managers, and consultants have at their disposal when evaluating a firm and making recommendations for improvement.中文译文真实修改的杜邦分析：五种方式改善股东权益回报率杜邦模型：简史运用财务比率进行分析已经被财务分析家，贷款人，学术研究人员和小企业主在文献资料里广泛运用。
机电专业论文英文文献及其中文译文
毕业论文外文文献翻译译文题目:INTEGRATION OF MACHINERY外文资料翻译资料来源：文章名：INTEGRATION OF MACHINERY 《Digital Image Processing》书刊名：作者：Y. Torres J. J. Pavón I. Nieto and J. A.Rodríguez章节：2.4 INTEGRATION OF MACHINERYINTEGRATION OF MACHINERY （From ELECTRICAL AND MACHINERY INDUSTRY）ABSTRACT Machinery was the modern science and technology development inevitable resultthis article has summarized the integration of machinery technology basic outlineand the development background .Summarized the domestic and foreign integration ofmachinery technology present situation has analyzed the integration of machinerytechnology trend of development. Key word：integration of machinery ，technology，present situation ，productt，echnique of manufacture ，trend of development 0. Introduction modern science and technology unceasing development impelleddifferent discipline intersecting enormously with the seepage has caused the projectdomain technological revolution and the transformation .In mechanical engineeringdomain because the microelectronic technology and the computer technology rapiddevelopment and forms to the mechanical industry seepage the integration of machinerycaused the mechanical industry the technical structure the product organizationthe function and the constitution the production method and the management systemhas had the huge change caused the industrial production to enter into quottheintegration of machineryquot by quotthe machinery electrificationquot for the characteristicdevelopment phase. 1. Integration of machinery outline integration of machinery is refers in theorganization new owner function the power function in the information processingfunction and the control function introduces the electronic technology unifies thesystem the mechanism and the computerization design and the software whichconstitutes always to call. The integration of machinery development also has becomeone to have until now own system new discipline not only develops along with thescience and technology but also entrusts with the new content .But its basiccharacteristic may summarize is: The integration of machinery is embarks from thesystem viewpoint synthesis community technologies and so on utilization mechanicaltechnology microelectronic technology automatic control technology computertechnology information technology sensing observation and control technologyelectric power electronic technology connection technology information conversiontechnology as well as software programming technology according to the systemfunction goal and the optimized organization goal reasonable disposition and thelayout various functions unit in multi-purpose high grade redundant reliable inthe low energy consumption significance realize the specific function value andcauses the overall system optimization the systems engineering technology .From thisproduces functional system then becomes an integration of machinery systematic orthe integration of machinery product. Therefore quotintegration of machineryquot coveringquottechnologyquot and quotproductquot two aspects .Only is the integration of machinerytechnology is based on the above community technology organic fusion one kind ofcomprehensivetechnology but is not mechanical technical the microelectronictechnology as well as other new technical simple combination pieces together .Thisis the integration of machinery and the machinery adds the machinery electrificationwhich the electricity forms in the concept basic difference .The mechanicalengineering technology has the merely technical to develop the machineryelectrification still was the traditional machinery its main function still wasreplaces with the enlargement physical strength .But after develops the integrationof machinery micro electron installment besides may substitute for certainmechanical parts the original function but also can entrust with many new functionslike the automatic detection the automatic reduction information demonstrate therecord the automatic control and the control automatic diagnosis and the protectionautomatically and so on .Not only namely the integration of machinery product ishumans hand and body extending humans sense organ and the brains look has theintellectualized characteristic is the integration of machinery and the machineryelectrification distinguishes in the function essence. 2. Integration of machinery development condition integration of machinerydevelopment may divide into 3 stages roughly.20th century 60s before for the firststage this stage is called the initial stage .In this time the people determinationnot on own initiative uses the electronic technology the preliminary achievement toconsummate the mechanical product the performance .Specially in Second World Warperiod the war has stimulated the mechanical product and the electronic technologyunion these mechanical and electrical union military technology postwar transferscivilly to postwar economical restoration positive function .Developed and thedevelopment at that time generally speaking also is at the spontaneouscondition .Because at that time the electronic technology development not yetachieved certain level mechanical technical and electronic technology union alsonot impossible widespread and thorough development already developed the productwas also unable to promote massively. The 20th century 7080 ages for the second stagemay be called the vigorous development stage .This time the computer technologythe control technology the communication development has laid the technology basefor the integration of machinery development . Large-scale ultra large scaleintegrated circuit and microcomputer swift and violent development has provided thefull material base for the integration of machinery development .This timecharacteristic is :①A mechatronics word first generally is accepted in Japanprobably obtains the quite widespread acknowledgment to 1980s last stages in theworldwide scale ②The integration of machinery technology and the product obtainedthe enormous development ③The various countries start to the integration ofmachinery technology and the product give the very big attention and the support.1990s later periods started the integration of machinery technology the new stagewhich makes great strides forward to the intellectualized direction the integrationof machinery enters the thorough development time .At the same time optics thecommunication and so on entered the integration of machinery processes thetechnology also zhan to appear tiny in the integration of machinery the footappeared the light integration of machinery and the micro integration of machineryand so on the new branch On the other hand to the integration ofmachinery systemmodeling design the analysis and the integrated method the integration ofmachinery discipline system and the trend of development has all conducted thethorough research .At the same time because the hugeprogress which domains and so on artificial intelligence technology neural networktechnology and optical fiber technology obtain opened the development vast worldfor the integration of machinery technology .These research will urge theintegration of machinery further to establish the integrity the foundation and formsthe integrity gradually the scientific system. Our country is only then starts fromthe beginning of 1980s in this aspect to study with the application .The State Councilhad been established the integration of machinery leading group and lists as quot863plansquot this technology .When formulated quot95quot the plan and in 2010 developed thesummary had considered fully on international the influence which and possiblybrought from this about the integration of machinery technology developmenttrend .Many universities colleges and institutes the development facility and somelarge and middle scale enterprises have done the massive work to this technicaldevelopment and the application does not yield certain result but and so on theadvanced countries compared with Japan still has the suitable disparity. 3. Integration of machinery trend of development integrations of machinery arethe collection machinery the electron optics the control the computer theinformation and so on the multi-disciplinary overlapping syntheses its developmentand the progress rely on and promote the correlation technology development and theprogress .Therefore the integration of machinery main development direction is asfollows: 3.1 Intellectualized intellectualizations are 21st century integration ofmachinery technological development important development directions .Theartificial intelligence obtains day by day in the integration of machineryconstructors research takes the robot and the numerical control engine bedintellectualization is the important application .Here said quottheintellectualizationquot is to the machine behavior description is in the control theoryfoundation the absorption artificial intelligence the operations research thecomputer science the fuzzy mathematics the psychology the physiology and the chaosdynamics and so on the new thought the new method simulate the human intelligenceenable it to have abilities and so on judgment inference logical thinkingindependent decision-making obtains the higher control goal in order to .Indeedenable the integration of machinery product to have with the human identicalintelligence is not impossible also is nonessential .But the high performancethe high speed microprocessor enable the integration of machinery product to havepreliminary intelligent or humans partial intelligences then is completelypossible and essential. In the modern manufacture process the information has become the controlmanufacture industry the determining factor moreover is the most active actuationfactor .Enhances the manufacture system information-handling capacity to become themodern manufacture science development a key point .As a result of the manufacturesystem information organization and structure multi-level makes the information thegain the integration and the fusion presents draws up the character informationmeasuremulti-dimensional as well as information organizations multi-level .In themanufacture information structural model manufacture information uniform restraintdissemination processing and magnanimous data aspects and so on manufacture knowledgelibrary management all also wait for further break through. Each kind of artificial intelligence tool and the computation intelligence methodpromoted the manufacture intelligence development in the manufacture widespreadapplication .A kind based on the biological evolution algorithm computationintelligent agent in includes thescheduling problem in the combination optimization solution area of technologyreceives the more and more universal attention hopefully completes the combinationoptimization question when the manufacture the solution speed and the solutionprecision aspect breaks through the question scale in pairs the restriction .Themanufacture intelligence also displays in: The intelligent dispatch the intelligentdesign the intelligent processing the robot study the intelligent control theintelligent craft plan the intelligent diagnosis and so on are various These question key breakthrough may form the product innovation the basicresearch system. Between 2 modern mechanical engineering front science differentscience overlapping fusion will have the new science accumulation the economicaldevelopment and societys progress has had the new request and the expectation tothe science and technology thus will form the front science .The front science alsohas solved and between the solution scientific question border area .The front sciencehas the obvious time domain the domain and the dynamic characteristic .The projectfront science distinguished in the general basic science important characteristicis it has covered the key science and technology question which the project actualappeared. Manufacture system is a complex large-scale system for satisfies the manufacturesystem agility the fast response and fast reorganization ability must profit fromthe information science the life sciences and the social sciences and so on themulti-disciplinary research results the exploration manufacture system newarchitecture the manufacture pattern and the manufacture system effectiveoperational mechanism .Makes the system optimization the organizational structureand the good movement condition is makes the system modeling the simulation andthe optimized essential target .Not only the manufacture system new architecture tomakes the enterprise the agility and may reorganize ability to the demand responseability to have the vital significance moreover to made the enterprise first floorproduction equipment the flexibility and may dynamic reorganization ability set ahigher request .The biological manufacture view more and more many is introduced themanufacture system satisfies the manufacture system new request. The study organizes and circulates method and technique of complicated systemfrom the biological phenomenon is a valid exit which will solve many hard nut tocracks that manufacturing industry face from now on currently .Imitating to livingwhat manufacturing point is mimicry living creature organ of from the organizationfrom match more from growth with from evolution etc. function structure and circulatemode of a kind of manufacturing system and manufacturing process. The manufacturing drives in the mechanism under continuously by ones ownperfect raise on organizing structure and circulating modeand thus to adapt theprocess ofwith ability for the environment .For from descend but the last productproceed together a design and make a craft rules the auto of the distance born producesystem of dynamic state reorganization and product and manufacturing the system tendautomatically excellent provided theories foundation and carry out acondition .Imitate to living a manufacturing to belong to manufacturing science andlife science ofquotthe far good luck is miscellaneous to hand overquot it will produceto the manufacturing industry for 21 centuries huge of influence .机电一体化摘要机电一体化是现代科学技术发展的必然结果本文简述了机电一体化技术的基本概要和发展背景。
外文文献及翻译
Yunnan Ethnic pattern in Packaging DesignAbstract: Art is a folk Mother of the arts，is the source of the new art, From which to draw a strong tradition of high—grade Nutrition。
The persons belonging to national folk arts Ethnic patterns，are folk arts Intraoperative a gem, its development Research，and with the means of modern art，art wind Grid，professional skills combine to form a unique Style and features a modern design There are important applications，this paper focuses on Minority Folk pattern in modern packaging design Meter applications are discussed.Keywords: Yunnan Ethnic. Pattern。
Packaging Design.IntroductionYunnan is a multi-ethnic province, Here multiply survive the Han, Yi, Bai More than twenty families， Zhuang, Miao， Dai, etc。
Nation. Long history of various ethnic groups in Yunnan Province， the source is far Long, creating a rich and colorful Folk art。
毕业设计论文 电子秤 中英文 外文资料 文献 翻译
外文参考资料二：Abstract: In order to solve the weight problem often encountered in measuring the low-mass objects in the trade and daily life of the modern business, the design of a new pocket-sized electronic scales. This pocket-sized electronic scales Force Sensor gravity signals into electrical signals to measure, and measuring the results of the digital display. The pocket-sized electronic scales with a small size, light weight, easy to carry, intuitive display, measurement and high precision; complex structure, the cost disadvantages. This article focuses on the load cell works, error compensation, the main parameters of selection. And the technical and economic analysis.Keywords: pocket-sized electronic scales; weighing; sensor; error compensationCLC number: TH715. 1] sign code: A Article ID: 100 522 895 (2007) 022*******1 A needs analysisIn modern commerce and trade and everyday life, often encounter the problem of measuring the weight of the low-mass objects. Although the traditional steelyard can solve this problem, but inconvenient to carry, the efficiency is not high, the display is not intuitive and low measurement accuracy; mechanical spring balance can solve this problem, but the inertia inherent low frequency, high sensitivity, measurement accuracy is not high. With the progress and update of the micro-computer technology, integrated circuit technology, sensor technology, electronic scales rapiddevelopment, it has a responsive, high accuracy, fully functional, the display is intuitive, compact, easy to use and so on.For these reasons, in order to solve the low-mass objects weighing problem, if a small size, light weight, portable, digital display electronic scales, will be popular. Discussed below, that is, the scope of a weighing 5 kg compact electronic scales.2 DesignThe principle of the structure of the pocket-sized electronic scales shown in Figure 1. The main task is to design compact electronic scales weighing the choice of the force sensors. Dynamometer sensor types to achieve the weighing and digital display, the key is to want to force (gravity) signals into electrical signals to measure method is mainly divided into two categories: one is the direct method, namely the use of pressure magnetic sensor, piezoelectric sensor, Piezoresistive sensors directly to the force signal converted into electrical signals; the other is the indirect method, the elastic element as the sensor will pull, pressure changes in strain, displacement, or frequency, and then strain sensors, displacement sensors, or frequency sensor strain, displacement or frequency changes for power. Comprehensive comparison of a variety of sensors, use the indirect method of strain gauge force transducer.Pocket-sized electronic scale structural principle:Sensor → amplifier → CPU→ display → AöD converter3 sensor device design3.1 worksThe working principle of the strain gauge force transducer strain gauge pasted into force, force-sensitive elasticelement, the corresponding strain when the elastic element force deformation, the strain gauge into a resistance change, which led to the voltage measuring circuit changes by measuring the output voltage value, and then through the conversion can be obtained by the measurement of body weight. Since the pocket-sized electronic scales require small size, weighing in scope, precision and angle even consistency, sensor and display integration, it is selected parallel to the two holes cantilever beam strain gauge load-bearing sensor. Its characteristics are: high precision, ease of processing, simple and compact structure, strong resistance to partial load, high natural frequency.Strain gauge choice of a metal palisade metal mooring paste on the insulating substrate parked strain gages, mechanical strain resistance strain gauge feelings generally 10 - 10 - 2mm, the resistance rate of change of the attendant about 10 - 6 10 - 2 orders of magnitude, such a small change in resistance measured using the general resistance of the instrument is hard to measure out, you must use some form of measurement.Circuit into small changes in resistance rates to changes in voltage or current, in order to secondary instrument display. Bridge measurement circuit to meet this requirement. In the load cell, R 1, R 2, R 3, R 44 strain gauge resistor bridge measurement circuit shown in Figure 3. R m is the temperature compensation resistor, e is the excitation voltage, V is the output voltage.外文参考资料三：The load cell is a quality signal into a measurable electrical signal outputdevice. Must consider the actual working environment of the sensor which sensor Yin, this is essential for the correct selection of the load cell, and it is related to the sensor can work as well as its safety and service life, and the whole weighing the reliability and safety sex. On the basic concepts and methods of evaluation of the major technical indicators of the load cell, the new and old GB qualitative differences.The traditional concept, the load sensor weighing sensors, force sensors, collectively referred to using a single parameter to evaluate its measurement properties. Old GB will be completely different application objects and the use of environmental conditions "weighing" and "measured force" two sensors into one to consider, not given to distinguish between the test and evaluation methods. Old GB total of 21 indicators, were tested at room temperature; and non-linearity, hysteresis error, repeatability error, creep, the additional error of the zero temperature and the maximum error in the six indicators of the rated output additional temperature error, to determine said The level of accuracy of the weight sensor, respectively 0.02,0.03,0.05 said.Proportion to convert the output signal can be measured. Taking into account the different place of use of the acceleration due to gravity and air buoyancy on the conversion, the main performance indicators of the load cell linearity error, hysteresis error, repeatability error, creep, zero-temperature characteristics and temperature sensitivity characteristics. In a variety of weighing and measuring the quality of the system, usually the integrated error accuracy of the integrated control sensors, and integrated error band or scale error band (Figure 1) linked so that selection corresponds to a certain accuracy weighing weighing sensors. International Organization of Legal Metrology(OIML) requirements, sensor error with total weighing instrument error δ with Δ of 70% of the load cell linearity error, hysteresis error within the specified temperature range due to the effect of temperature on the sensitivity of the error the sum can not exceed the error band of δ. This allows the manufacturer of the components that make up the total measurement error adjustment to obtain the desired accuracy.The load cell conversion method is divided into photoelectric, hydraulic, electromagnetic force type, capacitive, magnetic poles change the form of vibratory gyroscope ceremony, resistance strain type, to the most extensive use of resistance strain.Electromagnetic force sensorIt uses a load-bearing stage load and the principle of electromagnetic force Equilibrium (Figure 5). Put the loading stage, the measured object at one end of the lever upward tilt; photoelectric detect the tilt signal, amplified into the coil, the electromagnetic force, so that the lever to return to equilibrium. Currents produce electromagnetic counterweight digital converter, you can determine the quality of the measured object. The electromagnetic force sensor accuracy, up to 1/2000 ~ 1/60000, but the weighing range is only tens of mg to 10 kg.Capacitive sensorsItcapacitor oscillator circuit of the oscillation frequency f and the plate spacing d is directly proportional relationship between the work (Figure 6). There are two plates, one fixed and the other one can move. Bearing load measured object, the leaf spring deflection, the distance between the twoplates changes, the oscillation frequency of the circuit also changes. The measured frequency change can be calculated to the quality of the load-bearing stage, the measured object. Capacitive sensor power consumption, low cost, accuracy of 1/200 to 1/500.Pole change the form of sensorFerromagneticcomponents in the measured object gravity under mechanical deformation, internal stress and cause changes in permeability, and also changes so that the induced voltage of the secondary coil wound on both sides of the ferromagnetic component (pole). Measure the voltage variation can be calculated added to the force on the pole, and then determine the quality of the measured object. Pole to change the form of sensor accuracy is not high, usually 1/100, applicable to the large tonnage weighing, weighing ranging from tens to tens of thousands of kilograms.Vibration sensorThe force of the elastic element, the natural vibration frequency of the force is proportional to the square root of. Measure the natural frequency changes, you can find the measured object role in the elastic component of the force, and then calculate the quality. The vibration sensor vibrating wire and tuning fork.The elastic component of the vibrating wire sensor string wire. When the load-bearing stage, plus the measured object, the intersection of the V-shaped string wire is pulled down, and left strings of tension increases, the right string tension decreases. The natural frequency of the two strings of different changes. Calculate the frequency difference between the two strings, you can find the quality of the measured object. The higher the accuracy of the vibrating wire sensor, up to 1/1000 ~ 1/10000, weighing 100 g to hundreds of kilograms, but the structure is complex anddifficult process, and high cost.The elastic component of the tuning fork sensor is a tuning fork. Fixed tuning fork end of the piezoelectric element, the natural frequency of oscillation of a tuning fork, it can be measured oscillation frequency. When the load-bearing stage and the measured object, the tuning fork direction of tensile force while the increase in natural frequency, increasing levels of applied force is proportional to the square root. Measure the changes of natural frequency can be calculated heavy loads imposed on the tuning fork on the force, and then calculate the quality of heavy objects. The tuning fork sensor power consumption, measurement accuracy up to 1/10000 to 1/200 000, weighing range of 500g ~ 10kg.外文参考文献中文翻译参考资料二：摘要: 为解决现代商业贸易和日常生活中经常遇到的测量小质量物体的重量问题, 介绍了一种新型的袖珍式电子秤的设计。
外文参考文献(带中文翻译)
外文资料原文涂敏之会计学 8051208076Title:Future of SME finance（c）Background – the environment for SME finance has changedFuture economic recovery will depend on the possibility of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to exploit their potential for growth and employment creation.SMEs make a major contribution to growth and employment in the EU and are at the heart of the Lisbon Strategy, whose main objective is to turn Europe into the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world. However, the ability of SMEs to grow depends highly on their potential to invest in restructuring, innovation and qualification. All of these investments need capital and therefore access to finance.Against this background the consistently repeated complaint of SMEs about their problems regarding access to finance is a highly relevant constraint that endangers the economic recovery of Europe.Changes in the finance sector influence the behavior of credit institutes towards Crafts, Trades and SMEs. Recent and ongoing developments in the banking sector add to the concerns of SMEs and will further endanger their access to finance. The main changes in the banking sector which influence SME finance are:•Globalization and internationalization have increased the competition and the profit orientation in the sector;•worsening of the economic situations in some institutes (burst of the ITC bubble, insolvencies) strengthen the focus on profitability further;•Mergers and restructuring created larger structures and many local branches, which had direct and personalized contacts with small enterprises, were closed;•up-coming implementation of new capital adequacy rules (Basel II) will also change SME business of the credit sector and will increase its administrative costs;•Stricter interpretation of State-Aide Rules by the European Commission eliminates the support of banks by public guarantees; many of the effected banks are very active in SME finance.All these changes result in a higher sensitivity for risks and profits in the financesector.The changes in the finance sector affect the accessibility of SMEs to finance.Higher risk awareness in the credit sector, a stronger focus on profitability and the ongoing restructuring in the finance sector change the framework for SME finance and influence the accessibility of SMEs to finance. The most important changes are: •In order to make the higher risk awareness operational, the credit sector introduces new rating systems and instruments for credit scoring;•Risk assessment of SMEs by banks will force the enterprises to present more and better quality information on their businesses;•Banks will try to pass through their additional costs for implementing and running the new capital regulations (Basel II) to their business clients;•due to the increase of competition on interest rates, the bank sector demands more and higher fees for its services (administration of accounts, payments systems, etc.), which are not only additional costs for SMEs but also limit their liquidity;•Small enterprises will lose their personal relationship with decision-makers in local branches –the credit application process will become more formal and anonymous and will probably lose longer;•the credit sector will lose more and more i ts “public function” to provide access to finance for a wide range of economic actors, which it has in a number of countries, in order to support and facilitate economic growth; the profitability of lending becomes the main focus of private credit institutions.All of these developments will make access to finance for SMEs even more difficult and / or will increase the cost of external finance. Business start-ups and SMEs, which want to enter new markets, may especially suffer from shortages regarding finance. A European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs would have allowed at least more transparency in the relations between Banks and SMEs and UEAPME regrets that the bank sector was not able to agree on such a commitment.Towards an encompassing policy approach to improve the access of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to financeAll analyses show that credits and loans will stay the main source of finance for the SME sector in Europe. Access to finance was always a main concern for SMEs, but the recent developments in the finance sector worsen the situation even more.Shortage of finance is already a relevant factor, which hinders economic recovery in Europe. Many SMEs are not able to finance their needs for investment.Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to strengthen their efforts to improve the framework conditions for SME finance. Europe’s Crafts, Trades and SMEs ask for an encompassing policy approach, which includes not only the conditions for SMEs’ access to l ending, but will also strengthen their capacity for internal finance and their access to external risk capital.From UEAPME’s point of view such an encompassing approach should be based on three guiding principles:•Risk-sharing between private investors, financial institutes, SMEs and public sector;•Increase of transparency of SMEs towards their external investors and lenders;•improving the regulatory environment for SME finance.Based on these principles and against the background of the changing environment for SME finance, UEAPME proposes policy measures in the following areas:1. New Capital Requirement Directive: SME friendly implementation of Basel IIDue to intensive lobbying activities, UEAPME, together with other Business Associations in Europe, has achieved some improvements in favour of SMEs regarding the new Basel Agreement on regulatory capital (Basel II). The final agreement from the Basel Committee contains a much more realistic approach toward the real risk situation of SME lending for the finance market and will allow the necessary room for adaptations, which respect the different regional traditions and institutional structures.However, the new regulatory system will influence the relations between Banks and SMEs and it will depend very much on the way it will be implemented into European law, whether Basel II becomes burdensome for SMEs and if it will reduce access to finance for them.The new Capital Accord form the Basel Committee gives the financial market authorities and herewith the European Institutions, a lot of flexibility. In about 70 areas they have room to adapt the Accord to their specific needs when implementing itinto EU law. Some of them will have important effects on the costs and the accessibility of finance for SMEs.UEAPME expects therefore from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament:•The implementation of the new Capital Requirement Directive will be costly for the Finance Sector (up to 30 Billion Euro till 2006) and its clients will have to pay for it. Therefore, the implementation – especially for smaller banks, which are often very active in SME finance –has to be carried out with as little administrative burdensome as possible (reporting obligations, statistics, etc.).•The European Regulators must recognize traditional instruments for collaterals (guarantees, etc.) as far as possible.•The European Commission and later the Member States should take over the recommendations from the European Parliament with regard to granularity, access to retail portfolio, maturity, partial use, adaptation of thresholds, etc., which will ease the burden on SME finance.2. SMEs need transparent rating proceduresDue to higher risk awareness of the finance sector and the needs of Basel II, many SMEs will be confronted for the first time with internal rating procedures or credit scoring systems by their banks. The bank will require more and better quality information from their clients and will assess them in a new way. Both up-coming developments are already causing increasing uncertainty amongst SMEs.In order to reduce this uncertainty and to allow SMEs to understand the principles of the new risk assessment, UEAPME demands transparent rating procedures –rating procedures may not become a “Black Box” for SMEs: •The bank should communicate the relevant criteria affecting the rating of SMEs.•The bank should inform SMEs about its assessment in order to allow SMEs to improve.The negotiations on a European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs , which would have included a self-commitment for transparent rating procedures by Banks, failed. Therefore, UEAPME expects from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament support for:•binding rules in the framework of the new Capital Adequacy Directive,which ensure the transparency of rating procedures and credit scoring systems for SMEs;•Elaboration of national Codes of Conduct in order to improve the relations between Banks and SMEs and to support the adaptation of SMEs to the new financial environment.3. SMEs need an extension of credit guarantee systems with a special focus on Micro-LendingBusiness start-ups, the transfer of businesses and innovative fast growth SMEs also depended in the past very often on public support to get access to finance. Increasing risk awareness by banks and the stricter interpretation of State Aid Rules will further increase the need for public support.Already now, there are credit guarantee schemes in many countries on the limit of their capacity and too many investment projects cannot be realized by SMEs.Experiences show that Public money, spent for supporting credit guarantees systems, is a very efficient instrument and has a much higher multiplying effect than other instruments. One Euro form the European Investment Funds can stimulate 30 Euro investments in SMEs (for venture capital funds the relation is only 1:2).Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to support:•The extension of funds for national credit guarantees schemes in the framework of the new Multi-Annual Programmed for Enterprises;•The development of new instruments for securitizations of SME portfolios;•The recognition of existing and well functioning credit guarantees schemes as collateral;•More flexibility within the European Instruments, because of national differences in the situation of SME finance;•The development of credit guarantees schemes in the new Member States;•The development of an SBIC-like scheme in the Member States to close the equity gap (0.2 – 2.5 Mio Euro, according to the expert meeting on PACE on April 27 in Luxemburg).•the development of a financial support scheme to encourage the internalizations of SMEs (currently there is no scheme available at EU level: termination of JOP, fading out of JEV).4. SMEs need company and income taxation systems, whichstrengthen their capacity for self-financingMany EU Member States have company and income taxation systems with negative incentives to build-up capital within the company by re-investing their profits. This is especially true for companies, which have to pay income taxes. Already in the past tax-regimes was one of the reasons for the higher dependence of Europe’s SMEs on bank lending. In future, the result of rating w ill also depend on the amount of capital in the company; the high dependence on lending will influence the access to lending. This is a vicious cycle, which has to be broken.Even though company and income taxation falls under the competence of Member States, UEAPME asks the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to publicly support tax-reforms, which will strengthen the capacity of Crafts, Trades and SME for self-financing. Thereby, a special focus on non-corporate companies is needed.5. Risk Capital – equity financingExternal equity financing does not have a real tradition in the SME sector. On the one hand, small enterprises and family business in general have traditionally not been very open towards external equity financing and are not used to informing transparently about their business.On the other hand, many investors of venture capital and similar forms of equity finance are very reluctant regarding investing their funds in smaller companies, which is more costly than investing bigger amounts in larger companies. Furthermore it is much more difficult to set out of such investments in smaller companies.Even though equity financing will never become the main source of financing for SMEs, it is an important instrument for highly innovative start-ups and fast growing companies and it has therefore to be further developed. UEAPME sees three pillars for such an approach where policy support is needed:Availability of venture capital•The Member States should review their taxation systems in order to create incentives to invest private money in all forms of venture capital.•Guarantee instruments for equity financing should be further developed.Improve the conditions for investing venture capital into SMEs•The development of secondary markets for venture capital investments in SMEs should be supported.•Accounting Standards for SMEs should be revised in order to easetransparent exchange of information between investor and owner-manager.Owner-managers must become more aware about the need for transparency towards investors•SME owners will have to realise that in future access to external finance (venture capital or lending) will depend much more on a transparent and open exchange of information about the situation and the perspectives of their companies.•In order to fulfil the new needs for transparency, SMEs will have to use new information instruments (business plans, financial reporting, etc.) and new management instruments (risk-management, financial management, etc.).外文资料翻译涂敏之会计学 8051208076题目：未来的中小企业融资背景：中小企业融资已经改变未来的经济复苏将取决于能否工艺品，贸易和中小企业利用其潜在的增长和创造就业。
道路与桥梁工程中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Bridge research in EuropeA brief outline is given of the development of the European Union, together with the research platform in Europe. The special case of post-tensioned bridges in the UK is discussed. In order to illustrate the type of European research being undertaken, an example is given from the University of Edinburgh portfolio: relating to the identification of voids in post-tensioned concrete bridges using digital impulse radar.IntroductionThe challenge in any research arena is to harness the findings of different research groups to identify a coherent mass of data, which enables research and practice to be better focused. A particular challenge exists with respect to Europe where language barriers are inevitably very significant. The European Community was formed in the 1960s based upon a political will within continental Europe to avoid the European civil wars, which developed into World War 2 from 1939 to 1945. The strong political motivation formed the original community of which Britain was not a member. Many of the continental countries saw Britain’s interest as being purelyeconomic. The 1970s saw Britain joining what was then the European Economic Community (EEC) and the 1990s has seen the widening of the community to a European Union, EU, with certain political goals together with the objective of a common European currency.Notwithstanding these financial and political developments, civil engineering and bridge engineering in particular have found great difficulty in forming any kind of common thread. Indeed the educational systems for University training are quite different between Britain and the European continental countries. The formation of the EU funding schemes —e.g. Socrates, Brite Euram and other programs have helped significantly. The Socrates scheme is based upon the exchange of students between Universities in different member states. The Brite Euram scheme has involved technical research grants given to consortia of academics and industrial partners within a number of the states— a Brite Euram bid would normally be led by an industrialist.In terms of dissemination of knowledge, two quite different strands appear to have emerged. The UK and the USA have concentrated primarily upon disseminating basic research in refereed journal publications: ASCE, ICE and other journals. Whereas the continental Europeans have frequently disseminated basic research at conferences where the circulation of the proceedings is restricted.Additionally, language barriers have proved to be very difficult to break down. In countries where English is a strong second language there has been enthusiastic participation in international conferences based within continental Europe —e.g. Germany, Italy, Belgium, The Netherlands and Switzerland. However, countries where English is not a strong second language have been hesitant participants }—e.g. France.European researchExamples of research relating to bridges in Europe can be divided into three types of structure:Masonry arch bridgesBritain has the largest stock of masonry arch bridges. In certain regions of the UK up to 60% of the road bridges are historic stone masonry arch bridges originally constructed for horse drawn traffic. This is less common in other parts of Europe as many of these bridges were destroyed during World War 2.Concrete bridgesA large stock of concrete bridges was constructed during the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s. At the time, these structures were seen as maintenance free. Europe also has a large number of post-tensioned concrete bridges with steel tendon ducts preventing radar inspection. This is a particular problem in France and the UK.Steel bridgesSteel bridges went out of fashion in the UK due to their need for maintenance as perceived in the 1960s and 1970s. However, they have been used for long span and rail bridges, and they are now returning to fashion for motorway widening schemes in the UK.Research activity in EuropeIt gives an indication certain areas of expertise and work being undertaken in Europe, but is by no means exhaustive.In order to illustrate the type of European research being undertaken, an example is given from the University of Edinburgh portfolio. The example relates to the identification of voids in post-tensioned concrete bridges, using digital impulse radar.Post-tensioned concrete rail bridge analysisOve Arup and Partners carried out an inspection and assessment of the superstructure of a 160 m long post-tensioned, segmental railway bridge in Manchester to determine its load-carrying capacity prior to a transfer of ownership, for use in the Metrolink light rail system..Particular attention was paid to the integrity of its post-tensioned steel elements. Physical inspection, non-destructive radar testing and other exploratory methods were used to investigate for possible weaknesses in the bridge.Since the sudden collapse of Ynys-y-Gwas Bridge in Wales, UK in 1985, there has been concern about the long-term integrity of segmental, post-tensioned concrete bridges which may b e prone to ‘brittle’ failure without warning. The corrosion protection of the post-tensioned steel cables, where they pass through joints between the segments, has been identified as a major factor affecting the long-term durability and consequent strength of this type of bridge. The identification of voids in grouted tendon ducts at vulnerable positions is recognized as an important step in the detection of such corrosion.Description of bridgeGeneral arrangementBesses o’ th’ Barn Bridge is a 160 m long, three span, segmental, post-tensionedconcrete railway bridge built in 1969. The main span of 90 m crosses over both the M62 motorway and A665 Bury to Prestwick Road. Minimum headroom is 5.18 m from the A665 and the M62 is cleared by approx 12.5 m.The superstructure consists of a central hollow trapezoidal concrete box section 6.7 m high and 4 m wide. The majority of the south and central spans are constructed using 1.27 m long pre-cast concrete trapezoidal box units, post-tensioned together. This box section supports the in site concrete transverse cantilever slabs at bottom flange level, which carry the rail tracks and ballast.The center and south span sections are of post-tensioned construction. These post-tensioned sections have five types of pre-stressing:1. Longitudinal tendons in grouted ducts within the top and bottom flanges.2. Longitudinal internal draped tendons located alongside the webs. These are deflected at internal diaphragm positions and are encased in in site concrete.3. Longitudinal macalloy bars in the transverse cantilever slabs in the central span .4. Vertical macalloy bars in the 229 mm wide webs to enhance shear capacity.5. Transverse macalloy bars through the bottom flange to support the transverse cantilever slabs.Segmental constructionThe pre-cast segmental system of construction used for the south and center span sections was an alternative method proposed by the contractor. Current thinking suggests that such a form of construction can lead to ‘brittle’ failure of the ent ire structure without warning due to corrosion of tendons across a construction joint，The original design concept had been for in site concrete construction.Inspection and assessmentInspectionInspection work was undertaken in a number of phases and was linked with the testing required for the structure. The initial inspections recorded a number of visible problems including:Defective waterproofing on the exposed surface of the top flange.Water trapped in the internal space of the hollow box with depths up to 300 mm.Various drainage problems at joints and abutments.Longitudinal cracking of the exposed soffit of the central span.Longitudinal cracking on sides of the top flange of the pre-stressed sections.Widespread sapling on some in site concrete surfaces with exposed rusting reinforcement.AssessmentThe subject of an earlier paper, the objectives of the assessment were:Estimate the present load-carrying capacity.Identify any structural deficiencies in the original design.Determine reasons for existing problems identified by the inspection.Conclusion to the inspection and assessmentFollowing the inspection and the analytical assessment one major element of doubt still existed. This concerned the condition of the embedded pre-stressing wires, strands, cables or bars. For the purpose of structural analysis these elements、had been assumed to be sound. However, due to the very high forces involved,、a risk to the structure, caused by corrosion to these primary elements, was identified.The initial recommendations which completed the first phase of the assessment were:1. Carry out detailed material testing to determine the condition of hidden structural elements, in particularthe grouted post-tensioned steel cables.2. Conduct concrete durability tests.3. Undertake repairs to defective waterproofing and surface defects in concrete.Testing proceduresNon-destructi v e radar testingDuring the first phase investigation at a joint between pre-cast deck segments the observation of a void in a post-tensioned cable duct gave rise to serious concern about corrosion and the integrity of the pre-stress. However, the extent of this problem was extremely difficult to determine. The bridge contains 93 joints with an average of 24 cables passing through each joint, i.e. there were approx. 2200 positions where investigations could be carried out. A typical section through such a joint is that the 24 draped tendons within the spine did not give rise to concern because these were protected by in site concrete poured without joints after the cables had been stressed.As it was clearly impractical to consider physically exposing all tendon/joint intersections, radar was used to investigate a large numbers of tendons and hence locate duct voids within a modest timescale. It was fortunate that the corrugated steel ducts around the tendons were discontinuous through the joints which allowed theradar to detect the tendons and voids. The problem, however, was still highly complex due to the high density of other steel elements which could interfere with the radar signals and the fact that the area of interest was at most 102 mm wide and embedded between 150 mm and 800 mm deep in thick concrete slabs.Trial radar investigations.Three companies were invited to visit the bridge and conduct a trial investigation. One company decided not to proceed. The remaining two were given 2 weeks to mobilize, test and report. Their results were then compared with physical explorations.To make the comparisons, observation holes were drilled vertically downwards into the ducts at a selection of 10 locations which included several where voids were predicted and several where the ducts were predicted to be fully grouted. A 25-mm diameter hole was required in order to facilitate use of the chosen horoscope. The results from the University of Edinburgh yielded an accuracy of around 60%.Main radar sur v ey, horoscope verification of v oids.Having completed a radar survey of the total structure, a baroscopic was then used to investigate all predicted voids and in more than 60% of cases this gave a clear confirmation of the radar findings. In several other cases some evidence of honeycombing in the in site stitch concrete above the duct was found.When viewing voids through the baroscopic, however, it proved impossible to determine their actual size or how far they extended along the tendon ducts although they only appeared to occupy less than the top 25% of the duct diameter. Most of these voids, in fact, were smaller than the diameter of the flexible baroscopic being used (approximately 9 mm) and were seen between the horizontal top surface of the grout and the curved upper limit of the duct. In a very few cases the tops of the pre-stressing strands were visible above the grout but no sign of any trapped water was seen. It was not possible, using the baroscopic, to see whether those cables were corroded.Digital radar testingThe test method involved exciting the joints using radio frequency radar antenna: 1 GHz, 900 MHz and 500 MHz. The highest frequency gives the highest resolution but has shallow depth penetration in the concrete. The lowest frequency gives the greatest depth penetration but yields lower resolution.The data collected on the radar sweeps were recorded on a GSSI SIR System 10.This system involves radar pulsing and recording. The data from the antenna is transformed from an analogue signal to a digital signal using a 16-bit analogue digital converter giving a very high resolution for subsequent data processing. The data is displayed on site on a high-resolution color monitor. Following visual inspection it is then stored digitally on a 2.3-gigabyte tape for subsequent analysis and signal processing. The tape first of all records a ‘header’ noting the digital radar settings together with the trace number prior to recording the actual data. When the data is played back, one is able to clearly identify all the relevant settings —making for accurate and reliable data reproduction.At particular locations along the traces, the trace was marked using a marker switch on the recording unit or the antenna.All the digital records were subsequently downloaded at the University’s NDT laboratory on to a micro-computer.（The raw data prior to processing consumed 35 megabytes of digital data.）Post-processing was undertaken using sophisticated signal processing software. Techniques available for the analysis include changing the color transform and changing the scales from linear to a skewed distribution in order to highlight、突出certain features. Also, the color transforms could be changed to highlight phase changes. In addition to these color transform facilities, sophisticated horizontal and vertical filtering procedures are available. Using a large screen monitor it is possible to display in split screens the raw data and the transformed processed data. Thus one is able to get an accurate indication of the processing which has taken place. The computer screen displays the time domain calibrations of the reflected signals on the vertical axis.A further facility of the software was the ability to display the individual radar pulses as time domain wiggle plots. This was a particularly valuable feature when looking at individual records in the vicinity of the tendons.Interpretation of findingsA full analysis of findings is given elsewhere, Essentially the digitized radar plots were transformed to color line scans and where double phase shifts were identified in the joints, then voiding was diagnosed.Conclusions1. An outline of the bridge research platform in Europe is given.2. The use of impulse radar has contributed considerably to the level of confidence in the assessment of the Besses o’ th’ Barn Rail Bridge.3. The radar investigations revealed extensive voiding within the post-tensioned cable ducts. However, no sign of corrosion on the stressing wires had been found except for the very first investigation.欧洲桥梁研究欧洲联盟共同的研究平台诞生于欧洲联盟。
外文文献
英文文献资料外文文献一：Food safety: the shocking truth about the food industrySource: Author: Marion Nestle、Refrigeration technology, pasteurization, pesticides, disease control, these technologies so that safe food into the 20th century, public health's greatest achievements. This book view is that food safety problems also depend on politics. September 2001 events to dispel this view of the doubts about aviation aircraft used by terrorists as a destruction of weapons to civilians and public figures have anthrax spores sent folder of letters, the consequences of these events shows, food, water can easily become a a tool for terrorists, it has also become the federal government for food safety control problem.This chapter will sum up this book referred to in the various food safety problems. Some of them threatened to keep animals healthy, very few will lead to a number of human diseases. Even so, these issues impact on human well-being is deep; large-scale destruction of breeding animals, affecting the livelihood of many people, limiting personal freedom. The 20th century, 90's and early 21st century, an outbreak of mad cow disease and foot and mouth disease Although this is only because of errors caused by the production process, but still brings a lot of destructive. In contrast, bio-terrorism is the deliberate use of biological and chemical substances to achieve their political objectives. For food safety issues,Bio-terrorism extends food safety issues and political outreach; deliberate destruction, excluding any consequences of innocent injury.In this chapter, we will discuss how the rise of bio-terrorism, food safety issues and extend the extension of food safety issues. In the United States, food safety, usually refers to the family food supply reliability. E-mail from the anthrax incident, the food safety issues, also includes safety from biological terrorism. Our discussion will be the beginning of some zoonotic diseases: such as mad cow disease, foot and mouth disease, anthrax. In recent years, these zoonotic diseases harmful to humans is relatively small. Today, for these zoonotic diseases, we are concerned that they may give rise to disease, destruction of food supply system,To become a tool for bio-terrorism aspect. This chapter summarizes the discussion of this book, fromsociety and from a personal point of view what action should be taken to face these issues, as well as food safety issues present and future.The political animal diseasesOne of the consequences of globalization is that of food cross-border long-distance rapid transit, affecting food supply all kinds of disease can easily spread from one country to another country. Animal diseases have a commercial impact, if a country has come to infectious diseases of animals, other countries will refuse to import the kinds of animal meat. The impact of business at the same time there are political consequences.Britain's mad cow disease and foot and mouth disease occurred as a result of beef in the production process caused by mismanagement, compared to the U.S. anthrax letters is a result of vandalism. However, this three kinds of threatening to cause great panic, they are difficult to detect control, can cause severe disease. Moreover, these three kinds of threats against people for the food supply, as well as confidence in the Government.Mad cow is the mid-20th century, 90 of the most popular of a food security crisis, the epidemic is mainly limited to the United Kingdom. With regard to BSE-related issues and our discussion, mainly because of political issues and scientific issues intertwined Among them, public confidence had a great impact. For example, the British Government in the BSE crisis in the practice is also considered to result in distrust of genetically modified food one of the reasons. The beginning of the 20th century, 80 years, no one had heard of the disease, but in 1999, this disease affects at least 175,000 British cattle. The consequences are very serious: 400 million head of livestock were slaughtered, the loss of 70 billion U.S. dollars,Spread to 18 countries worldwide national boycott of British beef. By 2001 only, although "only" 120 people died of the human variant of mad cow disease, it is estimated the death toll will reach 10 million people. Because mad cow disease revealed the modern politics of food safety issues, it is worth detailing.英文文献中文翻译06013618 胡冬敏外文翻译一：作者：玛丽恩·内斯特尔出版时间：2004年11月食品安全：令人震惊的食品行业真相（美）玛丽恩·内斯特尔冷藏技术，巴氏消毒，杀虫剂，疾病控制，这些技术使安全食品成为20世纪公众健康最伟大的成就之一。
毕业设计英文翻译-智能热能表控制器外文翻译-中英文文献对照翻译
外文资料与中文翻译外文资料：Intelligent thermal energy meter controllerAbstractA microcontroller based, thermal energy meter cum controller (TEMC) suitable for solar thermal systems has been developed. It monitors solar radiation, ambient temperature,fluid flow rate, and temperature of fluid at various locations of the system and computes the energy transfer rate. It also controls the operation of the fluid-circulating pumpdepending on the temperature difference across the solar collector field. The accuracyof energy measurement is ±1.5%. The instrument has been tested in a solar water heatingsystem. Its operation became automatic with savings in electrical energy consumption ofpump by 30% on cloudy days.1 IntroductionSolar water heating systems find wide applications in industry to conserve fossil fuel like oil, coal etc. They employ motor driven pumps for circulating water with on-offcontrollers and calls for automatic operation. Reliability and performance of the system depend on the instrumentation and controls employed. Multi-channel temperature recorders, flow meters, thermal energy meters are the essential instruments for monitoring andevaluating the performance of these systems. A differential temperature controller (DTC) is required in a solar water heating system for an automatic and efficient operation ofthe system. To meet all these requirements, a microcontroller based instrument wasdeveloped. Shoji Kusui and Tetsuo Nagai [1] developed an electronic heat meter formeasuring thermal energy using thermistors as temperature sensors and turbine flow meter as flow sensor.2 Instrument detailsThe block diagram of the microcontroller (Intel 80C31) based thermal energy meter cum controller is shown in Fig. 1. RTD (PT100, 4-wire) sensors are used for the temperaturemeasurement of water at the collector field inlet, outlet and in the tank with appropriate signal conditioners designed with low-drift operational amplifiers. A precision semiconductor temperature sensor (LM335) is used for ambient temperature measurement. A pyranometer, having an output voltage of 8.33 mV/kW/m2, is used for measuring the incident solar radiation. To monitor the circulating fluid pressure, a sensor with 4–20 mA output is used. This output is converted into voltage using an I-V converter. All these outputsignals are fed to an 8-channel analog multiplexer (CD4051). Its output is fed to adual-slope 12-bit A/D converter (ICL7109). It is controlled by the microcontroller through the Programmable Peripheral Interface (PPI-82C55).Fig. 1. Block diagram of thermal energy meter cum controller.A flow sensor (turbine type) is used with a signal conditioner to measure the flowrate. Its output is fed to the counter input of the microcontroller. It is programmed tomonitor all the multiplexed signals every minute, compute the temperature difference,energy transfer rate and integrated energy. A real-time clock with MM58167 is interfacedto the microcontroller to time-stamp the logged data. An analog output (0–2 V) is provided using D/A converter (DAC-08) to plot both the measured and computed parameters. A 4×4 matrix keyboard is interfaced to the microcontroller to enter the parameters like specificheat of liquid, data log rate etc. An alphanumeric LCD display (24-character) is alsointerfaced with the microcontroller to display the measured variables. The serialcommunication port of the microcontroller is fed to the serial line driver and receiver(MAX232). It enables the instrument to interface with the computer for down-loading thelogged data. A battery-backed static memory of 56K bytes is provided to store the measured parameters. Besides data logging, the instrument serves as a DTC. This has been achievedby interfacing a relay to the PPI. The system software is developed to accept thedifferential temperature set points (ΔT on and ΔT off) from the keyboard. An algorithmsuitable for on-off control having two set-points is implemented to control the relays.3 Instrument calibrationThe amount of energy transferred (Q) is :Where = mass flows rate of liquid kg/s ; V = volumetric flow rate (l/h) ; ρ= density of water (kg/l) ; Cp = specific heat (kJ/kg°C); and ΔT = temperature difference between hot and cold (°C).The accuracy in energy measurement depends on the measurement accuracy of individual parameters. Temperature measurement accuracy depends on the initial error in the sensorand the error introduced due to temperature drifts in the signal conditioners and the A/D converter. The temperature sensor is immersed in a constant temperature bath (HAAKE B ath-K, German), whose temperature can be var ied in steps of 0.1°C. A mercury glass thermometer (ARNO A MARELL, Germany) with a resolution of 0.05°C is also placed along with PT100 sensor in the bath. This is compared with the instrument readings. The accuracy of the instrument in temperature measurem ent is ±0.1°C. Hence, the accuracy in differential temperature measurement is ±0.2°C.The flow sensor having a maximum flow rate of 1250 l/h is used for flow measurement.It is calibrated by fixing it in the upstream of a pipeline of length 8 m. The sensor output is connected to a digital frequency counter to monitor the number of pulses generated withdifferent flow rates. Water collected at the sensor outlet over a period is used forestimating the flow rate. The K-factor of the sensor is 3975 pulses/l. The uncertaintyin flow measurement is ±0.25% at 675 l/h. Uncertainties in density and specific heat ofwater are ±0.006 kg/l and ±0.011 kJ/kg°C respectively.Maximum amount of energy collection (Q) = 675×0.98×4.184×15/3600 = 11.53kW. Uncertainty in energy measurementωq/Q = [(ωv/V)2 + (ωρ/ρ)2 + (ωcp/Cp)2+(ωt/T )2]1/2.Inaccuracy in electronic circuitry is ±0.03 kW.The net inaccuracy in energy measurement is ±1.5%4 Field testThe instrument is incorporated in a solar water heating system as shown in Fig. 2.It consists of five solar flat plate collectors having an absorber area of 1.6 m2 each. The absorber is a fin and tube extruded from aluminium and painted with matt black paint. The collectors are mounted on a rigid frame facing south at an angle equal to the latitude of Bangalore (13°N). They are arranged in parallel configuration and connected to athermally insulated 500 l capacity storage tank. A 0.25 hp pump is used for circulatingthe water through the collector field. All the pipelines are thermally insulated. Thetemperature sensors and the flow sensor are incorporated in the system as shown in Fig.2. The data on solar radiation, ambient temperature, water flow rate, solar collector inlet and outlet temperatures and the system heat output are monitored at regular intervals.Fig. 2. Solar water heating system with thermal energy meter cum controller.The performance of the solar water heating system with TEMC on a partial cloudy dayis shown in Fig. 3. It is observed that DTC switched OFF the pump around 14:40 h as thereis no further energy gain by the collector field. This in turn reduced the heat lossesfrom the collector to ambient. Experiments are conducted with and without DTC o n both sunny and cloudy days. The DTC operated system shows the savings in electrical energy by 30%on a partial cloudy day and 8% on a sunny day. The variation in system output with andwithout DTC i s around 3%. Thus the controller has not only served as an energy conservation device, but also switches ON/OFF the system automatically depending on the availabilityof solar radiation. The collector field output (shown in Fig. 3) is calculated by measuring the fluid flow rate using volumetric method and the temperature difference with anotherpair of standard thermometers. It is 16.86 kWh. It is compared with the instrument reading 17.18 kWh. Thus, the deviation is 1.9%. Fig. 3 shows that the solar collector fieldefficiency is 54% when the incident solar irradiation is 31.75 kWh.Fig. 3. Performance of SWH system with TEMC on a partial cloudy day.5 Concluding remarksTEMC is used as on-line instrument in solar water heating systems for the measurement of thermal energy, temperature, flow rate with simultaneous control on the operation ofthe pump t o save electrical energy and enhance the thermal energy collection. Since several options are provided in the instrument, it can be used for monitoring the energy transfer rate in other thermal systems.AcknowledgementsThe authors are thankful to Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India forproviding the financial assistance to carry out the above work.References1. Shoji Kusui, Tetsuo Nagai. An electronic integrating heat meter. IEEE Trans. onInstrumentation and Measurement, 1990;39(5):785-789.中文翻译：智能热能表控制器摘要适用于太阳能热系统的单片机热能表控制器（TEMC）已经研制成功。
材料英文翻译
外文资料与中文翻译外文资料：Influence of machining parameters on the machineability of particulate reinforced Al/SiC–MMCAbstract: the paper presents the result of an experimental investigation on the mach inability of silicon carbide particulate aluminum metal matrix composite during turning using a rhombic uncoated carbide tool. The influence of machining parameters, e.g. cutting speed, feed and depth of cut on the cutting force has been investigated. The influence of the length of machining. And cutting time on the tool wear and the influence of various machining parameters, e.g. cutting speed, feed, depth of cut on the surface finish criteria has been analyzed through the various graphical representations. The combined effect of cutting speed and feed on the flank wear has also been investigated. The influence of cutting speed, feed and depth of cut on the tool wears and built up edge is analyzed graphically. The job surface condition and wear of the cutting tool edge for the different sets of experiments have been examined and compared for searching out the suitable cutting condition for effective machining performance during turning of Al/SiC-MMC. Test results show that no built-up edge is formed during machining of Al/SiC-MMC at high speed and low depth of cut. From the test results and different SEM micrographs, suitable range of cutting speed feed and depth of cut can be selected for proper machining of Al/SiC-MMC.Keywords ：Al/SiC-MMC .Cutting force .fixed rhombic tooling .Surface finish .Tool wear.1 IntroductionThere have been tremendous since the Second World War. strides in engineering Metallurgists from the materials and nuclear industries have developed a large range of super alloy and heat resistance materials mnemonics like ceramics and composite materials. With the vast and rapid progress in science and technology, modern industry has introduced a new generation of composite materials having low density and very light weight with high strength, hardness and stiffness to meet the current needs of modern technology and the challenges against liberalization and global competitiveness in market. Despite superior physical and mechanical properties, particulate reinforced metal matrix composites (PRMMCs) are not widely used in industry because of their poor machine ability. PRMMCs are extremely difficult to machine effectively using traditional machining processes because of severe tool wear due to the presence of hard SiC reinforced particle in the Al/SiC-metal matrix composite. However, modern industries have developed an increasing demand for machining advanced composite materials like Al/SiC-MMC irrespective of their hardness, toughness, configurationally complexity, microstructure, electrical conductivity, etc., for developing highly sophisticated products so as to achieve various requirements of those products such as wear resistance, low weight, high precision, high speed, etc. Advanced Al/SiC-metal matrix composites are gradually becoming very important materials for their scope of uses in manufacturing industries mainly aerospace, defense and automobile industries. The aluminum alloy reinforced with discontinuous ceramic reinforcements is rapidly replacing conventional materials in various automotive, aerospace and automobile industries:[1]. But Al/SiC-MMC machining is one of the major problems that is preventing its wide spread engineering application[2]. from some early conventional turning tests on Al/SiC-MMCs[3-5].it is found that the tool wear is excessive and surface finish is very poor when carbide tools are used for machining. During machining of Al/SiC-MMC use of coolant increases tool wear and as well as produces very poor surface finish[6]. The hard SiC particles of Al/SiC一MMC, which intermittently come into contact with the cutting tool, act as small cutting edges like those of a grinding wheel on the cutting tool edge which in due course is worn out by abrasion and resulting in formation of poor surface finish during turning[7]. When the Al/SiC-MMC job slides over a hard cutting tool edge during turning it always presents a newly formed surface to the same portion of the cutting edge and consequently due to friction, high temperature and pressure the particles of the Al/SiC-MMC adhere to the cutting tool edge. This way more particles will join up with those already adhering and the so-called built up edge is formed and if this process is continued for some time, it appears like it was nibbled away on the turned surface and produces very poor surface finish during turning.[8]. Hence, cost-effective machining with the genera on of good surface finish on the Al/SiC一MMC jobs during turning operation is a challenge to manufacturingengengineers in practice.In view of these above mentioned machining problems, the main objectives of the paper is to study the influence of different cutting parameters, e.g. cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut on the mache inability characteristics, e.g. cutting forces, surface finish, tool wear and built-up edge formation during the turning of Al/SiC-MMC. The work piece surface condition, tool wear and cutting forces for different sets of experiments have been examined and compared for searching out the suitable cutting condition through highlighting the drawbacks and suggesting appropriate measures to be undertaken during machining performance, which may overcome the machining barriers from A1/SiC一MMC. Suitability of the especially designed uncoated carbide tool is investigated during machining of Al/SiC-MMC for fulfilling various factors related to the mach inability. Test results are analyzed for achieving better machining performance during machining of Al/SiC-MMC.2 Planning for experimentationDiscontinuous particulate reinforced aluminium-SiC metal matrix composite bars of 80 mm in diameter is used for experimentation. Table 1 shows the chemical composition ofA1/SiC一MMC used for the experiments. The physical and mechanical properties of Al/SiC一MMC used for the experimental investigation are listed in Table 2. Figure 1 shows the microstructure of the LM6Mg15SiC-Al-metal matrix composite as caster with average particle size (APS) 0.000023 m. The different sets of experiments were performed using a combination trestle the. Details of the cutting tool used in the experiments and condition of machining are listed in Tables 3 and 4, respectively. The cutting forces (Px and Py) were measured using a Kistler9257B Piezoelectric Dynamometer with a Kistler5501 load amplifier during turning of Al/SiC-MMC The cutting tool wears and built-up edges were measured using a Mitutoyo Shop Microscopewith 30-times magnification and 1um resolution. Machined surfaces were measured by Taylor-Hobson Surtronic3P-type surface roughness measuring instrument. The average value of flank wear was determined from the maximum flank wear and minimum flank wear f91.3 Test results and discussionThe influence of cutting speed on the feed force (Px ) and cutting force (Pz) during turning of Al/SiC一MMC without use of coolant is represented in Fig.2. Experimental results showed that the feed force (Px) in the direction of the tool travel was higher at low cutting speed and comparatively lower at high cutting speed. From the cutting speed verses cutting force components graph, it can be concluded that the cutting force (Pz), i.e. the main force acting in the direction of the cutting velocity vector was higher at low cutting speed as compared to the high cutting speed. From Fig. 2, it can be observed that the cutting force components Px and Pz gradually decrease by increasing cutting speed during turning of Al/SiC-MMC. It is due to the gradual decrease of formation of built-up edge by increasing cutting speed..Figure 3 shows the influence of feed rate on the feed force and cutting force during turning of Al/SiC一MMC without use of coolant. The feed rate verses force components graph shows that the feed force (Px) acting in the direction of tool travel and cutting force (PZ) acting in the direction of the cutting velocity vector increase byincreasing feed rate. From the Fig. 3 it is also observed that the feed force and cutting force both are low at low feed, i.e. 0.14 mm/rev, and both feed force and cutting force are high at high feed, i.e. 1.00 mm/rev.The influence of depth of cut on the feed force and cutting force during turning of Al/SiC一MMC without use of coolant is shown in Fig. 4. From Fig. 4, it is observed that the feed force (Px) and cutting force (Pz) both increase with the increase in depth of cut. The feed force is only 20 N for 0.25 mm depth of cut whereas the feed force is 200 N for 1.5 mm depth of cut. The test results also indicate that the cutting force is 120 N for 0.25 mm depth of cut where the cutting force is 430 N for 1.5 mm depth of cut.Figure 5 shows the influence of depth of cut on the flank wear during turning of A1/SiC一MMC without use of coolant. From Fig. 5, it can be observed that at 0.25 mm depth of cut the flank wear is 0.1 mm but when the depth of cut is doubled to 0.5 mm,it increases to 0.2 mm, i.e. flank wear doubles. Hence, from the figure it can be concluded that the depth of cut is more significant on the tool wear as compared to the feed rate at constant cutting speed condition during machining of Al/SiC一MMC.Figure 6 shows the influence of feed rate on the flank wear at different cuttingspeed during turning of the Al/SiC-MMC without use of coolant. At 60 m/min, where the feed is tripled from 0.25 mm/rev to 0.75 mm/rev, the flank wear increases marginally from 0.12 mm to 0.20 mm whereas for the same change of feed rate, when cutting speed is tripled, i.e. from 60 m/min to 180 m/min, the flank wear goes up from 0.17 mm to 0.52 mm. It is evident that cutting speeds are less susceptible to the flank wear as compared to feed rate, hence, it is better to increase the feed rates rather than increase the cutting speeds during machining of A1/SiC一MMC. From the figure it can be concluded that when feed rate is tripled the flank wear goes up 1.5 times whereas when cutting speed is tripled the flank wear goes up to 3 times at constant depth of cut and for same length of continuous turning. Hence an increment of feed rate is recommended rather than increment of cutting speed for the cost effective machining of Al/SiC-MMC. From the experimental results it can be observed that when feed rate is doubled i.e. from 0.25 to 0.5 mm/rev the flank wear goes up only 1.3 times, i.e. from 0.15 to 0.20 mm at constant 100 m/min cutting speed, 0.5 mm depth of cut and for 50 mm continuous length of turning.Figure 7 shows the influence of cutting speed on surface roughness characteristics, i.e. Ra and Rt during turning ofA1/SiC一MMC without use of coolant. The test results show that the value of both surface roughness heights Ra and Rt are low at high cutting speed and comparatively high at low cutting speed. Some times during turning, it is observed that the value of surface roughness height (Rt) is abruptly higher than the trend value. The abrupt irregularity in the values of surface roughness heights may be due to presence of a hard abrasive reinforced particle, i.e. SiC, which rolls over the machined surface during turning and pouching on the turned surface and may generate grooves on the machined surface.The influence of feed rate on surface roughness heights Ra and Rt during machining of Al/SiC-MMC without use of coolant is also represented in Fig. 8. Experimental results show that both the surface roughness heights Ra and Rt increase by increasing feed rate. From the test results it can be concluded that when feed rate is tripled, i.e. from 0.25 mm/rev to 0.75 mm/rev the value of surface roughness height Ra increases by 40% whereas when cutting speed is tripled, i.e. from 60 m/min to 180 m/min the value of surface roughness height Ra decreases by 46%. Hence, it indicates that the cutting speed and feed rate have equal influence on the surface finish if both are increased simultaneously.Figure 9 shows the influence of depth of cut on the surface roughness heights Ra and Rt during machining of Al/SiC一MMC without use of coolant. From the depth of cut verses surface finish graph, it can be observed that the increase of depth of cut decreases the quality of surface finish. The arithmetic average roughness height Ra (},m) and maximum peak to valley of surface roughness height Rt (},m) both increases with increasing depth of cut.Figure 10 shows the influence of feed rate on the formation of built-up edge (BUE) at different cutting speed during turning of A1/SiC一MMC without use of coolant. From the figure it can be observed that the BUE decreases by increasing cutting speed and feed rate. Experimental results revealed the fact that when cutting speed is tripled the height of the BUE decreases by 3 times compared to its value at low speed range and when the feed rate is tripled the height of the BUE decreases 1.4 times compared to its value at low feed rate.Figure 11 a-c show the shapes of the built-up edges during turning using special geometrically designed rhombic-shaped uncoated tungsten carbide inserts. The SEM micrograph Fig. l la shows the shapes of the BUE at lower cutting speed and feed rate (i.e. 20 m/min and 0.14 mm/rev) with 0.5 mm depthof cut and for 50 mm length of continuous turning; the height of the BUE is 1.10 mm. The SEM micrograph in Fig. 11 b shows the shapes of the BUE at medium cutting speed and feed (i.e.100 m/min and 0.50 mm/rev) with 1 mm depth of cut and for 50 mm length of continuous turning. The height of the BUE is 0.95 mm. The SEM micrograph in Fig. l lc shows the shape of the BUE at low cutting speed and lower feed rate (i.e. 40 m/min and 0.14 mm/rev) with moderate depth of cut and for 50 mm length of continuous turning. The height of the BUE is 1 mm. It is observed from the micrograph that the chance of formation of BUE is higher at lower cutting speed, feed and higher depth of cut.The experimental results revel that the selection of higher cutting speeds duringmachining may cause faster tool wear as compared to the higher cutting feeds. But this does not mean that the machining should be performed at low cutting speeds. Again, as cutting speed increases, the cutting force decreases and cutting edges of tool material may break due to the high cutting force during turning at low speed range. Again, at higher cutting speeds, say 180 m/min, 225 m/min, etc., the cutting edge temperature will be very high due to the higher cutting speed which will lead to the rapid deformation of the cutting tool edge. Therefore, cutting speed range in between 60 m/min to 150 m/min is ideal and recommended for machining operation with uncoated carbide insert where cutting forces are more or less independent on cutting speed during turning of Al/SiC一MMC.Due to the high friction and temperature between the aluminum chip matrix and the cutting tool, the chip metal welds itself to the cutting tool edge. The welded chip material further increases the friction and the friction again leads to build up the localized layer upon layer and so called built up edge is formed during turning of Al/SiC-MMC. Generally, the built-up edge is formed between the chip and the rake face of the cutting tool edge. It changes the actual rake angle, which may change the direction of chip flow. The change of actual rake angle changes the shear angle, which may directly affect the cutting force. Generally, formation of built-up edge increases actual rake angle and consequently decreases the cutting force. Where as during turn of Al/SiC一MMC, it has been observed that the built-up edge was formed at low speed and generated higher cutting force (PZ). It occurs due to the presence of harder reinforced SiC particles in the Al/SiC-MMC, which are not part of cutting at low speed by the action of the cutting tool edge. Its rolls over the cutting tool edge and plough over the machined surface, which may cause of creation of high cutting force. It is another cause of adhesive tool wear andformation of poor surface finish during turning of Al/SiC-MMC.During turning of Al/SiC-MMC, it may also be observed that when the hard SiC particle of particulate aluminum rein- forced SiC metal matrix composite come into sliding contact with the cutting tool edge, the temperature at their interface is high. If it is continuous, the condition may become right for liberation of an atom from the harder metal to diffuse into the softer Al-matrix and join together with the hard reinforced SiC particles and thereby increase the hardness and abrasiveness of the work piece minimum matrix may also defuse into the harder cutting tool and weakening the sharp edge of the cutting tool. Hence, the cutting edge of the tool is torn or sheared off and carried away with the chip during turning. It is another cause of cutting tool failure due to the diffusion wear. During steady wear phase, flank wear is caused by abrasion, whereas during the rapid wear phase, it is caused by diffusion. It can also be observed that the presence of SiC particle in the particulate aluminum metal matrix composite produced semi-continuous types of chips. The formation of discontinuous chips involve the initiation of macro cracks on the free surface of the chips results in bend formation which in turn pulled out the SiC particles causes formation of small voids on the machined surface during machining. This is also one of the causes for producing poor surface finish during machining of Al/SiC-MMC.During continuous turning of Al/SiC-MMC, sometimes it may be observed that the magnitude of the cutting force (PZ) acting in the direction of cutting velocity vector is fluctuating to the maximum largest value, which may create mechanical impact. The mechanical impact may be caused by the harder reinforced SiC particles present in the work piece. Fluctuation of cutting force with sufficient large magnitude may deform the cutting edge of the tool and may damage the cuttingtool sharp edge in. Consequently, the contrary atoms from the softer alum- the form of small chips during machining of Al/SiC-MMC is another cause of flank wear.4 ConclusionsBased on the performance and test results of the various set of experiments performed for analyzing the influence of different machining parameters on the machine ability of Al/SiC-MMC utilizing fixed rhombic tooling, i.e. CCGX-09-T3-04 Al-H 10 type inserts during turning of Al/SiC-MMC without use of coolant, the following points can be made: (i) The flank wear rate is high at low cutting speed due to the generation of high cutting forces and formation of built-up edge during machining of Al/SiC一MMC. Again, when material is machining at high cutting speed, the cutting edge temperature is very high, which will also lead to rapid deformation of the cutting tool edge and in turn causes of rapid tool wear. Hence cutting speed zone between 60 m/min to 150 m/min is recommended for machining of Al/SiC-MMC, where cutting forces are more or less independent of cutting speed.(ii) From the combined effect of speed and feed on the flank wear, it can beconcluded that the feed is less sensitive to the flank wear as compared to the cutting speed. Hence, increment of feed rate is recommended rather than increment of the cutting speed for achieving higher metal removal rate at low cost during machining of Al/SiC-MMC.(iii) The cutting speed, feed and depth of cut are having equal influence on the surface roughness characteristics, i.e. Ra and Rt. High speed, low feed rate and low depth of cut are recommended for achieving better surface finish during turning of A1/SiC一MMC using CCGX-09-T3-04-A1-H 10 type insert.(iv) The generation of built-up edge during machining of A1/SiC一MMC at low cutting speed increase the actual rake angle and it is found to correlate with the increment of cutting forces, which may in turn increase the cutting tool wear.Effective machining of Al/SiC-MMC is a challenge to the manufacturing industries, which mainly restricts the wide spread application of this advance metal matrix composite in practice. The fixed rhombic tooling of CCGX-09-T3-04-A1-H10 type insert can be effectively used for proper machining of 1/SiC一MMC. The practical research analysis and test results on the machine ability of Al/SiC-MMC will provide effective guide lines to the present day manufacturing engineers. Through various highlights, the drawbacks and merits of the influence of different process parameters for achieving suitable control over the machining performance and accuracy criteria can be well understood. The research work findings will also provide useful economic machining solution by utilizing fixed rhombic tooling during processing of Al/SiC-MMC, which is otherwise usually machined by costly Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD) tools. During processing of Al/SiC-MMC, which is otherwise usually中文翻译：加工参数对颗粒增强金属碳化硅铝基复合材料切削性能的影响摘要本文介绍了碳硅化合颗粒铝基复合材料切削性的试验研究结果，在车削过程中使用菱形未涂层碳化物刀具。
生物科学论文中英文资料外文翻译文献
中英文对照翻译Carotenoid Biosynthetic Pathway in the Citrus Genus: Number of Copies and Phylogenetic Diversity of SevenGeneThe first objective of this paper was to analyze the potential role of allelic variability of carotenoid biosynthetic genes in the interspecifi diversity in carotenoid composition of Citrus juices. The second objective was to determine the number of copies for each of these genes. Seven carotenoid biosynthetic genes were analyzed using restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and simple sequence repeats (SSR) markers. RFLP analyses were performed with the genomic DNA obtained from 25 Citrus genotypes using several restriction enzymes. cDNA fragments of Psy, Pds, Zds, Lcyb, Lcy-e, Hy-b, and Zep genes labeled with [R-32P]dCTP were used as probes. For SSR analyses, two primer pairs amplifying two SSR sequences identified from expressed sequence tags (ESTs) of Lcy-b and Hy-b genes were designed. The number of copies of the seven genes ranged from one for Lcy-b to three for Zds. The genetic diversity revealed by RFLP and SSR profiles was in agreement with the genetic diversity obtained from neutral molecμLar markers. Genetic interpretation of RFLP and SSR profiles of four genes (Psy1, Pds1, Lcy-b, and Lcy-e1) enabled us to make inferences on the phylogenetic origin of alleles for the major commercial citrus species. Moreover, the resμLts of our analyses suggest that the allelic diversity observed at the locus of both of lycopene cyclase genes, Lcy-b and Lcy-e1, is associated with interspecific diversity in carotenoid accumμLation in Citrus. The interspecific differences in carotenoid contents previously reported to be associated with other key steps catalyzed by PSY, HY-b, and ZEP were not linked to specific alleles at the corresponding loci.KEYWORDS: Citrus; carotenoids; biosynthetic genes; allelic variability; phylogeny INTRODUCTIONCarotenoids are pigments common to all photosynthetic organisms. In pigment-protein complexes, they act as light sensors for photosynthesis but also prevent photo-oxidation induced by too strong light intensities. In horticμLtural crops, they play a major role in fruit, root, or tuber coloration and in nutritional quality. Indeed some of these micronutrients are precursors of vitamin A, an essential component of human and animal diets. Carotenoids may also play a role in chronic disease prevention (such as certain cancers), probably due to their antioxidant properties. The carotenoid biosynthetic pathway is now well established. Carotenoids are synthesized in plastids by nuclear-encoded enzymes. The immediate precursor of carotenoids (and also of gibberellins, plastoquinone, chlorophylls,phylloquinones, and tocopherols) is geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP). In light-grown plants, GGPP is mainly derivedcarotenoid, 15-cis-phytoene. Phytoene undergoes four desaturation reactions catalyzed by two enzymes, phytoene desaturase (PDS) and β-carotene desaturase (ZDS), which convert phytoene into the red-colored poly-cis-lycopene. Recently, Isaacson et al. and Park et al. isolated from tomato and Arabidopsis thaliana, respectively, the genes that encode the carotenoid isomerase (CRTISO) which, in turn, catalyzes the isomerization of poly-cis-carotenoids into all-trans-carotenoids. CRTISO acts on prolycopene to form all-trans lycopene, which undergoes cyclization reactions. Cyclization of lycopene is a branching point: one branch leads to β-carotene (β, β-carotene) and the other toα-carotene (β, ε-carotene). Lycopene β-cyclase (LCY-b) then converts lycopene intoβ-carotene in two steps, whereas the formation of α-carotene requires the action of two enzymes, lycopene ε- cyclase (LCY-e) and lycopene β-cyclase (LCY-b). α- carotene is converted into lutein by hydroxylations catalyzed by ε-carotene hydroxylase (HY-e) andβ-carotene hydroxylase (HY-b). Other xanthophylls are produced fromβ-carotene with hydroxylation reactions catalyzed by HY-b and epoxydation catalyzed by zeaxanthin epoxidase (ZEP). Most of the carotenoid biosynthetic genes have been cloned and sequenced in Citrus varieties . However, our knowledge of the complex regμLation of carotenoid biosynthesis in Citrus fruit is still limited. We need further information on the number of copies of these genes and on their allelic diversity in Citrus because these can influence carotenoid composition within the Citrus genus.Citrus fruit are among the richest sources of carotenoids. The fruit generally display a complex carotenoid structure, and 115 different carotenoids have been identified in Citrus fruit. The carotenoid richness of Citrus flesh depends on environmental conditions, particμLarly on growing conditions and on geographical origin . However the main factor influencing variability of caro tenoid quality in juice has been shown to be genetic diversity. Kato et al. showed that mandarin and orange juices accumμLated high levels of β-cryptoxanthin and violaxanthin, respectively, whereas mature lemon accumμLated extremely low levels of carotenoids. Goodner et al. demonstrated that mandarins, oranges, and their hybrids coμLd be clearly distinguished by their β-cryptoxanthin contents. Juices of red grapefruit contained two major carotenoids: lycopene and β-carotene. More recently, we conducted a broad study on the organization of the variability of carotenoid contents in different cμLtivated Citrus species in relation with the biosynthetic pathway . Qualitative analysis of presence or absence of the different compounds revealed three main clusters: (1) mandarins, sweet oranges, and sour oranges; (2) citrons, lemons, and limes; (3) pummelos and grapefruit. Our study also enabled identification of key steps in the diversification of the carotenoid profile. Synthesis of phytoene appeared as a limiting step for acid Citrus, while formation of β-carotene and R-carotene from lycopene were dramatically limited in cluster 3 (pummelos and grapefruit). Only varieties in cluster 1 were able to produce violaxanthin. In the same study , we concluded that there was a very strong correlation between the classification of Citrus species based on the presence or absence of carotenoids (below,this classification is also referred to as the organization of carotenoid diversity) and genetic diversity evaluated with biochemical or molecμLar markers such as isozymes or randomLy amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD). We also concluded that, at the interspecific level, the organization of the diversity of carotenoid composition was linked to the global evolution process of cμLtivated Citrus rather than to more recent mutation events or human selection processes. Indeed, at interspecific level, a correlation between phenotypic variability and genetic diversity is common and is generally associated with generalized gametic is common and is generally associated with generalized gametic disequilibrium resμLting from the history of cμLtivated Citrus. Thus from numerical taxonomy based on morphological traits or from analysis of molecμLar markers , all authors agreed on the existence of three basic taxa (C. reticμLata, mandarins; C. medica, citrons; and C. maxima, pummelos) whose differentiation was the resμLt of allopatric evolution. All other cμLtivated Citr us species (C. sinensis, sweet oranges; C. aurantium, sour oranges; C. paradisi, grapefruit; and C. limon, lemons) resμLted from hybridization events within this basic pool except for C. aurantifolia, which may be a hybrid between C. medica and C. micrantha .Our previous resμLts and data on Citrus evolution lead us to propose the hypothesis that the allelic variability supporting the organization of carotenoid diversity at interspecific level preceded events that resμLted in the creation of secondary speci es. Such molecμLar variability may have two different effects: on the one hand, non-silent substitutions in coding region affect the specific activity of corresponding enzymes of the biosynthetic pathway, and on the other hand, variations in untranslated regions affect transcriptional or post-transcriptional mechanisms.There is no available data on the allelic diversity of Citrus genes of the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway. The objective of this paper was to test the hypothesis that allelic variability of these genes partially determines phenotypic variability at the interspecific level. For this purpose, we analyzed the RFLPs around seven genes of the biosynthetic pathway of carotenoids (Psy, Pds, Zds, Lcy-b, Lcy-e, Hy-b, Zep) and the polymorphism of two SSR sequences found in Lcy-b and Hy-b genes in a representative set of varieties of the Citrus genus already analyzed for carotenoid constitution. Our study aimed to answer the following questions: (a) are those genes mono- or mμLtilocus, (b) is the polymorphism revealed by RFLP and SSR markers in agreement with the general history of cμLtivated Citrus thus permitting inferences about the phylogenetic origin of genes of the secondary species, and (c) is this polymorphism associated with phenotypic (carotenoid compound) variations.RESΜLTS AND DISCUSSIONGlobal Diversity of the Genotype Sample Observed by RFLP Analysis. RFLP analyses were performed using probes defined from expressed sequences of seven major genes of the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway . One or two restriction enzymes were used for each gene. None of these enzymes cut the cDNA probe sequence except HindIII for the Lcy-e gene. Intronic sequences and restriction sites on genomic sequences werescreened with PCR amplification using genomic DNA as template and with digestion of PCR products. The resμLts indicated the absence of an intronic sequence for Psy and Lcy-b fragments. The absence of intron in these two fragments was checked by cloning and sequencing corresponding genomic sequences (data not shown). Conversely, we found introns in Pds, Zds, Hy-b, Zep, and Lcy-e genomic sequences corresponding to RFLP probes. EcoRV did not cut the genomic sequences of Pds, Zds, Hy-b, Zep, and Lcy-e. In the same way, no BamHI restriction site was found in the genomic sequences of Pds, Zds, and Hy-b. Data relative to the diversity observed for the different genes are presented in Table 4. A total of 58 fragments were identified, six of them being monomorphic (present in all individuals). In the limited sample of the three basic taxa, only eight bands out of 58 coμLd not be observed. In the basic taxa, the mean number of bands per genotype observed was 24.7, 24.7, and 17 for C. reticμLata, C. maxima, and C. medica, respectively. It varies from 28 (C. limettioides) to 36 (C. aurantium) for the secondary species. The mean number of RFLP bands per individual was lower for basic taxa than for the group of secondary species. This resμLt indicates that secondary species are much more heterozygous than the basic ones for these genes, which is logical if we assume that the secondary species arise from hybridizations between the three basic taxa. Moreover C. medica appears to be the least heterozygous taxon for RFLP around the genes of the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway, as already shown with isozymes, RAPD, and SSR markers.The two lemons were close to the acid Citrus cluster and the three sour oranges close to the mandarins/sweet oranges cluster. This organization of genetic diversity based on the RFLP profiles obtained with seven genes of the carotenoid pathway is very similar to that previously obtained with neutral molecμLar markers such as genomic SSR as well as the organization obtained with qualitative carotenoid compositions. All these resμLts suggest that the observed RFLP and SSR fragments are good phylogenetic markers. It seems consistent with our basic hypothesis that major differentiation in the genes involved in the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway preceded the creation of the secondary hybrid species and thus that the allelic structure of these hybrid species can be reconstructed from alleles observed in the three basic taxa.Gene by Gene Analysis: The Psy Gene. For the Psy probe combined with EcoRV or BamHI restriction enzymes, five bands were identified for the two enzymes, and two to three bands were observed for each genotype. One of these bands was present in all individuals. There was no restriction site in the probe sequence. These resμLts lead us to believe that Psy is present at two loci, one where no polymorphism was found with the restriction enzymes used, and one that displayed polymorphism. The number of different profiles observed was six and four with EcoRV and BamHI, respectively, for a total of 10 different profiles among the 25 individuals .Two Psy genes have also been found in tomato, tobacco, maize, and rice . Conversely, only one Psy gene has been found in Arabidopsis thaliana and in pepper (Capsicum annuum), which also accumμLates carotenoids in fruit. According to Bartley and Scolnik, Psy1 was expressed in tomato fruit chromoplasts, while Psy2 was specific to leaf tissue. In the same way, in Poaceae (maize, rice), Gallagher et al. found that Psy gene was duplicated and that Psy1 and notPsy2 transcripts in endosperm correlated with endosperm ca rotenoid accumμLation. These resμLts underline the role of gene duplication and the importance of tissue-specific phytoene synthase in the regμLation of carotenoid accumμLation.All the polymorphic bands were present in the sample of the basic taxon genomes. Assuming the hypothesis that all these bands describe the polymorphism at the same locus for the Psy gene, we can conclude that we found allelic differentiation between the three basic taxa with three alleles for C. reticμLata, four for C. maxima, and o ne for C. medica.The alleles observed for the basic taxa then enabled us to determine the genotypes of all the other species. The presumed genotypes for the Psy polymorphic locus are given in Table 7. Sweet oranges and grapefruit were heterozygous with one mandarin and one pummelo allele. Sour oranges were heterozygous; they shared the same mandarin allele with sweet oranges but had a different pummelo allele. Clementine was heterozygous with two mandarin alleles; one shared with sweet oranges and one with “Willow leaf” mandarin. “Meyer” lemon was heterozygous, with the mandarin allele also found in sweet oranges, and the citron allele. “Eureka”lemon was also heterozygous with the same pummelo allele as sour oranges and the citron allele. The other acid Citrus were homozygous for the citron allele.The Pds Gen. For the Pds probe combined with EcoRV, six different fragments were observed. One was common to all individuals. The number of fragments per individual was two or three. ResμLts for Pds led us to bel ieve that this gene is present at two loci, one where no polymorphism was found with EcoRV restriction, and one displaying polymorphism. Conversely, studies on Arabidopsis, tomato, maize, and rice showed that Pds was a single copy gene. However, a previous study on Citrus suggests that Pds is present as a low-copy gene family in the Citrus genome, which is in agreement with our findings.The Zds Gene. The Zds profiles were complex. Nine and five fragments were observed with EcoRV and BamHI restriction, respectively. For both enzymes, one fragment was common to all individuals. The number of fragments per individual ranged from two to six for EcoRV and three to five for BamHI. There was no restriction site in the probe sequence. It can be assumed that several copies (at least three) of the Zds gene are present in the Citrus genome with polymorphism for at least two of them. In Arabidopsis, maize, and rice, like Pds, Zds was a single-copy gene .In these conditions and in the absence of analysis of controlled progenies, we are unable to conduct genetic analysis of profiles. However it appears that some bands differentiated the basic taxa: one for mandarins, one for pummelos, and one for citrons with EcoRV restriction and one for pummelos and one for citrons with BamHI restriction. Two bands out of the nine obtained with EcoRV were not observed in the samples of basic taxa. One was rare and only observed in “Rangpur” lime. The other was found in sour oranges, “V olkamer” lemon,and “Palestine sweet” lime suggesting a common ancestor for these three genotypes.This is in agreement with the assumption of Nicolosi et al. that “V olkamer” lemon resμLts from a complex hybrid combination with C. aurantium as one parent. It will benecessary to extend the analysis of the basic taxa to conclude whether these specific bands are present in the diversity of these taxa or resμLt from mutations after the formation of the secondary species.The Lcy-b Gene with RFLP Analysis.After restriction with EcoRV and hybridization with the Lcy-b probe, we obtained simple profiles with a total of four fragments. One to two fragments were observed for each individual, and seven profiles were differentiated among the 25 genotypes. These resμLts provide evidence that Lcy-b is present at a single locus in the haploid Citrus genome. Two lycopene β-cyclases encoded by two genes have been identified in tomato. The B gene encoded a novel type of lycopene β-cyclase whose sequence was similar to capsanthin-capsorubin synthase. The B gene expressed at a high level in βmutants was responsible for strong accumμLation ofβ-carotene in fruit, while in wild-type tomatoes, B was expressed at a low level.The Lcy-b Gene with SSR Analysis. Four bands were detected at locus 1210 (Lcy-b gene). One or two bands were detected per variety confirming that this gene is mono locus. Six different profiles were observed among the 25 genotypes. As with RFLP analysis, no intrataxon molecμLar polymorphism was found within C. Paradisi, C. Sinensis, and C. Aurantium.Taken together, the information obtained from RFLP and SSR analyses enabled us to identify a complete differentiation among the three basic taxon samples. Each of these taxons displayed two alleles for the analyzed sample. An additional allele was identified for “Mexican” lime. The profiles for all secondary species can be reconstructed from these alleles. Deduced genetic structure is given in. Sweet oranges and clementine were heterozygous with one mandarin and one pummelo allele. Sour oranges were also heterozygous sharing the same mandarin allele as sweet oranges but with another pummelo allele. Grapefruit were heterozygous with two pummelo alleles. All the acid secondary species were heterozygous, having one allele from citrons and the other one from mandarins ex cept for “Mexican” lime, which had a specific allele.柑桔属类胡萝卜素生物合成途径中七个基因拷贝数目及遗传多样性的分析摘要：本文的首要目标是分析类胡萝卜素生物合成相关等位基因在发生变异柑橘属类胡萝卜素组分种间差异的潜在作用；第二个目标是确定这些基因的拷贝数。
外文参考文献(带中文翻译)
外文资料原文涂敏之会计学 8051208076Title:Future of SME finance（/docs/pos_papers/2004/041027_SME-finance_final.do c）Background – the environment for SME finance has changedFuture economic recovery will depend on the possibility of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to exploit their potential for growth and employment creation.SMEs make a major contribution to growth and employment in the EU and are at the heart of the Lisbon Strategy, whose main objective is to turn Europe into the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world. However, the ability of SMEs to grow depends highly on their potential to invest in restructuring, innovation and qualification. All of these investments need capital and therefore access to finance.Against this background the consistently repeated complaint of SMEs about their problems regarding access to finance is a highly relevant constraint that endangers the economic recovery of Europe.Changes in the finance sector influence the behavior of credit institutes towards Crafts, Trades and SMEs. Recent and ongoing developments in the banking sector add to the concerns of SMEs and will further endanger their access to finance. The main changes in the banking sector which influence SME finance are:•Globalization and internationalization have increased the competition and the profit orientation in the sector;•worsening of the economic situations in some institutes (burst of the ITC bubble, insolvencies) strengthen the focus on profitability further;•Mergers and restructuring created larger structures and many local branches, which had direct and personalized contacts with small enterprises, were closed;•up-coming implementation of new capital adequacy rules (Basel II) will also change SME business of the credit sector and will increase its administrative costs;•Stricter interpretation of State-Aide Rules by the European Commission eliminates the support of banks by public guarantees; many of the effected banks are very active in SME finance.All these changes result in a higher sensitivity for risks and profits in the finance sector.The changes in the finance sector affect the accessibility of SMEs to finance.Higher risk awareness in the credit sector, a stronger focus on profitability and the ongoing restructuring in the finance sector change the framework for SME finance and influence the accessibility of SMEs to finance. The most important changes are: •In order to make the higher risk awareness operational, the credit sector introduces new rating systems and instruments for credit scoring;•Risk assessment of SMEs by banks will force the enterprises to present more and better quality information on their businesses;•Banks will try to pass through their additional costs for implementing and running the new capital regulations (Basel II) to their business clients;•due to the increase of competition on interest rates, the bank sector demands more and higher fees for its services (administration of accounts, payments systems, etc.), which are not only additional costs for SMEs but also limit their liquidity;•Small enterprises will lose their personal relationship with decision-makers in local branches –the credit application process will become more formal and anonymous and will probably lose longer;•the credit sector will lose more and more its “public function” to provide access to finance for a wide range of economic actors, which it has in a number of countries, in order to support and facilitate economic growth; the profitability of lending becomes the main focus of private credit institutions.All of these developments will make access to finance for SMEs even more difficult and / or will increase the cost of external finance. Business start-ups and SMEs, which want to enter new markets, may especially suffer from shortages regarding finance. A European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs would have allowed at least more transparency in the relations between Banks and SMEs and UEAPME regrets that the bank sector was not able to agree on such a commitment.Towards an encompassing policy approach to improve the access of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to financeAll analyses show that credits and loans will stay the main source of finance for the SME sector in Europe. Access to finance was always a main concern for SMEs,but the recent developments in the finance sector worsen the situation even more. Shortage of finance is already a relevant factor, which hinders economic recovery in Europe. Many SMEs are not able to finance their needs for investment.Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to strengthen their efforts to improve the framework conditions for SME finance. Europe’s Crafts, Trades and SMEs ask for an encompassing policy approach, which includes not only the conditions for SMEs’ access to lending, but will also strengthen their capacity for internal finance and their access to external risk capital.From UEAPM E’s point of view such an encompassing approach should be based on three guiding principles:•Risk-sharing between private investors, financial institutes, SMEs and public sector;•Increase of transparency of SMEs towards their external investors and lenders;•improving the regulatory environment for SME finance.Based on these principles and against the background of the changing environment for SME finance, UEAPME proposes policy measures in the following areas:1. New Capital Requirement Directive: SME friendly implementation of Basel IIDue to intensive lobbying activities, UEAPME, together with other Business Associations in Europe, has achieved some improvements in favour of SMEs regarding the new Basel Agreement on regulatory capital (Basel II). The final agreement from the Basel Committee contains a much more realistic approach toward the real risk situation of SME lending for the finance market and will allow the necessary room for adaptations, which respect the different regional traditions and institutional structures.However, the new regulatory system will influence the relations between Banks and SMEs and it will depend very much on the way it will be implemented into European law, whether Basel II becomes burdensome for SMEs and if it will reduce access to finance for them.The new Capital Accord form the Basel Committee gives the financial market authorities and herewith the European Institutions, a lot of flexibility. In about 70areas they have room to adapt the Accord to their specific needs when implementing it into EU law. Some of them will have important effects on the costs and the accessibility of finance for SMEs.UEAPME expects therefore from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament:•The implementation of the new Capital Requirement Directive will be costly for the Finance Sector (up to 30 Billion Euro till 2006) and its clients will have to pay for it. Therefore, the implementation – especially for smaller banks, which are often very active in SME finance –has to be carried out with as little administrative burdensome as possible (reporting obligations, statistics, etc.).•The European Regulators must recognize traditional instruments for collaterals (guarantees, etc.) as far as possible.•The European Commission and later the Member States should take over the recommendations from the European Parliament with regard to granularity, access to retail portfolio, maturity, partial use, adaptation of thresholds, etc., which will ease the burden on SME finance.2. SMEs need transparent rating proceduresDue to higher risk awareness of the finance sector and the needs of Basel II, many SMEs will be confronted for the first time with internal rating procedures or credit scoring systems by their banks. The bank will require more and better quality information from their clients and will assess them in a new way. Both up-coming developments are already causing increasing uncertainty amongst SMEs.In order to reduce this uncertainty and to allow SMEs to understand the principles of the new risk assessment, UEAPME demands transparent rating procedures –rating procedures may not become a “Black Box” for SMEs:•The bank should communicate the relevant criteria affecting the rating of SMEs.•The bank should inform SMEs about its assessment in order to allow SMEs to improve.The negotiations on a European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs , which would have included a self-commitment for transparent rating procedures by Banks, failed. Therefore, UEAPME expects from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament support for:•binding rules in the framework of the new Capital Adequacy Directive, which ensure the transparency of rating procedures and credit scoring systems for SMEs;•Elaboration of national Codes of Conduct in order to improve the relations between Banks and SMEs and to support the adaptation of SMEs to the new financial environment.3. SMEs need an extension of credit guarantee systems with a special focus on Micro-LendingBusiness start-ups, the transfer of businesses and innovative fast growth SMEs also depended in the past very often on public support to get access to finance. Increasing risk awareness by banks and the stricter interpretation of State Aid Rules will further increase the need for public support.Already now, there are credit guarantee schemes in many countries on the limit of their capacity and too many investment projects cannot be realized by SMEs.Experiences show that Public money, spent for supporting credit guarantees systems, is a very efficient instrument and has a much higher multiplying effect than other instruments. One Euro form the European Investment Funds can stimulate 30 Euro investments in SMEs (for venture capital funds the relation is only 1:2).Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to support:•The extension of funds for national credit guarantees schemes in the framework of the new Multi-Annual Programmed for Enterprises;•The development of new instruments for securitizations of SME portfolios;•The recognition of existing and well functioning credit guarantees schemes as collateral;•More flexibility within the European Instruments, because of national differences in the situation of SME finance;•The development of credit guarantees schemes in the new Member States;•The development of an SBIC-like scheme in the Member States to close the equity gap (0.2 – 2.5 Mio Euro, according to the expert meeting on PACE on April 27 in Luxemburg).•the development of a financial support scheme to encourage the internalizations of SMEs (currently there is no scheme available at EU level: termination of JOP, fading out of JEV).4. SMEs need company and income taxation systems, which strengthen their capacity for self-financingMany EU Member States have company and income taxation systems with negative incentives to build-up capital within the company by re-investing their profits. This is especially true for companies, which have to pay income taxes. Already in the past tax-regimes was one of the reasons for the higher dependence of Europe’s SMEs on bank lending. In future, the result of rating will also depend on the amount of capital in the company; the high dependence on lending will influence the access to lending. This is a vicious cycle, which has to be broken.Even though company and income taxation falls under the competence of Member States, UEAPME asks the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to publicly support tax-reforms, which will strengthen the capacity of Crafts, Trades and SME for self-financing. Thereby, a special focus on non-corporate companies is needed.5. Risk Capital – equity financingExternal equity financing does not have a real tradition in the SME sector. On the one hand, small enterprises and family business in general have traditionally not been very open towards external equity financing and are not used to informing transparently about their business.On the other hand, many investors of venture capital and similar forms of equity finance are very reluctant regarding investing their funds in smaller companies, which is more costly than investing bigger amounts in larger companies. Furthermore it is much more difficult to set out of such investments in smaller companies.Even though equity financing will never become the main source of financing for SMEs, it is an important instrument for highly innovative start-ups and fast growing companies and it has therefore to be further developed. UEAPME sees three pillars for such an approach where policy support is needed:Availability of venture capital•The Member States should review their taxation systems in order to create incentives to invest private money in all forms of venture capital.•Guarantee instruments for equity financing should be further developed.Improve the conditions for investing venture capital into SMEs•The development of secondary markets for venture capital investments in SMEs should be supported.•Accounting Standards for SMEs should be revised in order to ease transparent exchange of information between investor and owner-manager.Owner-managers must become more aware about the need for transparency towards investors•SME owners will have to realise that in future access to external finance (venture capital or lending) will depend much more on a transparent and open exchange of information about the situation and the perspectives of their companies.•In order to fulfil the new needs for transparency, SMEs will have to use new information instruments (business plans, financial reporting, etc.) and new management instruments (risk-management, financial management, etc.).外文资料翻译涂敏之会计学 8051208076题目：未来的中小企业融资背景：中小企业融资已经改变未来的经济复苏将取决于能否工艺品，贸易和中小企业利用其潜在的增长和创造就业。
外文翻译资料及译文
附录C：外文翻译资料Article Source：Business & Commercial Aviation, Nov 20, 2000. 5-87-88 Interactive Electronic Technical Manuals Electronic publications can increase the efficiency of your digital aircraft and analogtechnicians.Benoff, DaveComputerized technical manuals are silently revolutionizing the aircraft maintenance industry by helping the technician isolate problems quickly, and in the process reduce downtime and costs by more than 10 percent.These electronic publications can reduce the numerous volumes of maintenance manuals, microfiche and work cards that are used to maintain engines, airframes, avionics and their associated components."As compared with the paper manuals, electronic publications give us greater detail and reduced research times," said Chuck Fredrickson, general manager of Mercury Air Center in Fort Wayne, Ind.With all the advances in computer hardware and software technologies, such as high quality digital multimedia, hypertext and the capability to store and transmit digital multimedia via CD-ROMs/ networks, technical publication companies have found an effective, cost-efficient method to disseminate data to technicians.The solution for many operators and OEMs is to take advantage of today's technology in the form of Electronic Technical Manuals (ETM) or Interactive Technical Manuals (IETM). An ETM is any technical manual prepared in digital format that has the ability to be displayed using any electronic hardware media. The difference between the types of ETM/IETMs is the embedded functionality and implementation of the data."The only drawback we had to using ETMs was getting enough computers to meet our technicians' demand," said Walter Berchtold, vice president of maintenance at Jet Aviation's West Palm Beach, Fla., facility.A growing concern is the cost to print paper publications. In an effort to reduce costs, some aircraft manufacturers are offering incentives for owners to switch from paper to electronic publications. With an average printing cost of around 10 cents per page, a typical volume of a paper technical manual can cost the manufacturer over $800 for each copy. When producing a publication electronically, average production costs for a complete set of aircraft manuals are approximately $20 per copy. It is not hard to see the cost advantages of electronic publications.Another advantage of ETMs is the ease of updating information. With a paper copy, the manufacturer has to reprint the revised pages and mail copies to all the owners. When updates are necessary for an electronic manual, changes can either be e-mailed to theowners or downloaded from the manufacturer's Web site.So why haven't more flight departments converted their publications to ETM/IETMs? The answer lies in convincing technicians that electronic publications can increase their efficiency."We had an initial learning curve when the technicians switched over, but now that they are familiar with the software they never want to go back to paper," said Fredrickson.A large majority of corporate technicians also said that while they like the concept of having a tool that aids the troubleshooting process, they are fearful to give up all of their marked-up paper manuals.In 1987, a human factors study was conducted by the U.S. government to compare technician troubleshooting effectiveness, between paper and electronic methodology, and included expert troubleshooting procedures with guidance through the events. Results of the project indicated that technicians using electronic media took less than half the time to complete their tasks than those using the paper method, and technicians using the electronic method accomplished 65 percent more in that reduced time.The report also noted that new technicians using the electronic technical manuals were 12-percent more efficient than the older, more experienced technicians. (Novices using paper took 15 percent longer than the experts.)It is interesting that 90 percent of the technicians who used the electronic manuals said they preferred them to the paper versions. This proved to the industry that with proper training, the older technicians could easily transition from paper to electronic media.Electronic publications are not a new concept, although how they are applied today is. "Research over the last 20 years has provided a solid foundation for today's IETM implementation," said Joseph Fuller of the U.S. Naval Surface Warfare Center. "IETMs such as those for the Apache, Comanche, F-22, JSTAR and V-22 have progressed from concept to military and commercial implementation."In the late 1970s, the U.S. military investigated the feasibility of converting existing paper and microfilm. The Navy Technical Information Presentation System (NTIPS) and the Air Force Computer- based Maintenance Aid System (CMAS) were implemented with significant cost savings.The report stated that transition to electronic publications resulted in reductions in corrective maintenance time, fewer false removals of good components, more accurate and complete maintenance data collection reports, reduction in training requirements and reduced system downtime.The problem that the military encountered was ETMs were created in multiple levels of complexity with little to no standardization. Options for publications range from simple page-turning programs to full-functioning automated databases.This resulted in the classification of ETMs so that the best type of electronic publication could be selected for the proper application.Choosing a LevelWith all of the OEM and second- and third-party electronic publications that are available it is important that you choose the application level that is appropriate for your operation.John J. Miller, BAE Systems' manager of electronic publications, told B/CAthat "When choosing the level of an ETM/IETM, things like complexity of the aircraft and its systems, ease of use, currency of data and commonality of data should be the deciding factors; and, of course, price. If operational and support costs are reduced when you purchase a full-functioning IETM, then you should purchase the better system."Miller is an expert on the production, sustainment and emerging technologies associated with electronic publications, and was the manager of publications for Boeing in Philadelphia.Electronic publications are classified in one of five categories. A Class 1 publication is a basic electronic "page turner" that allows you to view the maintenance manual as it was printed. With a Class 2 publication all the original text of the manual is viewed as one continuous page with no page breaks. In Class 3, 4 and 5 publications the maintenance manual is viewed on a computer in a frame-based environment with increasing options as the class changes. (See sidebar.)Choosing the appropriate ETM for your operation is typically limited to whatever is being offered on the market, but since 1991 human factors reports state the demand has increased and, therefore, options are expected to follow.ETM/IETM ProvidersCompanies that create ETM/IETMs are classified as either OEM or second party provider. Class 1, 3 and 4 ETM/IETMs are the most commonly used electronic publications for business and commercial operators and costs can range anywhere from $100 to $3,000 for each ETM/ IETM. The following are just a few examples ofETM/IETMs that are available on the market.Dassault Falcon Jet offers operatorsof the Falcon 50/50EX, 900/900EX and 2000 a Class 4 IETM called the Falcon Integrated Electronic Library by Dassault (FIELD). Produced in conjunction with Sogitec Industries in Suresnes Cedex, France, the electronic publication contains service documentation, basic wiring, recommended maintenance and TBO schedules, maintenance manual, tools manual, service bulletins, maintenance and repair manual, and avionics manual.The FIELD software allows the user to view the procedures and hot- link directly to the Illustrated parts catalog. The software also enables the user to generate discrepancy forms, quotation sheets, annotations in the manual and specific preferences for each user.BAE's Miller said most of the IETM presentation systems have features called "Technical Notes." If a user of the electronic publication notices a discrepancy or needs to annotate the manual for future troubleshooting, the user can add a Tech Note (an electronic mark-up) to the step or procedure and save it to the base document. The next time that or another user is in the procedure, clicking on the tech note icon launches a pop-up screen displaying the previous technician's comments. The same electronic transfer of tech notes can be sent to other devices by using either a docking station or through a network server. In addition, systems also can use "personal notes" similar to technical notes that are assigned ID codes that only the authoring technician can access.Requirements for the FIELD software include the minimum of a 16X CD-ROM drive,Pentium II 200 MHz computer, Windows 95, Internet Explorer 4 SP 1 and Database Access V3.5 or higher.Raytheon offers owners of Beech and Hawker aircraft a Class 4 IETM called Raytheon Electronic Publication Systems (REPS). The REPS software links the frame-based procedures with the parts catalog using a single CD-ROM.Raytheon Aircraft Technical Publications said other in- production Raytheon aircraft manual sets will be converted to the REPS format, with the goal of having all of them available by 2001. In addition Raytheon offers select Component Maintenance Manuals (CMM). The Class 1 ETM is a stand-alone "page-turner" electronic manual that utilizes the PDF format of Adobe Acrobat.Other manufacturers including Bombardier, Cessna and Gulfstream offer operators similar online and PDF documentation using a customer- accessed Web account.Boeing is one manufacturer that has developed an onboard Class 5 IETM. Called the Computerized Fault Reporting System (CFRS), it has replaced the F-15 U.S. Air Force Fault Reporting Manuals. Technologies that are currently being applied to Boeing's military system are expected to eventually become a part of the corporate environment.The CFRS system determines re-portable faults by analyzing information entered during a comprehensive aircrew debrief along with electronically recovered maintenance data from the Data Transfer Module (DTM). After debrief the technicians can review aircraft faults and schedule maintenance work to be performed. The maintenance task is assigned a Job Control Number (JCN) and is forwarded electronically to the correct work center or shop. Appropriate information is provided to the Air Force's Core Automated Maintenance System (CAMS).When a fault is reported by pilot debrief, certain aircraft systems have the fault isolation procedural data on a Portable Maintenance Aid (PMA). The JCN is selected on a hardened laptop with a wireless Local Area Network (LAN) connection to the CFRS LAN infrastructure. The Digital Wiring Data System (DWDS) displays aircraft wiring diagrams to the maintenance technician for wiring fault isolation. On completion of maintenance, the data collected is provided to the Air Force, Boeing and vendors for system analysis.Third party IETM developers such as BAE Systems and Dayton T. Brown offer OEMs the ability to subcontract out the development of Class 1 through 5 ETM/IETMs. For example, Advantext, Inc. offers PDF and IPDF Class 1 ETMs for manufacturers such as Piper and Bell Helicopters. Technical publications that are available include maintenance manuals, parts catalogs, service bulletins, wiring diagrams, service letters and interactive parts ordering forms.The difference between the PDF and IPDF version is that the IPDF version has the ability to search for text and include hyperlinks. A Class 1 ETM, when printed, is an exact reproduction of the OEM manuals, including any misspellings or errors. Minimum requirements for the Advantext technical publications is a 486 processor, 16 MB RAM with 14 MB of free hard disk space and a 4X CD-ROM or better.Aircraft Technical Publishers (ATP) offers Class 1, 2 and 3 ETM/ IETMsfor the Beechjet 400/400A; King Air 300/ 350, 200 and 90; Learjet 23/24/25/28/29/35/36/55; Socata TB9/10/20/21 and TBM 700A; Sabreliner 265-65, -70 and -80; andBeech 1900. The libraries can include maintenance manuals, Illustrated parts bulletins, wiring manuals, Airworthiness Directives, Service Bulletins, component maintenance manuals and structural maintenance manuals. System minimum requirements are Pentium 133 MHz, Windows 95 with 16 MB RAM, 25 MB free hard disk space and a 4X CD-ROM or better.Additional providers such as Galaxy Scientific are providing ETM/ IETMs to the FAA. This Class 2, 3 and 4 publication browser is used to store, display and edit documentation for the Human Factors Section of the administration."Clearly IETMs have moved from research to reality," said Fuller, and the future looks to hold more promise.The Future of Tech PubsThe use of ETM/IETMs on laptop and desktop computers has led research and development corporations to investigate the human interface options to the computer. Elements that affect how a technician can interface with a computer are the work environment, economics and ease of use. Organizations such as the Office of Naval Research have focused their efforts on the following needs of technicians: -- Adaptability to the environment.-- Ease of use.-- Improved presentation of complex system relationship.-- Maximum reuse and distribution of engineering data.-- Intelligent data access.With these factors in mind, exploratory development has begun in the areas of computer vision, augmented reality display and speech recognition.Computer vision can be created using visual feedback from a head- mounted camera. The camera identifies the relative position and orientation of an object in an observed scene, and the object is used to correlate the object with a three-dimensional model. In order for a computer vision scenario to work, engineering data has to be provided through visually compatible software.When systems such as Sogitech's View Tech electronic publication browser and Dassault Systemes SA's Enovia are combined, a virtual 3D model is generated.The digital mockup allows the engineering information to directly update the technical publication information. If a system such as CATIA could be integrated into a Video Reference System (VRS), then it could be possible that a technician would point the camera to the aircraft component, the digital model identifies the component and the IETM automatically displays the appropriate information.This example of artificial intelligence is already under development at companies like Boeing and Dassault. An augmented reality display is a concept where visual cues are presented to users on a head-mounted, see-through display system.The cues are presented to the technician based on the identification of components on a 3D model and correlation with the observed screen. The cues are then presented as stereoscopic images projected onto the object in the observed scene.In addition a "Private Eye" system could provide a miniature display of the maintenance procedure that is provided from a palm- size computer. Limited success hascurrently been seen in similar systems for the disabled. The user of a Private Eye system can look at the object selected and navigate without ever having to touch the computer. Drawbacks from this type of system are mental and eye fatigue, and spatial disorientation.Out of all the technologies, speech recognition has developed into an almost usable and effective system. The progression through maintenance procedures is driven by speaker-independent recognition. A state engine controls navigation, and launches audio responses and visual cues to the user. Voice recognition software is available, although set up and use has not been extremely successful.Looking at other industries, industrial manufacturing has already started using "Palm Pilot" personal digital assistants (PDAs) to aid technicians in troubleshooting. These devices allow the technician to have the complete publication beside them when they are in tight spaces. "It would be nice to take the electronic publications into the aircraft, so we are not constantly going back to the work station to print out additional information," said Jet Aviation's Berchtold.With all the advantages that a ETM/ IETM offers it should be noted that electronic publications are not the right solution all of the time, just as CBT is not the right solution for training in every situation. Only you can determine if electronic publications meet your needs, and most technical publication providers offer demo copies for your review. B/CA IllustrationPhoto: Photograph: BAE Systems' Christine Gill prepares a maintenance manual for SGML conversion BAE Systems; Photograph: Galaxy Scientific provides the FAA's human factors group with online IETM support.; Photograph: Raytheon's Class 4 IETM "REPS" allows a user to see text and diagrams simultaneously with hotlinks to illustrated parts catalogs.外文翻译资料译文部分文章出处:民航商业杂志，2000-11-20,5-87-88交互式电子技术手册的电子出版物可以提高数字飞机和模拟技术的效率。
无线电接收机英文资料及中文翻外文翻译
英文资料及中文翻译Radio ReceiverA block diagram for a modern radio receiver is shown in Fig..2-4.The input signals to this radio are amplitude-modulated radio waves. The basic electronic circuits include: antenna ,tuner, mixer, local oscillator ,IF amplifier, audio detector, AF amplifier, loudspeaker, and power supply.Fig.2-4 A Block Diagram For Modern Radio ReceiverAny antenna system capable of radiating electrical energy is also able to abstract energy from a passing radio wave. Since every wave passing the receiving antenna. Induces its own voltage in the antenna conductor, it is necessary that the receiving equipment be capable of separating the desired signal from the unwanted signals that are also inducing voltages in the antenna. This separation is made on the basis of the difference in frequency between transmitting stations and is carried out by the use of resonant circuits, which can be made to discriminate very strongly in favor of a particular frequency. It has already been pointed that, by making antenna circuit resonant to a particular frequency, the energy abstracted from radio waves of that frequency will be much greater than the energy from waves of other frequencies; this alone gives a certain amount of separation between signals. Still greater selective action can be obtained by the use of additional suitably adjusted resonant circuits located somewhere in the receiver in such a way as to reject all but the desired signal. The ability to discriminate between radio waves of different frequencies is called selectivity and the process of adjusting circuits to resonance with the frequency of a desired signal is spoken of as tuning.Although intelligible radio signals have been received from the stations thousands of miles distant, using only the energy abstracted from the radio wave by the receiving antenna much more satisfactory reception can be obtained if the received energy isamplified. This amplification may be applied to the radio-frequency currents before detection, in which case it is called radio-frequency amplification or it may be applied to the rectified currents after detection, in which case it is called audio-frequency amplification. The use of amplification makes possible the satisfactory reception of signals from waves that would otherwise be too weak to give an audible response.The process by which the signal being transmitted is reproduced from the radio-frequency currents present at the receiver is called detection, or sometimes demodulation. Where the intelligence is transmitted by varying the amplitude of the radiated wave, detection is accomplished by rectifying the radio frequency current. The rectified current thus produced varies in accordance with the signal originally modulated on the wave irradiated at the transmitter and so reproduces the desired signal. Thus, when the modulated wave is rectified, the resulting current is seen to have an average value that varies in accordance with the amplitude of the original signal.Receiver circuit are made up a of a number of stages. A stage is a single transistor connected to components which provide operating voltages and currents and also signal voltages and currents. Each stage has its input circuit from which the signal comes in and its output circuit from which the signal, usually amplified, goes out. When one stage follows another, the output circuit of the first feeds the signal to the second. And so the signal is amplified, stage by stage, until it strong enough to operate the loudspeaker.Radio WavesRadio Waves are a member of the electromagnetic of waves. They are energy-carriers which trave l at the speed of light (ν), their frequency(ƒ) and wavelength(λ) being related , as for any wave motion, by the equationν=ƒ* λwhere ν=c=3.0*108 m/s in a vacuum (or air). If λ=300m, then ƒ=ν/λ=3.0*108 /(3.0*10 2)=106Hz=1MHz. The smaller λis, the larger ƒ.Radio Waves can be described either by their frequency or their wavelength. But the former is more fundamental since, unlike λ (and ν ), f does not change when the waves travel form one medium to another.Radio Waves can travel form a transmitting aerial in one or more of three different ways.Surface or ground wave.. This travels along a ground, the curvature of the earth’s surface. Its range is limited mainly by the extent to which energy is absorbed form it by the ground. Poor conductors such as sand absorb more strongly that water, and the higher thefrequency the greater the absorption. The range may be about 1500km at low frequencies (long wave, but much less for v. h. f.).Sky wave. This travels skywards and, if it is below a certain critical frequency (typically 30MHz), is returned to earth by the ionosphere. This consists of layers of air molecules (the D,E and F layer), stretching form about 80km above the earth to 50km, which have become positively charged through the remova l of electrons by the sun’s ultraviolet radiation. On striking the earth the sky wave bounces back to the ionosphere where it is again gradually refracted and returned earthwards as if by 'reflection '. This continues until it is completely attenuated.Space wave. For v. h . f., u. h. f. and microwave signals, only the space wave, giving line-of sight transmission, is effective. A range of up to 150km is possible on earth if the transmitting aerial is on high ground and there are no intervening obstacles such as hills, buildings or trees.OscillatorsElectrical oscillators are widely used in radio and television transmitters and receivers, in signal generators, oscilloscopes and computers, to produce A.C. with waveforms which may be sinusoidal, square, sawtooth etc. and with frequencies from a few hertz up to millions of hertz.Oscillatory circuitWhen a capacitor discharges through an inductor in a circuit of low resistance, an A.C. flows. The circuit is said to oscillate at its natural frequency which, as we will show shortly, equals LC 21, i.e. its resonant frequency f0. Electrical resonance thus occurs when the applied frequency equals the natural frequency as it does in a mechanical system..In Fig,2-2(a) , a charged capacitor C is shown connected across a coil L.C immediately starts to discharge, current flows and a magnetic field is created which induces an e. m. f. in L. This e. m. f. opposes the current . When C is completely discharged the electrical energy originally stored in the electric field between its plates has been transferred to the magnetic field around L.By the time the magnetic field has collapsed, the energy is again stored in C. Once more C starts to discharge but current now flows in the opposite direction, creating a magnetic field of opposite polarity. When this field has decayed, C is again charged with its upper plate positive and the same cycle is repeated.In the absence of resistance in any part of the circuit , an undamped sinusoidal A.C. would be obtained. In practice , energy is gradually dissipated by resistance as heat and a damped oscillation is produced.OscillatorAs the resistance of an LC circuit increases, the oscillation decay more quickly. To obtain undamped oscillations, energy has to be fed into the LC circuit in phase with its natural oscillations to compensate for the energy dissipated in the resistance of the circuit. This can be done with the help of a transistor in actual oscillators.A simple tuned oscillator is shown in Fig.2-2(b). The LC circuit is connected in the collector circuit (as the load) and oscillations start in it when the supply is switched on . The frequency of the oscillations is given by, i.e. then natural frequency of the LC circuit. The transistor merely ensures that energy is fed back at the correct instant from the battery. The current bias for the base of the transistor is obtained through R .AMPLIFIERIntroductionThe term amplifier is very generic. In general, the purpose of an amplifier is to take an input signal and make it stronger (or in more technically correct terms, increase its amplitude). Amplifiers find application in all kinds of electronic devices designed to perform any number of functions. There are many different types of amplifiers, each with a specific purpose in mind. For example, a radio transmitter uses an RF Amplifier (RF stands for Radio Frequency); such an amplifier is designed to amplify a signal so that it may drive an antenna. This article will focus on audio power amplifiers. Audio power amplifiers are those amplifiers which are designed to drive loudspeakers. Specifically, this discussion will focus on audio power amplifiers intended for DJ and sound reinforcement use. Much of the material presented also applies to amplifiers intended for home stereo system use.The purpose of a power amplifier, in very simple terms, is to take a signal from a source device (in a DJ system the signal typically comes from a preamplifier or signal processor) and make it suitable for driving a loudspeaker. Ideally, the ONLY thing different between the input signal and the output signal is the strength of the signal. In mathematical terms, if the input signal is denoted as S, the output of a perfect amplifier is X*S, where Xis a constant (a fixed number). The "*" symbol means? Multiplied by".This being the real world, no amplifier does exactly the ideal, but many do a very good job if they are operated within their advertised power ratings. The output of all amplifiers contain additional signal components that are not present in the input signal; these additional (and unwanted)characteristics may be lumped together and are generally known as distortion. There are many types of distortion; however the two most common types are known as harmonic distortion and inter modulation distortion. In addition to the "garbage" traditionally known as distortion, all amplifiers generate a certain amount of noise (this can be heard as a background "hiss" when no music is playing). More on these later.All power amplifiers have a power rating, the units of power are called watts. The power rating of an amplifier may be stated for various load impedances; the units for load impedance are ohms. The most common load impedances are 8 ohms, 4 ohms, and 2 ohms (if you have an old vacuum tube amplifier the load impedances are more likely to be32 ohms, 16 ohms, 8 ohms, and maybe 4 ohms). The power output of a modern amplifier is usually higher when lower impedance loads (speakers) are used (but as we shall see later this is not necessarily better).In the early days, power amplifiers used devices called vacuum tubes (referred to simply as "tubes" from here on). Tubes are seldom used in amplifiers intended for DJ use (however tube amplifiers have a loyal following with musicians and hi-fi enthusiasts). Modern amplifiers almost always use transistors (instead of tubes); in the late 60's and early 70's, the term "solid state" was used (and often engraved on the front panel as a "buzz word"). The signal path in a tube amplifier undergoes similar processing as the signal in a transistor amp, however the devices and voltages are quite different. Tubes are generally "high voltage low current" devices, where transistors are the opposite ("low voltage high current"). Tube amplifiers are generally not very efficient and tend to generate a lot of heat. One of the biggest differences between a tube amplifier and a transistor amplifier is that an audio output transformer is almost always required in a tube amplifier (this is because the output impedance of a tube circuit is far too high to properly interface directly to a loudspeaker). High quality audio output transformers are difficult to design, and tend to be large, heavy, and expensive. Transistor amplifiers have numerous practical advantages as compared with tube amplifiers: they tend to be more efficient, smaller, more rugged (physically), no audio output transformer is required, and transistors do not require periodic replacement (unless you continually abuse them). Contrary to what many peoplebelieve, a well designed tube amplifier can have excellent sound (many high end hi-fi enthusiasts swear by them). Some people claim that tube amplifiers have their own particular "sound". This "sound" is a result of the way tubes behave when approaching their output limits (clipping). A few big advantages that tube amplifiers have were necessarily given up when amplifiers went to transistors.What are Amplifier Classes?The Class of an amplifier refers to the design of the circuitry within the amp. There are many classes used for audio amps. The following is brief description of some of the more common amplifier classes you may have heard of.Class A: Class A amplifiers have very low distortion (lowest distortion occurs when the volume is low) however they are very inefficient and are rarely used for high power designs. The distortion is low because the transistors in the amp are biased such that they are half "on" when the amp is idling. As a result, a lot of power is dissipated even when the amp has no music playing! Class A amps are often used for "signal" level circuits (where power is small) because they maintain low distortion. Distortion for class A amps increases as the signal approaches clipping, as the signal is reaching the limits of voltage swing for the circuit. Also, some class A amps have speakers connected via capacitive coupling.Class B: Class B amplifiers are used in low cost, low quality designs. Class B amplifiers are a lot more efficient than class A amps, however they suffer from bad distortion when the signal level is low (the distortion is called "crossover distortion"). Class B is used most often where economy of design is needed. Before the advent of IC amplifiers, class B amplifiers were common in clock radio circuits, pocket transistor radios, or other applications where quality of sound is not that critical.Class AB: Class AB is probably the most common amplifier class for home stereo and similar amplifiers. Class AB amps combine the good points of class A and B amps. They have the good efficiency of class B amps and distortion that is a lot closer to a class A amp. With such amplifiers, distortion is worst when the signal is low, and lowest when the signal is just reaching the point of clipping. Class AB amps (like class B) use pairs of transistors, both of them being biased slightly ON so that the crossover distortion (associated with Class B amps) is largely eliminated.Class C: Class C amps are never used for audio circuits. They are commonly used in RF circuits. Class C amplifiers operate the output transistor in a state that results in tremendous distortion (it would be totally unsuitable for audio reproduction). However, the RF circuits where Class C amps are used employ filtering so that the final signal iscompletely acceptable. Class C amps are quite efficient.Class D: The concept of a Class D amp has been around for a long time, however only fairly recently have they become commonly used. Due to improvements in the speed, power capacity and efficiency of modern semiconductor devices, applications using Class D amps have become affordable for the common person. Class D amplifiers use a very high frequency signal to modulate the incoming audio signal. Such amps are commonly used in car audio subwoofer amplifiers. Class D amplifiers have very good efficiency. Due to the high frequencies that are present in the audio signal, Class D amps used for car stereo applications are often limited to subwoofer frequencies, however designs are improving all the time. It will not be too long before a full band class D amp becomes commonplace.Other classes: There are many other classes of amplifiers, such as G, H, S, etc. Most of these are variations of the class AB design, however they result in higher efficiency for designs that require very high output levels (500W and up for example). At this time I will not go into the details of all of these other classes as I have not studied them all in detail. Suffice to be aware that they exist for now.无线电接收机图2-4为无线电接收机的方框图,输入信号为调幅无线电波。
道路路桥工程中英文对照外文翻译文献
道路路桥工程中英文对照外文翻译文献中英文资料中英文资料外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Asphalt Mixtures-Applications。
Theory and Principles1.ApplicationsXXX is the most common of its applications。
however。
and the onethat will be XXX.XXX “flexible” is used to distinguish these pavements from those made with Portland cement,which are classified as rigid pavements。
that is。
XXX it provides they key to the design approach which must be used XXX.XXX XXX down into high and low types,the type usually XXX product is used。
The low typesof pavement are made with the cutback。
or emulsion。
XXX type may have several names。
However。
XXX is similar for most low-type pavements and XXX mix。
forming the pavement.The high type of asphalt XXX中英文资料XXX grade.中英文资料Fig.·1 A modern XXX.Fig.·2 Asphalt con crete at the San Francisco XXX.They are used when high wheel loads and high volumes of traffic occur and are。
建筑外文文献(含中文翻译)
中文译文：建筑业的竞争及竞争策略美国的工程建筑公司几十年来一直控制着国际建筑市场，但近来世界上发生的事件改变了它的主导地位。
为了调查今后十年对工程建筑竞争产生影响的推动力及趋势，由建筑工业研究院的"2000年建筑特别工作组：发起一项称为“2000年建筑市场竞争分析”的研究项目。
该研究项目考察了一些影响竞争的因素，包括下列方面：企业能力塑造：采用纵向联合，横向发展的方法，提高企业的综合能力。
扩大市场领地，这种做法包括被海外的联合企业收购或被其合并，或是由美国公司收购外国公司。
筹措资金的选择方法：私有化作用，建筑权力转让项目，未来市场中工程筹资特征。
管理、组织及结构：未来的经营管理及组织方法、组织结构、组织技巧要有利于引导职员在世界竞争环境中发挥作用。
劳力特征：未来具有专业水平和技工水平的工程建筑工人的供求情况技术问题：技术将如何影响竞争，如何用来弥补劳力不足的缺陷。
研究目标及范围这一研究项目的目标是收集信息，使之为适应2000年及以后的工程建筑业在调整、制定策略方面的需要提供真知灼见，并制定出2000年工程建筑业的可能的发展计划。
这项研究回顾了工程建筑业的历史过程，审视了当前的发展趋势，以确定影响该工业未来的推动力，与该工业相关的有重塑企业能力，私有化及筹措资金方法的潜在作用以及经营管理、组织方法、公司结构方面的未来发展方向。
研究范围包括选定一些公司，采访这些公司有专业特长的人员。
这些人员的专业涉及面很广，包括商业建筑，重工业建筑，公共事业设施建设，基础建设．轻工业建筑，电力，生产程序以及航天科学。
工程建筑业竞争特性工程建筑业的竞争特征由于下列原因在变动：80年代发生的事件，以及计划在90年代实施的项目，正在引导建筑业摆脱相互对立的局面，转向相互合作。
应该以积极的眼光看待新的公司进入国际工程建筑市场，因为它增加了全球合作的机遇。
合作关系会使所有的伙伴受益，这是因为美国公司可以在合作伙伴的国家找到机遇，同样，外国公司也会打入美国市场。
仓储物流外文文献翻译中英文原文及译文2023-2023
仓储物流外文文献翻译中英文原文及译文2023-2023原文1：The Current Trends in Warehouse Management and LogisticsWarehouse management is an essential component of any supply chain and plays a crucial role in the overall efficiency and effectiveness of logistics operations. With the rapid advancement of technology and changing customer demands, the field of warehouse management and logistics has seen several trends emerge in recent years.One significant trend is the increasing adoption of automation and robotics in warehouse operations. Automated systems such as conveyor belts, robotic pickers, and driverless vehicles have revolutionized the way warehouses function. These technologies not only improve accuracy and speed but also reduce labor costs and increase safety.Another trend is the implementation of real-time tracking and visibility systems. Through the use of RFID (radio-frequency identification) tags and GPS (global positioning system) technology, warehouse managers can monitor the movement of goods throughout the entire supply chain. This level of visibility enables better inventory management, reduces stockouts, and improves customer satisfaction.Additionally, there is a growing focus on sustainability in warehouse management and logistics. Many companies are implementing environmentally friendly practices such as energy-efficient lighting, recycling programs, and alternativetransportation methods. These initiatives not only contribute to reducing carbon emissions but also result in cost savings and improved brand image.Furthermore, artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning have become integral parts of warehouse management. AI-powered systems can analyze large volumes of data to optimize inventory levels, forecast demand accurately, and improve operational efficiency. Machine learning algorithms can also identify patterns and anomalies, enabling proactive maintenance and minimizing downtime.In conclusion, warehouse management and logistics are continuously evolving fields, driven by technological advancements and changing market demands. The trends discussed in this article highlight the importance of adopting innovative solutions to enhance efficiency, visibility, sustainability, and overall performance in warehouse operations.译文1：仓储物流管理的当前趋势仓储物流管理是任何供应链的重要组成部分，并在物流运营的整体效率和效力中发挥着至关重要的作用。
机械类外文文献翻译(中英文翻译)
机械类外文文献翻译(中英文翻译)英文原文Mechanical Design and Manufacturing ProcessesMechanical design is the application of science and technology to devise new or improved products for the purpose of satisfying human needs. It is a vast field of engineering technology which not only concerns itself with the original conception of the product in terms of its size, shape and construction details, but also considers the various factors involved in the manufacture, marketing and use of the product.People who perform the various functions of mechanical design are typically called designers, or design engineers. Mechanical design is basically a creative activity. However, in addition to being innovative, a design engineer must also have a solid background in the areas of mechanical drawing, kinematics, dynamics, materials engineering, strength of materials and manufacturing processes.As stated previously, the purpose of mechanical design is to produce a product which will serve a need for man. Inventions, discoveries and scientific knowledge by themselves do not necessarily benefit people; only if they are incorporated into a designed product will a benefit be derived. It should be recognized, therefore, that a human need must be identified before a particular product is designed.Mechanical design should be considered to be an opportunity to use innovative talents to envision a design of a product, to analyze the systemand then make sound judgments on how the product is to be manufactured. It is important to understand the fundamentals of engineering rather than memorize mere facts and equations. There are no facts or equations which alone can be used to provide all the correct decisions required to produce a good design.On the other hand, any calculations made must be done with the utmost care and precision. For example, if a decimal point is misplaced, an otherwise acceptable design may not function.Good designs require trying new ideas and being willing to take a certain amount of risk, knowing that if the new idea does not work the existing method can be reinstated. Thus a designer must have patience, since there is no assurance of success for the time and effort expended. Creating a completely new design generally requires that many old and well-established methods be thrust aside. This is not easy since many people cling to familiar ideas, techniques and attitudes. A design engineer should constantly search for ways to improve an existing product and must decide what old, proven concepts should be used and what new, untried ideas should be incorporated.New designs generally have "bugs" or unforeseen problems which must be worked out before the superior characteristics of the new designs can be enjoyed. Thus there is a chance for a superior product, but only at higher risk. It should be emphasized that, if a design does not warrant radical new methods, such methods should not be applied merely for the sake of change.During the beginning stages of design, creativity should be allowedto flourish without a great number of constraints. Even though many impractical ideas may arise, it is usually easy to eliminate them in the early stages of design before firm details are required by manufacturing. In this way, innovative ideas are not inhibited. Quite often, more than one design is developed, up to the point where they can be compared against each other. It is entirely possible that the design which is ultimately accepted will use ideas existing in one of the rejected designs that did not show as much overall promise.Psychologists frequently talk about trying to fit people to the machines they operate. It is essentially the responsibility of the design engineer to strive to fit machines to people. This is not an easy task, since there is really no average person for which certain operating dimensions and procedures are optimum.Another important point which should be recognized is that a design engineer must be able to communicate ideas to other people if they are to be incorporated. Communicating the design to others is the final, vital step in the design process. Undoubtedly many great designs, inventions, and creative works have been lost to mankind simply because the originators were unable or unwilling to explain their accomplishments to others. Presentation is a selling job. The engineer, when presenting a new solution to administrative, management, or supervisory persons, is attempting to sell or to prove to them that this solution is a better one. Unless this can be done successfully, the time and effort spent on obtaining the solution have been largely wasted.Basically, there are only three means of communication available tous. These are the written, the oral, and the graphical forms. Therefore the successful engineer will be technically competent and versatile in all three forms of communication. A technically competent person who lacks ability in any one of these forms is severely handicapped. If ability in all three forms is lacking, no one will ever know how competent that person is!The competent engineer should not be afraid of the possibility of not succeeding in a presentation. In fact, occasional failure should be expected because failure or criticism seems to accompany every really creative idea. There is a great deal to be learned from a failure, and the greatest gains are obtained by those willing to risk defeat. In the final analysis, the real failure would lie in deciding not to make the presentation at all. To communicate effectively, the following questions must be answered:(1) Does the design really serve a human need?(2) Will it be competitive with existing products of rival companies?(3) Is it economical to produce?(4) Can it be readily maintained?(5) Will it sell and make a profit?Only time will provide the true answers to the preceding questions, but the product should be designed, manufactured and marketed only with initial affirmative answers. The design engineer also must communicate the finalized design to manufacturing through the use of detail and assembly drawings.Quite often, a problem will occur during the manufacturing cycle [3].It may be that a change is required in the dimensioning or tolerancing of a part so that it can be more readily produced. This fails in the category of engineering changes which must be approved by the design engineer so that the product function will not be adversely affected. In other cases, a deficiency in the design may appear during assembly or testing just prior to shipping. These realities simply bear out the fact that design is a living process. There is always a better way to do it and the designer should constantly strive towards finding that better way.Designing starts with a need, real or imagined. Existing apparatus may need improvements in durability, efficiently, weight, speed, or cost. New apparatus may be needed to perform a function previously done by men, such as computation, assembly, or servicing. With the objective wholly or partly defined, the next step in design is the conception of mechanisms and their arrangements that will perform the needed functions.For this, freehand sketching is of great value, not only as a record of one's thoughts and as an aid in discussion with others, but particularly for communication with one's own mind, as a stimulant for creative ideas.When the general shape and a few dimensions of the several components become apparent, analysis can begin in earnest. The analysis will have as its objective satisfactory or superior performance, plus safety and durability with minimum weight, and a competitive east. Optimum proportions and dimensions will be sought for each critically loaded section, together with a balance between the strength of the several components. Materials and their treatment will be chosen. These important objectives can be attained only by analysis based upon the principles ofmechanics, such as those of statics for reaction forces and for the optimumutilization of friction; of dynamics for inertia, acceleration, and energy; of elasticity and strength of materials for stress。
机械制造工艺外文文献翻译、中英文翻译、外文翻译
中国地质大学长城学院本科毕业设计外文资料翻译系别：工程技术系专业：机械设计制造及其自动化姓名：侯亮学号：052115072015年 4 月 3 日外文资料翻译原文Introduction of MachiningHave a shape as a processing method, all machining process for the production of the most commonly used and most important method. Machining process is a process generated shape, in this process, Drivers device on the work piece material to be in the form of chip removal. Although in some occasions, the workpiece under no circumstances, the use of mobile equipment to the processing, However, the majority of the machining is not only supporting the workpiece also supporting tools and equipment to complete.Machining know the process has two aspects. Small group of low-cost production. For casting, forging and machining pressure, every production of a specific shape of the workpiece, even a spare parts, almost have to spend the high cost of processing. Welding to rely on the shape of the structure, to a large extent, depend on effective in the form of raw materials. In general, through the use of expensive equipment and without special processing conditions, can be almost any type of raw materials, mechanical processing to convert the raw materials processed into the arbitrary shape of the structure, as long as the external dimensions large enough, it is possible. Because of a production of spare parts, even when the parts and structure of the production batch sizes are suitable for the original casting, Forging or pressure processing to produce, but usually prefer machining.Strict precision and good surface finish, machining the second purpose is the establishment of the high precision and surface finish possible on the basis of. Many parts, if any other means of production belonging to the large-scale production, Well Machining is a low-tolerance and can meet the requirements of small batch production. Besides, many parts on the production and processing of coarse process to improve its general shape of the surface. It is only necessary precision and choose only the surface machining. For instance, thread, in addition to mechanical processing, almost no other processing method for processing. Another example is the blacksmith pieces keyhole processing, as well as training to be conducted immediately after the mechanical completion of the processing.Primary Cutting ParametersCutting the work piece and tool based on the basic relationship between the following four elements to fully describe : the tool geometry, cutting speed, feed rate, depth and penetration of a cutting tool.Cutting Tools must be of a suitable material to manufacture, it must be strong, tough, hard and wear-resistant. Tool geometry -- to the tip plane and cutter angle characteristics -- for each cutting process must be correct.Cutting speed is the cutting edge of work piece surface rate, it is inches per minute toshow. In order to effectively processing, and cutting speed must adapt to the level of specific parts -- with knives. Generally, the more hard work piece material, the lower the rate.Progressive Tool to speed is cut into the work piece speed. If the work piece or tool for rotating movement, feed rate per round over the number of inches to the measurement. When the work piece or tool for reciprocating movement and feed rate on each trip through the measurement of inches. Generally, in other conditions, feed rate and cutting speed is inversely proportional to.Depth of penetration of a cutting tool -- to inches dollars -- is the tool to the work piece distance. Rotary cutting it to the chip or equal to the width of the linear cutting chip thickness. Rough than finishing, deeper penetration of a cutting tool depth.Rough machining and finishing machiningThere are two kinds of cuts in machine- shop work called, respectively, the "roughing cut" and the "finishing cut". When a piece is "roughed out", it is quite near the shape and size required, but enough metal has been left on the surface to finish smooth and to exact size." Generally speaking, bars of steel, forging, castings, etc. are machined to the required shape and size with only one roughing and one finishing cut. Sometimes, however, certain portions of a piece may require more than one roughing cut. Also, in some jobs, for example, when great accuracy is not needed, or when a comparatively small amount of metal must be removed, a finishing cut may be all that is required. The roughing cut, to remove the greater part of the excess material, should be reasonably heavy, that is, all the machine, or cutting tool, or work, or all three, will stand. So the machinist’s purpose is to remove the excess stock as fast as he can without leaving, at the same time, a surface too torn and rough, without bending the piece if it is slender, and without spoiling the centers. The finishing cut, to make the work smooth and accurate, is a finer cut. The emphasis here is refinement - very sharp tool, comparatively little metal removed, and a higher degree of accuracy in measurement. Whether roughing or finishing, the machinist must set the machine for the given job. He must consider the size and shape of the work and the kind of material, also the kind of tool used and the nature of the cut to be made, then he proceeds to set the machine for the correct speed and feed and to set the tool to take the depth of cut desired.Automatic Fixture Design外文资料翻译译文机械制造工艺机械加工是所有制造过程中最普遍使用的而且是最重要的方法。
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中文译文从新型葡萄籽IH636中提取的低聚原花青素和盐碱酸内的铬对治疗仓鼠的动脉粥样硬化症有良好的作用摘要：动脉硬化症是大动脉上的一种疾病，患有此病在内部动脉壁上会长有脂肪扁桃体颗粒，这些脂肪颗粒最终会堵塞血液流通。
以确认的导致动脉硬化症的危险因素包括：遗传、饮食习惯、生活方式、抽烟、循环流通着的脂质和胆固醇含量以及慢性血管炎症和流通信号。
黄酮类化合物和动脉硬化症之间有一定的关系，主要是由于黄酮类化合物具有抗氧化剂类的性质，并且黄酮类化合物还有抑制体内低浓度脂蛋白的氧化作用。
美国人普遍存在着血脂醇过高现象，而这正是导致心脏血管疾病的主要危险因素。
从葡萄籽中提取的低聚原花青素已被证实具有广泛的化学保护特性和心脏保护特性以免受氧危害。
最近的一项研究表明从IH636葡萄籽中提取的低聚原花青素与NBC一起使用能降低血脂醇过高的人体中的胆固醇及低浓度脂蛋白和被氧化的脂蛋白总含量。
本实验通过分别给仓鼠单独喂食葡萄籽中的低聚原花青素及和NBC一起服用，证实了低聚原花青素对仓鼠的动脉硬化症有益处。
因为当给仓鼠服用含0.2%的胆固醇、10%的椰子油的高血胆脂醇食物时他们就会长有与血胆脂醇过多的人像似的脂脂膜。
仓鼠食用10周椰子油后就会长出泡沫细胞这是动脉硬化症早期的生物标志。
与椰子油一起服用，当低聚原花青素的浓度为50mg/kg 、100mg/kg时，仓鼠得动脉硬化症的几率分别降低50%及60%。
若低聚原花青素与NBC一起使用时患病几率大约降低32%。
每一实验组用7~9只仓鼠。
无论是单独使用葡萄籽中的低聚原花青素或是与NBC 一起使用都对胆固醇、甘油三酸酯的含量，不仅如此还对氧化性脂质损害有很好的抑制作用。
这一点已通过硫酸反应物的形成所证明。
这一数据表明葡萄籽提取物低聚原花青素（GSPE）和烟碱酸内的铬（NBC）可以提供良好的健康因子。
这是通过降低泡沫细胞的形成从而大幅度改变动脉硬化症的发生率来实现的。
关键词：GSPE NBC 动脉硬化症仓鼠泡沫细胞胆固醇甘油三酸酯硫酸反应物引言氧分压升高是血胆脂醇过高的一个主要标准，这导致了动脉粥样硬化。
心脏内氧分压的形成是由于产生了过量的自由基，正是这些自由基引起了脉管组织的损伤。
动脉粥样硬化症是一种疾病，此病可使内部动脉壁上产生脂肪条纹，从而堵塞了血液流通，动脉硬化症及其并发症如冠心病、心肌梗塞、心肌梗死和心脏中风这些都是导致死亡的头号杀手。
患有动脉硬化症的巨噬细胞和平滑肌肉细胞内中无法控制的胆固醇和积累的脂质将导致泡沫细胞的形成和一系列动脉粥样硬化薄片。
通过对一种新型葡萄籽IH636种提取的低聚原花青素进行多次研究后证实了低聚原花青素具有绝好的清除氧自由基和保护心脏的特性。
GSPE具有清除生物反应产生的自由基功能，如：超氧化阴离子、羟基自由基和过氧化氢自由基，并且比维生素C 、维生素E和β-胡萝卜素的抗氧化性能力更强更优越。
此外，葡萄籽中的低聚原花青素对老鼠体内损伤和心肌局部缺血有独特的保护功能，并且是亚德里亚霉素诱发了老鼠心脏中毒性物质的产生。
近期的一项人体研究发现葡萄籽中的低聚聚原花青素和NBC一起作为氧调和铬的盐碱聚合体可以明显的降低人体内的胆固醇、低浓度脂蛋白和被氧化的低浓度脂蛋白的总含量。
本实验的研究就是为了确定葡萄籽中的低聚原花青素是否可以阻止泡沫细胞的形成即是否可能阻止动脉粥样硬化症的形成。
仓鼠连续10周食用含0.2%的胆固醇、10%的椰子油的血胆脂醇过高的食物，使这些动物体内产生泡沫细胞，这是早期动脉粥样硬化症的生物标志。
葡萄籽中低聚原花青素的保护功能是由其用量所决定的，这是通过分别单独使用花青素及与NBC一起使用使胆固醇和甘油三酸酯的含量有所降低上来确定的。
而且在此类仓鼠中也证实了硫酸反应物和泡沫细胞确实减少了。
原料和方法化学原料GSPE—作为商业上所公认的苯丙酸诺龙（商品名）和NBC—作为商业上所公认的铬合金巴拉圭茶均来自美国加州一所内部营养食品健康合作机构。
从葡萄籽中提取的低聚原花青素是一种天然提取物，含有大约76%的齐聚物花青素和3%的单节显性生物黄酮类化合物，通过对严重的口腔病、皮肤病和初级眼疾病的研究及为期90天的慢性口腔毒性和长期毒性的研究，证实了GSPE是安全的并无任何毒副作用，最近低聚原花青素又通过了一致的安全认定。
NBC是一种独特的铬复合物可以很好的提高人体内的生物功能及铬的生物活性，增强胰岛素的新陈代谢作用。
老鼠体内每千克体重大约含有一克铬中静脉内的脂质蛋白，而且在食物中添加盐碱酸铬的浓度达4.6g/kg连续使用20周，并未出现生长缓慢或其他毒副作用。
美国环境保护局科技部人类危险性鉴定组织调查了铬的安全性和毒性，并且确定了相关剂量标准为：每天每千克食物中铬含量为1000微克。
除非有其他明文规定，所有化合物和试剂均来自斯格码化学所，并且是分析级或最高级。
动物和治疗本实验所用的是雄性、刚断奶的叙利亚婴幼仓鼠来自查尔斯饲养实验室并且连续四周喂食商业的未纯化的啮齿目动物食物。
尔后这些动物被分成数组，每组都具有相对均匀的重量。
这些动物饲养在塑料笼子里，每只笼子有3～4只老鼠，笼子内设有木条小床，温度控制在室温（20℃）,光照周期光/黑暗为12小时，给他们提供充足的食物和水。
总之这些动物的饲养遵循了Scranton 大学的指南协会动物护养和用途委员会的指导方针。
为实验组的动物提供高胆固醇和高脂肪的食物，简要地说就是1000克粉状啮齿目动物食物中加入600毫升水，并且含有0.2%的胆固醇和10%的椰子油，而后融化混合物。
除此之外，水中还要加入十个独自的地甜味剂。
低花青素食物中大约每千克啮齿目动物食物含有0.88克低聚原花青素，而高花青素食物中大约每千克啮齿目动物食物含有1.76克低聚原花青素。
在低花青素食物中每千克原花青素大约加0.88克NBC，每千克啮齿目动物食物加40毫克，半固体混合物就会凝固，从而分裂成综合色物质。
在喂养十周后接着给仓鼠断食12小时，用戊巴比妥将其麻痹，从而造成心脏穿孔。
在含有乙二酸四乙胺的微量容器内血液就会聚集，学浆被分离，在90℃下储存一作分析使用。
麻痹后的仓鼠喷洒含10%的甲醛磷酸缓冲液从而分离出大动脉已备组织学研究使用。
按Kowalaet al所描述的方法进行解刨和分析。
从离心脏1毫米处截取大约4～5毫米长的一段大动脉，进行脱脂、修饰并拥油红O着色。
在16x40倍放大镜下观察上层样品以确定泡沫细胞的数量、大小和分布。
泡沫所覆盖的面积用微型放映机放大后可通过电脑数字垫料块进行测定。
甘油三酸酯总量可用斯格码酶分析技术测定出来。
胆固醇总量可用斯格码配套元件测定。
通过斯格码磷酸盐试剂降低浓度脂蛋白沉淀后，高浓度脂蛋白可用相似的方法测定。
为了确定GSPE在仓鼠体内的作用，使用了一种体内型仓鼠，因为当给仓鼠服用含0.2%的胆固醇、10%的椰子油的高血胆脂醇食物时他们就会长有与血胆脂醇过多的人像似的脂脂膜。
仓鼠食用10周椰子油后就会长出泡沫细胞这是动脉硬化症早期的生物标志。
在喂食GSPE的动物中可以测定动脉粥样硬化的指数。
结果仓鼠的食物中葡萄籽中低聚原花青素的含量分别为50g/kg和100g/kg, 都连续10周服用含0.2%的胆固醇、10%的椰子油的高血胆脂醇食物，结果得动脉粥样硬化症的几率分别降低了50%和63%。
在同样的条件下，若50g/kg的低聚原花青食物加入NBC的病几率就降低32%。
每组动物的食物消耗量和体重并未出现任何异样。
实验前仓鼠的平均体重是86±6g，试验结束后四组仓鼠的平均体重和标准偏差控制在：151±26g,低聚原花青素食物：155±9g, 高聚原花青素食物：154±14g,低聚原花青素食物加NBC:148±9g。
每只仓鼠平均每天消耗的食物大约为11g。
表一：不同浓度的葡萄籽中低聚原花青素分别单独使用及与盐碱酸中的铬同使用时对胆固醇、三油酸甘酯、血浆油脂氧化前体（TBARS）含量及大动脉上泡沫细胞的百分比，泡沫细胞是体内大动脉的一种标志。
组别胆固醇(mg/dl)三油酸甘酯(mg/dl)动脉粥样硬化症(% 大动脉上泡沫细胞所占百分比)TBARS(μM)Control (n = 8)592 ±40.0898 ±7675.93 ± 3.64%0.285 ±0.039GSPE (50 mg/kg) (n = 9)443 ±49.0806 ±4333.00 ± 0.44%*0.379 ±0.070GSPE (100 mg/kg) (n = 9)457 ±67.0593 ±401*2.19 ± 0.28%**0.311 ±0.157GSPE (50 mg/kg) + NBC (2.2 mg/kg) (n = 7)346 ±103*203 ±122*4.01 ± 1.96%0.066±0.022****p < 0.1; **p < 0.05; ***p < 0.001.食物中葡萄籽中低聚原花青素的含量分别为50g/kg和100g/kg,连同高脂蛋白一起服用，总胆固醇含量分别降低了25%和34%，甘油三酸酯分别降低10%和34%。
若低原花青素食物再加上NBC总胆固醇量就降低42%甘油三酸酯降低了77%（如图表一所示）。
无论是否含有低聚原花青素，血浆脂质的前氧化体都未有明显的变化。
但是若低聚原花青素（50g/kg）再加上NBC血浆脂质前氧化体就降低了77%（如表一所示）。
讨论动脉硬化症及其并发症如冠心病、心肌梗塞、心肌梗死和心脏中风被定为发达国家中导致死亡的都号杀手。
高血压、糖尿病、抽烟和食用高胆固醇高脂肪的食物都有可能过早地患有动脉粥样硬化症。
此外，个人的遗传因素和与众不同的生理特性在这种病理学上也发挥着很重要的作用。
患有动脉硬化症的巨噬细胞和平滑肌肉细胞内中无法控制的胆固醇和积累的脂质将导致泡沫细胞的形成和一系列动脉粥样硬化薄片，这一点众所周知。
更奇怪的是高含量的低浓度脂质蛋白与动脉粥样硬化症一起产生。
当巨噬细胞流过内皮血管病吞噬氧化脂质时，由于自由基所产生的氧化低浓度脂质蛋白对血管内形成的脂肪条也有很大的影响。
葡萄籽中的低聚原花青素可以保护老鼠免收心肌局部缺血剂梗塞的损害，这是通过有规律的改变基因cJUN、JNK1来实现的。
体内氧压增高是血胆酯醇过高的一个主要特征，正是血胆酯醇过高导致了动脉粥样硬化症，氧化活性的升高可以调节血管组织免收伤害。
有多种方法可以降低低浓度脂质蛋白胆固醇的含量。
降低胆固醇含量的最简单方法就是通过饮食、新型抗氧化物和运动锻炼。