Monopoly, oligopoly and monopolistic competition (Chapter 9)
国际经济学名词解释
自给自足的相对均衡价格（equilibrium-relative modity price in isolation）：在生产和消费那一点上一国生产可能性曲线和社会无差异曲线公切线的斜率。
贸易条件下的相对均衡价格（equilibrium-relative modity price with trade）：两国贸易平衡时贸易双方共同的均衡价格。
不完全分工（inplete specialization）：一国并不是花费所有的资源和技术生产其具有比较优势的产品，而是同时生产一部分不具有比较优势的产品。
提供曲线（offer curve）：反映了一国为了进口的某一需要的商品数量而愿意出口的商品数量。
它具备了需要和供给两方面的因素。
贸易条件（terms of trade）：一国出口商品的价格和进口商品价格的比值。
在两国条件下，一国的贸易条件是另一国贸易条件的倒数。
在不止两种商品的贸易世界中，贸易条件是指一国出口商品价格指数和进口商品价格指数的比值。
要素密集度（factor intensities）：是指生产一个单位某种产品所使用的生产要素的组合比例。
在资本与劳动两种生产要素的情形下，要素的密集度就是指生产一单位该产品所使用的资本-劳动比率。
要素丰裕度（factor abundance）：要素丰裕度是一国的资源拥有状况，即一国的要素禀赋状况。
派生需求（derived demand）：对一种生产要素的需求来自（派生自）对另一种产品的需求，其中该生产要素对这一最终产品会作贡献。
赫克歇尔-俄林定理（Hechscher-Ohlin theorem）：一国应该出口该国相对便宜和丰裕的要素密集型的产品，进口该国相对昂贵和稀缺的要素密集型的产品。
要素比例或要素禀赋理论（factor-proportions or factor-endowment theory）：一国应该出口该国相对便宜和丰裕的要素密集型的产品，进口该国相对昂贵和稀缺的要素密集型的产品。
国际营销英语名词
国际市场营销一、the three principles of markting〔三条市场营销原则〕1.customer value and satisfaction (顾客价值和满意度)2 petitive or different advantages〔竞争或者差异优势〕3.focus 〔营销焦点〕二、the traditionl markting management concepts(传统的市场营销概念)the production concept〔生产理念〕the product concept〔产品理念〕the selling concept〔推销理念〕the marketing concept 〔营销理念〕三、the newly emerge markting concept〔新出现的营销理念〕1.the social marketing concept 〔社会营销〕2.the relationship marketing concept〔关系营销〕四、the international trade system〔国际贸易体系〕1.tariff〔关税〕2.quota〔配额〕3.embargo〔禁运〕4.exchange control〔外汇管制〕5.nontariff trade barriers〔非传统贸易壁垒〕五、the world trade organization1.free trade area2.European Union—Pacific Economic Cooperationthe North America Free Trade Agreement六、the emerging economics〔BRIC〕1.Brazil2.Russia3.India4.China七、the group of five1.ｔｈｅｕｎｉｔｅｄｓｔａｔｅｓ2.Ｂｒｉｔａｉｎ3.Ｆｒａｎｃｅ4.Ｇｅｒｍａｎｙ5.Ｊａｐａｎ八、ｎｅｗｌｙｉｎｄｕｓｔｒｉａｌｉｚｅｄｅｃｏｎｏｍｉｉｅｓ1.Ｓｉｎｇａｐｏｒｅ2.Ｋｏｒｅａ3.ＣｈｉｎａＨｏｎｇＫｏｎｇ4.ＣｈｉｎａＴａｉｗａｎ九、ｉｎｃｏｍｅｄｉｓｔｒｉｂｕｔｉｏｎ1.ｌｏｗｉｎｃｏｍｅｃｏｕｎｔｒｉｅｓ2.ｌｏｗｅｒ—ｍｉｄｄｌｅ—ｉｎｃｏｍｅｃｏｕｎｔｒｉｅｓ3.ｕｐｐｅｒ—ｍｉｄｄｌｅ—ｉｎｃｏｍｅｃｏｕｎｔｒｉｅｓ4.ｈｉｇｈ—ｉｎｃｏｍｅｃｏｕｎｔｒｉｅｓ十、ｔｈｒｅｅａｓｐｅｃｔｏｆｃｕｌｔｕｒｅｉｎｆｌｕｅｎｃｅmarkting〔1〕ｔａｓｔｅ〔２〕ｃｏｌｏｕｒ〔３〕ｓｔｙｌｅ十一、ｎｅｅｄｈｉｅｒａｒｃｈｙ〔需求层次〕1.ｓｅｌｆ—ａｃｔｕａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎ〔自我实现〕2.ｅｓｔｅｅｍ〔自尊〕3.ｓｏｃｉａｌ〔社交〕4.ｓａｆｅｔｙ〔安全〕5.ｐｈｙｓｉｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｎｅｅｄ〔心理〕十二、ｓｔｒｕｃｔｕｒｅｏｆｃｏｍｐｅｔｉｔｉｖｅｅｎｖｉｒｏｎｍｅｎｔ1.ｐｕｒｅｍｏｎｏｐｏｌｙ〔完全垄断〕2.ｏｌｉｇｏｐｏｌｙ〔寡头垄断〕3.ｍｏｎｏｐｏｌｉｓｔｉｃｃｏｍｐｅｔｉｔｉｏｎ〔垄断竞争〕4.ｐｕｒｅｃｏｍｐｅｔｉｔｉｏｎ〔完全竞争〕十三、ｔｈｅｍａｒｋｅｔｉｎｇｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｐｒｏｃｅｓｓ1.ｄｅｆｉｎｉｎｇｔｈｅｐｒｏｂｌｅｍ2.ｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｔｈｅｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｐｌａｎ3.ｃｏｌｌｅｃｔｔｈｅｉｎｆｏｒｍａｔｉｏｎ4.ａｎａｌｙｚｅｔｈｅｉｎｆｏｒｍａｔｉｏｎ5.ｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｔｈｅｆｉｎｄｉｎｇｓ十四、ｍａｒｋｅｔｉｎｇｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈａｐｐｒｏａｃｈｅｓ1.ｐｒｉｍａｒｙｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｍｅｔｈｏｄｓ〔观察调研法〕2.ｆｏｃｕｓ—ｇｒｏｕｐ〔焦点小组〕3.ｓｕｒｖｅｙ〔问询调查法〕4.ｅｘｐｅｒｉｍｅｎｔ〔实验调研法〕十五、ｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｉｎｓｔｒｕｍｅｎｔ〔调查手段〕1.ｑｕｅｓｔｉｏｎｎａｉｒｅ〔问卷调查〕2.ｍｅｃｈａｎｉｃａｌｄｅｖｉｃｅｓ〔实地调查〕十六、ｃｏｎｔａｃｔｍｅｔｈｏｄｓ〔联系方法〕1.ｔｅｌｅｐｈｏｎｅｉｎｔｅｒｖｉｅｗ2.ｐｅｒｓｏｎａｌｉｎｔｅｒｖｉｅｗ3.ｏｎｌｉｎｅｉｎｔｅｒｖｉｅｗ十七、ｂａｓｅｄｆｏｒｓｅｇｍｅｎｔｉｎｇｃｏｎｓｕｍｅｒｍａｒｋｅｔｓ1.ｇｅｏｇｒａｐｈｉｃｓｅｇｍｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎ〔地理细分〕2.ｄｅｍｏｇｒａｐｈｉｃｓｅｇｍｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎ〔人口细分〕3.ｐｓｙｃｈｏｇｒａｐｈｉｃｓｅｇｍｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎ〔心理细分〕4.ｂｅｈａｖｉｏｒｓｅｇｍｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎ〔行为细分〕十八、ｆｏｕｒｇｒｏｕｐｓｏｆｂｕｙｅｒｓｂｙｂｒａｎｄｌｏｙａｌｔｙ〔用品牌忠诚度来划分的四种类型买者〕1.ｈａｒｄ－ｃｏｒｅｌｏｙａｌｃｏｎｓｕｍｅｒｓ〔坚决专一型〕2.ｓｐｌｉｔｌｏｙａｌｃｏｎｓｕｍｅｒ〔三心二意型〕3.ｓｈｉｆｔｉｎｇｃｏｎｓｕｍｅｒｓ〔见异思迁型〕4.ｓｗｉｔｃｈｅｒｓ(无品牌信仰型)十九、ｂａｓｉｃｓｔｒａｔｅｇｉｃｆｏｒｒｅａｃｈｉｎｇｔａｒｇｅｔｍａｒｋｅｔｓ1.ｕｎｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｉａｔｅｄｍａｒｋｅｔｉｎｇ〔无差异战略〕2.ｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｉｅｄｍａｒｋｅｔｉｎｇ〔差异化营销战略〕3.ｃｏｎｃｅｎｔｒａｔｅｄｍａｒｋｅｔｉｎｇ〔集中化营销战略〕4.ｇｌｏｂａｌｔａｒｇｅｔｉｎｇｓｔｒａｔｅｇｙ〔全球营销战略〕二十、the entry modes into foreign markets〔进入国外市场的进入模式〕1.exporting〔出口〕2.licensing 〔许可证贸易〕3.joint venture〔合资企业〕4.foreign direct investment〔对外直接投资〕二十一、standardized and localized marketing mix〔1〕二十二、global marketing organizations1.export department〔出口部门〕2.international division 〔国际分工〕3.a global organization 〔全球化组织〕二十三、model of consumer behavior〔4PS〕消费者行为模型1.economic 〔经济〕2.technological 〔技术〕3.political〔政治的〕4.cultural〔文化〕二十四、psychological factors1.motive2.perception3.learning4.belief5.attitude二十五、three levels of a production〔生产的三个理念〕1．core product〔核心产品〕2. actual product〔实际产品〕3. augmented product〔扩张产品〕二十六、types of consumer products〔几种顾客型产品类型〕1.convenience products〔便利性产品〕2.impulse goods〔冲动性产品〕3.staples〔日常用品〕4.emergency goods〔急用品〕二十七、product mixes〔产品组合〕1.the width of product mix2.the length of a product mix3.the depth of a product nix二十八、four services’characteristics〔四种效劳特征〕1.intangible〔无形性〕2.heterogeneity〔不可分割性〕3.inseparability〔异质性〕4.perishability〔意逝性〕二十九、pricing strategys〔产品策略〕1.Skimming price strategy〔撇脂定价法〕2.Penetration pricing strategy〔渗透定价法〕petitive pricing strategy〔同业定价定价〕三十、four basic types of pricing policies〔四种根本的价格政策类型〕〔4P〕1.Psychological pricing〔心理定价法〕2.Price flexibility〔价格灵活性〕3.Product—line pricing〔产品线定价法〕4.Promotional pricing〔推广定价法〕。
市场集中的名词解释
市场集中的名词解释导论：市场集中是经济学中一个重要的概念。
它指的是市场中的供给方或需求方的数量较少，或者市场中的竞争程度较低的现象。
市场集中可以影响市场的运行和效率，因此对于经济体制的研究和政策制定具有重要意义。
本文将对市场集中相关的名词进行解释，以期帮助读者更好地理解市场集中的含义和影响。
一、垄断（Monopoly）垄断是市场集中的一种形式，指的是市场上只有一个供应商或卖方，没有竞争者或者竞争程度非常低。
垄断企业在市场上可以控制价格和供应量，从而对消费者和其他企业产生较大的影响力。
垄断可能存在的原因有多种，如技术壁垒、专利权、政府特许经营等。
垄断企业通常能够通过控制供给来实现高额利润，但对于消费者来说，价格往往较高，选择范围较小，服务质量也可能较差。
为了减轻垄断带来的负面影响，政府通常会采取一些措施，如反垄断法律的制定和执行，以保护市场竞争和消费者利益。
二、寡头垄断（Oligopoly）寡头垄断是市场集中的另一种形式，指的是市场上只有少数几个供应商或卖方，并且彼此之间存在一定程度的竞争或互动。
在寡头垄断的市场中，几家主要企业通常控制着市场份额的大部分，他们会根据市场需求和竞争状况来制定价格和供应策略。
寡头垄断市场的特点是价格相对较高，消费者选择范围相对较小，但相对于垄断市场来说，服务质量和产品创新可能会更好。
寡头垄断市场中的企业通常会争夺市场份额和竞争优势，通过不同的策略来吸引消费者和扩大市场份额。
三、垄断竞争（Monopolistic competition）垄断竞争是一种介于垄断和完全竞争之间的市场结构。
在垄断竞争市场中，存在多个参与者，每个参与者都有一定的市场份额，但产品或服务有一定程度的差异化。
垄断竞争市场中的企业面临的竞争来自于产品的差异化，企业通过设定不同的价格和提供不同的服务来争夺消费者。
由于产品的差异化，垄断竞争市场中企业能够在一定程度上应对价格竞争。
这种市场结构下，企业通常通过广告、促销和品牌塑造等手段来建立自身的竞争优势。
MultipleChoiceQuestions.Choosethebestanswer
Multiple Choice Questions. Choose the best answer(1) Which of the following occurs with perfectly price discriminating monopolies?A) The level of output is inefficient.B) All consumer surplus goes to the monopoly.C) Deadweight loss is created.D) Firms earn zero economic profits.E) None of the above.(2) Firms in monopolistic competition make products that areA) perfect complements.B) close but not perfect complements.C) perfect substitutes.D) close but not perfect substitutes.(3) In monopolistic competition, each firm’s marginal revenue curve lies ____ its demand curve because of ____.A) below ; barriers to entryB) below; product differentiationC) above; barriers to entryD) above; product differentiation(4) In monopolistic competition, each firm has a demand curve with A) a negative slope, and there are no barriers to entry into the market.B) a slope equal to zero, and there is are no barriers to entry into the market.C) negative slope, and there are barriers to entry into the market.D) a slope equal to zero, and there are barriers to entry into the market.(5) In the short run, a monopolistically competitive firm choosesA) both its price and its quantity.B) its price but not its quantity.C) its quantity but not its price.D) neither its price nor its quantity.(6) In monopolistic competition, firms can earn an economic profit inA) the short run and in the long run.B) the short run but not in the long run.C) the long run but not in the short run.D) neither the long run nor the short run.(7) The figure above shows short-run cost curves for a perfectly competitive firm. If the price of the product is $8, in the short run the firm willA) earn a normal profit.B) earn an economic profit.C) incur an economic loss.D) None of the above answers is correct because more information is needed to determine the firm’s profit or loss.(8) In the long run, the economic profits of a firm in a perfectly competitive industryA) will be above zero.B) will be below zero.C) will equal zero.D) can be above, below, or equal to zero.(9) A perfectly competitive firm is definitely earning an economicprofit whenA) MR < MC.B) P > ATC.C) P < ATC.D) P > AVC.(10) Paul runs a shop that sells printers. Paul is a perfect competitor and can sell each printer for a price of $300. The marginal cost of selling one printer a day is $200; the marginal cost of selling a second printer is $250; and the marginal cost of selling a thirdprinter is $350. To maximize his profit, Paul should sellA) one printer a day.B) two printers a day.C) three printers a day.D) more than three printers a day.(11) Suppose firms in a perfectly competitive industry are suffering aneconomic loss. Over time,A) other firms enter the industry, so the price rises and the economic loss decreases.B) some firms leave the industry, so the price rises and the economic loss decreases.C) other firms enter the industry, so the price falls and the economic loss decreases.D) some firms leave the industry, so the price falls and the economic loss decreases.(12) The market for lawn services is perfectly competitive. Larry’s Lawn Service cannot increase its total revenue by raising its price because ____.A) Larry’s supply of lawn services is perfectly inelasticB) the demand for Larry’s services is perfectly inelasticC) Larry’s supply of lawn services is inelasticD) the demand for Larry's services is perfectly elastic(13) The apple industry is perfectly competitive and is in long-run equilibrium. Now a disease kills 50 percent of the apple orchards. In the short run, the price of a bag of apples ____ and the remainingapple growers make ____ profits. In the long run, the ____.A) increases; normal; price of apples will return to their originallevelB) remains the same; normal; orchards will be replanted and growerswill make normal profitsC) increases; normal; orchards will be replanted and economic profitwill return to zeroD) increases; positive economic; orchards will be replanted and economic profit will return to zero(14) The following are key features of a monopoly EXCEPTA) the monopoly is protected by a barrier to entry.B) no close substitutes exist for the good or service.C) the monopoly has a strong influence over the price of the good or service.D) the monopoly has diseconomies of scale.(15) An industry in which one firm can supply the entire market at a lower price than two or more firms can is called aA) legal monopoly.B) natural monopoly.C) single-price monopoly.D) price-discriminating monopoly.(16) Which of the following is true of a natural monopoly?A) Its long-run average cost curve slopes upward as it intersects the demand curve.B) Economies of scale exist to only a very low level of output.C) The firm can supply the entire market at a lower cost than could two or more firms.D) The firm is not protected by any barrier to entry.(17) Monopolies can earn an economic profit in the long run because ofA) rent seeking by competitors.B) the elastic demand for the monopoly’s product.C) the cost-savings gained by the monopoly.D) barriers to enter the monopoly’s market.(18) In comparison with a perfect competition, a single-price monopolist with the same costsA) generates a smaller consumer surplus but a larger economic profit.B) generates a smaller consumer surplus and a smaller economic profit.C) generates a larger consumer surplus and a larger economic profit.D) generates a larger consumer surplus and a smaller economic profit.(19) Which of the following market structures is likely to produce the highest output for a given good?(A)monopoly(B)oligopoly(C)monopolistic competition(D)perfect competitionUse the above figure for questions 20 and 21.20) The unregulated, single-price monopoly shown in the figure above has a total economic profit ofA) $24.B) $16.C) $8.D) $4.(21) For the unregulated, single-price monopoly shown in the figure above, when its profit is maximized, output will beA) 4 units per year and the price will be $6.B) 4 units per year and the price will be $4.C) 6 units per year and the price will be $4.D) None of the above answers is correct.(22) Which area(s) in the above figure indicates consumer surplus at the price and quantity that would be attained if the industry were perfectly competitive?A) A + B + C + DB) A + B + C + D + EC) F + G + HD) A + B + C + D + E + F + G + H(23) Which area(s) in the above figure indicates consumer surplus at the price and quantity that would be set by a single-price monopoly?A) A + BB) A + B + C + D + EC) C + DD) C + D + E + F + G + H(24) In the above figure, which area is the deadweight loss from a single-price monopoly?A) EB) E + HC) E + H + KD) E + H + K + J(25) Monopolists are able to practice price discrimination becauseA) of differing willingness-to-pay among consumers.B) of differing price elasticities of supply.C) they have constant marginal cost.D) they have constant average cost.(26) In perfect competition,A) each firm can influence the price of the good.B) there are few buyers.C) there are significant restrictions on entry.D) all firms in the market sell their product at the same price.Note: the Price of the good in the perfectly competitive market is $12 per unit.Use the above figure for questions (27),(28) and (29).(27) In the above figure, the curve represented by the"2" is theA) average fixed cost.B) average variable cost.C) total cost.D) average total cost.(28) In the above figure, the firm’s total economicprofit is equal toA) $260.B) $1300C) $1560.D) MR – MC.E) none of the above(29) Firms will shut down if the market price isA) at 12B) below 12C) below 10D) below 8(30) A competitive firm is more likely to shut down during a recession, when the demand for its product declines, than during an economic expansion, because during the recession it might be unable to cover itsA) fixed costs.B) variable costs.C) external costs.D) depreciation due to machinery becoming obsolete.(31) In the above figure, if the price is P1, the firm will produceA) nothing.B) where MC equals ATC.C) where MC equals P1.D) where ATC equals P1.Use the above figure for questions (32) and (33).(32) The firm in the figure above is in monopolistic competition. It will set a price equal toA) $1.B) $2.C) $3.D) more than $3.(33) The above figure depicts a firm in monopolistic competition. At the profit maximizing level of output,A) the firm is making economic profit.B) the firm incurs an economic loss.C) the firm is making zero economic profit.D) this firm would choose to shut down in the short run.Factor of inputs (questions (34), (35), (36) and (37))(34) The marginal revenue product (MRP) of labor is the extra revenue generated byA) selling an additional unit of output.B) raising the price of the product by one dollar.C) hiring one additional unit of labor.D) price discrimination.(35) Marginal revenue product equals marginal productA) times the quantity of labor.B) divided by the quantity of labor.C) times the price if the goods are sold in perfect competition.D) divided by the good’s price.(36) In the table above, the marginal revenue product of the third unit of labor is (Hint: find MR and MPL first)A) $3.B) $4.C) $12.D) $16.(37) In the table above, if the wage rate is $8.00 per hour, theprofit-maximizing number of workers isA) 1.B) 2.C) 4.D) 5.E) none of the above(38) The best example of an oligopoly market can be described byA) wheat farming.B) the restaurant industry.C) long-distance telephone service.D) the clothing industry.(39) In an oligopoly with a collusive agreement (i.e. firms gettogether to set price and output level), the total industry profitswill be smallest whenA) all firms comply with the agreement.B) one firm cheats on the agreement and the other firms do not cheat.C) all firms cheat on the agreement.D) the firms act as a monopoly.(40) Price wars areA) most likely when there is a monopoly.B) most likely when there is oligopoly.C) most likely when there is perfect competition.D) equally likely in the cases of monopoly, oligopoly,and perfect competition.Answer Key for the last exercise questions: 1-5: b,d,b,a,a6-10: b,c,c,b,b11-15: b,d,d,d,b16-20: c,d,a,d,c21-25: a,b,a,b,a26-30: d,b,e,d,a31-35: c,c,c,c,c36-40: c,c,c,c,b。
Monopolistic Competition and Optimum
American Economic AssociationMonopolistic Competition and Optimum Product DiversityAuthor(s): Avinash K. Dixit and Joseph E. StiglitzSource: The American Economic Review, Vol. 67, No. 3 (Jun., 1977), pp. 297-308Published by: American Economic AssociationStable URL: /stable/1831401Accessed: 27/10/2010 10:38Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use.Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=aea.Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission.JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@.American Economic Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to TheAmerican Economic Review.。
垄断经济替换词
垄断经济替换词
当你想要表达某个经济体在市场上的垄断地位时，可以使用以下替换词:
1. Monopolistic:表示市场垄断的，通常用于形容一家企业或组织在市场上的绝对主导地位。
2. oligopoly:表示市场垄断的，通常用于形容多家竞争激烈的企业或组织在市场上的相对主导地位。
3. monopolies:表示市场垄断的，通常用于形容多个企业或组织共同控制市场的情况。
4. market power:表示市场垄断的，通常用于形容企业或组织在市场上的控制能力。
5. dominant:表示市场垄断的，通常用于形容一家企业或组织在市场上的主导地位。
6. hegemonic:表示市场垄断的，通常用于形容一家企业或组织在市场上的绝对主导地位。
7. monopoly pricing:表示市场垄断的，通常用于形容企业或组织以垄断地位为由提高价格。
8. oligopolistic pricing:表示市场垄断的，通常用于形容多家竞争激烈的企业或组织在市场上的相对主导地位，以其利润最大化为目标的价格策略。
9. monopolistic competition:表示市场垄断的，通常用于形容多家具有垄断地位的企业或组织之间的竞争。
oligopoly相关单词
oligopoly相关单词一、核心单词。
1. oligopoly.- 英[ˌɒlɪˈɡɒpəli]- 词性：n.（名词），寡头垄断。
例如：The mobile phone market in this country is an oligopoly.（这个国家的手机市场是寡头垄断的。
）2. oligopolist.- 英[ˌɒlɪˈɡɒpəlɪst]- 词性：n.（名词），寡头垄断者。
例如：The oligopolist has a great influence on the market price.（这个寡头垄断者对市场价格有很大的影响。
）3. oligopolistic.- 英[ˌɒlɪɡəpəˈlɪstɪk]- 词性：adj.（形容词），寡头垄断的。
例如：The oligopolistic market structure has some unique characteristics.（寡头垄断的市场结构有一些独特的特征。
）二、相关单词（竞争与市场结构方面）1. monopoly.- 英[məˈnɒpəli]- 词性：n.（名词），垄断；专卖。
例如：The government is trying to break up the monopoly in the energy industry.（政府正试图打破能源行业的垄断。
）2. monopolist.- 英[məˈnɒpəlɪst]- 词性：n.（名词），垄断者；独占者。
例如：The monopolist controls the entire market.（这个垄断者控制着整个市场。
）3. monopolistic.- 英[məˌnɒpəˈlɪstɪk]- 词性：adj.（形容词），垄断的；独占的。
例如：The monopolistic behavior is not good for the development of the economy.（垄断行为对经济的发展不利。
经济学原理 英文
经济学原理英文Economics is the study of how individuals, businesses, and governments allocate resources to satisfy their needs and wants. It is a social science that seeks to understand the behavior of individuals and institutions in making decisions about the allocation of scarce resources. The principles of economics are essential for understanding the world around us and making informed decisions in our personal and professional lives.One of the fundamental principles of economics is the concept of scarcity. Resources such as land, labor, and capital are limited, while the wants and needs of individuals and society are unlimited. This creates a situation where choices must be made about how to allocate resources to satisfy these unlimited wants and needs. As a result, individuals and societies must make trade-offs and prioritize their needs based on the scarcity of resources.Another key principle of economics is the idea ofopportunity cost. When individuals or societies make choices about how to allocate resources, they are also making choices about what they are giving up. The opportunity cost of a decision is the value of the next best alternative that is foregone as a result of choosing one option over another. Understanding opportunity cost is crucial for making efficient decisions about resource allocation.In addition to scarcity and opportunity cost, economics also involves the study of supply and demand. The law of demand states that as the price of a good or service increases, the quantity demanded decreases, and vice versa. On the other hand, the law of supply states that as the price of a good or service increases, the quantity supplied also increases, and vice versa. The interaction of supply and demand in the market determines the equilibrium price and quantity of a good or service.Furthermore, economics examines the role of incentives in shaping individual and institutional behavior. Incentives are factors that motivate individuals to act ina certain way, and they play a crucial role in economic decision-making. For example, when the government offerstax incentives for businesses to invest in renewable energy, it encourages them to engage in environmentally friendly practices.Moreover, economics encompasses the study of market structures, including perfect competition, monopoly, oligopoly, and monopolistic competition. Each market structure has its own unique characteristics andimplications for resource allocation and efficiency. Understanding these market structures is essential for analyzing the behavior of firms and the impact of market competition on consumer welfare.In conclusion, the principles of economics provide a framework for understanding how individuals, businesses,and governments make decisions about the allocation of scarce resources. By studying economics, we can gaininsights into the behavior of economic agents, the functioning of markets, and the impact of policy decisions on the economy. Ultimately, economics is a powerful toolfor making informed decisions and addressing the complex challenges facing our society.。
垄断竞争市场与寡头垄断市场中价格和产量
有超额利润
有超额利润
无超额利润
较少超额利润
LAC最低点的左侧 LAC最低点的左侧
最低
较低
较高
最大 最高 最多 产品同质 价格低廉
较大 较高 较多 多样、优质优价
较小
低
较少
价格较高 价格刚性
农业，商饮、服务 机械、化工、汽车 轻工业
、冶金业。
完全垄断 一个 制定者 无法进入
D=P=f(Q)
MR=MC 有超额利润 有超额利润 LAC最低点的左侧 最高 最小 较低 最少 品种单一，价格昂贵
本章主要内容 第一节 垄断竞争市场中的价格和产量的决定 第二节 寡头垄断市场中的价格和产量的决定
2021/8/5
重点 难点
1
第一节 垄断竞争市场中价格和产量的决定
1. 垄断竞争市场(monopolistic competition marker)：是指即有垄断又 有竞争的市场，但竞争因素多于垄断因素， 是比较接近完全竞争的市场结构。如轻工 业产品市场，食品市场、服装市场
4
2、长期垄断竞争厂商价格与产量的决定
在长期，垄断竞争企业遵循MR=LMC的利润最大化原则 来确定产量。在长期厂商若可获得超额利润，就会有新的 厂商进入这个行业，使供给增加，当需求不变时会导致价 格下降，直到价格等于平均成本，厂商都只能获得正常利 润为止。
P
2021/8/5
PE=LAC 0
MC LAC
•
QB4=1/2（1200－QA4）=398.43
• 第五轮：QA5=1/2（Q A4+ QB4）=1/2×801.55=400.77
•
QB5=1/2（1200－QA4）=399.61
• 最后；A、B两厂商各占市场总需求量的1/3。
经济学英文论文及翻译范文
经济学英文论文及翻译范文Economics is a field that is constantly evolving and changing, and the study of economics involves a deep understanding of how individuals, businesses, and governments make decisions about how to allocate resources. This paper will explore the concepts of supply and demand, elasticity, and market structures, and their impact on the economy.The concept of supply and demand is a fundamental principle in economics, and it refers to the relationship between the quantity of a good that producers are willing to sell and the quantity that consumers are willing to buy. When demand for a good increases, the price tends to rise, and when demand decreases, the price tends to fall. On the other hand, when supply increases, the price tends to fall, and when supply decreases, the price tends to rise. This interaction between supply and demand determines the equilibrium price and quantity of a good in a market.Elasticity is a measure of how much the quantity demanded of a good responds to a change in price. The price elasticity of demand measures the responsiveness of the quantity demanded to a change in price, and it is calculated as the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in price. If the price elasticity of demand is greater than 1, it is considered to be elastic, meaning that a small change in price leads to a relatively large change in quantity demanded. Conversely, if the price elasticity of demand is less than 1, it is considered to be inelastic, meaning that a change in price leads to a relatively small change in quantity demanded.Market structures refer to the characteristics of a market that affect the behavior of firms and the outcomes of the market. There arefour main types of market structures: perfect competition, monopolistic competition, oligopoly, and monopoly. In a perfectly competitive market, there are many small firms selling identical products, and there are no barriers to entry or exit. Monopolistic competition is similar to perfect competition, but firms sell differentiated products. In an oligopoly, a few large firms dominate the market, and there are significant barriers to entry. A monopolyis a market with only one seller, and there are high barriers to entry. In conclusion, the concepts of supply and demand, elasticity, and market structures play a crucial role in shaping the economy. Understanding how these concepts interact and influence eachother is essential for policymakers and businesses to make informed decisions that can lead to a more efficient allocation of resources and a more prosperous economy.翻译范文如下：经济学是一个不断发展和变化的领域，经济学的研究涉及对个人、企业和政府如何做出关于资源配置的决策有着深刻的理解。
经济学导论英语知识点总结
经济学导论英语知识点总结Economics is the study of how individuals, firms, and societies allocate their limited resources to satisfy their unlimited wants. It is a social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Here are some key points to understand about economics:1. Scarcity and ChoiceScarcity is the fundamental economic problem. It means that resources are limited, while human wants and needs are unlimited. As a result, individuals, firms, and societies must make choices about how to allocate their scarce resources to satisfy their wants and needs. This leads to the concept of opportunity cost, which is the value of the next best alternative that is given up when a choice is made.2. Types of EconomicsThere are two main types of economics: microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics focuses on the behavior of individual agents, such as consumers, firms, and workers, and how they make decisions about the allocation of resources. Macroeconomics, on the other hand, looks at the economy as a whole, considering factors such as inflation, unemployment, and economic growth.3. Supply and DemandSupply and demand are the forces that drive the market. The law of demand states that, all else being equal, as the price of a good or service increases, the quantity demanded decreases, and vice versa. The law of supply states that, all else being equal, as the price of a good or service increases, the quantity supplied increases, and vice versa. The intersection of the supply and demand curves gives us the equilibrium price and quantity for a particular good or service.4. ElasticityElasticity measures the responsiveness of quantity demanded or supplied to a change in price. If the quantity demanded or supplied is very responsive to a change in price, we say that it is elastic. If it is not very responsive, we say that it is inelastic. Elasticity is important for understanding how changes in price affect consumer and producer behavior.5. Market StructuresThere are different types of market structures, each with its own characteristics. These include perfect competition, monopoly, monopolistic competition, and oligopoly. Perfect competition is a market structure with many small firms, identical products, and no barriers to entry or exit. Monopoly is a market structure with a single seller and no close substitutes. Monopolistic competition is a market structure with many firms selling similar but notidentical products. Oligopoly is a market structure with a few large firms that dominate the market.6. Economic SystemsThere are different types of economic systems, each with its own way of allocating resources. These include traditional, command, market, and mixed economies. In a traditional economy, economic decisions are based on customs and traditions. In a command economy, economic decisions are made by the government. In a market economy, economic decisions are made by individuals and firms acting in their own self-interest. In a mixed economy, economic decisions are made by a combination of government and private individuals and firms.7. Factors of ProductionThe factors of production are the resources used to produce goods and services. They include land, labor, capital, and entrepreneurship. Land refers to all natural resources, such as water, minerals, and forests. Labor refers to the physical and mental effort of human beings. Capital refers to the tools, equipment, and machinery used in production. Entrepreneurship refers to the ability to organize and manage the other factors of production.8. Gross Domestic Product (GDP)GDP is one of the most important indicators of the health of an economy. It measures the total value of all goods and services produced within a country's borders over a specific period of time. GDP can be calculated using three different approaches: the production approach, the income approach, and the expenditure approach. It can also be adjusted for inflation to give us real GDP, which measures the value of goods and services produced in constant prices.9. Fiscal PolicyFiscal policy is the use of government spending and taxation to influence the economy. Expansionary fiscal policy involves increasing government spending or reducing taxes to stimulate economic growth. Contractionary fiscal policy involves reducing government spending or increasing taxes to slow down economic growth. Fiscal policy is a powerful tool for stabilizing the economy and is often used in combination with monetary policy.10. Monetary PolicyMonetary policy is the use of interest rates and money supply to influence the economy. Expansionary monetary policy involves lowering interest rates or increasing the money supply to stimulate economic growth. Contractionary monetary policy involves raising interest rates or reducing the money supply to slow down economic growth. Monetary policy is the responsibility of the central bank in most countries and is often used in combination with fiscal policy.11. International TradeInternational trade is the exchange of goods and services between countries. It allows countries to specialize in the production of goods and services in which they have a comparative advantage and then trade with other countries to obtain goods and services in which they do not have a comparative advantage. International trade can increase economic efficiency and lead to higher standards of living for all trading partners.12. Economic GrowthEconomic growth is the increase in the production of goods and services over time. It is measured by the growth rate of GDP. Economic growth is important because it leads to higher standards of living, lower unemployment, and greater economic opportunity. Factors that contribute to economic growth include improvements in technology, increases in the quantity and quality of the factors of production, and increases in human capital.In conclusion, economics is a complex and fascinating field of study that is essential for understanding how individuals, firms, and societies allocate their limited resources to satisfy their unlimited wants and needs. By understanding the key points discussed in this article, you can gain a deeper appreciation for the forces that drive the economy and the tools that policymakers use to manage it. Whether you are a student, a business owner, or a policymaker, a solid understanding of economics is crucial for making informed decisions in the modern world.。
宏微观知识点总结英语
宏微观知识点总结英语This article will provide a comprehensive summary of key concepts in both macroeconomics and microeconomics, including the principles of supply and demand, market structures, fiscal and monetary policy, and international trade.MacroeconomicsGross Domestic Product (GDP)GDP is the total value of all goods and services produced within a country's borders in a specific time period. It is a measure of a country's economic output and is used as an indicator of the overall health of the economy. GDP can be calculated using three different approaches:1. The production approach, which measures the total value of all goods and services produced.2. The expenditure approach, which measures the total amount spent on goods and services by consumers, businesses, and the government.3. The income approach, which measures the total income earned by individuals and businesses.UnemploymentUnemployment refers to the number of people who are actively seeking work but are unable to find employment. There are several types of unemployment, including:1. Frictional unemployment, which occurs when individuals are in between jobs and are searching for new employment opportunities.2. Structural unemployment, which occurs when there is a mismatch between the skills of workers and the requirements of available jobs.3. Cyclical unemployment, which occurs as a result of fluctuations in the business cycle.InflationInflation refers to the rate at which the general price level of goods and services in an economy is rising. The Consumer Price Index (CPI) is a commonly used measure of inflation and is used to track changes in the cost of living over time. Inflation can have both positive and negative effects on the economy. Moderate levels of inflation can stimulate economic growth, while high levels of inflation can erode the purchasing power of consumers and lead to economic instability.Economic GrowthEconomic growth refers to an increase in the output of goods and services in an economy over time. It is commonly measured using the annual percentage change in real GDP. Economic growth is driven by factors such as technological innovation, investment in physical and human capital, and improvements in productivity.Monetary PolicyMonetary policy is the management of a country's money supply and interest rates by the central bank. The primary objective of monetary policy is to control inflation, stabilize the currency, and promote economic growth. Central banks use tools such as open market operations, reserve requirements, and discount rates to achieve these objectives.Fiscal PolicyFiscal policy refers to the use of government spending and taxation to influence the economy. The main objectives of fiscal policy are to stabilize the economy, promote economic growth, and achieve full employment. Fiscal policy can be expansionary, involving increased government spending and lower taxes, or contractionary, involving reduced government spending and higher taxes.International TradeInternational trade refers to the exchange of goods and services between countries. Comparative advantage, which states that countries should specialize in producing goods and services in which they have a lower opportunity cost, is a central concept in international trade theory. Trade barriers such as tariffs, quotas, and subsidies can impact the volume and pattern of international trade.Exchange RatesExchange rates refer to the value of one currency in terms of another currency. Floating exchange rates are determined by market forces, while fixed exchange rates are set by governments. Changes in exchange rates can have significant implications for international trade, investment, and monetary policy.MicroeconomicsSupply and DemandSupply and demand are the fundamental forces that drive markets. The law of demand states that as the price of a good or service increases, the quantity demanded decreases, ceteris paribus. The law of supply states that as the price of a good or service increases, the quantity supplied increases, ceteris paribus. Equilibrium price and quantity occur when the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied.ElasticityPrice elasticity of demand measures the responsiveness of quantity demanded to changes in price. Price elasticity of supply measures the responsiveness of quantity supplied to changes in price. Elastic goods and services have a price elasticity greater than one, while inelastic goods and services have a price elasticity less than one.Market StructuresThere are four main types of market structures: perfect competition, monopoly, monopolistic competition, and oligopoly. Perfect competition is characterized by a large number of small firms producing identical products, with no barriers to entry or exit. Monopoly is characterized by a single firm dominating the market, with high barriers to entry. Monopolistic competition is characterized by a large number of firms producing differentiated products, with low barriers to entry. Oligopoly is characterized by a small number of large firms dominating the market, with high barriers to entry.Production and CostThe short-run production function describes the relationship between the quantity of inputs and the quantity of output, while the long-run production function allows all factors of production to vary. The cost function measures the relationship between the quantity of output and the cost of production. Marginal cost is the cost of producing an additional unit of output, while average total cost is the total cost per unit of output.Market FailuresMarket failures occur when the allocation of resources by a free market is inefficient. The main types of market failures include externalities, public goods, and asymmetric information. Externalities occur when the actions of one party impose costs or benefits on others without compensation. Public goods are non-excludable and non-rivalrous, meaning that they cannot be provided by the market. Asymmetric information occurs when one party in a transaction has more information than the other party.Consumer and Producer SurplusConsumer surplus is the difference between the maximum price a consumer is willing to pay for a good or service and the price they actually pay. Producer surplus is the difference between the minimum price a producer is willing to accept for a good or service and the price they actually receive. Total surplus is the sum of consumer surplus and producer surplus in a market.Utility and DemandUtility is the satisfaction or benefit that consumers derive from consuming goods and services. The law of diminishing marginal utility states that as a consumer consumes more of a good or service, the additional satisfaction derived from each additional unit decreases. The demand curve shows the relationship between the price of a good or service and the quantity demanded by consumers.Costs of ProductionThe costs of production include fixed costs, variable costs, total costs, average total costs, and marginal costs. Fixed costs do not change with the level of output, while variable costs do change with the level of output. Total costs equal the sum of fixed costs and variable costs. Average total costs equal total costs divided by the quantity of output, while marginal costs equal the change in total costs divided by the change in quantity of output.ConclusionMacroeconomics and microeconomics are essential fields of study for understanding the behavior of economies at both the aggregate and individual level. The concepts and principles outlined in this article provide a foundational understanding of how economic systems function, and the factors that influence overall economic performance and individual decision-making. By examining the interplay of supply and demand, market structures, fiscal and monetary policy, international trade, and consumer behavior, economists can gain valuable insights into economic phenomena and inform policy decisions that impact the welfare of societies and nations.。
萨缪尔森《微观经济学》(第19版)课后习题-不完全竞争和垄断(圣才出品)
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圣才电子书 十万种考研考证电子书、题库视频学习平台
其他类型的市场，所以 MR = MC 是市场均衡的一般条件。
5．边际收益 MR （增加的收益）[marginal （or extra） revenue， MR ] 答：边际收益又称边际报酬，是指增加一单位产品销售所引起的总收益的变化量，即
MR (Q) = TR (Q) / Q 。边际收益既可以是正数也可以是负数。
在完全竞争市场上，企业所面临的需求曲线是水平的，产品销售量的变化不会导致产品 价格的变化，边际收益等于产品价格，也是固定不变的。而在不完全竞争市场上，企业所面 临的需求曲线一般具有负斜率，即产品价格与其需求量二者呈反方向变化。如果增加产品的 销售量，就需要降低产品的价格。在这种情况下，企业的边际收益随着销售量的增加而递减。
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圣才电子书 十万种考研考证电子书、题库视频学习平台
品的竞争，因此，产பைடு நூலகம்差异成为厂商决定价格、生产和销售战略的重要手段。
4．进入壁垒（政府的与经济的）[barriers to entry （government and economic）] 答：进入壁垒也称进入障碍，是市场中新企业进入一个产业所受到的各种阻碍因素，是 在位企业相对于潜在进入者的优势，表现为在位企业可以持续地把价格定在完全竞争水平以 上而并没有引起潜在进入者进入的程度。从一般行业的进入壁垒看，最直接的壁垒有四种： 绝对成本优势、产品差异、规模经济和特有资源。从投资行为看，进入壁垒包括结构性进入 壁垒、行为性进入壁垒及政策性进入壁垒三大类。结构性进入壁垒包括绝对成本优势壁垒、 规模经济壁垒、资本量门槛壁垒和产品差异壁垒；行为性进入壁垒包括阻止进入行为和驱除 对手行为；政策性进入壁垒是指法律限制。
【国际经济学专题考试试卷十六】Monopolistic Competition
Chapter 16Monopolistic CompetitionTRUE/FALSE1. The "competition" in monopolistically competitive markets is most likely a result of having many sellers in themarket.ANS: T DIF: 1 REF: 16-1 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Monopolistic competitionMSC: Interpretive2. The "monopoly" in monopolistically competitive markets is most likely a result of firms having some pricingpower due to product differentiation.ANS: T DIF: 1 REF: 16-1 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Monopolistic competitionMSC: Interpretive3. Monopolistic competition is characterized by many buyers and sellers, product differentiation, and free entry. ANS: T DIF: 1 REF: 16-1 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Monopolistic competitionMSC: Definitional4. Monopolistic competition is characterized by many buyers and sellers, product differentiation, and barriers toentry.ANS: F DIF: 1 REF: 16-1 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Monopolistic competitionMSC: Definitional5. A monopolistically competitive market is characterized by barriers to entry.ANS: F DIF: 1 REF: 16-1 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Monopolistic competitionMSC: Interpretive6. Monopolistic competition is the only market structure that features many sellers.ANS: F DIF: 1 REF: 16-1 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Markets MSC: Interpretive7. Product differentiation always leads to some measure of market power.ANS: T DIF: 2 REF: 16-1 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Demand curveMSC: Interpretive8. Oligopoly is characterized by a few sellers offering similar products, whereas monopolistic competition ischaracterized by many sellers offering differentiated products.ANS: T DIF: 2 REF: 16-1 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Monopolistic competitionMSC: Definitional9. Monopolistic competition is characterized by a few sellers offering similar products, whereas oligopoly ischaracterized by many sellers offering differentiated products.ANS: F DIF: 2 REF: 16-1 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Monopolistic competitionMSC: Definitional10. Oligopoly and monopolistic competition are examples of a market structure called imperfect competition. ANS: T DIF: 1 REF: 16-1 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Monopolistic competitionMSC: Definitional1078Chapter 16/Monopolistic Competition 1079 11. Monopolistic competition and monopoly are examples of a market structure called imperfect competition. ANS: F DIF: 1 REF: 16-1 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Monopolistic competitionMSC: Definitional12. A markup of price over marginal cost is inconsistent with free entry and zero profit.ANS: F DIF: 2 REF: 16-2 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Profit maximizationMSC: Interpretive13. Monopolistically competitive firms, like monopoly firms, maximize their profits by charging a price thatexceeds marginal cost.ANS: T DIF: 2 REF: 16-2 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Profit maximizationMSC: Interpretive14. A profit-maximizing firm in a monopolistically competitive market charges a price equal to marginal cost. ANS: F DIF: 2 REF: 16-2 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Profit maximizationMSC: Interpretive15. A profit-maximizing firm in a monopolistically competitive market always operates on the downward-slopingportion of its marginal cost curve.ANS: F DIF: 2 REF: 16-2 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Profit maximizationMSC: Analytical16. For a profit-maximizing firm in a monopolistically competitive market, when price is equal to average totalcost, price must lie above marginal cost.ANS: T DIF: 2 REF: 16-2 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Profit maximizationMSC: Analytical17. A profit-maximizing firm in a monopolistically competitive market can earn positive, negative, or zero profitsin the short run.ANS: T DIF: 2 REF: 16-2 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Short-run equilibriumMSC: Interpretive18. A firm in a monopolistically competitive market can earn both short-run and long-run profits.ANS: F DIF: 2 REF: 16-2 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Short-run equilibrium | Long-run equilibriumMSC: Interpretive19. A firm in a monopolistically competitive market can earn short-run profits but not long-run profits.ANS: T DIF: 2 REF: 16-2 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Short-run equilibrium | Long-run equilibriumMSC: Interpretive20. In the long run, monopolistically competitive firms produce where demand equals marginal cost.ANS: F DIF: 2 REF: 16-2 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Long-run equilibriumMSC: Analytical21. When a firm in a monopolistically competitive market earns zero economic profit, its product price must equalmarginal cost.ANS: F DIF: 2 REF: 16-2 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Long-run equilibriumMSC: Interpretive1080 Chapter 16/Monopolistic Competition22. In the long run, monopolistically competitive firms produce where demand equals average total cost.ANS: T DIF: 2 REF: 16-2 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Long-run equilibriumMSC: Analytical23. In a monopolistically competitive market, the number of firms adjusts until economic profits are driven tozero.ANS: T DIF: 1 REF: 16-2 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Long-run equilibriumMSC: Interpretive24. When a profit-maximizing firm in a monopolistically competitive market is in long-run equilibrium, marginalcost must lie below average total cost.ANS: T DIF: 2 REF: 16-2 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Long-run equilibriumMSC: Analytical25. In a monopolistically competitive market, the demand curves faced by incumbent firms are unaffected by theentry of new firms into the market.ANS: F DIF: 2 REF: 16-2 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Demand curve | Long-run equilibriumMSC: Interpretive26. A firm in a monopolistically competitive market is usually indifferent to an additional customer walkingthrough the door, since a sale to that customer will not increase the firm's profit.ANS: F DIF: 2 REF: 16-2 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Profit maximizationMSC: Interpretive27. The term excess capacity refers to the fact that a firm operates on the upward-sloping portion of itsaverage-total-cost curve.ANS: F DIF: 2 REF: 16-2 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Excess capacityMSC: Interpretive28. The term excess capacity refers to the fact that a firm produces a lower quantity than it would if it operated atthe efficient scale.ANS: T DIF: 2 REF: 16-2 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Excess capacityMSC: Interpretive29. Excess capacity characterizes firms in monopolistically competitive markets, even in situations of long-runequilibrium.ANS: T DIF: 2 REF: 16-2 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Excess capacityMSC: Interpretive30. When a firm operates with excess capacity, it must be in a monopolistically competitive market.ANS: F DIF: 2 REF: 16-2 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Excess capacityMSC: Interpretive31. A firm that would experience higher average total cost by increasing production is operating with excesscapacity.ANS: F DIF: 2 REF: 16-2 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Excess capacityMSC: InterpretiveChapter 16/Monopolistic Competition 1081 32. When a firm operates at efficient scale, it is producing at the minimum point on its average total cost curve. ANS: T DIF: 1 REF: 16-2 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Efficient scaleMSC: Definitional33. Defenders of advertising argue that firms use advertising as a signal of quality, even if the advertising deliverslittle helpful information about the product.ANS: T DIF: 1 REF: 16-3 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Advertising MSC: Applicative34. Critics of advertising argue that advertising leads to less elastic demand for products and a larger markup ofprice over marginal cost.ANS: T DIF: 2 REF: 16-3 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Advertising MSC: Interpretive35. The claim that advertising reduces the elasticity of demand is likely to be made by a defender of advertising. ANS: F DIF: 2 REF: 16-3 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Advertising MSC: Interpretive36. Critics of advertising argue that firms use advertising to manipulate consumers’ tastes.ANS: T DIF: 1 REF: 16-3 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Advertising MSC: Applicative37. When advertising is used to relay information about price, each firm is able to enhance market power.ANS: F DIF: 2 REF: 16-3 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Advertising MSC: Interpretive38. Policymakers have generally come to accept the view that advertising enhances the efficiency of markets. ANS: T DIF: 2 REF: 16-3 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Advertising MSC: Interpretive39. Economists are unanimous in their belief that advertising is socially inefficient.ANS: F DIF: 1 REF: 16-3 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Advertising MSC: Definitional40. When McDonald’s opens a store in Dhaka, Ba ngladesh, it has a strong incentive to enforce product qualityconsistent with stores in the United States.ANS: T DIF: 2 REF: 16-3 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Advertising MSC: Interpretive41. The Mikati Philippines Hard Rock Cafe has the exact same menu as the Hard Rock Cafe in New York. This isan example of a brand name enhancing market efficiency for U.S. tourists visiting the Philippines.ANS: T DIF: 2 REF: 16-3 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Advertising MSC: Interpretive42. Empirical evidence suggests that advertising usually leads to an increase in the price for advertised products. ANS: F DIF: 2 REF: 16-3 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Advertising MSC: Interpretive43. Economists who argue that advertising enhances market efficiency suggest that celebrity advertising signalsinferior product quality.ANS: F DIF: 2 REF: 16-3 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Advertising MSC: Interpretive44. Advertising during the Super Bowl is an example of information about quality contained primarily in theexistence and expense of the advertising.ANS: T DIF: 2 REF: 16-3 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Advertising MSC: Interpretive45. Brand names are rarely used to convey information about product quality.ANS: F DIF: 2 REF: 16-3 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Advertising MSC: Interpretive1082 Chapter 16/Monopolistic Competition46. The government of Italy will not allow any Hard Rock Cafe restaurants to open in Italy. Defenders of theefficiency of brand-name markets would argue that this has hindered restaurant market efficiency in Italy. ANS: T DIF: 2 REF: 16-3 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Advertising MSC: Interpretive47. The debate over whether advertising serves a valuable purpose in society is definitively answered byeconomists who study the tastes and preferences of individuals.ANS: F DIF: 2 REF: 16-3 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Advertising MSC: Interpretive48. If advertising decreases the elasticity of demand for specific brand names of hard liquor, we would expectfirms to be able to charge a larger markup over marginal cost.ANS: T DIF: 2 REF: 16-3 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Advertising MSC: Interpretive49. There is general disagreement among economists about the role of advertising, but there is widespreadagreement about the role of brand names on market efficiency.ANS: F DIF: 2 REF: 16-3 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Advertising MSC: Interpretive50. The government may not be able to improve the inefficiencies of a monopolistically competitive market. ANS: T DIF: 2 REF: 16-4 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Monopolistic competitionMSC: Interpretive51. Firms in monopolistically competitive markets and monopolies can earn long-run profits due to barriers toentry.ANS: F DIF: 2 REF: 16-4 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Monopolistic competitionMSC: Interpretive52. Free entry eliminates long-run profits for firms in competitive and monopolistic industries.ANS: T DIF: 2 REF: 16-4 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Monopolistic competitionMSC: InterpretiveSHORT ANSWER1. List five goods that are likely sold in a monopolistically competitive market.ANS:Books, CDs, movies, computer games, and piano lessons are some examples.DIF: 1 REF: 16-1 NAT: Analytic LOC: Monopolistic competitionTOP: Monopolistic competition MSC: Interpretive2. Why does a typical monopolistically competitive firm face a downward-sloping demand curve?ANS:Because its product is different from those offered by other firms.DIF: 1 REF: 16-1 NAT: Analytic LOC: Monopolistic competitionTOP: Demand curve MSC: Interpretive3. In many college towns, private independent bookstores typically locate on the periphery of the college campus.However, in some college towns, the university has used political power to restrict private bookstores near campus through community zoning laws. Use your knowledge of markets to predict the price and quality of service differences in the market for college textbooks under the two different market regimes.ANS:In monopoly markets, price will be higher and the quality of service will be lower than in monopolistically competitive markets.DIF: 2 REF: 16-1 NAT: Analytic LOC: Monopolistic competitionTOP: Monopolistic competition MSC: AnalyticalChapter 16/Monopolistic Competition 1083 4. Use a graph to demonstrate why a profit-maximizing monopolistically competitive firm must operate at excesscapacity. Explain why a perfectly competitive firm is not subject to the same constraint.ANS:Competitive firms do not face downward-sloping demand. The graph shows the firm choosing a level of production in which the intersection of marginal revenue and marginal cost occurs at an output level where average total cost is decreasing. This profit-maximizing output level is less than the efficient scale (minimum of average total cost), and therefore the firm is said to be operating with excess capacity.DIF: 2 REF: 16-2 NAT: Analytic LOC: Monopolistic competitionTOP: Excess capacity MSC: Analytical5. In a small college town, four microbreweries have opened in the last two years. Demonstrate the effect of newmarket entrants on demand for existing firms (microbreweries) that already served this market. Assume that the local community now places a moratorium on new liquor licenses for microbreweries. How will thismoratorium affect the long-run profitability of incumbent firms?ANS:The arrival of a new entrant should be graphically depicted by a leftward shift in the demand curves faced by all incumbent firms. If firms are able to make economic profits, these will be able to be maintained in the long run if new entrants are not allowed (which would essentially be a barrier to entry, meaning the market would no longer be characterized as monopolistically competitive).DIF: 2 REF: 16-2 NAT: Analytic LOC: Monopolistic competitionTOP: Long-run equilibrium MSC: Analytical1084 Chapter 16/Monopolistic Competition6. What is meant by the term "excess capacity" as it relates to monopolistically competitive firms?ANS:Monopolistically competitive firms produce a level of output lower than the efficient scale of output and are therefore said to have excess capacity.DIF: 2 REF: 16-2 NAT: Analytic LOC: Monopolistic competitionTOP: Excess capacity MSC: Interpretive7. Entry of firms in a monopolistically competitive industry is characterized by two externalities. List them andbriefly describe how consumers and existing firms are influenced by them.ANS:Business-stealing effect: incumbent firms are affected through the loss of sales; consumers are affected by lower price.Product-variety effect: incumbent firms face a market with more substitutes; consumers have more product variety from which to choose.DIF: 2 REF: 16-2 NAT: Analytic LOC: Monopolistic competitionTOP: Externalities MSC: Interpretive8. Evaluate the following statement in the context of business-stealing and product-variety externalities: "Wehave too many student apartments in this town already. Statistics show that vacancy rates average 15 percent during any given semester."ANS:Business-stealing effect: if new entrants into the market can be profitable, then average vacancy rates are likely to rise above 15 percent.Product-variety effect:if new entrants to the market are able to identify niche markets which are profitable (i.e., offer club rooms, pools, athletic facilities, etc.), then product variety will increase, and average vacancy rates are likely to rise above 15 percent.DIF: 2 REF: 16-2 NAT: Analytic LOC: Monopolistic competitionTOP: Externalities MSC: Interpretive9. Assume the role of a critic of advertising. Describe the characteristics of advertising that reduce theeffectiveness of markets and decrease the social welfare of society.ANS:Advertising manipulates people's tastes and is psychological rather than informational. As a result, advertising creates a desire for a product that might not otherwise exist. Advertising may also impede competition by convincing consumers that products that are identical have significant differences.DIF: 2 REF: 16-3 NAT: Analytic LOC: Monopolistic competitionTOP: Advertising MSC: Interpretive10. Assume the role of a defender of advertising. Describe the characteristics of advertising that enhance theeffectiveness of markets and increase the social welfare of society.ANS:Advertising provides information to consumers and thus allows consumers to make more informed (and therefore better) choices. Advertising fosters competition by making consumers more aware of prices and product characteristics in a market.DIF: 2 REF: 16-3 NAT: Analytic LOC: Monopolistic competitionTOP: Advertising MSC: Interpretive11. Evaluate the following statement: "Advertisements that use celebrity endorsements are devoid of any valueand do not enhance the efficient functioning of markets."ANS:Some people argue that celebrity endorsements are a signal of quality due to the high cost of the advertisement. If so, then these advertisements relay information about product quality and enhance the effective functioning of markets. DIF: 2 REF: 16-3 NAT: Analytic LOC: Monopolistic competitionTOP: Advertising MSC: InterpretiveChapter 16/Monopolistic Competition 108512. Professional organizations (for example, the American Medical Association and the American Bar Association)have been active advocates for regulation to restrict the right of professionals to advertise. Describe whateconomic incentives might exist for existing professionals to restrict advertising.ANS:If advertising increases information about prices and services, then providers of professional services will berequired to compete with each other on the basis of price and service. As such, existing professionals will be subject to more competitive pressure in the markets they service, and individual profits are likely to fall.DIF: 2 REF: 16-3 NAT: Analytic LOC: Monopolistic competitionTOP: Advertising MSC: Analytical13. Discuss how brand names may enhance the efficiency of markets in a less developed country.ANS:Recognizable brand names signal quality products. In the tourist- and business-services market, this signal can be critical at the early stages of development to ensure visitors have a quality experience when other information isunavailable or unreliable.DIF: 2 REF: 16-3 NAT: Analytic LOC: Monopolistic competitionTOP: Advertising MSC: Interpretive14. As developing countries make a transition to market-based economies, one of the first major capitalinvestments is in "Western-quality" hotels. Explain why brand-name hotel accommodations are a critical stepin attracting foreign investment.ANS:Brand-name hotels are a critical first step to economic development because their recognized signal of qualityreduces the barriers of facilitating foreign visitors (and their money).DIF: 2 REF: 16-3 NAT: Analytic LOC: Monopolistic competitionTOP: Advertising MSC: Analytical15. In markets where the government imposes an excise tax on unit sales, it also has a tendency to dabble withrestrictions on advertising (for example, cigarettes and hard liquor). Do potential (or actual) restrictions onadvertising in these markets serve the interest of a government that is interested in maximizing its tax revenuefrom the sale of these products? Explain your answer.ANS:In the case of the examples given, demand is quite inelastic, so restrictions on advertising are not likely to have a large impact on total sales but may have an impact on the distribution of sales across brand names. As such,government revenue is largely unaffected if the tax is on unit sales.DIF: 3 REF: 16-3 NAT: Analytic LOC: Monopolistic competitionTOP: Advertising MSC: AnalyticalSec 00 - Monopolistic CompetitionMULTIPLE CHOICE1. Which of the following is a characteristic of monopolistic competition?a.ownership of a key resource by a single firmb.free entryc.identical productd.patentsANS: B DIF: 1 REF: 16-0 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Monopolistic competitionMSC: Definitional1086 Chapter 16/Monopolistic Competition2. The market for novels isa.perfectly competitive.b. a monopoly.c.monopolistically competitive.d.an oligopoly.ANS: C DIF: 1 REF: 16-0 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Monopolistic competitionMSC: Applicative3. Which of the following statements is not correct?a.Monopolistic competition is similar to monopoly because in each market structure the firm cancharge a price above marginal costs.b.Monopolistic competition is similar to perfect competition because both market structures arecharacterized by free entry.c.Monopolistic competition is similar to oligopoly because both market structures are characterizedby barriers to entry.d.Monopolistic competition is similar to perfect competition because both market structures arecharacterized by many sellers.ANS: C DIF: 2 REF: 16-0 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Monopolistic competitionMSC: Analytical4. Which of the following statements is not correct?a.Monopolistic competition is different from monopoly because monopolistic competition ischaracterized by free entry, whereas monopoly is characterized by barriers to entry.b.Both monopolistic competition and oligopoly fall in between the more extreme market structures ofcompetition and monopoly.c.Monopolistic competition is different from oligopoly because each seller in monopolisticcompetition is small relative to the market, whereas each seller can affect the actions of othersellers in an oligopoly.d.Both monopolistic competition and perfect competition are characterized by product differentiation. ANS: D DIF: 2 REF: 16-0 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Monopolistic competitionMSC: Analytical5. Monopolistic competition is a type ofa.oligopoly.b.market structure.c.price discrimination.d.advertising strategy.ANS: B DIF: 1 REF: 16-0 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Monopolistic competitionMSC: Definitional6. A monopolistically competitive market has characteristics that are similar toa. a monopoly only.b. a competitive firm only.c.both a monopoly and a competitive firm.d.neither a monopoly nor a competitive firm.ANS: C DIF: 1 REF: 16-0 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Monopolistic competitionMSC: ApplicativeChapter 16/Monopolistic Competition 1087 Sec01 - Monopolistic Competition - Between Monopoly and Perfect Competition MULTIPLE CHOICE1. A typical firm in the U. S. economy would be classified asa.perfectly competitive.b.imperfectly competitive.c. a duopolist.d.an oligopolist.ANS: B DIF: 1 REF: 16-1 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Imperfect competitionMSC: Interpretive2. The typical firm in the U. S. economya.has some degree of market power.b.sells its product for a price that is equal to the marginal cost of producing the last unit.c.is perfectly competitive.d.is a monopoly.ANS: A DIF: 2 REF: 16-1 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Imperfect competitionMSC: Interpretive3. Which of the following pairs illustrates the two extreme examples of market structures?petition and oligopolypetition and monopolyc.monopoly and monopolistic competitiond.oligopoly and monopolistic competitionANS: B DIF: 1 REF: 16-1 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Imperfect competitionMSC: Interpretive4. The general term for market structures that fall somewhere in-between monopoly and perfect competition isa.incomplete markets.b.imperfectly competitive markets.c.oligopoly markets.d.monopolistically competitive markets.ANS: B DIF: 1 REF: 16-1 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Imperfect competitionMSC: Definitional5. The two types of imperfectly competitive markets area.markets with differentiated products and monopoly.b.markets with differentiated products and oligopoly.c.oligopoly and monopoly.d.monopolistic competition and oligopoly.ANS: D DIF: 1 REF: 16-1 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Imperfect competitionMSC: Interpretive6. The two types of imperfectly competitive markets area.monopoly and monopolistic competition.b.monopoly and oligopoly.c.monopolistic competition and oligopoly.d.monopolistic competition and cartels.ANS: C DIF: 1 REF: 16-1 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Imperfect competitionMSC: Definitional7. In a market that is characterized by imperfect competition,a.firms are price takers.b.there are always a large number of firms.c.there are at least a few firms that compete with one another.d.the actions of one firm in the market never have any impact on the other firms' profits.ANS: C DIF: 2 REF: 16-1 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Imperfect competitionMSC: Interpretive8. Firms in industries that have competitors but do not face so much competition that they are price takers areoperating in either a(n)a.oligopoly or perfectly competitive market.b.oligopoly or monopoly market.c.oligopoly or monopolistically competitive market.d.monopoly or monopolistically competitive market.ANS: C DIF: 1 REF: 16-1 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Imperfect competitionMSC: Interpretive9. Imperfectly competitive firms are characterized bya.horizontal demand curves.b.standardized products.c. a large number of small firms.d.price making ability.ANS: D DIF: 2 REF: 16-1 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Imperfect competitionMSC: Interpretive10. An oligopolya.has a concentration ratio of less than 50 percent.b.is a price taker.c.is a type of imperfectly competitive market.d.has many firms rather than just one firm or a few firms.ANS: C DIF: 1 REF: 16-1 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Oligopoly MSC: Interpretive11. An oligopoly is a market in whicha.there are only a few sellers, each offering a product similar or identical to the products offered byother firms in the market.b.firms are price takers.c.the actions of one seller in the market have no impact on the other sellers' profits.d.there are many price-taking firms, each offering a product similar or identical to the productsoffered by other firms in the market.ANS: A DIF: 1 REF: 16-1 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Oligopoly MSC: Definitional12. One characteristic of an oligopoly market structure is:a.firms in the industry are typically characterized by very diverse product lines.b.firms in the industry have some degree of market power.c.products typically sell at a price equal to their marginal cost of production.d.the actions of one seller have no impact on the profitability of other sellers.ANS: B DIF: 2 REF: 16-1 NAT: AnalyticLOC: Monopolistic competition TOP: Oligopoly MSC: Interpretive。
垄断法
反垄断法垄断(Monopoly)的含义回顾：竞争competion完全竞争不完全竞争Perfect competion imperfect competion垄断竞争垄断Monopolistic competition寡头垄断独占垄断Oligopoly monopoly垄断的含义垄断是指人们利用自身或者外部特有的条件对某种机会和利益进行独占。
经济学上的垄断是一个中性概念，不涉及价值判断。
而法学家则旗帜鲜明的反对垄断。
我国反垄断法中没有对垄断进行单独予以规定，可以概括为：在经济活动中，任何以协议，滥用市场支配地位，经营者集中以及滥用行政权力等形式构成限制自由竞争的状态或行为。
垄断具有危害性和违法性两个显著特征。
1、危害性是指对市场的经济运行过程进行排他性控制，或对市场竞争进行实质性限制。
2、违法性是指该行为受到法律明确禁止。
有些垄断行为虽然具有一定的危害性，但被法律允许，属于垄断豁免的范围。
垄断的分类1、按照垄断的程度不同，可以分为独占垄断（monopoly)：某种商品或服务，完全由某一企业所供给，而又无替代商品或服务。
寡头垄断(Oligopoly) ：少数几个企业几乎控制着所有产品的生产和销售。
垄断竞争(Monopolistic competition):既有竞争，又有垄断。
是介于完全竞争和完全垄断之间的一个市场结构和竞争状态，也是现实经济生活中普遍存在的现象。
2、根据法律的价值判断，可以分为合法垄断和非法垄断。
反垄断法所规制的是非法垄断，合法垄断主要包括自然垄断行业，（如：水、电、气供应）和政府赋予经营特权的行业，（如：烟草专卖），还包括法律赋予的专利权（如：软件的知识产权）。
注意：这两者的界限不是绝对的，随着经济发展和国际竞争的需要引起反垄断法理论的改变，对合法垄断和非法垄断的界定也会发生变化。
如：美国反垄断法对大企业合并行为的认定，由绝对的非法逐渐改为部分合法。
3、按照垄断主体是经营者还是政府机关，可以分为经济垄断和行政垄断。
MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION
MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION:A market structure characterized by a large number of small firms, similar but not identical products sold by all firms, relative freedom of entry into and exit out of the industry, and extensive knowledge of prices and technology. This is one of four basic market structures. The other three are perfect competition, monopoly, and oligopoly. Monopolistic competition approximates most of the characteristics of perfect competition, but falls short of reaching the ideal benchmark that IS perfect competition. It is the best approximation of perfect competition that the real world offers.Monopolistic competition is a market structure characterized by a large number of relatively small firms. While the goods produced by the firms in the industry are similar, slight differences often exist. As such, firms operating in monopolistic competition are extremely competitive but each has a small degree of market control.In effect, monopolistic competition is something of a hybrid between perfect competition and monopoly. Comparable to perfect competition, monopolistic competition contains a large number of extremely competitive firms. However, comparable to monopoly, each firm has market control and faces anegatively-sloped demand curve',500,400)">demand curve.The real world is widely populated by monopolistic competition. Perhaps half of the economy's total production comes from monopolistically competitive firms. The best examples of monopolistic competition come from retail trade, including restaurants, clothing stores, and convenience stores.CharacteristicsThe four characteristics of monopolistic competition are: (1) large number of small firms, (2) similar, but not identical products, (3) relatively good, but not perfect resource mobility, and (4) extensive, but not perfect knowledge.∙Large Number of Small Firms: A monopolistically competitive industry contains a large number of small firms, each of which is relatively smallcompared to the overall size of the market. This ensures that all firms arerelatively competitive with very little market control over price or quantity.In particular, each firm has hundreds or even thousands of potentialcompetitors.∙Similar Products: Each firm in a monopolistically competitive market sells a similar, but not absolutely identical, product. The goods sold by the firms are close substitutes for one another, just not perfect substitutes. Mostimportant, each good satisfies the same basic want or need. The goodsmight have subtle but actual physical differences or they might only beperceived different by the buyers. Whatever the reason, buyers treat thegoods as similar, but different.∙Relative Resource Mobility: Monopolistically competitive firms are relatively free to enter and exit an industry. There might be a few restrictions, but not many. These firms are not "perfectly" mobile as with perfect competition,but they are largely unrestricted by government rules and regulations,start-up cost, or other substantial barriers to entry.∙Extensive Knowledge: In monopolistic competition, buyers do not know everything, but they have relatively complete information about alternative prices. They also have relatively complete information about productdifferences, brand names, etc. Each seller also has relatively completeinformation about production techniques and the prices charged by theircompetitors.Product DifferentiationThe goods produced by firms operating in a monopolistically competitive market are subject to product differentiation. The goods are essentially the same, but they have slight differences.Product differentiation is usually achieved in one of three ways: (1) physical differences, (2) perceived differences, and (3) support services.∙Physical Differences: In some cases the product of one firm is physically different form the product of other firms. One good is chocolate, the other is vanilla. One good uses plastic, the other aluminum.∙Perceived Differences: In other cases goods are only perceived to be different by the buyers, even though no physical differences exist. Suchdifferences are often created by brand names, where the only difference is the packaging.∙Support Services: In still other cases, products that are physically identical and perceived to be identical are differentiated by support services. Eventhough the products purchased are identical, one retail store might offer"service with a smile," while another provides express checkout.Product differentiation is the primary reason that each firm operating in a monopolistically competitive market is able to create a little monopoly all to itself.Demand and RevenueDemand Curve,Monopolistic CompetitionThe four characteristics of monopolisticcompetition mean that a monopolisticallycompetitive firm faces a relatively elastic,but not perfectly elastic, demand curve,such as the one displayed in the exhibit tothe right. Each firm in a monopolisticallycompetitive market can sell a wide range ofoutput within a relatively narrow range ofprices.Demand is relatively elastic in monopolisticcompetition because each firm facescompetition from a large number of very, very close substitutes. However, demand is not perfectly elastic (as in perfect competition) because the output of each firm is slightly different from that of other firms. Monopolistically competitive goods are close substitutes, but not perfect substitutes.In the exhibit to the right, the monopolistically competitive firm can sell up to 10 units of output within the range of $5.50 to $6.50. Should the price go higher than $6.50, the quantity demanded drops to zero.A monopolistically competitive firm is a price maker, with some degree of control over price. Once again, unlike perfect competition, a monopolistically competitive firm has the ability to raise or lower the price a little, not much, but a little. And like monopoly, the price received by a monopolistically competitive firm (which is also the firm's average revenue) is greater than its marginal revenue.In the exhibit to the right, the marginal revenue curve (MR) lies below the demand/average revenue curve (D = AR). While marginal revenue is less than price, because demand is relatively elastic, the difference tends to be relatively small. For example, 5 units of output correspond to a $5 price. The marginal revenue for the fifth unit is $4.80, less than price, but not by much.Short-Run ProductionShort-Run Production,Monopolistic CompetitionThe analysis of short-run production by amonopolistically competitive firm providesinsight into market supply. The keyassumption is that a monopolisticallycompetitive firm, like any other firm, ismotivated by profit maximization. The firmchooses to produce the quantity of outputthat generates the highest possible level ofprofit, given price, market demand, costconditions, production technology, etc.The short-run production decision formonopolistic competition can be illustratedusing the exhibit to the right. The top panelindicates the two sides of the profitdecision--revenue and cost. The slightlycurved green line is total revenue. Becauseprice depends on quantity, the totalrevenue curve is not a straight line. Thecurved red line is total cost. The differencebetween total revenue and total cost isprofit, which is illustrated in the lower panel as the brown line.A firm maximizes profit by selecting the quantity of output that generates the greatest gap between the total revenue line and the total cost line in the upper panel, or at the peak of the profit curve in the lower panel. In this example, the profit maximizing output quantity is 6. Any other level of production generates less profit.Long-Run ProductionIn the long run, with all inputs variable, a monopolistically competitive industry reaches equilibrium at an output that generates economies of scale or increasing returns to scale. At this level of output, the negatively-sloped demand curve is tangent to the negatively-sloped segment of the long run-average cost curve.This is achieved through a two-fold adjustment process.∙The first of the folds is entry and exit of firms into and out of the industry.This ensures that firms earn zero economic profit and that price is equal to average cost.∙The second of the folds is the pursuit of profit maximization by each firm in the industry. This ensures that firms produce the quantity of output thatequates marginal revenue with short-run and long-run marginal cost.Because a monopolistically competitive firm has some market control and faces a negatively-sloped demand curve, the end result of this long-run adjustment is two equilibrium conditions:With marginal revenue equal to marginal cost, each firm is maximizing profit and has no reason to adjust the quantity of output or factory size. With price equal to average cost, each firm in the industry is earning only a normal profit. Economic profit is zero and there are no economic losses, meaning no firm is inclined to enter or exit the industry.These conditions are satisfied separately. However, because price is not equal to marginal revenue, the two equations are not equal (unlike perfect competition). This further means that monopolistic competition does NOT achieve long-run equilibrium at the minimum efficient scale of production.Real World (In)EfficiencyA monopolistically competitive firm generally produces less output and charges a higher price than would be the case for a perfectly competitive industry. In particular, the price charged by a monopolistically competitive firm is greater than its marginal cost.The inequality of price and marginal cost violates the key condition for efficiency. Resources are NOT being used to generate the highest possible level of satisfaction.The reason for this inefficiency is found with market control. Because a monopolistically competitive firm has control over a small slice of the market, it faces a negatively-sloped demand curve and price is greater than marginal revenue, which is set equal to marginal cost when maximizing profit.While monopolistic competition is technically inefficient, it tends to be less inefficient than other market structures, especially monopoly. Even though price is greater than marginal revenue (and thus marginal cost), because the demand curve is relatively elastic, the difference is often relatively small.For example, a monopoly that charges a $100 price while incurring a marginal cost of $20 creates a serious inefficiency problem. In contrast, the inefficiency created by a monopolistically competitive firm that charges a $50 price while incurring a marginal cost of $49.95 is substantially less.The closer marginal revenue is to price, the closer a monopolistically competitive firm comes to allocating resources according to the efficiency benchmark established by perfect competition.In the grand scheme of economic problems, the inefficiency created by monopolistic competition seldom warrants much attention... and deservedly so.The Other Three Market StructuresMonopolistic competition is one of fourcommon market structures. The other three are: perfect competition, monopoly, and oligopoly. The exhibit tothe right illustrates how these fourmarket structures form a continuumbased on the relative degree of marketcontrol and the number of competitorsin the market. In the middle of the market structure continuum, near the left end, is monopolistic competition, characterized by numerous competitors and limited market control.∙Perfect Competition: To the far left of the market structure continuum is perfect competition, characterized by a large number of relatively smallcompetitors, each with no market control. Perfect competition is an idealized market structure that provides a benchmark for efficiency.∙Monopoly: To the far right of the market structure continuum is monopoly, characterized by a single competitor and extensive market control.Monopoly contains a single seller of a unique product with no closesubstitutes. The demand for monopoly output is THE market demand.∙Oligopoly: In the middle of the market structure continuum, residing closer to monopoly, is oligopoly, characterized by a small number of relatively large competitors, each with substantial market control. A substantial number of real world markets fit the characteristics of oligopoly.On the surface, oligopoly and monopolistic competition seem quite different. Oligopoly contains a few large firms that dominate a market. Monopolistic competition contains a large number of small firms, each with some, but not a lot of market control. However, monopolistic competition and oligopoly are actually the heart and soul of the market structure continuum.There is no clear-cut, obvious dividing line between monopolistic competition and oligopoly. While a three-firm industry is most assuredly an oligopoly and a 3,000 firm industry is most likely monopolistic competition, an industry with 30 firms could be considered either oligopoly or monopolistic competition. For example, convenience stores in a large city are undoubtedly monopolistically competitive. However, convenience stores in a smaller town might very well be oligopoly.Market Structure Continuum。
萨缪尔森《微观经济学》(第19版)习题详解(含考研真题)(第10章--寡头和垄断竞争)
萨缪尔森《微观经济学》（第19版）第10章寡头和垄断竞争课后习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。
以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。
一、概念题1．集中：集中率，HHI（concentration：concentration ratios，HHI）答：市场力量表示单个企业或少数企业控制某一产业的价格和生产决策的程度。
市场力量最常用的衡量指标是一个产业的集中率。
其中，四企业集中率是指四家最大的厂商在某个产业的总产量（或发货量）中所占的百分比；同样，八企业集中率就是前八大厂商在某个产业总产量中所占的百分比。
在完全垄断的情况下，四家或八家企业的集中率都是100%，因为一家企业就生产了所有的产品，而对于完全竞争来说，这两种集中率都接近于零，因为即使是最大企业也只是行业中全部产出的一小部分。
许多经济学家认为，传统的集中率没有能够充分地衡量市场力量。
赫芬达尔—赫希曼指数（HHI）是一种更好的衡量那些占统治地位的企业在行业中的角色的方法。
该指数是将一个市场中所有参与者所占的市场份额的比率的平方进行加总而获得的。
完全竞争的HHI接近零，而完全垄断的HHI则是10000。
2．市场力量（market power）答：市场力量表示单个企业或少数企业控制某一产业的价格和生产决策的程度。
市场力量最常用的衡量指标是一个产业的集中率。
其中，四企业集中率是指四家最大的厂商在某个产业的总产量（或发货量）中所占的百分比；同样，八企业集中率就是前八大厂商在某个产业总产量中所占的百分比。
3．策略互动（strategic interaction）答：策略博弈的本质在于参与者的决策相互依存。
微观经济学原理(第七版) 曼昆 名词解释(带英文)
微观经济学原理曼昆名词解释稀缺性（scarcity）：社会资源的有限性。
经济学(economics)：研究社会如何管理自己的稀缺资源。
效率(efficiency)：社会能从其稀缺资源中得到最多东西的特性。
平等(equality)：经济成果在社会成员中公平分配的特性。
机会成本(opportunity cost)：为了得到某种东西所必须放弃的东西。
理性人(rational people)：系统而有目的地尽最大努力实现起目标的人。
边际变动(marginal change)：对行动计划微小的增量调整。
激励(incentive)：引起一个人做出某种行为的某种东西。
市场经济(market economy)：当许多企业和家庭在物品与劳务市场上相互交易时，通过他们的分散决策配置资源的经济。
产权（property rights）：个人拥有并控制稀缺资源的能力。
市场失灵(market failure)：市场本身不能有效配置资源的情况。
外部性(externality)：一个人的行为对旁观者福利的影响。
市场势力(market power)：一个经济活动者（或经济活动者的一个小集团）对市场价格有显著影响的能力。
生产率(productivity)：一个工人一小时所生产的物品与劳务量。
通货膨胀(inflation)：经济中物价总水平的上升。
经济周期(business cycle)：就业和生产等经济活动的波动（就是生产这类经济活动的波动。
）循环流向图(circular-flow diagram)：一个说明货币如何通过市场在家庭与企业之间流动的直观经济模型。
生产可能性边界(production possibilities frontier)：表示一个经济在可得到的生产要素与生产技术既定时所能生产的产量的各种组合的图形。
微观经济学(microeconomics)：研究家庭和企业如何做出决策，以及它们在市场上的相互交易。
宏观经济学(macroeconomics)：研究整体经济现象，包括通货膨胀、失业和经济增长。
宏微观经济学英文名词解释
宏微观经济学英文名词解释Macroeconomics and Microeconomics: Key Concepts Explained。
In the realm of economics, two fundamental branches govern the analysis and understanding of economic systems: macroeconomics and microeconomics. These disciplines delve into the intricate workings of economies, albeit from different perspectives. Below, we elucidate the key concepts in both macro and microeconomics, shedding light on their significance and how they shape our understanding of economic phenomena.Macroeconomics:。
1. Gross Domestic Product (GDP): GDP serves as a cornerstone indicator in macroeconomics, representing the total value of all goods and services produced within a country's borders over a specific period. It encapsulates the economic health and performance of a nation, reflecting its overall output and standard of living.2. Inflation: Inflation denotes the rate at which the general price level of goods and services rises over time. It erodes purchasing power and influences consumer behavior, investment decisions, and government policies. Central banks often target a specific inflation rate to maintain economic stability.3. Unemployment: Unemployment measures the proportion of the labor force actively seeking employment but unable to find jobs. It reflects underutilization of labor resources within an economy, impacting income distribution, social welfare, and government expenditure on welfare programs.4. Fiscal Policy: Fiscal policy pertains to the use of government spending and taxation to influence economic conditions. Governments employ fiscal measures to stimulate or restrain economic growth, manage inflation, and address unemployment through budgetary adjustments and public expenditure programs.5. Monetary Policy: Monetary policy involves the regulation of money supply and interest rates by central banks to achieve macroeconomic objectives. Through tools like open market operations and reserve requirements, monetary authorities aim to control inflation, stabilize currency value, and promote economic growth.Microeconomics:。
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Slide 3
9.3
Forms of Imperfect Competition
1. Pure Monopoly The only supplier of a unique product with no close substitutes 2. Monopolistic Competition A large number of firms that produce slightly differentiated products that are reasonably close substitutes for one another Long-run adjustment to zero economic profits Importance of differentiation
Slide 5
9.5
Essential Difference Between Perfectly and Imperfectly Competitive Firms
The perfectly competitive firm faces a perfectly elastic demand for its product.
Slide 11
9.11
Costs for Two Computer Game Producers (1)
Nintendo
Playstation
Annual production Fixed cost
1,000,000 $200,000
1,200,000 $200,000
Variable cost
Slide 18
9.18
The Monopolist’s Benefit from Selling an Additional Unit8Βιβλιοθήκη Price ($/unit)
6 5
• If P = $6, then TR = $6 x 2 = $12 • If P = $5, then TR = $5 x 3 = $15 • The MR of selling the 3rd unit = $3 (15-12) • For the 3rd unit, MR = $3 < P = $5
Slide 12
9.12
Costs for Two Computer Game Producers (2)
Nintendo
Playstation
Annual production Fixed cost
1,000,000 $10,000,000
1,200,000 $10,000,000
Variable cost
Total cost Average total cost per game
$200,000
$10,200,000 $10.20
$240,000
$10,240,000 $8.53
Observations •Fixed costs are a relatively large share of total cost •Playstation has a $1.67 average cost advantage •Playstation can lower prices, cover cost, and attract customers
firm has no market power.
At the equilibrium price, the firm sells all it wishes. If the firm raises its price, sales will be zero. If the firm lowers its price, sales will not increase. The firm’s demand curve is the horizontal line at the market price.
The imperfectly competitive firm faces a downwardsloping demand curve.
Slide 6
9.6
The Demand Curves Facing Perfectly and Imperfectly Competitive Firms
Total cost Average total cost per game
$800,000
$1,000,000 $1.00
$960,000
$1,160,000 $0.97
Observations •Fixed costs are a relatively small share of total cost •Cost/game is nearly the same
Slide 17
9.17
Profit Maximization for the Monopolist
Marginal Revenue for the Monopolist Perfect competition and monopolies Both increase output when MR > MC. Calculate MC the same way. Do not have the same MR at a given price. In perfect competition: MR = P In monopoly: MR < P
Slide 2
9.2
Imperfect Competition
Imperfectly Competitive Firms Have some control over price Price may be greater than the marginal cost of production Long-run economic profits are possible Reduce economic surplus to varying degrees Are very common
Perfectly competitive firm
$/unit of output
Imperfectly competitive firm
Market price
Price
D
D
Quantity Quantity
9.7
Perfectly competitive market
Supply and demand determine equilibrium price. The
Monopoly, Oligopoly, and Monopolistic Competition
9.1 1
Perfectly Competitive Market
An ideal market that maximizes economic surplus A situation that does not always exist
Slide 9
9.9
Sources of Market Power
Exclusive control over inputs Patents and Copyrights Government Licenses or Franchises Economies of Scale (Natural Monopolies) Network Externalities
Cost of producing a computer
Fixed Cost Software Variable Cost Hardware
1984 1990
20% 80%
80% 20%
9.15
Profit Maximization for the Monopolist
A price taker (perfect competition) and a price setter (imperfect competition) share two economic goals. They want: To maximize profits To select the output level that maximizes the difference between TR and TC, where MB= MC.
$100,000
$10,100,000 $20.20
$340,000
$10,340,000 $6.08
• Shift of 500,000 units to Playstation • Nintendo’s average cost increases to $20.20/unit • Playstation average cost falls to $6.08 • A large number of firms cannot survive when the cost differential is high
Slide 10
9.10
Economies of Scale and the Importance of Start-Up Costs
Firms with large fixed costs and low variable costs: Have low marginal costs Average total cost declines sharply as output increases Economies of scale will exist
D
2
3 Quantity (units/week)
8
9.19
Marginal Revenue in Graphical Form
Slide 8
9.8
Imperfectly Competitive Markets