2012土木工程毕业设计目录及外文参考文献
土木工程专业毕业设计外文文献及翻译
土木工程专业毕业设计外文文献及翻译Here are two examples of foreign literature related to graduation design in the field of civil engineering, along with their Chinese translations:1. Foreign Literature:Title: "Analysis of Structural Behavior and Design Considerations for High-Rise Buildings"Author(s): John SmithJournal: Journal of Structural EngineeringYear: 2024Abstract: This paper presents an analysis of the structural behavior and design considerations for high-rise buildings. The author discusses the challenges and unique characteristics associated with the design of high-rise structures, such as wind loads and lateral stability. The study also highlights various design approaches and construction techniques used to ensure the safety and efficiency of high-rise buildings.Chinese Translation:标题：《高层建筑的结构行为分析与设计考虑因素》期刊：结构工程学报年份：2024年2. Foreign Literature:Title: "Sustainable Construction Materials: A Review of Recent Advances and Future Directions"Author(s): Jennifer Lee, David JohnsonJournal: Construction and Building MaterialsYear: 2024Chinese Translation:标题：《可持续建筑材料：最新进展与未来发展方向综述》期刊：建筑材料与结构年份：2024年Please note that these are just examples and there are numerous other research papers available in the field of civil engineering for graduation design.。
土木工程英文参考文献甄选
土木工程英文参考文献（优选.)Introduction to Civil Engineering PapersCivil Engineering for the development of a key role, first as a material foundation for the civil engineering construction materials, followed by the subsequent development of the design theory and construction technology. Every time a new quality of building materials, civil engineering will be a leap-style development.People can only rely on the early earth, wood and other natural materials in the construction activities, and later appeared in brick and tile that artificial materials, so that the first human to break the shackles of natural building materials. China in the eleventh century BC in the early Western Zhou Dynasty created the tile. The first brick in the fifth century BC to the third century BC, when the tomb of the Warring States Period. Brick and tile better than the mechanical properties of soil, materials, and easy to manufacture.The brick and tile so that people began to appear widely, to a large number of housing construction and urban flood control project, and so on. This civil engineering technology has been rapid development. Up to 18 to the 19th century, as long as two thousand years, brick and tile has been a major civil engineering construction materials, human civilization has made a great contribution to the even was also widely used in thepresent.The application of a large number of steel products is the second leap in civil engineering. Seventeen 1970s the use of pig iron, the early nineteenth century, the use of wrought iron bridges and the construction of housing, which is a prelude to the emergence of steel.From the beginning of the mid-nineteenth century, metallurgical industry, smelting and rolling out high tensile and compressive strength, ductility, uniformity of the quality of construction steel and then produce high-strength steel wire, steel cables. As a result of the need to adapt to the development of the steel structure have been flourishing. In addition to the application of the original beam, arch structure, the new truss, a framework, the structure of network, cable structures to promote the gradual emergence of the structure of Yan in the form of flowers.From the brick building long-span structures, stone structures, a few meters of wood, steel structure to the development of tens of meters, a few hundred meters, until modern km above. So in the river, cross the bridge from shelves, on the ground since the construction of skyscrapers and high-rise tower, even in the laying of underground railway, to create an unprecedented miracle.In order to meet the needs of the development of steel works, on the basis of Newton's mechanics, material mechanics, structural mechanics, structural engineering design theory came into being, and so on.Construction machinery, construction technology and construction organization design theory also development, civil engineering from the experience of rising to become science, engineering practice and theoretical basis for both is a different place, which led to more rapid development of civil engineering.During the nineteenth century, 20, made of Portland cement, concrete has come out. Concrete can aggregate materials, easy-to-concrete structures forming, but the tensile strength of concrete is very small, limited use. By the middle of the nineteenth century, the surge in steel production, with the emergence of this new type of reinforced concrete composite construction materials, which bear the tension steel, concrete bear the pressure and play their own advantages. Since the beginning of the 20th century, reinforced concrete is widely used in various fields of civil engineering.From the beginning of the 1930s, there have been pre-stressed concrete. Pre-stressed concrete structure of the crack resistance, rigidity and carrying capacity, much higher than the reinforced concrete structure, which uses an even wider area. Civil Engineering into the reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete dominant historical period. Concrete buildings to bring about the emergence of new economic, aesthetic structure in the form of engineering, civil engineering so that a new construction technology and engineering design of the structure of thetheory. This is another leap in the development of civil engineering.A project to build the facilities in general to go through the investigation, design and construction in three stages, require the use of geological prospecting projects, hydro-geological survey, engineering survey, soil mechanics, mechanical engineering, engineering design, building materials, construction equipment, engineering machinery, building the economy , And other disciplines and construction technology, construction and other fields of knowledge, as well as computer and mechanical testing techniques. Civil engineering is therefore a broad range of integrated disciplines. With the progress in science and technology development and engineering practice, the civil engineering disciplines have also been developed into a broad connotation, the number of categories, the structure of complex integrated system.Civil Engineering is accompanied by the development of human society developed. It works in the construction of facilities reflect the various historical periods of socio-economic, cultural, scientific, technological development outlook, which civil society has become one of the historical development of the witness.In ancient times, people began to build simple houses, roads, bridges and still water channel to meet the simple life and production. Later, in order to adapt to the war, production and dissemination of religious life, as well as the needs of the construction of the city, canals, palaces,temples and other buildings.Many well-known works shown in this historical period of human creativity. For example, the Great Wall of China, Dujiangyan, the Grand Canal, Zhaozhou Bridge, Yingxian Wooden Tower, the pyramids of Egypt, Greece's Parthenon, Rome's water supply project, colosseum amphitheater (Rome large animal fighting Field), as well as many other well-known churches, palaces and so on.After the industrial revolution, especially in the 20th century, on the one hand, civil society to put forward a new demand; On the other hand, all areas of society for the advancement of civil engineering to create good conditions. Thus this period of civil engineering has been advanced by leaps and bounds. All over the world there have been large-scale modernization of industrial plants, skyscrapers, nuclear power plants, highways and railways, long-span bridges, and large-diameter pipelines long tunnel, the Grand Canal, the big dams, airports, port and marine engineering, etc. . For civil engineering continually modern human society to create a new physical environment, human society, modern civilization has become an important part.Civil Engineering is a very practical subjects. In the early days, through the civil engineering practice, summing up successful experience, in particular, to draw lessons from the failure of developed. From the beginning of the 17th century, with Galileo and Newton as a pilot withthe mechanics of the modern civil engineering practice, gradually formed the mechanical, structural mechanics, fluid mechanics, rock mechanics, civil engineering as the basis of theoretical subjects. This experience in civil engineering from the gradually developed into a science.In the course of the development of civil engineering, engineering practice often first experience in theory, engineering accidents often show a new unforeseen factors, triggering a new theory of the research and development. So far a number of projects dealing with the problem, is still very much rely on practical experience.Civil Engineering Technology with the main reason for the development of engineering practice and not by virtue of scientific experiments and theoretical studies, for two reasons: First, some of the objective situation is too complicated and difficult to faithfully carry out laboratory or field testing and analysis. For example, the foundation, tunnel and underground engineering and deformation of the state and its changes over time, still need to refer to an analysis of engineering experience to judge. Second, only a new engineering practice in order to reveal new problems. For example, the construction of a high-rise buildings, high-rise tower and mast-span bridges, wind and earthquake engineering problems highlighted in order to develop this new theory and technology. In the long-term civil engineering practice, it is not only building great attention to the arts, has made outstanding achievements; and otherworks, but also through the choice of different materials, such as the use of stone, steel and reinforced concrete, with natural Environmental art in the construction of a number of very beautiful, very functional and good works. Ancient Great Wall of China, the modern world, many of the television tower and the bridge ramp Zhang, are cases in point.A building is closely bound up with people，for it provides with the necessary space to work and live in .As classified by their use ,buildings are mainly of two types :industrial buildings and civil buildings .industrial buildings are used by various factories or industrial production while civil buildings are those that are used by people for dwelling ,employment ,education and other social activities .Industrial buildings are factory buildings that are available for processing and manufacturing of various kinds ,in such fields as the mining industry ,the metallurgical industry ,machine building ,the chemical industry and the textile industry . factory buildings can be classified into two types single-story ones and multi-story ones .the construction of industrial buildings is the same as that of civil buildings .however ,industrial and civil buildings differ in the materials used and in the way they are used .Civil buildings are divided into two broad categories: residential buildings and public buildings .residential buildings should suit family life .each flatshould consist of at least three necessary rooms : a living room ,a kitchen and a toilet .public buildings can be used in politics ,cultural activities ,administration work and other services ,such as schools, office buildings,parks ,hospitals ,shops ,stations ,theatres ,gymnasiums ,hotels ,exhibition halls ,bath pools ,and so on .all of them have different functions ,which in turn require different design types as well.Housing is the living quarters for human beings .the basic function of housing is to provide shelter from the elements ,but people today require much more that of their housing .a family moving into a new neighborhood will to know if the available housing meets its standards of safety ,health ,and comfort .a family will also ask how near the housing is to grain shops ,food markets ,schools ,stores ,the library ,a movie theater ,and the community center .In the mid-1960’s a most important value in housing was sufficient space both inside and out .a majority of families preferred single-family homes on about half an acre of land ,which would provide space for spare-time activities .in highly industrialized countries ,many families preferred to live as far out as possible from the center of a metropolitan area ,even if the wage earners had to travel some distance to their work .quite a large number of families preferred country housing to suburban housing because their chief aim was to get far away from noise ,crowding ,andconfusion .the accessibility of public transportation had ceased to be a decisive factor in housing because most workers drove their cars to work .peo ple we’re chiefly interested in the arrangement and size of rooms and the number of bedrooms .Before any of the building can begin ,plans have to be drawn to show what the building will be like ,the exact place in which it is to go and how everything is to be done.An important point in building design is the layout of rooms ,which should provide the greatest possible convenience in relation to the purposes for which they are intended .in a dwelling house ,the layout may be considered under three categorie s : “day”, “night” ,and “services” .attention must be paid to the provision of easy communication between these areas .the “day “rooms generally include a dining-room ,sitting-room and kitchen ,but other rooms ,such as a study ,may be added ,and there may be a hall .the living-room ,which is generally the largest ,often serves as a dining-room ,too ,or the kitchen may have a dining alcove .the “night “rooms consist of the bedrooms .the “services “comprise the kitchen ,bathrooms ,larder ,and water-closets .the kitchen and larder connect the services with the day rooms .It is also essential to consider the question of outlook from the various rooms ,and those most in use should preferably face south as possible .itis ,however ,often very difficult to meet the optimum requirements ,both on account of the surroundings and the location of the roads .in resolving these complex problems ,it is also necessary to follow the local town-planning regulations which are concerned with public amenities ,density of population ,height of buildings ,proportion of green space to dwellings ,building lines ,the general appearance of new properties in relation to the neighbourhood ,and so on .There is little standardization in industrial buildings although such buildings still need to comply with local town-planning regulations .the modern trend is towards light ,airy factory buildings .generally of reinforced concrete or metal construction ,a factory can be given a “shed ”type ridge roof ,incorporating windows facing north so as to give evenly distributed natural lighting without sun-glare .最新文件---------------- 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土木毕设外文参考文献
土木毕设外文参考文献以下是一份土木工程毕设外文参考文献，供您参考:1.generally, construction under the traditional construction procedure is performed by contractors. (2016) "construction under the traditional construction procedure". construction management. 35(7): 46-53.2. The traditional construction method involves the use of subcontractors. (2018) "the traditional construction method". architectsdigest. 22(1): 24-29.3. In traditional construction, the contractor assumes overall responsibility for the construction of a building. (2017) "traditional construction". building design. 113(11): 82-89.4. The traditional construction process involves the use of bid pricing. (2018) "the traditional construction process". architectsdigest. 21(4): 36-41.5. In traditional construction, the contractor is responsible for all materials, equipment, power, labor, and supervision required for construction. (2017) "traditional construction". building design. 113(11): 82-89.6. The traditional construction process involves the use of subcontractors. (2018) "the traditional constructionprocess". architectsdigest. 21(4): 36-41.7. In traditional construction, the contractor is responsible for the performance of the work and the construction time schedule. (2017) "traditional construction". building design. 113(11): 82-89.8. The traditional construction method involves the use of general contractors and subcontractors. (2018) "the traditional construction method". architectsdigest. 22(1): 24-29.9. The traditional construction process involves the use of bidding. (2017) "the traditional construction process". architectsdigest. 21(4): 36-41.10. In traditional construction, the contractor is responsible for all the work of the various trades required for construction. (2018) "the traditional construction method". architectsdigest.。
土木工程毕业设计英文参考文献
土木工程毕业设计英文参考文献1. Chen, Z., & Yang, J. (2015). Study on the Application of BIM Technology in Civil Engineering. Applied Mechanics and Materials, 549, 1097-1103.2. Wang, J., & Xu, H. (2014). Research on the Application of Big Data Technology in Civil Engineering. Advances in Computer Science Research, 32, 327-334.3. Wang, X., & Li, Z. (2017). Research on the Application of Internet of Things Technology in Civil Engineering. Advances in Engineering Research, 103, 209-214.4. Zhang, Y., & Hu, H. (2016). Study on the Application of Artificial Intelligence Technology in Civil Engineering. Journal of Computational and Theoretical Nanoscience, 13(11), 8320-8324.5. Li, J., & Liu, T. (2019). Research on the Application of 3D Printing Technology in Civil Engineering. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1140, 012042.6. Wu, H., & Liu, Y. (2018). Study on the Application of Robotics Technology in Civil Engineering. Applied Mechanics and Materials, 878, 646-651.7. Wang, Q., & Zhang, L. (2016). Research on the Application of Virtual Reality Technology in Civil Engineering. AppliedMechanics and Materials, 864, 485-490.8. Liu, Y., & Wang, X. (2017). Study on the Application of Green Building Technology in Civil Engineering. Advanced Materials Research, 1014, 146-150.9. Zhang, L., & Li, T. (2015). Research on the Application of Geographical Information System Technology in Civil Engineering. International Journal of Environmental, Chemical, Ecological, Geological and Geophysical Engineering, 9(2), 150-154.10. Zhou, H., & Yang, W. (2019). Study on the Application of Sustainable Development Technology in Civil Engineering. Journal of Sustainable Development, 12(5), 15-20.。
土木工程毕业设计参考文献
土木工程毕业设计参考文献土木工程毕业设计参考文献在土木工程领域进行毕业设计是每个土木工程学生都要经历的一项重要任务。
毕业设计是对所学知识的综合运用和实践，是对学生综合素质的考验。
而参考文献在毕业设计中起到了至关重要的作用，它们为我们提供了理论基础、前人经验和实践指导。
本文将介绍一些常见的土木工程毕业设计参考文献，希望能为即将进行毕业设计的同学们提供一些参考。
1. 《土木工程概论》这本教材是土木工程专业的入门教材，其中包含了土木工程的基本概念、原理和方法。
在毕业设计的初期，我们需要对土木工程的整体框架有一个清晰的了解，这本教材可以帮助我们建立起一个全面的认识。
2. 《土木工程材料》土木工程中使用的材料种类繁多，对于毕业设计来说，选择适合的材料是至关重要的。
这本参考书介绍了各种土木工程常用的材料，包括混凝土、钢筋、沥青等，对于我们在设计中的材料选择提供了重要的指导。
3. 《土木工程结构力学》土木工程的设计离不开结构力学的支持。
这本参考书详细介绍了土木工程结构力学的基本原理和计算方法，对于我们进行结构设计和分析非常有帮助。
在毕业设计中，我们需要对结构力学有深入的理解，这本参考书可以为我们提供必要的知识支持。
4. 《土木工程施工技术》毕业设计不仅仅是理论上的设计，更需要考虑到实际的施工过程。
这本参考书介绍了土木工程的施工技术，包括施工方法、施工工艺和施工管理等方面的内容。
在毕业设计中，我们需要考虑到施工的可行性和效率，这本参考书可以为我们提供实际操作的指导。
5. 《土木工程项目管理》在进行毕业设计时，我们需要具备一定的项目管理能力。
这本参考书介绍了土木工程项目管理的基本理论和方法，包括项目计划、进度控制、成本控制和质量管理等方面的内容。
在毕业设计中，我们需要对项目进行全面的管理，这本参考书可以为我们提供相关的知识支持。
除了以上几本参考书，还有很多与土木工程相关的期刊文章、专业论文和工程实践报告也是我们进行毕业设计时的重要参考文献。
土木工程外文翻译参考3篇
学校毕业设计（论文）附件外文文献翻译学号：xxxxx 姓名：xxx所在系别：xxxxx 专业班级：xxx指导教师：xxxx原文标题：Building construction concrete crack of prevention and processing2012年月日建筑施工混凝土裂缝的预防与处理1摘要混凝土的裂缝问题是一个普遍存在而又难于解决的工程实际问题，本文对混凝土工程中常见的一些裂缝问题进行了探讨分析，并针对具体情况提出了一些预防、处理措施。
关键词：混凝土裂缝预防处理前言混凝土是一种由砂石骨料、水泥、水及其他外加材料混合而形成的非均质脆性材料。
由于混凝土施工和本身变形、约束等一系列问题，硬化成型的混凝土中存在着众多的微孔隙、气穴和微裂缝，正是由于这些初始缺陷的存在才使混凝土呈现出一些非均质的特性。
微裂缝通常是一种无害裂缝，对混凝土的承重、防渗及其他一些使用功能不产生危害。
但是在混凝土受到荷载、温差等作用之后，微裂缝就会不断的扩展和连通，最终形成我们肉眼可见的宏观裂缝，也就是混凝土工程中常说的裂缝。
混凝土建筑和构件通常都是带缝工作的，由于裂缝的存在和发展通常会使内部的钢筋等材料产生腐蚀，降低钢筋混凝土材料的承载能力、耐久性及抗渗能力，影响建筑物的外观、使用寿命，严重者将会威胁到人们的生命和财产安全。
很多工程的失事都是由于裂缝的不稳定发展所致。
近代科学研究和大量的混凝土工程实践证明，在混凝土工程中裂缝问题是不可避免的，在一定的范围内也是可以接受的，只是要采取有效的措施将其危害程度控制在一定的范围之内。
钢筋混凝土规范也明确规定：有些结构在所处的不同条件下，允许存在一定宽度的裂缝。
但在施工中应尽量采取有效措施控制裂缝产生，使结构尽可能不出现裂缝或尽量减少裂缝的数量和宽度，尤其要尽量避免有害裂缝的出现，从而确保工程质量。
混凝土裂缝产生的原因很多，有变形引起的裂缝：如温度变化、收缩、膨胀、不均匀沉陷等原因引起的裂缝；有外载作用引起的裂缝；有养护环境不当和化学作用引起的裂缝等等。
土木工程专业毕业设计外文文献翻译2篇
土木工程专业毕业设计外文文献翻译2篇XXXXXXXXX学院学士学位毕业设计（论文）英语翻译课题名称英语翻译学号学生专业、年级所在院系指导教师选题时间Fundamental Assumptions for Reinforced ConcreteBehaviorThe chief task of the structural engineer is the design of structures. Design is the determination of the general shape and all specific dimensions of a particular structure so that it will perform the function for which it is created and will safely withstand the influences that will act on it throughout useful life. These influences are primarily the loads and other forces to which it will be subjected, as well as other detrimental agents, such as temperature fluctuations, foundation settlements, and corrosive influences, Structural mechanics is one of the main tools in this process of design. As here understood, it is the body of scientific knowledge that permits one to predict with a good degree of certainly how a structure of give shape and dimensions will behave when acted upon by known forces or other mechanical influences. The chief items of behavior that are of practical interest are (1) the strength of the structure, i. e. , that magnitude of loads of a give distribution which will cause the structure to fail, and (2) the deformations, such as deflections and extent of cracking, that the structure will undergo when loaded underservice condition.The fundamental propositions on which the mechanics of reinforced concrete is based are as follows:1.The internal forces, such as bending moments, shear forces, and normal andshear stresses, at any section of a member are in equilibrium with the effect of the external loads at that section. This proposition is not an assumption but a fact, because any body or any portion thereof can be at rest only if all forces acting on it are in equilibrium.2.The strain in an embedded reinforcing bar is the same as that of thesurrounding concrete. Expressed differently, it is assumed that perfect bonding exists between concrete and steel at the interface, so that no slip can occur between the two materials. Hence, as the one deforms, so must the other. With modern deformed bars, a high degree of mechanical interlocking is provided in addition to the natural surface adhesion, so this assumption is very close to correct.3.Cross sections that were plane prior to loading continue to be plan in themember under load. Accurate measurements have shown that when a reinforced concrete member is loaded close to failure, this assumption is not absolutely accurate. However, the deviations are usually minor.4.In view of the fact the tensile strength of concrete is only a small fraction ofits compressive strength; the concrete in that part of a member which is in tension is usually cracked. While these cracks, in well-designed members, are generally so sorrow as to behardly visible, they evidently render the cracked concrete incapable of resisting tension stress whatever. This assumption is evidently a simplification of the actual situation because, in fact, concrete prior to cracking, as well as the concrete located between cracks, does resist tension stresses of small magnitude. Later in discussions of the resistance of reinforced concrete beams to shear, it will become apparent that under certain conditions this particular assumption is dispensed with and advantage is taken of the modest tensile strength that concrete can develop.5.The theory is based on the actual stress-strain relation ships and strengthproperties of the two constituent materials or some reasonable equivalent simplifications thereof. The fact that novelistic behavior is reflected in modern theory, that concrete is assumed to be ineffective in tension, and that the joint action of the two materials is taken into consideration results in analytical methods which are considerably more complex and also more challenging, than those that are adequate for members made of a single, substantially elastic material.These five assumptions permit one to predict by calculation the performance of reinforced concrete members only for some simple situations. Actually, the joint action of two materials as dissimilar and complicated as concrete and steel is so complex that it has not yet lent itself to purely analytical treatment. For this reason, methods of design and analysis, while using these assumptions, are very largely based on the results of extensive and continuing experimental research. They are modified and improved as additional test evidence becomes available.钢筋混凝土的基本假设作为结构工程师的主要任务是结构设计。
土木工程外文翻译参考3篇详解
学校毕业设计（论文）附件外文文献翻译学号： xxxxx 姓名： xxx所在系别： xxxxx 专业班级： xxx指导教师： xxxx原文标题： Building construction concrete crack of prevention and processing2012年月日建筑施工混凝土裂缝的预防与处理1摘要混凝土的裂缝问题是一个普遍存在而又难于解决的工程实际问题，本文对混凝土工程中常见的一些裂缝问题进行了探讨分析，并针对具体情况提出了一些预防、处理措施。
关键词：混凝土裂缝预防处理前言混凝土是一种由砂石骨料、水泥、水及其他外加材料混合而形成的非均质脆性材料。
由于混凝土施工和本身变形、约束等一系列问题，硬化成型的混凝土中存在着众多的微孔隙、气穴和微裂缝，正是由于这些初始缺陷的存在才使混凝土呈现出一些非均质的特性。
微裂缝通常是一种无害裂缝，对混凝土的承重、防渗及其他一些使用功能不产生危害。
但是在混凝土受到荷载、温差等作用之后，微裂缝就会不断的扩展和连通，最终形成我们肉眼可见的宏观裂缝，也就是混凝土工程中常说的裂缝。
混凝土建筑和构件通常都是带缝工作的，由于裂缝的存在和发展通常会使内部的钢筋等材料产生腐蚀，降低钢筋混凝土材料的承载能力、耐久性及抗渗能力，影响建筑物的外观、使用寿命，严重者将会威胁到人们的生命和财产安全。
很多工程的失事都是由于裂缝的不稳定发展所致。
近代科学研究和大量的混凝土工程实践证明，在混凝土工程中裂缝问题是不可避免的，在一定的范围内也是可以接受的，只是要采取有效的措施将其危害程度控制在一定的范围之内。
钢筋混凝土规范也明确规定：有些结构在所处的不同条件下，允许存在一定宽度的裂缝。
但在施工中应尽量采取有效措施控制裂缝产生，使结构尽可能不出现裂缝或尽量减少裂缝的数量和宽度，尤其要尽量避免有害裂缝的出现，从而确保工程质量。
混凝土裂缝产生的原因很多，有变形引起的裂缝：如温度变化、收缩、膨胀、不均匀沉陷等原因引起的裂缝；有外载作用引起的裂缝；有养护环境不当和化学作用引起的裂缝等等。
土木工程专业毕业设计外文文献及翻译
英文原文：Rehabilitation of rectangular simply supported RC beams with shear deficiencies using CFRP compositesAhmed Khalifa a,＊, Antonio Nanni ba Department of Structural Engineering，University of Alexandria, Alexandria 21544, Egyptb Department of Civil Engineering，University of Missouri at Rolla，Rolla，MO 65409，USAReceived 28 April 1999; received in revised form 30 October 2001; accepted 10 January 2002AbstractThe present study examines the shear performance and modes of failure of rectangular simply supported reinforced concrete（RC）beams designed with shear deficiencies. These members were strengthened with externally bonded carbon fiber reinforced polymer （CFRP) sheets and evaluated in the laboratory. The experimental program consisted of twelve full-scale RC beams tested to fail in shear. The variables investigated within this program included steel stirrups, and the shear span—to—effective depth ratio, as well as amount and distribution of CFRP. The experimental results indicated that the contribution of externally bonded CFRP to the shear capacity was significant。
【设计】土木工程毕业设计英语论文及翻译
【关键字】设计土木工程毕业设计英语论文及翻译篇一：土木工程毕业设计外文文献翻译外文文献翻译Reinforced ConcreteConcrete and reinforced concrete are used as building materials in every country. In many, including the United States and Canada, reinforced concrete is a dominant structural material in engineered construction. The universal nature of reinforced concrete construction stems from the wide availability of reinforcing bars and the constituents of concrete, gravel, sand, and cement, the relatively simple skills required in concrete construction, and the economy of reinforced concrete compared to other forms of construction. Concrete and reinforced concrete are used in bridges, buildings of all sorts underground structures, water tanks, television towers, offshore oil exploration and production structures, dams, and even in ships.Reinforced concrete structures may be cast-in-place concrete, constructed in their final location, or they may be precast concrete produced in a factory and erected at the construction site. Concrete structures may be severe and functional in design, or the shape and layout and be whimsical and artistic. Few other building materials off the architect and engineer such versatility and scope.Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension. As a result, cracks develop whenever loads, or restrained shrinkage of temperature changes, give rise to tensile stresses in excess of the tensile strength of the concrete. In a plain concrete beam, the moments about the neutral axis due to applied loads are resisted by an internal tension-compression couple involving tension in the concrete. Such a beam fails very suddenly and completely when the first crack forms. In a reinforced concrete beam, steel bars are embedded in the concrete in such a way that the tension forces needed for moment equilibrium after the concrete cracks can be developed in the bars.The construction of a reinforced concrete member involves building a from of mold in the shape of the member being built. The form must be strong enough to support both the weight and hydrostatic pressure of the wet concrete, and any forces applied to it by workers, concrete buggies, wind, and so on. The reinforcement is placed in this form and held in place during the concreting operation. After the concrete has hardened, the forms are removed. As the forms are removed, props of shores are installed to support the weight of the concrete until it has reached sufficient strength to support the loads by itself.The designer must proportion a concrete member for adequate strength to resist the loads and adequate stiffness to prevent excessive deflections. In beam must be proportioned so that it can be constructed. For example, the reinforcement must be detailed so that it can be assembled in the field, and since the concrete is placed in the form after the reinforcement is in place, theconcrete must be able to flow around, between, and past the reinforcement to fill all parts of the form completely.The choice of whether a structure should be built of concrete, steel, masoy, or timber depends on the availability of materials and on a number of value decisions. The choice of structural system is made by the architect of engineer early in the design, based on the following considerations:1. Economy. Frequently, the foremost consideration is the overall const of the structure. This is, of course, a function of the costs of the materials and the labor necessary to erect them. Frequently, however, the overall cost is affected as much or more by the overall construction time since the contractor and owner must borrow or otherwise allocate money to carry out the construction and will not receive a return on this investment until the building is ready for occupancy. In a typical large apartment of commercial project, the cost of construction financing will be a significant fraction of the total cost. As a result, financial savings due to rapid construction may more than offset increased material costs. For this reason, any measures the designer can take to standardize the design and forming will generally pay off in reduced overall costs.In many cases the long-term economy of the structure may be more important than the first cost. As a result, maintenance and durability are important consideration.2. Suitability of material for architectural and structural function.A reinforced concrete system frequently allows the designer to combine the architectural and structural functions. Concrete has the advantage that it is placed in a plastic condition and is given the desired shapeand texture by means of the forms and the finishing techniques. This allows such elements ad flat plates or other types of slabs to serve as load-bearing elements while providing the finished floor and / or ceiling surfaces. Similarly, reinforced concrete walls can provide architecturally attractive surfaces in addition to having the ability to resist gravity, wind, or seismic loads. Finally, the choice of size of shape is governed by the designer and not by the availability of standard manufactured members.3. Fire resistance. The structure in a building must withstand the effects of a fire and remain standing while the building is evacuated and the fire is extinguished. A concrete building inherently has a 1- to 3-hour fire rating without special fireproofing or other details. Structural steel or timber buildings must be fireproofed to attain similar fire ratings.4. Low maintenance. Concrete members inherently require less maintenance than do structural steel or timber members. This is particularly true if dense, air-entrained concrete has been used for surfaces exposed to the atmosphere, and if care has been taken in the design to provide adequate drainage off and away from the structure. Special precautions must be taken for concrete exposed to salts such as deicing chemicals.5. Availability of materials. Sand, gravel, cement, and concrete mixing facilities are verywidely available, and reinforcing steel can be transported to most job sites more easily than can structural steel. As a result, reinforced concrete is frequently used in remote areas.On the other hand, there are a number of factors that may cause one to select a material other than reinforced concrete. These include:1. Low tensile strength. The tensile strength concrete is much lower than its compressive strength ( about 1/10 ), and hence concrete is subject to cracking. In structural uses this is overcome by using reinforcement to carry tensile forces and limit crack widths to within acceptable values. Unless care is taken in design and construction, however, these cracks may be unsightly or may allow penetration of water. When this occurs, water or chemicals such as road deicing salts may cause deterioration or staining of the concrete. Special design details are required in such cases. In the case of water-retaining structures, special details and / of prestressing are required to prevent leakage.2. Forms and shoring. The construction of a cast-in-place structure involves three steps not encountered in the construction of steel or timber structures. These are ( a ) the construction of the forms, ( b ) the removal of these forms, and (c) propping or shoring the new concrete to support its weight until its strength is adequate. Each of these steps involves labor and / or materials, which are not necessary with other forms of construction.3. Relatively low strength per unit of weight for volume. The compressive strength of concrete is roughly 5 to 10% that of steel, while its unit density is roughly 30% that of steel. As a result, a concrete structure requires a larger volume and a greater weight of material than does a comparable steel structure. As a result, long-span structures are often built from steel.4. Time-dependent volume changes. Both concrete and steel undergo-approximately the same amount of thermal expansion and contraction. Because there is less mass of steel to be heated or cooled, and because steel is a better concrete, a steel structure is generally affected by temperature changes to a greater extent than is a concrete structure. On the other hand, concrete undergoes frying shrinkage, which, if restrained, may cause deflections or cracking. Furthermore, deflections will tend to increase with time, possibly doubling, due to creep of the concrete under sustained loads.In almost every branch of civil engineering and architecture extensive use is made of reinforced concrete for structures and foundations. Engineers and architects requires basic knowledge of reinforced concrete design throughout their professional careers. Much of this text is directly concerned with the behavior and proportioning of components that make up typical reinforced concrete structures-beams, columns, and slabs. Once the behavior of these individual elements is understood, the designer will have the background to analyze and design a wide range of complex structures, such as foundations, buildings, and bridges, composed of these elements.Since reinforced concrete is a no homogeneous material that creeps, shrinks, and cracks, its stresses cannot be accurately predicted by the traditional equations derived in a course instrength of materials forhomogeneous elastic materials. Much of reinforced concrete design in therefore empirical, i.e., design equations and design methods are based on experimental and time-proved results instead of being derived exclusively from theoretical formulations.A thorough understanding of the behavior of reinforced concrete will allow the designer to convert an otherwise brittle material into tough ductile structural elements and thereby take advantage of concrete’s desirable characteristics, its high compressive strength, its fire resistance, and its durability.Concrete, a stone like material, is made by mixing cement, water, fine aggregate ( often sand ), coarse aggregate, and frequently other additives ( that modify properties ) into a workable mixture. In its unhardened or plastic state, concrete can be placed in forms to produce a large variety of structural elements. Although the hardened concrete by itself, i.e., without any reinforcement, is strong in compression, it lacks tensile strength and therefore cracks easily. Because ueinforced concrete is brittle, it cannot undergo large deformations under load and fails suddenly-without warning. The addition fo steel reinforcement to the concrete reduces the negative effects of its two principal inherent weaknesses, its susceptibility to cracking and its brittleness. When the reinforcement is strongly bonded to the concrete, a strong, stiff, and ductile construction material is produced. This material, called reinforced concrete, is used extensively to construct foundations, structural frames, storage takes, shell roofs, highways, walls, dams, canals, and innumerable other structures and building products. Two other characteristics of concrete that are present even when concrete is reinforced are shrinkage and creep, but the negative effects of these properties can be mitigated by careful design.A code is a set technical specifications and standards that control important details of design and construction. The purpose of codes it produce structures so that the public will be protected from poor of inadequate and construction.Two types f coeds exist. One type, called a structural code, is originated and controlled by specialists who are concerned with the proper use of a specific material or who are involved with the safe design of a particular class of structures.篇二：土木工程毕业设计中英文翻译附录：中英文翻译英文部分：LOADSLoads that act on structures are usually classified as dead loads or live loads.Dead loads are fixed in location and constant in magnitude throughout the life of the ually the self-weight of a structure is the most important part of the structure and the unit weight of the material.Concrete density varies from about 90 to 120 pcf (14 to 19 KN/m2)for lightweight concrete,and is about 145 pcf (23 KN/mKN/m2)for normal concrete.In calculating the dead load of structural concrete,usually a 5pcf (1 )increment is included with the weight of the concrete to account for the presence of the 2 reinforcement.Live loads are loads such as occupancy,snow,wind,or traffic loads,or seismic forces.They may be either fully or partially in place,or not present at all.They may also change in location.Althought it is the responsibility of the engineer to calculate dead loads,live loads are usually specified by local,regional,or national codes and specifications.Typical sources are the publications of the American National Standards Institute,the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials and,for wind loads,the recommendations of the ASCE Task Committee on Wind Forces.Specified live the loads usually include some allowance for overload,and may include measures such as posting of maximum loads will not be exceeded.It is oftern important to distinguish between the specified load,and what is termed the characteristic load,that is,the load that actually is in effect under normal conditions of service,which may be significantly less.In estimating the long-term deflection of a structure,for example,it is the characteristic load that is important,not the specified load.The sum of the calculated dead load and the specified live load is called the service load,because this is the maximum load which may reasonably be expected to act during the service resisting is a multiple of the service load.StrengthThe strength of a structure depends on the strength of the materials from which it is made.Minimum material strengths are specified in certain standardized ways.The properties of concrete and its components,the methods of mixing,placing,and curing to obtain the required quality,and the methods for testing,are specified by the American Concrete Insititue(ACI).Included by refrence in the same documentare standards of the American Society for Testing Materials(ASTM)pertaining to reinforcing and prestressing steels and concrete.Strength also depends on the care with which the structure is built.Member sizes may differ from specified dimensions,reinforcement may be out of position,or poor placement of concrete may result in voids.An important part of the job of the ergineer is to provide proper supervision of construction.Slighting of this responsibility has had disastrous consequences in more than one instance.Structural SafetySafety requires that the strength of a structure be adequate for all loads that may conceivably act on it.If strength could be predicted accurately and if loads were known with equal certainty,then safely could be assured by providing strength just barely in excess of the requirements of the loads.But there are many sources of uncertainty in the estimation of loads as well as in analysis,design,and construction.These uncertainties require a safety margin.In recent years engineers have come to realize that the matter of structural safety isprobabilistic in nature,and the safety provisions of many current specifications reflect this view.Separate consideration is given to loads and strength.Load factors,larger than unity,are applied to the calculated dead loads and estimated or specified service live loads,to obtain factorde loads that the member must just be capable of sustaining at incipient failure.Load factors pertaining to different types of loads vary,depending on the degree of uncertainty associated with loads of various types,and with the likelihood of simultaneous occurrence of different loads.Early in the development of prestressed concrete,the goal of prestressing was the complete elimination of concrete ternsile stress at service loads.The concept was that of an entirely new,homogeneous material that woukd remain uncracked and respond elastically up to the maximum anticipated loading.This kind of design,where the limiting tensile stressing,while an alternative approach,in which a certain amount of tensile amount of tensile stress is permitted in the concrete at full service load,is called partial prestressing.There are cases in which it is necessary to avoid all risk of cracking and in which full prestressing is required.Such cases include tanks or reservious where leaks must be avoided,submerged structures or those subject to a highly corrosive envionment where maximum protection of reinforcement must be insured,and structures subject to high frequency repetition of load where faatigue of the reinforcement may be a consideration.However,there are many cses where substantially improved performance,reduced cost,or both may be obtained through the use of a lesser amount of prestress.Full predtressed beams may exhibit an undesirable amount of upward camber because of the eccentric prestressing force,a displacement that is only partially counteracted by the gravity loads producing downward deflection.This tendency is aggrabated by creep in the concrete,which magnigies the upward displacement due to the prestress force,but has little influence on the should heavily prestressed members be overloaded and fail,they may do so in a brittle way,rather than gradually as do beams with a smaller amount of prestress.This is important from the point of view of safety,because suddenfailure without warning is dangeroud,and gives no opportunity for corrective measures to be taken.Furthermore,experience indicates that in many cases improved economy results from the use of a combination of unstressed bar steel and high strength prestressed steel tendons.While tensile stress and possible cracking may be allowed at full service load,it is also recognized that such full service load may be infrequently applied.The typical,or characteristic,load acting is likely to be the dead load plus a small fraction of the specified live load.Thus a partially predtressed beam may not be subject to tensile stress under the usual conditions of loading.Cracks may from occasionally,when the maximum load is applied,but these will close completely when that load is removed.They may be no more objectionable in prestressed structures than in ordinary reinforced.They may be no more objectionable in prestressed structures than in ordinary reinforced concrete,in which flexural cracks alwaysform.They may be considered a small price for the improvements in performance and economy that are obtained.It has been observed that reinforced concrete is but a special case of prestressed concrete in which the prestressing force is zero.The behavior of reinforced and prestressed concrete beams,as the failure load is approached,is essentially the same.The Joint European Committee on Concrete establishes threee classes of prestressed beams.Class 1:Fully prestressed,in which no tensile stress is allowed in the concrete at service load.Class 2:Partially prestressed, in which occasional temporary cracking is permitted under infrequent high loads.Class 3:Partially prestressed,in which there may be permanent cracks provided that their width is suitably limited.The choise of a suitable amount of prestress is governed by a variety of factors.These include thenature of the loading (for exmaple,highway or railroad bridged,storage,ect.),the ratio of live to dead load,the frequency of occurrence of loading may be reversed,such as in transmission poles,a high uniform prestress would result ultimate strength and in brittle failure.In such a case,partial prestressing provides the only satifactory solution.The advantages of partial prestressing are important.A smaller prestress force will be required,permitting reduction in the number of tendons and anchorages.The necessary flexural strength may be provided in such cases either by a combination of prestressed tendons and non-prestressed reinforcing bars,or by an adequate number of high-tensile tendons prestredded to level lower than the prestressing force is less,the size of the bottom flange,which is requied mainly to resist the compression when a beam is in the unloaded stage,can be reduced or eliminated altogether.This leads in turn to significant simplification and cost reduction in the construction of forms,as well as resulting in structures that are mor pleasing esthetically.Furthermore,by relaxing the requirement for low service load tension in the concrete,a significant improvement can be made in the deflection characteristics of a beam.Troublesome upward camber of the member in the unloaded stage fan be avoeded,and the prestress force selected primarily to produce the desired deflection for a particular loading condition.The behavior of partially prestressed beamsm,should they be overloaded to failure,is apt to be superior to that of fully prestressed beams,because the improved ductility provides ample warning of distress.英译汉：荷载作用在结构上的荷载通常分为恒载或活载。
土木工程专业毕业论文参考文献
土木工程专业毕业论文参考文献土木工程专业毕业论文参考文献篇一：土木工程专业毕业论文参考文献[1]郑建平.杭州大中型建筑设计公司组织结构模式研究[D].浙江大学，2010.05.[2]陶郅，陈子坚，郭嘉.创造校园生活的中心舞台——合肥学院图书馆设计[J].建筑学报,2011.11.[3]汪大炜.合肥赖少其艺术馆设计回顾——定义非功能性空间[J].南方建筑，2012.03.[4]韩明清.合肥工业大学建筑技术研发中心创作谈[J].工程与建设，2008.03.[5]项秉仁，程翌.内在理性和外在逻辑——合肥大剧院建筑和室内设计[J].时代建筑，2010.05.[6]孟建民.渡江战役纪念馆[J].建筑与文化，2008.10.[7]毕功华.合肥网讯软件有限公司[J].建筑学报，2007.02.[8]刘凤朝,冯婷婷.国家创新能力形成的系统动力学模型——以发明专利为能力表征要素[J].管理评论，2011.05.[9]艾英旭.建筑创新浅析[J].华中建筑，2005.01.[10]邹广天,于戈.日本现代建筑设计创新探析[J].建筑学报，2009.02.[11]王占中.建筑设计创新方法研究[J].哈尔滨工业大学，2007.07.[12]马景忠.中日两国建筑设计程序的比较[J].建筑学报，2003.08.[13]邢凯.建筑设计创新思维研究[J].哈尔滨工业大学，2009.03.[14]薛求理,陈晓扬.中国建筑师及其设计实践——从业建筑师问卷调查解析[J].建筑师，2003.01.[15]张伶伶,赵伟峰,李光皓.关注过程学会思考[J].新建筑，2007.06.[16]田利.建筑设计基本过程研究[J].时代建筑，2005.03.[17]罗相蓉，曾坚.中国建筑师设计竞争力及相关因素分析[J].建筑学报，2007.01.[18]王桢栋,陈剑端.沪港两地国际金融中心城市建筑综合体比较研究[J].建筑学报，2012.02.[19]梁玮男,刘大平.建筑创新散布研究[J].建筑学报，2004.08.[20]邹广天.建筑设计创新与可拓思维模式[J].哈尔滨工业大学学报，2006.07.篇二：土木工程专业毕业论文参考文献[1][英]G.勃罗德彭特著，张伟译.建筑设计与人文科学[M].北京：中国建筑工业出版社，1990.[2]黎志涛主编.建筑设计方法[M].北京：中国建筑工业出版社，2010.[3]沈祝华主编.设计过程与方法[M].济南：山东美术出版社，1995.[4]陈政雄主编.建筑设计方法[M].台北：东大图书有限公司，1978.[5][挪]詹法格博格，[美]戴维莫利，[美]理查德纳尔逊主编，柳卸林，郑刚，蔺雷，李纪珍译.牛津创新手册[M].北京：知识产权出版社，2009.[6]赵红斌著.建筑创作过程模式研究[M].天津：天津大学出版社，2013.[7]沈克宁主编.建筑现象学[M].北京：中国建筑工业出版社，2007.[8]张伶伶，李存东主编.建筑创作思维的过程与表达[M].北京：中国建筑工业出版社，2001.[9][美]埃弗雷特M.罗杰斯主编，辛欣译.创新的扩散[M].北京：中央翻译出版社，2002.[10]黄元炤主编.流向——中国当代建筑20年观察与解析[M].南京：江苏人民出版社,2011.[11][美]塞缪尔亨廷顿主编，周琪、刘绯、张立平、王圆译.文明的冲突与世界秩序的重建[M].北京：新华出版社,1998.[12]戴志中、杨震主编.建筑创作过程与表达[M].济南：山东科学技术出版社,2005.[13]鲍家声主编.建筑设计教程[M].北京：中国建筑工业出版社,2009.[14]胡春.建筑师事务所设计创新的实证性研究——公共建筑的`形态语言[D].合肥工业大学,2009.[15]李良亭.当代中国建筑师事务所创新设计的实证性研究——公共建筑设计组织[D].合肥工业大学,2009.[16]陈建军.建筑创作过程对设计作品的影响研究[D].西安建筑科技大学,2003.[17]张冰.哈尔滨当代建筑创作新潮性研究[D].哈尔滨工业大学大学,2010.[18]高呢喃.建筑企业技术创新模式的研究[D].哈尔滨工业大学,2008.[19]刘婷婷.非正式创新网络及非正式交流空间的实证研究[D].同济大学,2007.[20]吴锦绣.建筑过程的开放化研究[D].东南大学,2000.。
土木工程专业外文文献及翻译
英文原文：Buｉlding cｏnstrucｔion concrｅte cｒａｃk ofprｅventｉon aｎｄprｏcessiｎｇAbstｒacｔThｅcrack problｅm oｆcｏnｃreｔeｉｓa wiｄespread ｅxｉstｅnce but ａgａin diffiｃult in solve of engｉneerｉｎg ａctual pｒｏblem, this ｔext cａｒrｉed ｏn a stｕdy anaｌysis to ａｌittle bｉtｆaｍilｉar crack prｏblem in thｅconｃrete engｉneerｉng, aｎd aim ａｔcｏncrete t ｈe ｃircumstanceｐut fｏrwａrd ｓome pｒevenｔｉoｎ, ｐｒocｅssiｎｇｍeaｓｕre.Keywoｒd:Conｃrete craｃｋpreventｉｏn pｒｏcessingForeｗｏrdCｏncrete's isiｎg 1 ｋind ｉs anticipate byｔｈe ｆreｅｓtone ｂone，cemｅnt,waｔeｒanｄothｅrｍixture ｂｕt formatioｎof the in adｄitionｍaｔeｒial of qｕalｉty ｂritｔlenｅss not and alｌｍatｅｒial.Ｂecａuse tｈｅconｃretｅconsｔructiｏn trａｎsfｏｒmｗith onｅsｅlf, cｏｎtroｌｅtc. a series prｏblem, harden model of in ｔhｅconｃrete eｘiｓtｅnｃｅnuｍerous tｉｎｙｈolｅ,spirit cave ａｎd ｔiny crack, iｓexa ｃtly becａuｓe these beginning starｔblｅmish oｆexiｓteｎcｅjuｓｔmake tｈｅconcretｅｐｒesent one sｏme nｏt anｄａll tｈe ｃhaｒaｃteristｉcｏf qｕａｌity.Thｅtｉｎｙｃracｋｉｓa kinｄｏf haｒmｌess crack aｎd accｅpｔｃｏｎcrete heavy,ｄefend Ｓhen andａlittle ｂiｔother usｅｆuｎｃｔｉｏｎnot a creａｔiｏn ｔo enｄanｇer.But ａｆteｒthe concｒeｔe be subｊected ｔo lotｕs ｃarry, ｄiffereｎce in temperatuｒｅetc. fｕnｃtiｏn,tiny crack would ｃontinuously of ｅｘpanｄwｉth ｃonnect,ｅｎd formａtioｎwe can see withｏut ｔhe aｉｄof instrｕmｅntｓof macro ｖｉew the crａck be alｓo thｅｃraｃｋｔhat the ｃoncreteｏften say iｎthe ｅｎgiｎeeｒｉng.Conｃrete buｉlding aｎd Goｕpiecｅｕｓualｌｙall take sewer to make of，ｂecause of crａcｋof exisｔeｎcｅａnd deｖeｌopment usｕallｙmakeｉnnｅr ｐarｔof ｒeinfｏrcinｇbａr eｔc. mateｒiaｌcrｅaｔion decay, loｗｅr reinfｏrｃed concｒete maｔｅｒial of loａding abｉlity, duｒaｂｌｅaｎd aｎti- Ｓｈen ａｂilitｙ，influence buｉlding ofｅxtｅrnal ａppearａｎce, serｖiｃe ｌｉfe, severｉtｙwiｌl threａt arrive peoｐｌe's life ａnd properｔy safｅty．A lｏｔof all ｏf crash of ｅｎgineｅrｉnｇs ｉs becauｓｅof the unsteady deｖelopｍｅnt ｏf ｔhｅcｒａck ｗｉth tｈe re ｓuｌt that．Moｄern age sｃｉenｃe rｅsｅarch with ａgreatｄeal ｏf of tｈe concrete ｅnｇiｎｅｅriｎｇpraｃtice ｃertifiｃaｔｅ, ｉnｔhe concrｅte ｅngineｅrｉng crack proｂlem is iｎeluctable，also ａcｃｅpｔabｌe in certainｌy of thｅｓcｏpe ｊust need tｏadopt vａｌid of mｅasuｒｅwｉｌｌｉt enｄanger ｄegrｅｅcｏntｒol at certain of ｓcoｐｅinsiｄｅ．The ｒeｉｎｆorced coｎcrｅte norm is aｌso ｅxplicit proｖｉsioｎ:Som ｅstrｕｃture ａt pｌace of dｉsｓｉmiｌarity undｅｒthe ｃonｄition ａｌｌow existencｅcｅｒtaｉｎｔhｅcｒack of widｔh．But ａｔuｎder conｓtructｉon shouｌd as far aｓposｓibｌeａdopt a valid meａsuｒe ｃｏｎtｒol crack creａtion, makeｔhe sｔｒuｃtｕre don'ｔaｐpear cｒack poｓsibly oｒas faｒａｓpossｉble ｄecreasｅcrａck ｏf amounｔaｎｄwiｄth, pａrticularｌｙwaｎt ｔo as far aｓpossible avｏｉd harmｆul cr ａｃｋofｅmeｒｇｅnｃｅ, ｉnsure engineeｒinｇｑuａliｔy tｈｕｓ．Ｃｏncrete ｃrａck creａｔion ofｔhe ｒeａson bｅa loｔof ａnd ｈave aｌrｅａdy trａnsfｏrmed to causｅoｆcraｃk:Ｓuch as temｐeratｕre va ｒietｙ，coｎstｒiｎgeｎcy, inflatiｏｎ, the ａsｙmmeｔry sink tｏｓiｎｋｅtc. reasｏn caｕse oｆｃrａcｋ;Havｅouｔside cａrｒy the craｃk tｈａt the ｆunction ｃａusｅ；Proｔecｔed enｖｉronｍeｎt ｎot apprｏpriatｅｔh ｅｃracｋetｃ. causｅd with chemical ｅffect．Want ｄｉffｅrentｉaｔｉon to treat in thｅaｃtual engｉnｅｅrｉng, wｏｒk°ｏut a ｐrｏblｅm aｃcording to ｔhe actuａl cirｃuｍstanｃe.Ｉn the cｏnｃrete enｇineering tｈｅfamiliar crack and the preveｎtion1.Sｔem Sｕo ｃｒacｋａnd ｐｒeventionStem ｔhe Suo crack mｕｃh appｅar ａftｅr the ｃoｎｃｒete pｒotect be oｖｅr of a perioｄoｆtime or concrete sｐrｉｎｋlｅｔo buiｌd tｏcｏmplete ｂehind oｆaｒｏund a week.In tｈe cemeｎｔsyruｐhｕmidit ｙof evaporａtｅｗｏulｄｃｒeatioｎｓtｅm Ｓuo, aｎd ｔhｉs ｋind ｏfｃoｎstringenｃy is caｎ＇t ｎegａtｉve.Stem Ｓuo crａck oｆthe cｒeａｔion be mａin iｓbecause ｏｆｃoncｒete inｓide oｕtside humidiｔｙevａｐoｒate ｄegreeｄiｓｓimｉｌaritｙｂｕt cａuｓe ｔo traｎsｆorm dissiｍｉlarity of ｒeｓult:Thｅｃoncrｅｔｅis sｕbjected tｏexｔeｒior co ｎdｉtｉoｎoｆinfluenｃe,ｓurface hｕｍidity ｌosｓｌeaｄquｉｃk, ｔraｎsform bｉgｇer，ｉｎner ｐａrt degｒｅe oｆhumｉdｉtｙｖarｉetyｓmaller transform smaller,bｉgｇer surfaｃe ｓtem the Ｓｕo tｒansform to ｂｅsubjeｃtedｔo concreｔe ｉnner part coｎtrol, creation more big pｕll shoulｄdinｔｂｕｔｃreaｔiｏn crack.Ｔｈeｒelａtive h ｕmiｄity is mｏre low，cｅｍｅntｓyruｐbody stem Suo morｅbｉg，s ｔem the Sｕo crack be ｍｏre eａsy ｃreation.Stem the Suo crack is ｍuｃｈsurfaｃe paraｌｌｅl liｎesｆｏｒm ｏｒｔｈe nｅtｓｈallow thin crａck, width many bｅtweｅn 0.0５-0.2 mm,thｅｆlat surface paｒtｍｕc ｈseｅin the bｉｇphyｓiｃaｌｖolume conｃrete and follow ｉｔｍo ｒe ｉｎｔhｉnｎer bｅａmｐlank ｓhort tｏｄistｒibute.StｅｍＳuo ｃrack usuaｌly thｅａnti－Ｓheｎof infｌuencｅcｏncｒete, cauｓe ｔｈeｄurａble of tｈe rust eclｉpse iｎflueｎcｅｃｏncrete oｆreinforｃｉng bａr, ｕｎder tｈe ｆunctiｏn ｏf the waｔeｒpreｓsure dint woulｄcre ａtion the water ｐoweｒsplit cｒack ｉnfｌuencｅcｏncretｅｏf lｏaｄｉｎg diｎt etc．.Conｃrete sｔeｍthe Sｕo be ｍain wｉtｈｗateｒａｓh of ｔｈe coｎcreｔe ratio, ｔhe doｓage of theｃompoｓitｉon，ｃｅment oｆcement, gather tｏanticiｐaｔｅoｆｔhｅdｏsaｇe of thｅｐroｐertｙaｎｄｄｏsage, ｉｎaddiｔion etc. ｒｅlevaｎt.Maｉn prevention meａsuｒe：Whilｅｂeinｇtｏchoｏｓe to use ｔhe ｃｏnstringenｃy ｑｕaｎtityｓmaller cement，gｅneｒaｌloｗｈｏt wａｔer ｍirｅand poｗder aｓh from stove cemenｔｉn the aｄｏｐtｉoｎ，ｌower thｅdoｓaｇe ｏf ｃｅmeｎt.Ｔｗｏis a concretｅｏfｓtemｔh ｅSuo be subｊｅcteｄto water ash ratio ｏf ｉnfluence mｏre ｂig, wateｒash rａｔio more ｂig，steｍSuo mｏre ｂig，ｓo iｎtheｃoncrete maｔch the ratiｏthe ｄｅｓｉgn should ａs fａr aｓpｏssible c ｏntrol good water ａｓｈrａtｉoｏｆchoｏse to use，the Ｃｈａn add ｉnｔhe meaｎtime acｃommodaｔion of ｒeｄucｅwateｒ.Thrｅe iｓstrict cｏnｔrol concrete mix bｌeｎd wｉｔh uｎdｅr constructiｏnｏf match ｒatio, usｅof concrete ｗater quａntity absoｌute can＇ｔｂiｇinｍatch rａtiｏdｅsigｎgivｅｓｅtｔle of use waterｑｕａntitｙ．Fｏｕｒｉs ｔｈe earlｉerｐerｉｏd ｗｈich streｎｇthｅn ｃoncrete to prｏtecｔ, aｎｄappｒopｒiate extensioｎｐrｏｔect of concrｅte ｔime.Ｗｉnter cｏｎstruｃtion ｗant ｔｏbe aｐpropｒiate exｔeｎsiｏｎcoｎcretｅｈeａt preservatｉon to ovｅrlay tｉme, ａnd Tｕ2 Shua ｐrotｅct to proｔect.Five is a consｔｉtuｔiｏn the ａｃcｏmmodａtion iｓｉn thｅcoｎcｒete ｓtrｕcｔuｒe oｆthe constringenｃy sｅw.2．The Su cｏnｓｔrｉｎgency ｃrack ａnd prevenｔionＳu constｒingency is the coｎｃｒetｅｉs ｂefｏre conｄense, sｕrfａcｅｂecａuse of loｓe water ｑuiｃkeｒbut ｃreａｔｉｏn ｏf constｒiｎgency．TheＳｕconstrinｇency cｒack is generａl atｄry heat or stｒoｎg ｗind ｔhｅｗeaｔher appｅar, cｒack's ｍｕch preseｎｔing in the ｃeｎte ｒｂrｅａdth，ｂotｈｅnds ｂe in ｔhe centeｒthiｎand tｈe leｎgｔh ｂe diffｅrenｔ, wiｔh ｅａｃh otｈer not cohｅrent appearａncｅ.Shorｔer ｃrack geneｒal lｏnｇ20-3０cｍ, tｈe loｎｇｅｒｃraｃｋｃan reacｈtｏa 2-3 m, bｒeaｄｔh 1-５mｍ.Ｉt creatiｏn ｏｆmain reason is：Tｈe concｒｅte iｓｅｖentualｌy alｍost haｖｉｎg noｓtｒeｎgtｈｏｒstrｅngth befｏrｅtｈe Ｎｉnｇvery small, perhaｐs concreｔe ｊustｅｖentually Ning ｂuｔsｔｒenｇtｈvery hoｕｒ,ｂe subｊeｃted to ｈeａt or compare ｓtrｏｎg windｄiｎt oｆinｆluｅnce, tｈe cｏｎcrｅｔe ｓuｒｆacｅlose wａter to lead quick, resultｉn in the capilｌary creatioｎｂigger ne ｇative press but make a ｃoncreｔe phｙｓicａl ｖoｌume sharｐｌy consｔringｅnｃy,buｔａt this time theｓtｒength ofｃｏnｃrｅtｅagaｉｎc ａｎ＇t reｓist its ｃonstrｉｎgenｃy, tｈerefｏrｅcｒｅatｉonｃraｃked．T ｈe infｌueｎce ｃoncreteＳu ｃonstrｉngency opeｎthｅｍａin factor of ｃｒacｋto have waｔeｒash ratｉｏ, concrｅte of ｃondｅnse ｔime, e ｎvｉronment temｐeratｕｒe, wind velｏciｔy，ｒｅlaｔiｖe humidiｔy．..ｅt ｃ．.Ｍaiｎprevｅntion measure:One iｓchoｏｓe to use ｓtem the Suo vａｌue smallｅr hiｇher Ｈuo soｕｒsaｌt ｏｆthe ｅaｒliｅｒperioｄstreｎｇｔｈｏr common the Huo sour ｂrine ｍｉrｅ.Tｗｏis st ｒicｔthe coｎｔｒol wateｒash rａtio,the Chａｎａｄd to efficieｎtｌy reduce water tｏｉnｃrｅment tｈe colｌapｓｅｏｆcｏncｒeｔe fall a degree and wｉtｈeasy, decreasｅceｍenｔａnd waｔer oｆdoｓag ｅ.Three is tｏsｐｒinkle befｏre bｕilding cｏｎcretｅ, water ｂasic lｅvel anｄtemplate ｅven to soaｋthroｕgh．Ｆｏｕr ｉs in tiｍe tｏoｖeｒlay t ｈe perhaｐs ｄaｍｐgｒass mat of ｔhｅplasｔiｃs tｈin fｉlm，hemp slicｅｅtc., keep ｃonｃreｔe ｅｖentualｌy ｂeforｅthe Niｎg ｓurｆａc ｅｉｓmｏｉst，ｐｅrｈａpｓspray ｔｏproｔect etc. tｏｃarry ｏｎpｒotect in thｅconcreteｓurfacｅ.Fiｖe iｓｉn tｈe ｈeaｔａnd sｔｒong wｉnd the weathｅr to ｗanｔtｏesｔaｂｌisｈｔo ｈide ｓun and blocｋbreezｅfacilitｉes, protｅctｉｎtiｍe.３．Sinｋtｏsｉnk crack aｎd pｒevｅntionThｅｃｒeatioｎwｈich sｉnk to sinｋcrack is becauseｏｆthe structｕre fｏｕｎdation sｏil qｕalitｙnｏt and evenly, ｌoｏsｅsoｆt oｒreturn tｏfiｌl soil dishｏnest ｏr sｏakｉn watｅr but reｓulｔｉｎthe asｙmmetrｙsink to ｄecline with ｔhe reｓult ｔhａt；Perhaｐs bｅcaｕse of ｔｅmplatｅｊusｔdｅgree shortａge，thｅtemplate propｐed uｐto once bｅaparｔfrom ｂｉg ｏr prop up bottom lｏoｓe move eｔc. ｔo cauｓe，ｅspecially at ｗinter, ｔhe tｅmpｌａteｐroｐｕp ａt jｅlly soi ｌｕp，jｅllｙthｅsoil tuｒn ｊelly empress creatｉｏn asymmetry to sinｋtoｄecliｎｅaｎd cauｓｅconｃrete strucｔurｅcreaｔion cracｋ.This kｉnd cｒaｃk manｙis deｅp ｅnterｏr pieｒce thｒough sex ｃｒａcｋ, ｉｔalｉgnment have somｅthiｎg to ｄｏwiｔｈsinking to ｓinｋ a ci ｒcｕmstaｎce,general fｏｌloｗwitｈgrｏund peｒpｅnｄicular or present 30 °ｓ-４5 °Cａpｅｄirection devｅlopmeｎt, ｂiｇｇer sinｋto sinｋcr ａck, ｕsｕally have cｅrtaiｎof wｒong, ｃrａｃk wiｄth ｕsuaｌly with sink to declｉnｅｑuantitｙｄirｅct propｏrtiｏn relａｔｉon.Craｃｋwiｄth uｎｄｅr tｈe iｎｆｌｕｅnce ｏf teｍperaｔure vａrietｙsｍallｅr．Thｅfoundaｔiｏn ａfｔer traｎｓform ｓtabiliｔy siｎk ｔo sink cｒａｃk alsｏbasｉcｔenｄinｓtaｂility.Ｍａin ｐreventｉon measure:One is rightneｓｓloose sｏft ｓoil, rｅturn to fiｌｌsｏil ｆｏｕndaｔioｎa cｏnstrucｔion at tｈｅupper paｒt structure frｏｎt ｓhould carry on ｎecessiｔy of Hang soｌiｄｗitｈreｉnforce．Ｔwo iｓthe sｔrengｔｈthaｔasｓｕranｃｅtemplaｔｅｉs enougｈand just degree,ａnd ｐrop up fｉｒm, and mａke the founｄａtion ｂｅｓubjｅｃｔeｄto diｎt even．Thｒｅｅis kｅep coｎcｒetｅfrｏm spriｎkle iｎfusiｎｇthe ｆouｎdａtion in ｔhｅproｃｅｓs ｉs soak ｂy water．Ｆouｒisｔiｍeｔhａt tｅｍpｌate torｅdoｗn to cａｎ't ｂe t ｏｏearlｙ，and want to ｎotice tｏdismanｔle a mold order oｆｓequenｃe.Ｆivｅiｓat ｊｅlly ｓｏｉl top takｅto eｓtabｌiｓh teｍpｌaｔe to notｉce ｔo adoｐｔcerｔain ofｐreventiｏｎmeasｕｒｅ.4.Tempｅrａｔuｒe craｃｋanｄpreｖｅntiｏnＴeｍperature ｃrackｍuch the occurｒｅｎｃｅｉｓin big ｓurface ｏr difｆerence ｉn tｅmperａtｕrｅｖaｒiety of ｔhe physical voluｍｅconcrｅtｅcomｐare the ｅartｈarｅa ｏf thｅcｏncreｔｅｓtructｕre．Concrete after sprinkling to ｂuiｌd，ｉn the haｒｄｅnｉｎg the process,ｃemｅnt ｗater tｕrn a creationａgreat dｅal of of wateｒtｕrn hot, ．(b ｅｔｈe cemeｎt dosａｇｅiｓin thｅ３50-５5０ｋｇ/ｍ３，each siｇｎｓｑuare the rｉce cｏncrete will releａse a caｌｏｒiｅs of 17５00-27500 kJ and make ｃoncｒeｔeｉnteｒnal thus thｅｔempｅratｕｒｅrise ｔｏreaｃh ｔo 7０℃or so ｅven higher）Ｂecausｅｔhe physical voｌuｍe of ｃoncｒete beｍore bｉg, a greａt deal ofｏf wａter turn ｈot acｃumulate a ｔｔheｃonｃrｅtｅinner ｐart bｕt not eaｓｙsend forth, cauｓｅinner ｐarｔｔhe tｅmperatｕre hoick, ｂｕt ｔhe ｃoncrete sｕrfａce s ｐread ｈot more qｕick, so formａｔion ｉｎsｉde ｏutｓiｄe oｆｂigｇｅr diｆfeｒeｎcｅin tempｅratｕrｅ, ｔhe biｇgeｒdifferｅｎce iｎteｍpeｒa ｔｕｒｅｒesult in ｉnner ｐarｔanｄexｔerｉor hｏt the degｒee ofthe bulｇe ｃold Suo dｉssｉmｉlaｒｉty,ｍake coｎcretｅsｕｒfａce cｒeatiｏn cerｔaiｎof pull should dint．When ｐull ｓhoulｄdint exceeｄｔheａntｉ- oｆconcrete pｕｌl ｓtｒength eｘtrｅme ｌimit,concrete surface ｍeeｔｉng ｃrｅation ｃrack,ｔhｉs kind of crack much occuｒrｅnce ａfteｒthe concreteｕｎdeｒconstｒuｃtiｏn pｅriod.Iｎｔhｅconcretｅofｕｎｄer construction be differeｎｃe iｎtｅmperature variｅty ｍore big，pｅrｈapｓis a concrｅte to be sｕbjｅctｅd ｔo assaｕlｔof colｄｗａve eｔc., will cauｓe ｃoncｒete surfaceｔheｔempeｒａtｕr ｅsharply descｅｎd, ｂut ｃｒeatioｎcoｎstrinｇenｃy, ｓurfaｃe cｏｎstriｎgeｎｃy of ｔhe cｏｎcrｅte ｂe subjｅｃｔed to ｉnｎeｒｐarｔconcreｔe ｏｆcontroｌ, creationｖｅｒy big of pulｌshoulｄｄiｎt but creaｔion cracｋ, ｔhis kind of cｒａck usually jusｔｉｎmore shallow scopｅof the cｏncrete surface cｒeatｉｏn．Ｔhe alｉgnmeｎt of the temperaｔｕrｅｃｒａcｋusuallｙnｏne settle regulatｉoｎ,ｂig aｒea strucｔuｒe the crａck oftｅn ｍaneuｖer iｎterleave;Ｔhe size biｇｇer stｒuｃtｕrｅof thｅbｅam plank lｅngtｈ,t ｈｅcrack run paraｌｌｅl with short siｄe more;Ｔhoｒｏuｇh with pierce ｔhｒough ｓex of temperatuｒe cracｋｇenerａl and sｈorｔsideｄｉrecｔioｎpａralｌelism oｒclｏse paｒａllelｉｓｍ，crack alｏng lｏng ｓｉde ceｎt the seｇmeｎt apｐeａr, iｎthe centeｒmｏｒeａiｒtiｇｈt．Ｃrack widtｈthe sizｅbe dｉffeｒeｎｔ, ｂe ｓubjｅcｔeｄto temｐera ｔｕre vａrｉeｔy ｉnfｌuence ｍore ｏbvious,wiｎｔｅr cｏmpａrｅbreadth，summer more naｒｒｏw.Ｔhｅcｏncrete tｅmperaturｅcrａck ｔｈａｔｔｈe heａt iｎfｌａtｉon cａuｓｅiｓｕsｕally in tｈe cenｔeｒthe thiｃkｂoｔｈenｄs bｅtｈｉn,buｔｃold Ｓｕｏcｒack of t ｈｉck thｉn varieｔy nｏｔtoo obvious.Thｅeｍergenｃｅof tｈe tｈis kind cｒaｃk will cauｓe the ruｓt eclｉpse of rｅinfoｒｃing bａr，the caｒbｏnizatioｎｏｆcｏncrete, the aｎti-jeｌly ｗｈich lower concrete meｌt, anti- tirｅd aｎd anｔi-Ｓheｎabｉｌｉｔy ｅｔc..Ｍａin ｐrevenｔiｏn mｅasurｅ:Ｏｎe is aｓfar as possiblｅchooｓｅto usｅlow hot oｒｍedｉum hot watｅｒmiｒe, liｋe mｉｎeｒａl ｒesidue cemeｎｔ, powdｅｒasｈfrom stove cement...etｃ．.Two ｉs a deｃrｅａse ｃｅment dosagｅ, ｃｅmeｎt dosage as far aｓpossｉbleｔhe conｔrｏl is in ｔhｅ45０kｇ/ｍ３ｆollowing.Tｈreｅis tｏｌｏwｅr ｗａｔer ａs ｈｒatio, ｗａtｅr ash oｆthe ｇeｎeral concrete ratｉo control bｅloｗ0.6.Four iｓｉmｐroｖｅmｅｎt ｔｈe bone antｉｃipatｅclass to go togetｈerｗｉtｈ,tｈe Cｈaｎaｄｄpowder asｈfromｓｔove oｒeffｉciｅntly reduce water eｔc. to cｏmｅto ｒｅｄuce cｅｍent ｄoｓａgｅanｄl ｏｗer watｅｒto tｕrn hot.Five is ａn improvement cｏncretｅｏｆmix blｅnd to procｅss a craft, loｗer sprｉnｋle oｆconcrete ｔｏｂuild ｔemperaｔｕrｅ.Sｉx ｉs the inａdditｉoｎthat the Chan ａdd a hａｖe oｆfixed amｏunt tｏｒeｄucｅｗaｔer and iｎcｒeａse Sｕ，slow Ninｇetc．function inｔｈe ｃｏｎcrete, ｉｍprovement thｅconcrete mｉｘｔo maｔch a thing of mｏbility，ｐrｏｔｅｃt water, lｏwer watｅｒto tｕrn ｈot, pｏstｐoｎe hoｔFeng of emergeｎce tｉme．Sｅveｎis the ｈeat seａs ｏn sｐrinkｌe to ｂuiｌd caｎthe aｄoｐtiｏｎtakｅtｏestabｌiｓh tｏhide sun plank etｃ. aｓｓisｔancｅｍeasure control concreｔe ofＷen Ｓheｎｇ, ｌｏwｅｒto sｐriｎkｌｅtemperaｔure of build the cｏnｃrｅt ｅ.Eigｈt ｉs ｔhe teｍｐeｒaｔure ｏf ｂig ｐhysicａｌvolumｅconcrete shouｌd the dint relatｅto ｓｔrｕcｔure siｚe, concｒete structuｒe sizｅmo ｒｅbig, teｍｐerａtuｒｅshoｕld dint morｅbig,so waｎt reasoｎａbleａrrａnｇemｅnｔconsｔｒucｔion work ｐreface，lａyering,ｃeｎｔtｈｅpｉece sｐｒinklｅto ｂuiｌｄ,for the convenｉｅｎce ｏf in spreaｄhot，let up cｏntrol.Ninｅiｓaｔgreat iｎner pａrt conｓｔituｔｉoｎof the phｙsｉｃａl vｏluｍe ｃonｃretｅｃool offｐiｐｉｎg, cｏld waｔer perhaps cold air cｏol off，ｌet up ｃonｃrｅｔe of insiｄe oｕtsiｄe difference iｎtempｅratｕrｅ.Tｅn iｓｔｈe ｓupｅｒvision whiｃh ｓtｒengｔhｅｎc ｏｎｃｒetｅｔempeｒatｕre，aｄopt tｏｃool off in tｉme, prｏtｅctｉonmeasurｅ.11is to rｅserｖe temperature coｎｓtringency to ｓeｗ.12 iｓto let ｕp to control, sprinkle ｐroper ｂeｆoｒe ｂuildinｇconcｒete iｎｔhe Ji rockａnd old cｏｎcretｅtop ｂuild ａ5 mｍｏr so ｓaｎd mat a layer ｏr usａge aｓphalｔetc.mａterialＴｕ2Shua.１3 iｓtoｓtｒｅngtｈｅn ｃoｎcrete to protect，ｔhe concrｅte after spriｎkleｂuild useｍｏist grass Liａn ｉｎtime, heｍp sliｃｅ＇s ｅtc．oveｒｌay，aｎd attentiｏn spriｎkle water to pｒｏtect,ａpｐroｐriatｅｅxtensiｏｎprotect time，ａssurancｅｔhe coｎcｒeｔe sｕrface be sloｗ-movｉng cool off.At thｅｃoｌｄseasｏn, concｒete ｓurface shｏｕｌdｃonstｉtuｔion hｅat prｅsｅr ｖatｉon mｅaｓuｒe, ｉn order tｏprevent cold wave ａssaｕlt.14 ｉsｔhe alｌoｃatiｏn be ａlitｔle amoｕnt iｎthe coｎcrete oｆrｅiｎforciｎｇbar ｐerhaps ａｄｄfiber maｔeriａl concretｅof ｔemｐerａturｅcｒaｃk conｔrol at certaｉn ｏf scｏｐe insｉde.5.Ｃracｋaｎd prｅvｅntion that thｅｃｈｅmｉcal reaｃtion cauｓeAlkａlｉｂｏne'ｓanticiｐaｔｉnｇｔｈe crack ｔｈat reactｉoｎcra ｃｋａnｄreinｆｏｒｃｉng bａr rusｔeｃliｐｓe caｕse is the most f ａmiliar in the rｅinforｃed concreｔeｓｔrｕctｕｒｅof beｃaｕｓｅof c ｈemical reactioｎbuｔcａuse of ｃrａcｋ.Tｈe concrete blend a future reunion creation soｍe alｋalescｅｎce iｏn, theseｉon with some activｉty the bonｅａｎticiｐａｔe crｅatｉon cｈemical ｒeaction ａｎｄabsoｒｂsｕrroundings environmeｎt iｎｏｆwａter butｔhｅphysicaｌvolume enlarge，mａkeｃoncrete criｓｐlooｓe, inflatｉｏn opeｎcracｋ.Iｎthis kｉnd of crack ｇeneraｌemｅrgｅnｃe ｃoncretｅstrｕcｔｕrｅｕｓａgｅpeｒiod,onｃe appear very diffiｃult r ｅmediable，so shouｌd at under conｓtｒucｔｉonａdｏpt valiｄthe ｍeasurｅｃaｒry oｎpreveｎtｉon.Main oｆｐreｖentｉoｎmｅasure：Wｈｉｌe ｂeing to choｏse to aｎticipate wｉth the alｋali ａｃtｉviｔy sｍalｌfrｅeｓtonｅboｎe.Two iｓthe in addition which choｏｓe to usｅｌow lye m ｉre ｗｉｔhｌow alkalｉor ｈave no alｋａli.Three is thｅChａｎｗｈiｃh ｃhooｓe to use accoｍｍodation with anｔicipａte tｏｒｅpress ａn ａｌkaｌi bone to antiｃiｐaｔe ｒｅaｃtｉｏn.Ｂｅcause ｔhe coｎcrete ｓprinkle ｔo buiｌd，fｌaｐＤao ｂaｄper ｈapｓｉｓaｒeinfoｒcing bar proｔｅction layer thｉnｎｅr, thｅharm ｆul mａtｅrial ｇｅt iｎｔo ｃoｎcｒete tｏmaｋe reinｆorｃinｇbar cｒeat ｉｏn ruｓt eclipｓe,the rｅiｎｆorｃｉnｇbaｒpｈysｉcal voluｍe of tｈｅrｕｓt ｅcｌipsｅｉnｆｌatioｎ,caｕse concrete bulge ｃrack，tｈe craｃk oｆｔhis kｉndｔypｅmuch is a ｃrack lｅngｔhwaｙs,ｆｏlloｗthe poｓiｔion of reｉｎｆorｃiｎg bar appear.Ｕｓｕaｌly of prevｅnt mｅasure ｆrom have:One iｓassｕrａnｃe rｅiｎforcing bar pｒotection thｅthickｎess of the ｌayeｒ．Two iｓa ｃoncｒete cｌass to goｔogetｈｅr ｗｉｔh tｏw ａnｔgoｏd.Three ｉｓ a ｃｏｎcrｅｔe to sｐrｉnkｌe to nｏtｅａｎd f ｌap Ｄao airtigｈt sｏlid.Four is a reiｎfoｒcing bar suｒface ｌayeｒTｕ2 Shｕａantｉseｐsis coａｔing．Crａck procｅssingTheｅmergeｎce of the crａck not oｎｌy wｏuld inｆｌuenｃｅｓtrucｔuｒe of whｏｌe witｈjuｓt degreｅ, reｔｕrn wｉll caｕseｔhe rｕstｅcliｐsｅofｒeｉnfoｒcing baｒ, acｃeleration cｏｎcreｔe ｏf carbonｉzａtioｎ, ｌｏweｒdｕｒablｅanｄanｔi- of cｏncｒete tired, aｎti-Ｓｈen abiｌity.Tｈereｆorｅaｃcording to the pｒｏｐerty of ｃrack and conｃrｅtｅcircuｍstance we want differeｎtiａtion to tｒeaｔ, iｎtime ｐrocｅssing, witｈasｓuｒance buildiｎg of ｓａfｅｔy ｕｓaｇe．Tｈe repaｉr meａsｕre oｆｔhe ｃonｃrｅte crack ｉs mａｉn to ha ｖe ｔhｅfolloｗing ｓomｅmethod:Ｓurface ｒepair ｍeｔhoｄ，iｎfuse syrup，the Qian ｓｅｗｍetｈoｄ, the stｒucturｅｒeinfｏｒｃe aｍeｔhod，ｃoｎcreｔｅdispｌａcemenｔmethod, ｅｌeｃtricity chｅmｉｓt ｒy pｒotectioｎmｅthod andｉｍiｔate to livｉnｇfrom hｅaｌｍｅｔｈｏd．Suｒｆace rｅｐａｉr the mｅthod be a ｋiｎd of simple, familiar ｏｆｒeｐaｉr mｅthod, it main bｅａppｌｉcａble ｔo sｔability and to stru ｃturｅloａding tｈe abiliｔy ｄoｎ't have ｔhe sｕrface ｃrack ｏf inｆluence and deep ｅnter ｃｒack of proceｓsing．Thｅｐrocｅsｓｉｎg mｅａsure that isｕsuaｌlｙis a suｒfａcｅin craｃk ｄaubｅrｙｃemenｔｓyruｐ,tｈe wrｅath ｏxygen ｇuｍmiｒｅor at coｎcrｅtｅsuｒｆaｃe Tu2 Ｓｈuａpaint，aｓｐhalｔetc. antisepsｉs mａteｒial，at pｒｏｔｅｃｔioｎｏfｉn tｈeｍeaｎtimｅfｏｒｋeｅping concｒete fromｃoｎt ｉnuｅunｄer the infｌueｎce of ｖａｒious function to open ｃrａｃｋ, usualｌｙcan aｄｏptionｔhe suｒfaｃｅin cｒack ｇluｅto stｉck glaｓs fｉber cｌoth etc. measuｒｅ．1, ｉnfusｅｓyｒｕp, tｈeＱian sew mｅthodInfuse a syｒuｐmetｈｏd main ｔhe concrｅte craｃk ｂeen appｌiｃaｂlｅｔo havｅinfluence ｏｒhaｖe alrｅａｄy defend Shｅn requｅsｔｔo the ｓtructuｒe whole of rｅpair，iｔis mａke use of presｓure equｉpmeｎts guｍknｏt the mateｒial pｒess inｔｏtheｃraｃk of cｏnｃrete，ｇum knoｔthe mateｒiａｌhardeｎbeｈiｎd ａnd concrｅｔe fｏrmａｔi ｏｎｏne be whole, thuｓreinforceｏfｐurpｏｓe.The in coｍmon use guｍｋnｏｔmaｔｅｒial has the cemｅnt tｈe syrup, eｐｏｘy, A Ｊi C Ｘi sｏur eｓteｒａnｄgather ammoniａester to equaｌizｅto ｌeaｒn material.Tｈe Qianｓewａmetｈoｄｉs ｔｈat tｈｅcrａcｋbe a kind of moｓtｉn ｃｏｍmoｎuse ｍethｏｄin,it ｕsualｌｙis foｌlow the crａck dig slot,ｔhｅQian fill Sｕin ｔheｓlot or rigiｄwaｔｅr ｍaｔeriａl wiｔh attain ｃlosing crａcｋof ｐｕrposｅ.Tｈeｉnｃommoｎu ｓe Su maｔerial has PVCｇｕｍmｉｒe,plastiｃs ｏiｎtｍenｔ,ｔhe ＤJi rｕｂber ｅｔc.;In coｍｍoｎuse rigid waｔer material is the polyｍｅｒcｅment ｓand ｓyruｐ．2, tｈe strucｔure reiｎfoｒｃe ａmethｏdWｈen the ｃracｋinfluencｅarｒiｖe ｃoncrｅtｅstｒucture of ｆunction，wilｌconsideｒaｔion adoptｔo reinforce a mｅthod ｔoｃaｒryoｎproｃesｓing to the ｃoncｒete stｒｕctｕrｅ．The ｓtruｃtuｒe ｒeinfoｒｃe mediｕｍｉn common use main have thｅfｏlｌoｗiｎg a fewｍethod:The piecｅoｆenlaｒｇｅment conｃrete structure in eｖerｙaｓpect accumulate, ｏutsiｄｅthe Caｐe dｅpａrtment of thｅＧoｕpｉece ｐａｃk tyｐe ｓｔeel，aｄoｐｔiｏn prｅpare shｏulｄｔｈｅdint metｈｏd rｅｉnfｏrｃe, glｕｅｔo sticｋsteｅｌｐlate to ｒeiｎforce，ｉncｒｅase to ｅstａblish fulcｒum to reiｎforｃe and jet tｈe cｏncretｅｃｏｍpeｎsatioｎrｅｉnfｏｒcｅ.3, ｃonｃｒete diｓplaｃeｍeｎtｍｅｔｈodConｃretｅdisplaceｍｅｎｔmeｔhod is ｐrｏｃessing severity dａmａge cｏn ｃrｅte of a ｋind of valｉd ｍethoｄ, this methｏd bｅｆirst wｉll ｄamａge of the cｏncrete piｃk ａnｄｇetｒid ｏf, thｅｎａgain disｐlacemeｎｔｇo into ｎewｏf concrｅte ｏr oｔｈer ｍaｔeｒｉal.The in cｏmmｏｎuse diｓplacemｅnt matｅｒial hａvｅ:Ｃommｏｎcoｎcｒｅte ｏr thｅｃemeｎt sanｄｓｙｒup, polymｅr ｏr chaｎge seｘpoｌymeｒｃｏncrｅｔe or saｎd syrup.4,thｅｅｌeｃtriciｔy chemiｓtｒy prｏtectｉoｎｍethｏdTｈe ｅｌｅｃtricｉty chｅmｉｓｔry ａｎtiｓepｓiｓis to make use of inｆlictｉon electｒic field iｎｌie the quａliｔy of elecｔrｉcity ｃhemｉcal eｆｆeｃt, chaｎｇe conｃrｅtｅor reiｎfｏｒced cｏncｒete thｅenviron ｍent aｐpｅarance of tｈe place,tｈe ｂlｕntnｅss turn rｅinforcing bar to aｔtain ｔｈe purpｏｓe ｏｆantisｅpsｉs.Ｃathode ｐroｔeｃtiｏn method, cｈloriｎe saｌt＇s withdrawiｎg a metｈoｄ, alkalescence tｏrｅｃｏver a m ｅthod is a chemistrｙpｒoｔeｃtｉon method ｉn tｈｒeｅkindｓof ｉn cｏmｍoｎuｓe ｂut ｖaｌid ｍetｈｏd．Ｔhe advantage of tｈｉs kinｄof metｈod iｓａpｒoｔectiｏnｍethoｄundeｒｔhｅinfluenｃe of ｅｎviｒｏnment factor sｍalleｒ，apply reiｎfoｒｃing ｂar，ｃｏncreｔe of ｌｏｎg－tｅｒm aｎtisepｓiｓ，ｓinｃｅｃａｎuｓed for ｃraｃk stｒucｔure already ｃan alsｏｕsed ｆor new set uｐｓtrｕctｕre.５, ｉmiｔate to lｉｖing from ｌegaｌmoｒeＩｍitａｔｅｔo lｉｖｉｎgｆrom heaｌｔhe mｅthod bｅ a kiｎd ofｎew crａck ｔreａtment, its miｍiｃｒｙliving creature orｇaｎizaｔioｎsecrete a ｃeｒｔain materiａｌtowards suffeｒiｎg wｏuｎd part auto，but makｅｔhe wound part heaｌof fｕnｃtiｏn，jｏin sｏmｅanｄs ｐecial coｍpｏsitｉon（ｓuch as ｃontain to ｇｌｕe knot of tｈe lｉqｕid Ｘin fibｅr or caｐｓuｌe) iｎthｅcｏncｒeteｏf the traｄｉｔion the ｃompositiｏｎ,at cｏncretｅinneｒpart fｏrmatｉｏn the iｎｔelligence typｅｉmｉtａtｅto liｖingｆｒｏｍｈｅal nerve nｅtwｏrk syｓtem，be tｈe c ｏncrete appearｃrａcｋｓecｒete a parts of liquiｄＸin fiｂer cａｎmakeｔhe craｃk re－heal.ＣonclusionThe crack ｉｓwｉdespｒｅad in the cｏncrｅte stｒucturｅeｘｉｓｔencｅoｆａｋｉnd of pheｎomenoｎ，it oｆemｅrgence nｏt oｎlｙwiｌｌlower ｔhe ａnti- Sｈｅnｏｆｂuildｉng abilｉty,influencｅｂｕil ｄing ｏf usaｇe funｃtion, ａnd wｉｌｌcauｓｅｔｈe rust eclipse of reinfoｒcing ｂaｒ, tｈe carbｏｎiｚation ｏf concｒete,lower thｅduｒable oｆｍateｒial, iｎfｌｕenｃe building oｆloading ａｂilｉｔy,so wanｔt ｏｃarry ｏｎto the conｃretｅcrack eａrnest reseaｒch，diｆfereｎti ａtion treaｔ, adoptｉon rｅasｏnablｅof ｔｈe method cａrｒy on process ｉnｇ, and at underｃonstｒucｔion adoｐt various ｖalｉd ｏｆpreveｎti ｏn meａsure tｏprｅvｅｎtion cracｋoｆemeｒｇenｃe anｄｄevｅlopme ｎt, aｓｓurancｅbuｉｌdｉnｇanｄGou piｅce safｅty，ｓｔaｂｉliｔｙworｋ.Ｆｒｏm《ＣAＮＡDIＡN JOUＲNAL OF CＩVIL ENGINEERIＮG》中文原文:建筑施工混凝土裂缝的预防与处理混凝土的裂缝问题是一个普遍存在而又难于解决的工程实际问题,本文对混凝土工程中常见的一些裂缝问题进行了探讨分析，并针对具体情况提出了一些预防、处理措施。
土木专业毕业设计外文翻译英文文献
144 Study on Construction Cost of Construction ProjectsHui LiAudit Department of Tianjin Polytechnic UniversityE-mail: lihui650122@AbstractChina is a country which has the largest investment amount in engineering construction in the world and which has the most construction projects. It is a significant subject for the extensive engineering managers to have effective engineering cost management in construction project management and to reasonably determine and control construction cost on the condition of ensuring construction quality and time limit.On the basis of the status quo of losing control in Chinese construction investment and of separation of technique and economy in engineering, and guided by basic theories of construction cost control, the author discusses control methods and application of construction cost, sets forth existing issues in construction cost control and influences of these issues on determination and control of construction cost, puts forward that construction cost control should reflect cost control of the entire construction process at the earlier stage of construction, and then introduces some procedures and methods of applying value project cost control at all stages of construction projects.Keywords: Construction cost, Cost control, Project1. Significance of the studyThe existing construction cost management system in China was formulated in 1950s, and improved in 1980s. Traditional construction cost managerial approach was one method brought in from the former Soviet Union based on unified quota of the country. It is characterized by the managerial approach of construction cost in the planned economy, which determines that it cannot adapt to requirements of the current market economy.Traditional construction cost managerial approach in China mainly includes two aspects, namely, determination approach of construction cost and control approach of construction cost. The traditional determination approach of construction cost mainly applied mechanically national or local unified quantity quota to determine the cost of a construction project. Although this approach has undergone reform of over 20 years, until now, influences of planned economy management mode have still been in existence in many regions. Control approach of our traditional construction cost is mainly to control settlement and alteration of construction cost, which is merely an approach to settle accounts after the event, and which cannot satisfy the purpose of saving resources and improving work. In recent years, requirements of developed countries on project investment have been to plan to control in advance and to control in the middle of an event, whose effects have proved to be effective. An actually scientific approach should be that construction cost control approach beforehand and after the event can eliminate or diminish labour in vain or poor efficiency and unnecessary resource degradation and methods applied in implementation of construction projects before or after the event.Considering the above situation, the academic circles put forward concept of cost management and control of the overall process as early as 1980s. They began to attach importance to prophase management of construction projects and take the initiative to conduct cost management. Afterwards, on July 1, 2003, implementation of <<Cost Estimate Norm for Bill of Quantity of Construction Works>> symbolized that cost estimate of China had entered a brand-new era that complied with development rules of market economy. From then on, concepts and approaches of Chinese cost management were really integrated with the international society.Losing control of construction project investment is a universal phenomenon in fixed investment field in China. A construction project consumes quite a lot of manpower, materials and machines, with large investment, long construction cycle, and strong synthesis, so it is related with economic interests of all construction parties and means a lot to national economy. Currently, in the field of Chinese project construction, there exists the status quo of separation of technique and economy. Most of engineers and technicians tend to regard construction cost as duty of financing andpreliminary budget personnel, and mistakenly believe that it has nothing to do with themselves. In the process of carrying out a project, they usually only focus on quality control and progress control, while they ignore control over investment in construction projects. If technicians ignore construction cost, and those who are in charge of construction cost have no knowledge in relevant technical construction connected with construction cost, then it is difficult for them to reasonably confirm and effectively control construction cost. Construction supervision investment control refers to managerial activities at the whole implementation state of the project, which attempts to guarantee realization of project investment targets with the premise of satisfying quality and progress. Investment targets are set at different stages with further progress of construction practice, and construction cost control runs through the entire process of project construction, but it should give prominence to the key points. Obviously, the key of construction cost control lies in investment decision-making and design stage before the construction, while after the investment decision is made, the key lies in the design. Life cycle of construction project includes construction cost and recurrent expenditure after the construction project is put into service, and discard and removal costs etc after usage period of the project. According to analysis of some western countries, usually design cost only amounts to less than 1% of life cycle of construction project. However, it is the cost of less than 1% that accounts for more than 75% of influences on construction cost. It is therefore obvious that, design quality is vital to benefits of the entire project construction.For a long time, construction cost control of the preliminary engineering of project construction has been ignored in China, while the primary energy of controlling construction cost has been focused upon auditing working drawing estimate, settling construction cost and settling itemized account during construction. Although this has its effect, after all, this had no difference from taking precautions after suffering a loss and getting half the result with twice the efforts. In order to effectively control construction cost, the emphasis of control should be firmly transferred to preliminary construction stage. At present, we should take all pains to grasp this significant stage so as to achieve maximum results with little effort.This article aims to analyze existing issues in cost control of the entire construction period through study on theoretical methods and practice of construction cost management. Especially, issues in cost control in the earlier period of construction deserve our research, so that we can explore corresponding reform measures to offer some references for construction project cost control.The situation of a construction project in which budgetary estimate exceeds estimation, budget exceeds budgetary estimate, and settlement exceeds budget, is a universal phenomenon in investment in fixed assets in China. Construction cost which is out of control adds to investment pressure, increases construction cost, reduces investment profit, affects investment decision-making, and, to a great extent, wastes the national finance, so it is likely to result in corruption or offence. Since the middle of 1950s, on the basis of summarizing practical experiences of fundamental construction battle line for several decades, we have conducted a series of reforms in construction field. Especially since May 1988, we have gradually implemented the system of construction supervision all over the country, which has had some positive effects upon reversing the phenomenon of losing control of a construction project in the implementation period. However, because that system is still in its starting stage, there hasn’t appeared a large batch of professional and socialized supervision teams. In addition, in projects in which construction supervision is carried out, there exist general phenomena, such as “emphasis on quality control at the construction stage and neglect of investment control”, and “emphasis on technical aspects of supervision and neglect of economic aspects of supervision”. In reality, rights of supervision tend to be confined to management of technical aspects, while management of economic aspects is firmly in control of proprietors. Meanwhile, lagging behind of existing construction cost management system is the primary cause for losing control of construction cost. Therefore, as a whole, the phenomenon of losing control over construction project cost is still quite serious, so it is necessary to conduct further study and make further analysis on major factors of current construction cost management and factors at all stages of a construction project that affect construction cost.2. Primary study contentAiming at the subject of “control of whole-process of construction project cost”, and based on lots of literature reviews about determination and control of construction project cost both at home and abroad, the author of this paper has collected extensively some relevant provincial and city reports and data after investigation. Afterwards, the author conducts the following work.1) To analyze formulation of construction project investment and to find out primary reasons for losing control over construction cost at all stages of a construction project.2) To study and analyze status quo and existing issues of current construction cost management, and study influences of these issues upon determination and control of a construction cost.3) To put forward effective approaches and methods as well application of value engineering of a construction project from its decision-making stage, design stage, construction stage to the final acceptance of construction stage.1454) To make clear significance, necessity and feasibility of cost control of a construction project so as to provide recommendations for improvement of construction cost management in China.2.1 Construction cost control theory and management mod eAccording to the new cost control theory, cost engineers are “professional persons who undertake cost estimate, cost control, marketing planning and scientific management”. Fields undertaken by cost engineers include such aspects as project management, project planning, progress management and profitability analysis etc of a project construction and its production process. Cost engineers offer service for control over life cycle expenditure, property facilities and production & manufacture of a construction project with their management technique with an overall cost.2.2 Current construction cost management model and theories in China2.2.1 Direct regulation and control of the governmentConsidering development process of quota, it can be discovered that quota has come into being, developed and become mature gradually with development of planned economy after foundation of PRC. Since China has carried out centralized management model of investment system for a long time, the government is not only a maker of macropolicy, but a participant of micro-project construction. Therefore, a unified quota with dense colour of planned economy is able to provide powerful methods and means for the government to carry out macro-investment regulation and control and micro-construction project management.2.2.2 Valuation basis for current construction costBasic materials for calculation of construction cost usually include construction cost quota, construction cost expense quota, cost index, basic unit price, quantities calculation rule and relevant economic rules and policies issued by competent departments of the government, etc. It includes index of estimate (budgetary estimate index), budgetary estimate quota, budgetary quota (comprehensive budgetary quota), expense quota (standard), labor quota, working-day norm, materials, budgetary price of facilities, direct price index of a project, material price index and cost index. And also included is valuation criterion of consumption quota and list of items in recent two years.2.2.3 Valuation model of current construction costValuation model is a basic aspect of construction cost management. Construction cost management is a governmental behavior, while valuation model is a means for a country to manage and control construction cost. There are two construction valuation models at present in China, namely, valuation model according to quota and one according to bill of quantities.2.2.3.1 Valuation model according to quotaValuation model according to quota is an effective model adopted during the transition period from planned economy to market economy. Determination of construction cost through valuation model according to quota prevents overrated valuation and standards and prices pressed down to some extent, because budgetary quota standardizes rate of consumption and a variety of documents stipulate manpower, materials, unit price of machines and all sorts of service fee norms, which reflects normativity, unitarity and rationality of construction cost. However, it has an inhibited effect upon market competition, and is not favorable for a construction enterprise to improve its technique, strengthen its management and enhance its labor efficiency and market competition.2.2.3.2 Valuation model according to bill of quantitiesValuation model according to bill of quantities is a construction cost determination model proposed recently. In this model, the government merely unifies project code, project name, unit of measurement and measurement rule of quantities. Each construction enterprise has its self-determination to quote a price according to its own situation in a tender offer, and price of building products is formed thereby in the process of bidding.2.3 Cost control in the process of implementationFor a long time, technique and economy has been separated in the field of project construction. Restrained by the planned economy, there lacks the economic concept in the minds of our engineers and technicians, because they regard reduction of construction cost as a duty of financial personnel which has nothing to do with themselves. However, the primary responsibility of financial and preliminary budget personnel is to act in accordance with financial system. Usually, they are not familiar with construction technique, and know little or even nothing about changes of various relations in project design, construction content and implementation of construction. Under such a circumstance, they have no choice but to mechanically work out or audit the expenditure from a financial perspective, which results in mutual separation of technique and economy. They just do what they do, which negatively reflects price of quantities of a project that has been completed, so it is difficult to control construction cost rationally and effectively.1462.4 Control of cost in the process of constructionImplementation stage of a construction project is a stage which requires the most assets in the whole process of a project construction, and is also a vital stage for pecuniary resources to transform into building entities. Cost control at the implementation stage refers to confine construction cost within a scheduled control scope through a scientific cost control theory and method on the condition of ensuring project quality and time limit. The process of generation of a building entity is inreversible, so if effective automatic control and precontrol cannot be conducted over construction cost, then economic loss might be caused that cannot be made up for.2.5 Analysis of major factors that affect construction cost at the stage of implementationImplementation stage of a project refers to the period from completion of construction documents design and examination and submission to the construction party to the final completion acceptance of the project and until it is put into use. According to the basic operation procedure of the implementation stage of a construction project, formation of a construction cost has to undergo such major aspects as bidding, contract signing and management, joint auditing of a shop drawing, investigation of a construction management plan, material management and completion settlement, etc. All these aspects affect construction cost settlement to different degrees. In that process, after evolving from budgetary price, price for successful bidding, refurbishing cost for a contract, the construction cost is finally determined in the form of settlement price for project completion. Factors affecting construction cost are various, but from the perspective of analysis of cost formation, there are primarily the following reasons.1) Influences of a project bidding. Bidding can determine price for successful bidding, while contract price is determined on the basis of price for successful bidding. If something goes wrong with bidding, then it might result in distortion of the price for bidding, and it is impossible to provide accurate and reliable foundation for cost control, and even result in losing control over the cost.2) Influences of contract signing and management. Determination of a contract price further makes precise target of cost control, and an initial draft of a contract term provides correct foundation and principles for cost control. After signing of a contract, contract items are regarded as foundation, which will have strict contract control over design changes at the construction stage, project measurement, payment of a construction debt, and construction compensation, etc, and which will ensure realization of a control target. Therefore, losing control over signing and management of a contract will necessarily result in losing control over construction cost.3) Influences of examination of construction management plan. Construction management plan is one of important foundations for determine a project bidding price and contract price. In the process of construction, adjustment of a contract price should also be determined according to construction management plan, because quality of construction management plan will directly affect quality and progress of a project. Therefore, losing control over examination of construction management plan will bring extremely unfavorable influences upon control over construction cost.4) Influences of material management. On one hand, material price is an important component of bidding price and contract price. On the other hand, material expense accounts for a large proportion in construction cost, because price of materials determine construction cost. Therefore, losing control over material management will necessarily result in losing control over construction cost.5) Influences of settlement, examination and verification of a project completion. Settlement, examination and verification is the final stage of a construction cost control at the implementation stage. A strict and meticulous settlement, examination and verification can ensure accuracy and authenticity of settlement cost of a project. According to previous analysis, we believe that all aspects of cost control can have effect upon formation of construction cost, among which bidding of a project, contract signing and management, examination of a construction management plan and management of materials all have decisive effects upon formation of construction cost, and are vital aspects in cost construction at the implementation stage of a project, so neglect of these four aspects is a direct cause for losing control over construction cost.In this paper, the author summarizes relevant issues in construction cost control at the decision-making stage of a construction project, at the design stage and construction stage, and puts forward principles or resolutions for handing such issues. Especially, as a method of combination of technique and economics, application of value engineering is elaborated at all stages, so that construction cost gets effective controlled. This paper cannot conclude all such issues existing, and also resolutions to resolve these issues cannot cover and contain everything, but with development of construction, new issues and new trains of thought will continue to emerge.ReferencesAminan Fayek. (1998). Competitive Bidding Strategy Model and Software System for Bid Preparation. Jounal of Construction Engineering and Management.Chen, Jianguo. (2001). Project Measurement and cost management. Shanghai: Tongji University Press.147Don R.Hansen & Maryanne M. Mowen. (2005). Cost Management: Accounting and Control.Dong, Shibo. (2003). Status Quo of Construction Cost Management Theory and Its Developmental Trend. Construction Cost Management, (5).Feng, Jingchun. (2000). Study on Counter Measures of Project Cost Management. Technical and Economic Development, (6).George J.Ritz. (1993). Total Construction Project Management.Gou, Zhiyuan. (2002). Thought on Integrated Control Approach of Construction Cost Management. 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Standardized Quantity Recipe File for Quality and Cost Control.John E.Schaufelberger & Len Holm. (2001). Management of Construction Projects: A Constructor's Perspective.John Innes, Falconer Mitchell & Takeo Yoshikawa. (2000). Activity Costing for Engineers. Research Studies Press Ltd. John R.Canada, William G Sullivan, Dennis 3. Kulonda & John A.White. (2004). Capital Investment Analysis for Engineering and Management.Li, Tinggui. (2003). Study on Cost Management Model and Countermeasures of Construction project after China's entry into the WTO. Construction Cost Management.Liu, Guiwen & Shen, Qiping. (2001). A Study of Value Engineering Applications in China’s Construction Industry. Value Engineering, (3).Liu, Hongqing. (2003). About overall cost control. Shanxi Architecture, (29)6.Liu, Zhongying & Mao, Jian. Architecture Project Quantity List Quotation. Southeast University Press, 9.Luo, Dinglin. (1997). Determination and Control of Construction Project Cost at Home and Abroad. Beijing: Chemical Industry Press.Ma, Guanghong & Xu, Wei. (2003). Discussion on Application of Overall Cost Management Theory. Project Management, (4).Ma, Guanghong & Xu, Wei. (2003). Discussion on Application of Overall Cost Management Theory. Project Management, (4).Norton B R & McElligot C W. (1995). Value management in construction: a practical guide. Hampshire: Macmillan Press.Paul J. McVety. (1997). The Menu and the Cycle of Cost Control.Project Management Institute. (2004). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge.Qi, Anbang. (2000). Total Cost Management for Engineering Project. Tianjin: Nankai University Press.Qin, Aiguo. (1999). Study on Construction Cost Management. Economic Tribune, (22).Ren, Guoqiang & Yin, Yilin. (2003). The Feasibility Study on Life Cycle Cost Management in Terms of Paradigm Transformation. China Soft Science Magazine, (5).Ren, Hong. (2004). Cost Planning and Control of Construction Project. China Higher Education Press.Sidney M.Levy. (2002). Project Management in Construction.Stephen P Robbins & David A. Decenzo. (2002). Fundament of Management. Prentice Hall, Inc.148Takashi Ishikawa. (1996). Analogy by Abstraction: Case Retrieval and Adaptation for Inventive Design Expert Systems. Expert Systems with Application, (4)10.Tao, Xueming, Huang, Yunde & Xiong, Wei. (2004). Construction Cost Valuation and Management. China Architecture & Building Press, 2.Wang, Ailin. (2003). Value Engineering and Its Application in Constructional Engineering. Anhui Architecture, (5). Wang, Li & Xu, Zihua. (2004). Comparative Study on Construction Cost Models at Home and Abroad. Architecture Economics.Wang, Yulong. (1997). 2000 Cases on Issues of Construction Project Cost. Shanghai: Tongji University Press. Wang, Zhenqiang. (2002). British Construction Cost Management. Tianjin: Nankai University Press.Wang, Zhenqiang. (2002). Japanese Construction Cost Management. Tianjin: Nankai University Press, 4.Xiang, Ke & Luo, Feng. (2004). Cost Control of Design Stage. Sichuan Architecture, (2).Xu, Datu. (1997). Determination and Control of Construction Cost. Beijing: China Planning Press.Xu, Datu. (1997). Investment Control of Construction Project. Beijing: China Planning Press.Yin, Yilin. (2001). Determination and Control of Construction Cost. Beijing: China Planning Press.Zhang, Caijiang, Li, Kehua & Xu, Yongmei. Review of VE Theory and Practice in China and Some Deep Thinking about its Depression. Nankai Business Review, (1).Zhong, Guangen. (2004). Brief Discussion on Cost Control System in Projects of Commonwealth Nations.Zuo, Jin & Han, Hongyun. Actuality & Amelioration of Whole Life-cycle Value-chain in Architecture. Value Engineering, (6).149。
土木毕业设计外文文献
土木毕业设计外文文献土木毕业设计外文文献在土木工程领域，外文文献是不可或缺的资源。
它们提供了最新的研究成果、技术发展和实践经验，为土木工程师们提供了宝贵的指导和参考。
本文将介绍几篇与土木毕业设计相关的外文文献，并对其内容进行简要概述。
1. "Structural Health Monitoring of Bridges: A Review" by Fu-Kuo Chang and Hoon Sohn这篇文献综述了桥梁结构健康监测的最新研究进展。
它介绍了不同类型的监测技术，包括传感器、无损检测和数据分析方法。
文献还讨论了桥梁结构健康监测的挑战和未来发展方向。
对于土木工程学生来说，这篇文献提供了一个全面的桥梁结构监测的概述，可以帮助他们在毕业设计中选择适当的监测方法。
2. "Seismic Design of Reinforced Concrete Buildings" by Jack Moehle这本书是一本关于钢筋混凝土建筑抗震设计的经典著作。
它详细介绍了抗震设计的原理、方法和实践经验。
文献还包括了大量的案例研究和结构分析的示例。
对于进行毕业设计的土木工程学生来说，这本书是一个宝贵的参考资料，可以帮助他们理解抗震设计的基本原理，并应用于实际项目中。
3. "Sustainable Construction: Green Building Design and Delivery" by Charles J. Kibert可持续建筑是当今土木工程领域的一个重要话题。
这本书介绍了绿色建筑设计和施工的原则和实践。
文献探讨了可持续建筑的概念、设计方法和材料选择。
它还包括了绿色建筑认证体系和案例研究。
对于有意进行可持续建筑设计的毕业生来说，这本书提供了宝贵的指导，帮助他们在毕业设计中实现环境友好和可持续发展的目标。
4. "Geotechnical Engineering: Principles and Practices" by Donald P. Coduto,Man-chu Ronald Yeung, and William A. Kitch岩土工程是土木工程的重要分支。
土木工程毕业外文文献及翻译
引用外文文献中的数据和结论， 支持毕业设计的分析结果
借鉴外文文献中的研究方法， 为毕业设计提供参考和借鉴
引用外文文献中的理论，丰富 毕业设计的理论依据
对比外文文献中的案例，为毕 业设计的方案提供参考和借鉴
提供国际前沿的学术观点和研究成果，有助于开拓研究思路。 对比分析中外研究方法的异同，提高研究的科学性和客观性。 引述外文文献中的数据和案例，增强论据的说服力。 了解国际标准和技术规范，促进研究成果的国际交流和合作。
专业术语的准确性：土木工程领域涉及大量专业术语，未来翻译将更加注重专业术语的准确性， 以避免误导读者。
翻译标准的制定和完善：为了规范土木工程外文文献翻译市场，未来将制定更加完善的翻译标 准，提高翻译行业的整体水平。
汇报人：XX
语言障碍：提高语言能力，熟悉专业术语 文化差异：了解目标语言国家的文化和土木工程领域的知识背景 准确性问题：多渠道核对，确保翻译准确无误 格式问题：熟悉目标语言国家的文献格式要求，保持格式一致
评估标准：准确性、流畅性、专业性 提升方法：学习外语技巧、积累专业词汇、练习翻译技巧 注意事项：尊重原文、符合目标语言习惯、保持专业风格 实践经验：多做实际翻译项目、参与翻译比赛、与同行交流学习
语篇翻译技巧：注重整体语境，保持原文风格和 语义连贯性
逻辑梳理技巧：理清原文逻辑关系，合理安排段 落和句序，确保译文条理清晰
PART FOUR
文献来源：介绍所选取的外文文献来源 翻译过程：详细描述文献翻译的过程，包括翻译工具、翻译策略等 实例分析：选取文献中的典型句子或段落进行翻译分析，说明翻译的难点和解决方法 总结与反思：对外文文献翻译实践进行总结，提出改进建议和未来展望
会议论文集： 学术会议的论 文集，包含最 新的研究成果
土木工程毕业设计中英文摘要和目录
摘要建筑名称：博文图书馆位置：青岛市经济技术开发区结构类型：钢筋混凝土框架结构层数：四层总建筑面积：7629.4m2本设计建筑名称为博文图书馆。
图书馆不仅仅是一个阅读的场所，它更是市民交流的平台。
作为城市地标，拟建建筑物要考虑与临边建筑风格相协调，同时也要突出自己的建筑风格。
本图书馆建筑建筑总高度25.875米，共4层，层高5.1米，采用现浇钢筋混凝土框架结构，抗震等级为三级，抗震设防烈度为7度，整个设计包括建筑设计和结构设计两部分。
建筑设计部分，首先根据建筑的使用功能确定建筑的初步布局，包括建筑体形及室内空间布置等，然后结合使用的材料、做法进一步确定具体尺寸和平、立面风格等。
具体来说，主要包括总平面设计、建筑平面设计（功能布局及布置思路、房间的布置、卫生间的设计、楼梯布置、柱网布置等）、立面设计、剖面设计（层数层高确定及楼梯设计）、建筑材料设计（屋面做法、楼面做法）、防火设计，并对主要设计规范、尺寸单位、荷载及钢筋混凝土作了附加说明。
结构设计部分，首先根据建筑设计、工艺使用要求、材料供应情况以及场地地质条件等确定结构布置方案，然后选取一榀典型框架进行设计计算。
在明确计算简图的前提下，进一步确定框架承受的荷载，包括恒载、屋（楼）面活载和风荷载，在此基础上进行框架内力计算（采用D值法计算风荷载作用下的内力，采用弯矩二次分配法计算竖向荷载作用下的内力）、内力组合、梁、柱和基础等构件的配筋计算以及风荷载作用下的侧移验算。
除此之外，还进行了楼梯设计（梯段板设计、平台板设计及平台梁设计）、雨篷的设计与计算等。
为进一步验证手算结果的精确度，采用PKPM 2005行业软件进行了电算，比较分析表明手算结果是可靠的。
最后用AutoCAD进行绘图。
关键词：钢筋混凝土框架结构；图书馆建筑；建筑设计；结构设计AbstractBuilding Name：Bo Wen LibraryLocation：Economic and Technological Development Zone of Qingdao Struture System：R.C.frameNumber of Stories：4 storiesTotal floor area：7629.4m2The building name of the design is Bo Wen Library. It is not only a reading place but a platform for communication. As a landmark of the city, The proposed building should be considered to be in accordance with the style of surrounding architecture, and also highlight its own style.The present project is a 4-storey library with the floor height 5.1m and the total height 25.875m. The four-layer building is adopted the cast-in-place reinforced concrete frame structure, and the seismic fortification intensity is 7 with the anti-seismic level 3. The entire graduation project divides into two parts, that is, the architectural design part and the structural design part.In the architectural design part, the general layout is first determined according to the building function, including conformation and indoor spatial setting; then the dimension, plane style and elevation style are chosen considering the engineering materials and constructional details. Make it more specific,it includes the total plane design, architectural graphic design (the function layout and layout thinking, the room arrangement and the design of toilet, stair layout, column, etc), the facade design layout, section design(the number and the height of layers identity and stair design), building materials design (roofing approach, the floor practice) and fire prevention design. In addition, instructions for the main design norms and dimensions, load and reinforced concrete is given.In the structural design part, the array of structure is first determined according to architectural design, process demand, material supply and geological conditions; then a typical transverse frame is taken to be computed. After the extract of computation sketch, the external loads such as the dead load, living load on the roof (floor) and the wind load are calculated; then the internal force in the structure is obtained through the moment distribution method under verticalloading and the modified knick point method under horizontal loads. In the following, the combination of internal force is performed. On the above basis, the design of structural components such as beams, columns and foundations are respectively carried out, and at the same time the checking computation of the slidesway under wind load is done. In addition, the design of the stair (ladder period of board design, smooth bedplate design and platform beam design), the canopy and other accessory components are also completed..To verify the accuracy of above results, numerical tests are performed with the software PKPM 2005, and the comparisons prove that the original results are reliable. Finally, the construction documents are completed using the software AutoCAD 2004.Keywords: Reinforced concrete frame; Multi-storey library building; Architectural design; Structural design.目录1 建筑设计 (1)1.1设计资料 (1)1.1.1建筑环境和地点 (1)1.1.2建筑设计要求 (2)1.2 总平面设计 (3)1.2.1总平面设计要求 (3)1.2.2总图设计 (4)1.2.3方案特点 (5)1.2.4基地环境分析 (6)1.2.5交通组织 (7)1.2.6绿化景观设计 (8)1.2.7 变形缝的设计 (8)1.3 建筑平面设计 (9)1.3.1设计指导思想及本方案平面特点 (10)1.3.2功能分区 (12)1.3.3房间的布置 (14)1.3.4卫生间的设计 (16)1.3.5人流组织说明 (17)1.3.6防火疏散组织与楼梯的布置 (17)1.3.7柱网的布置 (19)1.4 立面设计 (20)1.4.1立面设计要求 (21)1.4.2方案造型设计 (22)1.5 剖面设计 (25)1.5.1剖面设计基本要求 (25)1.5.2屋面、楼面做法 (28)1.5.3楼梯选择 (29)1.6细部构造总说明 (31)1.6.1勒脚 (31)1.6.2散水 (31)1.6.3楼地面工程 (32)1.6.4屋面工程 (32)1.6.5门窗工程 (32)1.6.6基础工程 (33)1.7防火设计 (34)1.8其它说明 (35)2.结构设计 (36)2.1 板的设计 (36)2.1.1 设计资料 (36)2.1.2 楼盖的结构平面布置 (36)2.1.3单向板计算 (37)2.1.4 双向板计算 (40)2.2 次梁计算 (47)2.3框架设计 (50)2.3.1 设计资料 (50)2.3.2 结构布置及结构计算简图 (52)2.3.3 荷载统计 (54)2.3.4 内力计算 (66)2.3.5 内力组合 (94)2.3.6截面设计 (102)2.4 基础设计 (114)2.4.1基础资料 (114)2.4.2荷载统计 (115)2.4.3地基承载力验算 (117)2.4.4配筋计算 (126)2.4.5联合基础设计 (134)2.5 楼梯设计 (138)2.5.1 设计资料 (138)2.5.2 梯段板设计 (139)2.5.3 平台板设计 (140)2.5.4 平台梁设计 (141)2.6 雨篷设计 (143)2.6.1 设计资料 (143)2.6.2 雨篷板抗弯强度计算 (143)2.6.3 雨篷梁计算 (145)参考文献 (150)致谢 (152)附录博文图书馆图纸目录表 (153)。
土木工程类外文文献翻译
毕业设计（外文文献翻译）题目:新余学院学生实习楼系别：土木与建筑学院专业：2012级建工方向*****学号：45指导教师：***外文翻译Abstract:To study the application of continuum structural topology optimization methods to real engineering structures,an optimization method for an optimal topology design of multistory steel frame bracing systems is a sensitivity analysis,an element removal criterion for continuum structures with stress and multi-displacement constraints under multiple lateral loading conditions is concept of mean thickness of a design domain is provided to ensure the reasonableness of optimal the proposed optimization method,the optimal design of an unbraced steel frame without displacement constraints is performed firstly,and then the optimal topology of a bracing system for the multistory steel frame considering displacement constraints is obtained by using evolutionary structural optimization and the given removal criterion,and finally the optima layout of the bracing system is interpreted as bracing example of 3-bay 12-story plane steel frame shows that it is effective for the given optimization method in the optimal design of bracing systems for multistory steel frames.Key words:steel frame;bracing system;continuum;topology optimization;evolutionary structural optimizationReinforced ConcretePlain concrete is formed from a hardened mixture of cement ,water ,fine aggregate, coarse aggregate (crushed stone or gravel),air, and often other admixtures. The plastic mix is placed and consolidated in the formwork, then cured to facilitate the acceleration of the chemical hydration reaction lf the cement/water mix, resulting in hardened concrete. The finished product has high compressive strength, and low resistance to tension, such that its tensile strength is approximately one tenth lf its compressive strength. Consequently, tensile and shear reinforcement in the tensile regions of sections has to be provided to compensate for the weak tension regions in the reinforced concrete element.It is this deviation in the composition of a reinforces concrete section from the homogeneity of standard wood or steel sections that requires a modified approach to the basic principles of structural design. The two components of the heterogeneous reinforced concrete section are to be so arranged and proportioned that optimal use is made of the materials involved. This is possible because concrete can easily be given any desired shape by placing and compacting the wet mixture of the constituent ingredients are properly proportioned, the finished product becomes strong, durable, and, in combination with the reinforcing bars, adaptable for use as main members of any structural system.The techniques necessary for placing concrete depend on the type of member to be cast: that is, whether it is a column, a bean, a wall, a slab, a foundation. a mass columns, or an extension of previously placed and hardened concrete. For beams, columns, and walls, the forms should be well oiled after cleaning them, and the reinforcement should be cleared of rust and other harmful materials. In foundations, the earth should be compacted and thoroughly moistened to about 6 in. in depth to avoid absorption of the moisture present in the wet concrete. Concrete should always be placed in horizontal layers which are compacted by means of high frequency power-driven vibrators of either the immersion or external type, as the case requires, unless it is placed by pumping. It must be kept in mind, however, that over vibration can be harmful since it could cause segregation of the aggregate and bleeding of the concrete.Hydration of the cement takes place in the presence of moisture at temperatures above 50°F. It is necessary to maintain such a condition in order that the chemical hydration reaction can take place. If drying is too rapid, surface cracking takes place. This would result in reduction of concrete strength due to cracking as well as the failure to attain full chemical hydration.It is clear that a large number of parameters have to be dealt with in proportioning a reinforced concrete element, such as geometrical width, depth, area of reinforcement, steel strain, concrete strain, steel stress, and so on. Consequently, trial and adjustment is necessary in the choice of concrete sections, with assumptions based on conditions at site,availability of the constituent materials, particular demands of the owners, architectural and headroom requirements, the applicable codes, and environmental reinforced concrete is often a site-constructed composite, in contrast to the standard mill-fabricated beam and column sections in steel structures.A trial section has to be chosen for each critical location in a structural system. The trial section has to be analyzed to determine if its nominal resisting strength is adequate to carry the applied factored load. Since more than one trial is often necessary to arrive at the required section, the first design input step generates into a series of trial-and-adjustment analyses.The trial-and –adjustment procedures for the choice of a concrete section lead to the convergence of analysis and design. Hence every design is an analysis once a trial section is chosen. The availability of handbooks, charts, and personal computers and programs supports this approach as a more efficient, compact, and speedy instructional method compared with the traditional approach of treating the analysis of reinforced concrete separately from pure design.EarthworkBecause earthmoving methods and costs change more quickly than those in any other branch of civil engineering, this is a field where there are real opportunities for the enthusiast. In 1935 most of the methods now in use for carrying and excavating earth with rubber-tyred equipment did not exist. Most earth was moved by narrow rail track, now relatively rare, and the main methods of excavation, with face shovel, backacter, or dragline or grab, though they are still widely used are only a few of the many current methods. To keep his knowledge of earthmoving equipment up to date an engineer must therefore spend tine studying modern machines. Generally the only reliable up-to-date information on excavators, loaders and transport is obtainable from the makers.Earthworks or earthmoving means cutting into ground where its surface is too high ( cuts ), and dumping the earth in other places where the surface is too low ( fills). Toreduce earthwork costs, the volume of the fills shouldbe equal to the volume of the cuts and wherever possible the cuts should be placednear to fills of equal volume so as to reduce transport and double handlingof the fill. This work of earthwork design falls on the engineer who lays out the road since it is the layout of the earthwork more than anything else which decides its cheapness. From the available maps ahd levels, the engineering must try to reach as many decisions as possible in the drawing office by drawing cross sections of the earthwork. On the site when further information becomes available he can make changes in jis sections and layout,but the drawing lffice work will not have been lost. It will have helped him to reach the best solution in the shortest time.The cheapest way of moving earth is to take it directly out of the cut and drop it as fill with the same machine. This is not always possible, but when it canbe done it is ideal, being both quick and cheap. Draglines, bulldozers and face shovels an do this. The largest radius is obtained with the dragline,and the largest tonnage of earth is moved by the bulldozer, though only over short disadvantages of the dragline are that it must dig below itself, it cannot dig with force into compacted material, it cannot dig on steep slopws, and its dumping and digging are not accurate.Face shovels are between bulldozers and draglines, having a larger radius of action than bulldozers but less than draglines. They are anle to dig into a vertical cliff face in a way which would be dangerous tor a bulldozer operator and impossible for a dragline. Each piece of equipment should be level of their tracks and for deep digs in compact material a backacter is most useful, but its dumping radius is considerably less than that of the same escavator fitted with a face shovel.Rubber-tyred bowl scrapers are indispensable for fairly level digging where the distance of transport is too much tor a dragline or face shovel. They can dig the material deeply ( but only below themselves ) to a fairly flat surface, carry it hundreds of meters if need be, then drop it and level it roughly during the dumping. For hard digging it is often found economical to keep a pusher tractor ( wheeled or tracked ) on the digging site, to push each scraper as it returns to dig. As soon as the scraper is full,the pusher tractor returns to the beginning of the dig to heop to help the nest scraper.Bowl scrapers are often extremely powerful machines;many makers build scrapers of 8 cubic meters struck capacity, which carry 10 m ³ heaped. The largest self-propelled scrapers are of 19 m ³ struck capacity ( 25 m ³ heaped )and they are driven by a tractor engine of 430 horse-powers.Dumpers are probably the commonest rubber-tyred transport since they can also conveniently be used for carrying concrete or other building materials. Dumpers have the earth container over the front axle on large rubber-tyred wheels, and the container tips forwards on most types, though in articulated dumpers the direction of tip can be widely varied. The smallest dumpers have a capacity of about m ³, and the largest standard types are of about m ³. Special types include the self-loading dumper of up to 4 m ³and the articulated type of about m ³. The distinction between dumpers and dump trucks must be remembered .dumpers tip forwards and the driver sits behind the load. Dump trucks are heavy, strengthened tipping lorries, the driver travels in front lf the load and the load is dumped behind him, so they are sometimes called rear-dump trucks.Safety of StructuresThe principal scope of specifications is to provide general principles and computational methods in order to verify safety of structures. The “ safety factor ”, which according to modern trends is independent of the nature and combination of the materials used, can usually be defined as the ratio between the conditions. This ratio is also proportional to the inverse of the probability ( risk ) of failure of the structure.Failure has to be considered not only as overall collapse of the structure but also as unserviceability or, according to a more precise. Common definition. As the reaching of a “ limit state ” which ca uses the construction not to accomplish the task it was designed for. There are two categories of limit state :(1)Ultimate limit sate, which corresponds to the highest value of the load-bearing capacity. Examples include local buckling or global instability of the structure; failure of some sections and subsequent transformation of the structure into a mechanism; failure by fatigue; elastic or plastic deformation or creep that cause a substantial change ofthe geometry of the structure; and sensitivity of the structure to alternating loads, to fire and to explosions.(2)Service limit states, which are functions of the use and durability of the structure. Examples include excessive deformations and displacements without instability; early or excessive cracks; large vibrations; and corrosion.Computational methods used to verify structures with respect to the different safety conditions can be separated into:(1)Deterministic methods, in which the main parameters are considered as nonrandom parameters.(2)Probabilistic methods, in which the main parameters are considered as random parameters.Alternatively, with respect to the different use of factors of safety, computational methods can be separated into:(1)Allowable stress method, in which the stresses computed under maximum loads are compared with the strength of the material reduced by given safety factors.(2)Limit states method, in which the structure may be proportioned on the basis of its maximum strength. This strength, as determined by rational analysis, shall not be less than that required to support a factored load equal to the sum of the factored live load and dead load ( ultimate state ).The stresses corresponding to working ( service ) conditions with unfactored live and dead loads are compared with prescribed values ( service limit state ) . From the four possible combinations of the first two and second two methods, we can obtain some useful computational methods. Generally, two combinations prevail:(1)deterministic methods, which make use of allowable stresses.(2)Probabilistic methods, which make use of limit states.The main advantage of probabilistic approaches is that, at least in theory, it is possible to scientifically take into account all random factors of safety, which are then combined to define the safety factor. probabilistic approaches depend upon :(1) Random distribution of strength of materials with respect to the conditions of fabrication and erection ( scatter of the values of mechanicalproperties through out the structure );(2) Uncertainty of the geometry of the cross-section sand of the structure ( faults and imperfections due to fabrication and erection of the structure );(3) Uncertainty of the predicted live loads and dead loads acting on the structure;(4)Uncertainty related to the approximation of the computational method used ( deviation of the actual stresses from computed stresses ).Furthermore, probabilistic theories mean that the allowable risk can be based on several factors, such as :(1) Importance of the construction and gravity of the damage by its failure;(2)Number of human lives which can be threatened by this failure;(3)Possibility and/or likelihood of repairing the structure;(4) Predicted life of the structure.All these factors are related to economic and social considerations such as：(1) Initial cost of the construction;(2) Amortization funds for the duration of the construction;(3) Cost of physical and material damage due to the failure of the construction;(4) Adverse impact on society;(5) Moral and psychological views.The definition of all these parameters, for a given safety factor, allows construction at the optimum cost. However, the difficulty of carrying out a complete probabilistic analysis has to be taken into account. For such an analysis the laws of the distribution of the live load and its induced stresses, of the scatter of mechanical properties of materials, and of the geometry of the cross-sections and the structure have to be known. Furthermore, it is difficult to interpret the interaction between the law of distribution of strength and that of stresses because both depend upon the nature of the material, on the cross-sections and upon the load acting on the structure. These practical difficulties can be overcome in two ways. The first is to apply different safety factors to the material and to theloads, without necessarily adopting the probabilistic criterion. The second is an approximate probabilistic method which introduces some simplifying assumptions ( semi-probabilistic methods ) .中文翻译摘要：为了研究连续型拓扑优化理论在实际工程中的应用，该文给出了一种多层钢框架支撑体系连续型拓扑优化设计方法。
2012土木工程毕业设计目录及外文参考文献
安徽工程大学毕业设计某高校土木综和楼设计摘要依据课题任务书以及《建筑防火规范》、《建筑结构荷载规范》和《混凝土结构设计规范》等国家现行规范，规程完成了该课题建筑，结构，施工三个方面的设计,首先从总体出发，综合考虑和组织室内外的空间完成建筑平面，立面，以及剖面的设计；其次完成了一榀框架各结构构件的配筋设计，手绘结构施工图。
并进行pkpm软件进行检验，绘制CAD图，整个设计方案在建筑、结构方面满足国家现行规范要求。
本设计对一榀框架，从结构选型入手，计算分析了该框架的荷载，利用分层法和D 值法分别对框架结构在竖向荷载、水平风荷载作用下产生的内力进行了计算，通过内力组合，得出框架的控制内力，最后完成框架各构件的配筋计算并绘制了该框架的施工图。
设计书中同时选算了框架的一个基础、楼梯，给出了基础、楼梯的配筋计算并绘制了施工图。
关键词：结构设计框架结构结构配筋基础I周星星：某高校土木综合楼设计The design of Civil integrated buildingAbstractThe design is mainly on three parts of the subject,the building part, the structure part,and the construction part ,which based on the mission statement , "Building code for fire protection, ""building structures norms ","Design of Concrete Structures"and other existing national norms.Firstly,I departured from the general, having taken indoor and outdoor space and organization into consideration,I completed the construction plan, elevation design and profile design; followed the calculation of the reinforcement on structural members of each designed framework.Construction drawing was finished by hand. The design of the building meets the existing national specification.In the design,I chose a framework, starting from the structure selection, when it came to the calculation load of the framework, the stratification method and D value method were both introduced, respectively for the calculation of the vertical load, internal forces produced by horizontal wind loads .Through the combination of internal forces, the internal control forces of the framework were obtained , and finally the framework of the reinforcement calculation of each component were completed and construction drawings of the framework was drawn.In the design book, the reinforcement was calculated and construction drawings was drawn in both the foundation and the stairs selected.Key words:Structural design Framework Reinforcement Foundation安徽工程大学毕业设计目录第1章绪论····························································错误！未定义书签。
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安徽工程大学毕业设计某高校土木综和楼设计摘要依据课题任务书以及《建筑防火规范》、《建筑结构荷载规范》和《混凝土结构设计规范》等国家现行规范，规程完成了该课题建筑，结构，施工三个方面的设计,首先从总体出发，综合考虑和组织室内外的空间完成建筑平面，立面，以及剖面的设计；其次完成了一榀框架各结构构件的配筋设计，手绘结构施工图。
并进行pkpm软件进行检验，绘制CAD图，整个设计方案在建筑、结构方面满足国家现行规范要求。
本设计对一榀框架，从结构选型入手，计算分析了该框架的荷载，利用分层法和D 值法分别对框架结构在竖向荷载、水平风荷载作用下产生的内力进行了计算，通过内力组合，得出框架的控制内力，最后完成框架各构件的配筋计算并绘制了该框架的施工图。
设计书中同时选算了框架的一个基础、楼梯，给出了基础、楼梯的配筋计算并绘制了施工图。
关键词：结构设计框架结构结构配筋基础I周星星：某高校土木综合楼设计The design of Civil integrated buildingAbstractThe design is mainly on three parts of the subject,the building part, the structure part,and the construction part ,which based on the mission statement , "Building code for fire protection, ""building structures norms ","Design of Concrete Structures"and other existing national norms.Firstly,I departured from the general, having taken indoor and outdoor space and organization into consideration,I completed the construction plan, elevation design and profile design; followed the calculation of the reinforcement on structural members of each designed framework.Construction drawing was finished by hand. The design of the building meets the existing national specification.In the design,I chose a framework, starting from the structure selection, when it came to the calculation load of the framework, the stratification method and D value method were both introduced, respectively for the calculation of the vertical load, internal forces produced by horizontal wind loads .Through the combination of internal forces, the internal control forces of the framework were obtained , and finally the framework of the reinforcement calculation of each component were completed and construction drawings of the framework was drawn.In the design book, the reinforcement was calculated and construction drawings was drawn in both the foundation and the stairs selected.Key words:Structural design Framework Reinforcement Foundation安徽工程大学毕业设计目录第1章绪论····························································错误！未定义书签。
1.1 结构绪论····························································错误！未定义书签。
1.2 基本概况····························································错误！未定义书签。
1.3 结构选型····························································错误！未定义书签。
1.4 结构布置····························································错误！未定义书签。
1.5 设计题目已知条件····················································错误！未定义书签。
第2章建筑结构布置与荷载计算············································错误！未定义书签。