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DESIGN AND EXECUTION OF GROUND INVESTIGATION FOREARTHWORKSABSTRACTThe design and execution of ground investigation works for earthwork projects has become increasingly important as the availability of suitable disposal areas becomes limited and costs of importing engineering fill increase. An outline of ground investigation methods which can augment ‘traditional investigation methods’ particularly for glacial till / boulder clay soils is presented. The issue of ‘geotechnical certification’ is raised an d recommendations outlined on its merits for incorporation with ground investigations and earthworks.1. INTRODUCTIONThe investigation and re-use evaluation of many Irish boulder clay soils presents difficulties for both the geotechnical engineer and the road design engineer. These glacial till or boulder clay soils are mainly of low plasticity and have particle sizes ranging from clay to boulders. Most of our boulder clay soils contain varying proportions of sand, gravel, cobbles and boulders in a clay or silt matrix. The amount of fines governs their behaviour and the silt content makes it very weather susceptible.Moisture contents can be highly variable ranging from as low as 7% for the hard grey black Dublin boulder clay up to 20-25% for Midland, South-West and North-West light grey boulder clay deposits. The ability of boulder clay soils to take-in free water is well established and poor planning of earthworks often amplifies this.The fine soil constituents are generally sensitive to small increases in moisture content which often lead to loss in strength and render the soils unsuitable for re-use as engineering fill. Many of our boulder clay soils (especially those with intermediate type silts and fine sand matrix) have been rejected at the selection stage, but good planning shows that they can in fact fulfil specification requirements in terms of compaction and strength.The selection process should aim to maximise the use of locally available soils and with careful evaluation it is possible to use o r incorporate ‘poor ormarginal soils’ within fill areas and embankments. Fill material needs to be placed at a moisture content such that it is neither too wet to be stable and trafficable or too dry to be properly compacted.High moisture content / low strength boulder clay soils can be suitable for use as fill in low height embankments (i.e. 2 to 2.5m) but not suitable for trafficking by earthwork plant without using a geotextile separator and granular fill capping layer. Hence, it is vital that the earthworks contractor fully understands the handling properties of the soils, as for many projects this is effectively governed by the trafficability of earthmoving equipment.2. TRADITIONAL GROUND INVESTIGATION METHODSFor road projects, a principal aim of the ground investigation is to classify the suitability of the soils in accordance with Table 6.1 from Series 600 of the NRA Specification for Road Works (SRW), March 2000. The majority of current ground investigations for road works includes a combination of the following to give the required geotechnical data:▪Trial pits▪Cable percussion boreholes▪Dynamic probing▪Rotary core drilling▪In-situ testing (SPT, variable head permeability tests, geophysical etc.) ▪Laboratory testingThe importance of ‘phasing’ the fieldwork operations cannot be overstressed, particularly when assessing soil suitability from deep cut areas. Cable percussion boreholes are normally sunk to a desired depth or ‘refusal’ with disturbed and undisturbed samples recovered at 1.00m intervals or change of strata.In many instances, cable percussion boring is unable to penetrate through very stiff, hard boulder clay soils due to cobble, boulder obstructions. Sample disturbance in boreholes should be prevented and loss of fines is common, invariably this leads to inaccurate classification.Trial pits are considered more appropriate for recovering appropriate size samples and for observing the proportion of clasts to matrix and sizes of cobbles, boulders. Detailed and accurate field descriptions are therefore vitalfor cut areas and trial pits provide an opportunity to examine the soils on a larger scale than boreholes. Trial pits also provide an insight on trench stability and to observe water ingress and its effects.A suitably experienced geotechnical engineer or engineering geologist should supervise the trial pitting works and recovery of samples. The characteristics of the soils during trial pit excavation should be closely observed as this provides information on soil sensitivity, especially if water from granular zones migrates into the fine matrix material. Very often, the condition of soil on the sides of an excavation provides a more accurate assessment of its in-situ condition.3. ENGINEERING PERFORMANCE TESTING OF SOILSLaboratory testing is very much dictated by the proposed end-use for the soils. The engineering parameters set out in Table 6.1 pf the NRA SRW include a combination of the following:▪Moisture content▪Particle size grading▪Plastic Limit▪CBR▪Compaction (relating to optimum MC)▪Remoulded undrained shear strengthA number of key factors should be borne in mind when scheduling laboratory testing:▪Compaction / CBR / MCV tests are carried out on < 20mm size material.▪Moisture content values should relate to < 20mm size material to provide a valid comparison.▪Pore pressures are not taken into account during compaction and may vary considerably between laboratory and field.▪Preparation methods for soil testing must be clearly stipulated and agreed with the designated laboratory.Great care must be taken when determining moisture content of boulder clay soils. Ideally, the moisture content should be related to the particle size andhave a corresponding grading analysis for direct comparison, although this is not always practical.In the majority of cases, the MCV when used with compaction data is considered to offer the best method of establishing (and checking) the suitability characteristics of a boulder clay soil. MCV testing during trial pitting is strongly recommended as it provides a rapid assessment of the soil suitability directly after excavation. MCV calibration can then be carried out in the laboratory at various moisture content increments. Sample disturbance can occur during transportation to the laboratory and this can have a significant impact on the resultant MCV’s.IGSL has found large discrepancies when performing MCV’s in the field on low plasticity boulder clays with those carried out later in the laboratory (2 to 7 days). Many of the aforementioned low plasticity boulder clay soils exhibit time dependant behaviour with significantly different MCV’s recorded at a later date – increased values can be due to the drainage of the material following sampling, transportation and storage while dilatancy and migration of water from granular lenses can lead to deterioration and lower values.This type of information is important to both the designer and earthworks contractor as it provides an opportunity to understand the properties of the soils when tested as outlined above. It can also illustrate the advantages of pre-draining in some instances. With mixed soils, face excavation may be necessary to accelerate drainage works.CBR testing of boulder clay soils also needs careful consideration, mainly with the preparation method employed. Design engineers need to be aware of this, as it can have an order of magnitude difference in results. Static compaction of boulder clay soils is advised as compaction with the 2.5 or 4.5kg rammer often leads to high excess pore pressures being generated – hence very low CBR values can result. Also, curing of compacted boulder clay samples is important as this allows excess pore water pressures to dissipate.4. ENGINEERING CLASSIFICATION OF SOILSIn accordance with the NRA SRW, general cohesive fill is categorised in Table 6.1 as follows:▪2A Wet cohesive▪2B Dry cohesive▪2C Stony cohesive▪2D Silty cohesiveThe material properties required for acceptability are given and the design engineer then determines the upper and lower bound limits on the basis of the laboratory classification and engineering performance tests. Irish boulder clay soils are predominantly Class 2C.Clause 612 of the SRW sets out compaction methods. Two procedures are available:▪Method Compaction▪End-Product CompactionEnd product compaction is considered more practical, especially when good compaction control data becomes available during the early stages of an earthworks contract. A minimum Target Dry Density (TDD) is considered very useful for the contractor to work with as a means of checking compaction quality. Once the material has been approved and meets the acceptability limits, then in-situ density can be measured, preferably by nuclear gauge or sand replacement tests where the stone content is low.As placing and compaction of the fill progresses, the in-situ TDD can be checked and non-conforming areas quickly recognised and corrective action taken. This process requires the design engineer to review the field densities with the laboratory compaction plots and evaluate actual with ‘theoretical densities’.5. SUPPLEMENTARY GROUND INVESTIGATION METHODS FOR EARTHWORKSThe more traditional methods and procedures have been outlined in Section 2. The following are examples of methods which are believed to enhance ground investigation works for road projects:▪Phasing the ground investigation works, particularly the laboratory testing▪Excavation & sampling in deep trial pits▪Large diameter high quality rotary core drilling using air-mist or polymer gel techniques译文：土方工程的地基勘察与施工摘要：当工程场地的处理面积有限且填方工程费用大量增加时，土方工程的地基勘察设计与施工已逐渐地变得重要。

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Stress Limits in DesignHow large can we permit the stresses to be? Or conversely: How large must a part be to withstand a given set of loads what are the overall conditions or limits that will determine the size and material for a part?Design limits are based on avoiding failure of the part to perform its desired function. Because different parts must satisfy different functional requirements, the conditions which limit load-carrying ability may be quite different for different elements. As an example, compare the design limits for the floor of a house with those for the wing of an airplane.If we were to determine the size of the wooden beams in a home such that they simply did not break, we would not be very happy with them; they would be too ‘springy’. Walking across the room would be like walking out on a diving board.Obviously, we should be concerned with the maximum ‘deflection’that we, as individuals, find acceptable. This level will be rather subjective, and different people will give different answers. In fact, the same people may give different answers depending on whether they are paying for the floor or not!An airplane wing structure is clearly different. If you look out an airplane window and watch the wing during turbulentweather, you will see large deflections; in fact you may wish that they were smaller. However, you know that the important issue is that of ‘structural integrity’, not deflection.We want to be assured that the wing will remain intact. We want to be assured that no matter what the pilot and the weather do, that wing will continue to act like a good and proper wing. In fact, we really want to be assured that the wing will never fail under any conditions. Now that is a pretty tall order; who knows what the ‘worst’ conditions might be?Engineers who are responsible for the design of airplane wing structures must know, with some degree of certainty, what the ‘worst’ conditions are likely to be. It takes great patience and dedication for many years to assemble enough test data and failure analyses to be able to predict the ‘worst’case. The general procedure is to develop statistical data which allow us to say how frequently a given condition is likely to be encountered—once every 1000 hours, or once every 10000 hours, etc.As we said earlier, our object is to avoid failure. Suppose, however, that a part has failed in service, and we are asked; Why? ‘Error’ as such can come from three distinctly different sources, any or all of which can cause failure:1. Error in design: We the designers or the design analysts may have been a bit too optimistic: Maybe we ignored some loads; maybe our equations did not apply or were not properly applied; maybe we overestimated the intelligence of the user; may we slipped a decimal point.2. Error in manufacture: When a device involves heavily stressed members, the effective strength of the members can be greatly reduced through improper manufacture and assembly: May the wrong material was used; maybe the heat treatment was not as specified; maybe the surface finish was not as good as called for; may a part was ‘out of tolerance’; may be surface was damaged during machining; maybe the threads were not lubricated at assembly; or perhaps the bolts were not properly tightened.3. Error in use: As we all know, we can damage almost anything if we try hard enough, and sometimes we do so accidentally: We went too fast; we lost control; we fell asleep; we were not watching the gages; the power went off; the computer crashed; he was taking a coffee break; she forgot to turn the machine off; you failed to lubricate it, etc.Any of the above can happen: Nothing is designed perfectly; nothing is made perfectly; and nothing is used perfectly. Whenfailure does occur, and we try to determine the cause, we can usually examine the design; we can usually examine the failed parts for manufacturing deficiencies; but we cannot usually determine how the device was used (or misused). In serious cases, this can give rise to considerable differences of opinion, differences which frequently end in court.In an effort to account for all the above possibilities, we design every part with a safety factor. Simply put, the safety factor (SF) is the ratio of the load that we think the part can withstand to the load we expect it to experience. The safety factor can be applied by increasing the design loads beyond those actually expected, or by designing to stress levels below those that the material actually can withstand (frequently called ‘design stresses’).Safety factor=SF=failure load/design load=failure stress/design stress It is difficult to determine an appropriate value for the safety factor. In general, we should use larger values when:1. The possible consequences of failure are high in terms of life or cost.2. There are large uncertainties in the design analyses.Values of SF generally range from a low of about 1.5 to 5 ormore. When the incentives to reduce structural weight are great (as in aircraft and spacecraft), there is an obvious conflict. Safety dictates a large SF, while performance requires a small value. The only resolution involves reduction of uncertainty. Because of extreme care and diligence in design, test, manufacture, and use, the aircraft industry is able to maintain very enviable safety records while using safety factors as low as 1.5.We might not that the safety factor is frequently called the ‘ignorance factor’. This is not to imply that engineers are ignorant, but to help instill in them humility, caution, and care. An engineer is responsible for his or her design decisions, both ethically and legally. Try to learn from the mistakes of others rather than making your own.。

土木工程概论外文翻译.doc

外文原文 2Civil engineering introduction papersAbstract: the civil engineering is a huge discipline, but the main one is building, building whether in China or abroad, has a long history, long-term development process. The world is changing every day, but the building also along with the progress of science and development. Mechanics findings, material of update, ever more scientific technology into the building. But before a room with a tile to cover the top of the house, now for comfort, different ideas, different scientific, promoted the development of civil engineering, making it more perfect.Key words: civil engineering；Architecture；Mechanics；Materials Civil engineering is building various projects collectively. It was meant to be and "military project" corresponding. In English the history of Civil Engineering, mechanical Engineering, electrical Engineering, chemical Engineering belong to Engineering, because they all have Min Yong Xing. Later, as the project development of science and technology, mechanical, electrical, chemical has gradually formed independent scientific, to Engineering became Civil Engineering of specialized nouns. So far, in English, to Engineering include water conservancy project, port engineering, while in our country, water conservancy projects and port projects also become very close and civil engineering relatively independent branch. Civil engineering construction of object, both refers to that built on the ground, underground water engineering facilities, also refers to applied materials equipment and conduct of the investigation, design and construction, maintenance, repair and other professional technology.Civil engineering is a kind of with people's food, clothing, shelter and transportation has close relation of the project. Among them with "live" relationship is directly. Because, to solve the "live" problem，must build various types of buildings. To solve the "line, food and clothes" problem both direct side, but also a indirect side. "Line", must build railways, roads, Bridges, "Feed", must be well drilling water, water conservancy, farm irrigation, drainage water supply for the city that is direct relation. Indirectly relationship is no matter what you do, manufacturing cars, ships, or spinning and weaving, clothing, or even production steel, launch satellites, conducting scientific research activities are inseparable from build various buildings, structures and build all kinds of project facilities.Civil engineering with the progress of human society and development, yet has evolved into large-scale comprehensive discipline, it has out many branch, such as: architectural engineering, the railway engineering, road engineering, bridge engineering, special engineering structure, water and wastewater engineering, port engineering, hydraulic engineering, environment engineering disciplines. [1] Civil engineering as an important basic disciplines, and has its important attributes of: integrated, sociality, practicality, unity. Civil engineering for the development of national economy and the improvement of people's life provides an important material and technical basis, for many industrial invigoration played a role in promoting, engineering construction is the formation of a fixed asset basic production process, therefore, construction and real estate become in many countries and regions, economic powerhouses.Construction project is housing planning, survey, design, construction of the floorboard. Purpose is for human life and production provide places.Houses will be like a man, it's like a man's life planning environment is responsible by the planners, Its layout and artistic processing, corresponding to the body shape looks and temperament, is responsible by the architect, Its structure is like a person's bones and life expectancy, the structural engineer is responsible, Its water, heating ventilation and electrical facilities such as the human organ and the nerve, is by the equipment engineer is responsible for. Also like nature intact shaped like people, in the city I district planning based on build houses, and is the construction unit, reconnaissance unit, design unit of various design engineers and construction units comprehensive coordination and cooperation process.After all, but ，is structural stress body reaction force and the internal stress and how external force balance. Building to tackle, also must solve the problem is mechanical problems. We have to solve the problem of discipline called architectural mechanics. Architectural mechanics have can be divided into: statics, material mechanics and structural mechanics three mechanical system. Architectural mechanics is discussion and research building structure and component in load and other factors affecting the working condition of, also is the building of intensity, stiffness and stability. In load, bear load and load of structure and component can cause the surrounding objects in their function, and the object itself by the load effect and deformation, and there is the possibility of damage, but the structure itself has certain resistance to deformation and destruction of competence, and the bearingcapacity of the structure size is and component of materials, cross section, and the structural properties of geometry size, working conditions and structure circumstance relevant. While these relationships can be improved by mechanics formula solved through calculation.Building materials in building and has a pivotal role. Building material is with human society productivity and science and technology improves gradually developed. In ancient times, the human lives, the line USES is the rocks and trees. The 4th century BC, 12 ~ has created a tile and brick, humans are only useful synthetic materials made of housing. The 17th century had cast iron and Sheltie later, until the eighteenth century had Portland cement, just make later reinforced concrete engineering get vigorous development. Now all sorts of high-strength structural materials, new decoration materials and waterproof material development, criterion and 20th century since mid organic polymer materials in civil engineering are closely related to the widely application. In all materials, the most main and most popular is steel, concrete, lumber, masonry. In recent years, by using two kinds of material advantage, will make them together, the combination of structure was developed. Now, architecture, engineering quality fit and unfit quality usually adopted materials quality, performance and using reasonable or not have direct connection, in meet the same technical indicators and quality requirements, under the precondition of choice of different material is different, use method of engineering cost has direct impact.In construction process, building construction is and architectural mechanics, building materials also important links. Construction is to the mind of the designer, intention and idea into realistic process, from the ancient JuChao place to now skyscrapers, from rural to urban country road elevated road all need through "construction" means. A construction project, including many jobs such as dredging engineering, deep foundation pit bracing engineering, foundation engineering, reinforced concrete structure engineering, structural lifting project, waterproofing, decorate projects, each type of project has its own rules, all need according to different construction object and construction environment conditions using relevant construction technology, in work-site. whenever while, need and the relevant hydropower and other equipment composition of a whole, each project between reasonable organizing and coordination, better play investment benefit. Civil engineering construction in the benefit, while also issued by the state in strict accordance with the relevant construction technology standard, thus further enhanceChina's construction level to ensure construction quality, reduce the cost for the project.Any building built on the surface of the earth all strata, building weight eventually to stratum, have to bear. Formation Support building the rocks were referred to as foundation, and the buildings on the ground and under the upper structure of self-respect and liable to load transfer to the foundation of components or component called foundation. Foundation, and the foundation and the superstructure is a building of three inseparable part. According to the function is different, but in load, under the action of them are related to each other, is the interaction of the whole. Foundation can be divided into natural foundation and artificial foundation, basic according to the buried depth is divided into deep foundation and shallow foundation. , foundation and foundation is the guarantee of the quality of the buildings and normal use close button, where buildings foundation in building under loads of both must maintain overall stability and if the settlement of foundation produce in building scope permitted inside, and foundation itself should have sufficient strength, stiffness and durability, also consider repair methods and the necessary foundation soil retaining water and relevant measures. [3]As people living standard rise ceaselessly, the people to their place of building space has become not only from the number, and put forward higher requirement from quality are put car higher demands that the environment is beautiful, have certain comfort. This needs to decorate a building to be necessary. If architecture major engineering constitutes the skeleton of the building, then after adornment building has become the flesh-and-blood organism, final with rich, perfect appearance in people's in front, the best architecture should fully embody all sorts of adornment material related properties, with existing construction technology, the most effective gimmick, to achieve conception must express effect. Building outfit fix to consider the architectural space use requirement, protect the subject institutions from damage, give a person with beautiful enjoying, satisfy the requirements of fire evacuation, decorative materials and scheme of rationality, construction technology and economic feasibility, etc. Housing construction development and at the same time, like housing construction as affecting people life of roads, Bridges, tunnels has made great progress.In general civil engineering is one of the oldest subjects, it has made great achievements, the future of the civil engineering will occupy in people's life moreimportant position. The environment worsening population increase, people to fight for survival, to strive for a more comfortable living environment, and will pay more attention to civil engineering. In the near future, some major projects estimated to build, insert roller skyscrapers, across the ocean Bridges, more convenient traffic would not dream. The development of science and technology, and the earth is deteriorating environment will be prompted civil engineering to aerospace and Marine development, provide mankind broader space of living. In recent years, engineering materials mainly is reinforced concrete, lumber and brick materials, in the future, the traditional materials will be improved, more suitable for some new building materials market; especially the chemistry materials will promote the construction of towards a higher point. Meanwhile, design method of precision, design work of automation, information and intelligent technology of introducing, will be people have a more comfortable living environment. With the development of the theory and new materials, the emergence of the application of computer, high-tech introduction to wait to will make civil engineering have a new leap.This is a door needs calm and a great deal of patience and attentive professional. Because hundreds of thousands, even thousands of thousands of lines to building each place structure clearly reflected. Without a gentle state of mind, do what thing just floating on the surface, to any a building structure, to be engaged in business and could not have had a clear, accurate and profound understanding of, the nature is no good. In this business, probably not burn the midnight oil of courage, not to reach the goal of spirit not to give up, will only be companies eliminated.This is a responsible and caring industry. Should have a single responsible heart - I one's life in my hand, thousands of life in my hand. Since the civil, should choose dependably shoulder the responsibility.Finally, this is a constant pursuit of perfect industry. Pyramid, spectacular now: The Great Wall, the majestic... But if no generations of the pursuit of today, we may also use the sort of the oldest way to build this same architecture. Design a building structure is numerous, but this is all experienced centuries of clarification, through continuous accumulation, keep improving, innovation obtained. And such pursuit, not confined in the past. Just think, if the design of a building can be like calculation one plus one equals two as simple and easy to grasp, that was not for what? Therefore, a civil engineer is in constant of in formation. One of the most simple structure, theleast cost, the biggest function. Choose civil, choosing a steadfast diligence, innovation, pursuit of perfect path.Reference:[1] LuoFuWu editor. Civil engineering (professional). Introduction to wuhan. Wuhan university of technology press. 2007[2] WangFuChuan, palace rice expensive editor. Construction engineering materials. Beijing. Science and technology literature press. 2002.[3] jiang see whales, zhiming editor. Civil engineering introduction of higher education press. Beijing, 1992.中文翻译2土木工程概论摘要：土木工程是一门庞大大学科，主要的部分是建筑，无论在国内还是在国外，都有着悠久的历史发展过程。

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外文翻译土木工程英文文献文献翻译外文原文Stage of construction cost controlConstruction enterprises in engineering construction of a construction project cost management is the foundation of the enterprise survival and the development and the core of the construction stage does well the cost control to achieve the purpose of increasing earnings is the project activities more important link, this paper will carry on the elaboration to this question, so that in enterprise production and management play a directive role.So in the project construction cost control what are the content? The author through 10 years of work experience, and analysis has the following aspects:contract aspects: according to construction drawing, contracting contract as the basis, according to the requirements of the contract project, quality, progress index, compiled in detail the construction organization design, this as the basis of cost plan. The project is in the contract and the existence of the change of component project,report to. As far as possible increases the project income. Use contract rights granted reasonable increase income and reduce expenditure.technical aspects: first of all, according to the actual situationof construction site, scientific planning of the construction site layout, to reduce the waste and save money to create conditions; Basedon its technical superiority, fully mobilize the enthusiasm of management personnel, and carry out the mention reasonable suggestion activities, the expansion of nearly may cost control of scope and depth.quality and security; In strict accordance with the engineering technical specifications and rules of safe operation management, reduce and eliminate quality and safety accidents, make all sorts of loss is reduced to the minimum.machinery management: according to the requirements of project scientific, reasonable selection of machinery, give full play to the mechanical performance; Be reasonable arrangement construction in order to improve the utilization rate of the machinery, reduce machine fee cost; Regular maintenance machinery, improve the integrity rate of the machinery, provide guarantee for the whole progress. For the rent mustbe the mechanical equipment, to improve market research touch bottom the material aspects: material purchasing should be abided by "quality, low price and short distance of the principle of" approach to correct materials measurement, serious acceptance, the maximum limit reduced purchasingmanagement in the process of consumption. According to the construction schedule science organization the use of material plan, avoid downtime should phenomenon; Material drawing shall be strictly controlled, regular inventory, grasps the actual1consumption and the progress of the projects contrast data; For inthe recovery turnover materials, sorting, completed with timely and exits, like this is advantageous to the turnover use and reduce thelease fees, and reduce the cost.and administrative management: first to streamline management institutions, avoid overstaffing, reduce unnecessary salary expenses; Control business expenses and so on each unproductive spending Numbers. The administrative office of the materials with property, all on thecard USES, prevent damage and loss,and financial aspects: the financial department is an important part of the cost control, mainly through the spending review all the expenses, balance scheduling funds and establishing various auxiliary records and hard working with all department cost implementation method such as the inspection and supervision, and the engineering cost analysis of all-round and provide feedback to decision-making departments, in order to take effective measures to correct the deviation of the project cost.More from seven aspects of simple described the content of the responsibility cost management, so in the construction of how tospecific implementation, which we need to master the dynamic control of the construction project cost.In short, the construction project cost control is a complicated system engineering. Construction project cost control, the need for flexible use of, the actual operation should adjust measures to local conditions, different project size, different construction enterprise,different management system have differences, but no matter how construction enterprise to manage production is the consumption of human resources, material resources and cost, guidance, supervision and regulation and restrictions2译文施工阶段成本控制建筑施工企业在工程建设中实行施工项目成本管理是企业生存和发展的基础和核心，在施工阶段搞好成本控制，达到增收节支的目的是项目经营活动中更为重要的环节，本文将对这一问题进行论述，以便在企业的生产经营中起指导作用。

土木工程外文翻译(外文)框架

4.1 INVESTIGATION OF STRUCTURAL BEHA VIORInvestigating how structures behave is an important part of structural design: it provides a basis for ensuring the adequacy and safety of a design, In this section I discuss structural investigation in general. As I do throughout this book. I focus on material relevant to structural design tasks.Purpose of InvestigationMost structures exist because they are needed. Any evaluation of a structure thus must begin with an analysis of how effectively the structure meets the usage requirements.Designers must consider the following three factors:●Functionality. or the general physical relationships of the structure'sform. detail. durability. fire resistance. deformation resistance. and so on.●Feasibility. including cost. availability of materials and products. andpracticality of construction.●Safety. or capacity 10 resist anticipated loads.MeansAn investigation of a fully defined structure involves the following:1. Determine the structure's physical being-materials, form, scale.orientation. location. support conditions, and internal character and detail.2. Determine the demands placed on the structure-that is. loads.3. Determine the structure's deformation limits.4. Determine the structure's load response-how it handles internal forcesand stresses and significant deformations.5. Evaluate whether the structure can safely handle the requiredstructural tasks.Investigation may take several forms. You can●Visualize graphically the structure's deformation under load.●Manipulate mathematical models.●Test the structure or a scaled model, measuring its responses to loads. When precise quantitative evaluations are required. use mathematical models based on reliable theories or directly measure physical responses. Ordinarily. mathematical modeling precedes any actual construction-even of a test model. Limit direct measurementto experimental studies or to verifying untestedtheories or design methods.Visual AidsIn this book, I emphasize graphical visualization; sketches arc invaluable learning and problem-solving aids. Three types of graphics are most useful: the free-body diagram. the exaggerated profile of a load-deformed structure. and the scaled pial.A free-body diagram combines a picture of an isolated physical clemen I with representations of all external forces. The isolated clement may be a whole structure or some part of it.For example. Figure 4.1a shows an entire structure-a beamand-eolumn rigid bent-and the external forces (represented by arrows). which include gravity. wind. and the reactive resistance of the supports (called the reactions). Note: Such a force system holds the structure in static equilibrium.Figure 4.lb is a free-body diagram of a single beam from the bent. Operating on the beam are two forces: its own weight and the interaction between the beam ends and the columns 10 which the beam is all ached. These interactions are not visible in the Ireebody diagram of the whole bent. so one purpose of the diagram for the beam is to illustrate these interactions. For example. note that the columns transmit to theendsofthe beams horizontal and vertical forces as well as rotational bending actions.Figure 4.lc shows an isolated portion ofthe beam length. illustrating the beam's internal force actions. Operating on this free body arc its own weight and the actions of the beam segments on the opposite sides of the slicing planes. since it is these actions that hold the removed portion in place in the whole beam.Figure 4.ld. a tiny segment. or particle. of the beam material is isolated, illustrating the interactions between this particle and those adjacent to it. This device helps designers visualize stress: in this case. due to its location in the beam. the particle is subjected to a combination of shear and linear compression stresses.An exaggerated profile of a load-deformed structure helps establish the qualitative nature of the relationships between force actions and shape changes. Indeed. you can infer the form deformation from the type of force or stress. and vice versa.FIGURE 4.1Free-body diagrams.For example. Figure shows {he exaggerated deformation of the bent in Figure 4.1 under wind loading. Note how you can determine the nature of bending action in each member of the frame from this figure. Figure 4.2b shows the nature of deformation of individual particles under various types of stress.FIGURE 4.2 Structural deformationThe scaled plot is a graph of some mathematical relationship or real data. For example, the graph in Figure 4.3 represents the form of a damped ibration of an elastic spring. It consists of the plot of the displacements against elapsed time t. and represents the graph of the expression.FIGURE 4.3 Graphical plot of a damped cyclic motion.Although the equation is technically sufficient to describe the phenomenon, the graph illustrates many aspects of the relationship. such as the rate of decay of the displacement. the interval of the vibration. the specific position at some specific elapsed time. and so on..4.2 METHODS OF INVESTIGATION AND DESIGNTraditional structural design centered on the working stress method. a method now referred to as stress design or allowable stress design (ASD). This method. which relies on the classic theories of elastic behavior, measures a design's safety against two limits: an acceptable maximum stress (called allowable working stress) and a tolerable extent of deformation (deflection. stretch. erc.). These limits refer to a structure's response to service loads-that is. the loads caused by normal usage conditions. The strength me/hod, mean-while, measures a design's adequacy against its absolute load limit-that is. when the structure must fail.To convincingly establish stress. strain. and failure limits, tests were performed extensively in the field (on real structures) and laboratories (on specimen prototypes. or models). Note: Real-world structural failures are studied both for research sake and to establish liability.In essence. the working stress method consists of designing a structure to work at some established percentage of its total capacity. The strength methodconsists of designing a structure tofail. but at a load condition well beyond what it should experience. Clearly the stress and strength methods arc different. but the difference is mostly procedural.The Stress Method (ASD)The stress method is as follows:1. Visualize and quantify the service (working) load conditions asintelligently as possible. You can make adjustments by determiningstatistically likely load combinations (i.e , dead load plus live load pluswind load). considering load duration. and so on.2. Establish standard stress. stability, and deformation limits for thevarious structural responses-in tension. bending, shear, buckling.deflection, and so on.3. Evaluate the structure's response.An advantage of working with the stress method is that you focus on the usage condition (real or anticipated). The principal disadvantage comes from your forced detachment from real failure conditions-most structures develop much different forms of stress and strain as they approach their failure limits.The Strength Method (LRFD)The strength method is as follows:1. Quantify the service loads. Then multiply them by an adjustmentfactor'( essentially a safety factor) to produce thejaclOred load.2. Visualize the various structural responses and quantify the structure'sultimate (maximum, failure) resistance in appropriate terms(resistance to compression, buckling. bending. etc.). Sometimes thisresistance is subject to an adjustment factor, calledtheresistancefacror. When you employ load and resistance factors.the strength method is now sometimes called foad andresistancefaaor design (LRFD) (see Section 5.9).3. Compare the usable resistance ofthe structu re to the u ltirnatcresistance required (an investigation procedure), or a structure with anappropriate resistance is proposed (a design procedure).A major reason designers favor the strength method is that structural failure is relatively easy to test. What is an appropriate working condition is speculation. In any event, the strength method which was first developed for the design of reinforced concrete structures, is now largely preferred in all professional design work.Nevertheless, the classic theories of clastic behavior still serve as a basisfor visualizing how structures work. But ultimate responses usually vary from the classic responses, because of inelastic materials, secondary effects, multi mode responses, and so on. In other words, the usual procedure is to first consider a classic, elastic response, and then to observe (or speculate about) what happens as failure limits are approached.。

土木工程专业外文翻译--土木工程

外文原文：Civil EngineeringCivil engineering is the planning, design, construction, and management of the built environment. This environment includes all structures built according to scientific principles, from irrigation and drainage systems to rocket launching facilities.Civil engineers build roads, bridges, tunnels, dams, harbors, power plants, water and sewage systems, hospitals, schools, mass transit, and other public facilities essential to modern society and large population concentrations. They also build privately owned facilities such as airport, railroads, pipelines, skyscrapers, and other large structures designed for industrial, commercial, or residential use. In addition, civil engineers plan, design, and build complete cities and towns, and more recently have been planning and designing space platforms to self-contained communities.The word civil derives from the Latin for citizen. In 1782, Englishman John Seaton used the term to differentiate his nonmilitary engineering work from that of the military engineers who predominated at the time. Since then, the term civil engineer has often been used to refer to engineers who build public facilities, although the field is much broader.Scope Because it is so broad, civil engineering is subdivided into a number of technical specialties. Depending on the type of project, the skills pf many kinds of civil engineer specialties may be needed. When a project begins, the site is surveyed and mapped by civil engineers who experiment to determine if the earth can bear the weight of project. Environmental specialists study the project’s impact on the local area, the potential for air and groundwater pollution, the project’s impact on local animal and plant life, and how the project can be designed to meet government requirements aimed at protecting the environment. Transportation specialists determine what kind of facilities are needed to ease the burden on local roads and other transportation networks that will result from the completed project. Meanwhile, structural specialists raise preliminary data to make detailed designs, plans, and specifications for the project. Supervising and coordinating the work of these civil engineer specialists, from beginning to end of the project, are the construction management specialists. Based on information supplied by the other specialists, construction management civil engineers estimate quantitiesand costs of materials and subcontractors, and perform other supervisory work to ensure the project is completed on time and as specified.Many civil engineers, among them the top people in the field, work in design. As we have seen, civil engineers work on many different kinds of structures, so it is normal practice for an engineer to specialize in just one kind. In designing buildings, engineers often work as consultants to architectural or construction firms. Dams, bridges, water supply systems, and other large projects ordinarily employ several engineers whose work is coordinated by a system engineer who is in charge of the entire project. In many cases, engineers from other disciplines are involved. In a dam project, for example, electrical and mechanical engineers work on the design of the powerhouse and its equipment. In other cases, civil engineers are assigned to work on a project in another field; in the space program, for instance, civil engineers were necessary in the design and construction of such structures as launching pads and rocket storage facilities.Throughout any given project, civil engineers make extensive use of computers. Computes are used to design the project’s various elements (computer-aided design, or CAD) and to manger it. Computers are a necessity for the modern civil engineer because they permit the engineer to efficiently handle the large quantities of data needed in determining the best way to construct a project.Structural engineering In this specialty, civil engineers plan and design structures of all types, including bridges dams, power plants, supports for equipment, special structures for offshore projects, the United States space program, transmission towers, giant astronomical and radio telescopes, and many other kinds of projects.Using computers, structural engineers determine the forces a structure must resist, its own weight, wind and hurricane forces temperature changes that expand or contract construction materials, and earthquakes. They also determine the combination of appropriate materials: steel, concrete, plastic, stone, asphalt, brick, aluminum, or other construction materials.Water resources engineering Civil engineers in this specialty deal with all aspects of the physical control of water. Their projects help prevent floods, supply water for cities and for irrigation, manage and control rivers and water runoff, and maintain beaches and other waterfront facilities. In addition, they design and maintain harbors, canals, and locks, build huge hydroelectric dams and smaller dams and water impoundments of all kinds, help design offshorestructures, and determine the location of structures affecting navigation.Geotechnical engineering Civil engineers who specialize in this filed analyze the properties of soils and rocks that support structures and affect structural behavior. They evaluate and work to minimize the potential settlement of buildings and other structures that stems from the pressure of their weight on the earth. These engineers also evaluate and determine how to strengthen the stability of slopes and how to protect structures against earthquakes and the effects of groundwater.Environmental engineering In this branch of engineering, civil engineers design, build, and supervise systems to provide safe drinking water and to prevent and control pollution of water supplies, both on the surface and underground. They also design, build, and supervise projects to control or eliminate pollution of the land and air. These engineers build water and wastewaters treatment plants, and design air scrubbers and other devices to minimize or eliminate air pollution caused by industrial processes, incineration, or other smoke-producing activities. They also work to control toxic and hazardous wastes through the construction of special dump sites or the neutralizing of toxic and hazardous substances. In addition the engineers design and manage sanitary landfills to prevent pollution of surrounding land.Transportation engineering Civil engineers working in this specialty build facilities to ensure safe and efficient movement of both people and goods. They specialize in designing and maintaining all types of transportation facilities, highways and streets, mass transit systems, railroads and airfields ports and harbors. Transportation engineers apply technological knowledge as well as consideration of the economic, political, and social factors in designing each project. They work closely with urban planners since the quality of the community is directly related to the quality of the transportation system.Pipeline engineering In this branch of civil engineering, engineers build pipelines and related facilities, which transport liquids, gases, or solids ranging from coal slurries (mixed coal and water) and semi liquids wastes, to water, oil and various types pf highly combustible and noncombustible gases. The engineers determine pipeline design, the economic and environmental impact of a project on regions it must traverse, the type pf materials to be used-steel, concrete, plastic, or combinations of various materials, installation techniques, methods for testing pipeline strength, and controls for maintaining proper pressure and rate of flow of materials being transported. When hazardous materials are being carried, safety is a major consideration as well.Construction engineering Civil engineers in this field oversee the construction of a project from beginning to end. Sometimes called project engineers, they apply both technical and managerial skills, including knowledge of construction methods, planning, organizing, financing, and operating construction projects. They coordinate the activities of virtually everyone engaged in the work: the surveyors, workers who lay out and construct the temporary roads and ramps, excavate for the foundation, build the forms and pour the concrete; and workers who build the steel frame-work. These engineers also make regular progress reports to the owners of the structure.Construction is a complicated process on almost all engineering projects. It involves scheduling the work and utilizing the equipment and the materials so that coats are kept as low as possible. Safety factor must also be taken into account, since construction can be very dangerous. Many civil engineers therefore specialize in the construction phase.Community and urban planning Those engaged in this area of civil engineering may plan and develop communities within a city, or entire cities. Such planning involves far more than engineering considerations; environmental, social, and economic factors in the use and development of land and natural resources are also key elements. They evaluate the kinds of facilities needed, including streets and highways, public transportation systems, airports, and recreational and other facilities to ensure social and economic as well as environmental well-being.Photogrammetry, surveying, and mapping The civil engineers in this specialty precisely measure the Earth’s surface to obtain reliable information for locating and designing engineering projects. This practice often involves high-technology methods such as satellite and aerial surveying, and computer processing of photographic imagery. Radio signals from satellites, scanned by laser and sonic beams, are converted to maps to provide very accurate measurements for boring tunnels, building highways and dams, plotting flood control and irrigation projects, locating subsurface geologic formations that may affect a construction project and a host of other building uses.Other specialties Three additional civil engineering specialties that are not entirely within the scope of civil engineering teaching.Engineering research Research is one of the most important aspects of scientific and engineering practice. A researcher usually works as a member of a team with other scientists and engineers. He or she is often employed in alaboratory that financed by government or industry. Areas of research connected with civil engineering include soil mechanics and soil stabilization techniques, and also the development and testing of new structural materials.Engineering management Many civil engineers choose careers that eventually lead to management. Others are also to start their careers in management positions. The civil engineer manager combines technical knowledge with an ability to organize and coordinate worker power, materials, machinery, and money. These engineers may work in government municipal, county, state, or federal; in the U.S.Army Corps of Engineers as military or civilian management engineers; or in semiautonomous regional or city authorities or similar organization. They may also manage private engineering firms ranging in size from a few employees to hundreds.Engineering teaching The civil engineer who chooses a teaching career usually teaches both graduate and undergraduate students in technical specialties. Many teaching civil engineers engage in basic research that eventually leads to technical innovations in construction materials and methods. Many also serve as consultants on engineering projects, or on technical boards and commissions associated with major projects.中文译文：土木工程土木工程是指对建成环境的规划、设计、建造、管理等一系列活动。

土木工程外文翻译外文文献英文文献

一、外文原文Talling building and Steel construction Although there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general. Spectacular archievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings.The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing.Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes.The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structual systems.Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit.Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions,ceilings.and other architectural details. In addition,excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because their perception of such motion.Structural systems of reinforced concrete,as well as steel,take full advantage of inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore require additional stiffening to limit the sway.In a steel structure,for example,the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building.Curve A in Fig .1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame.Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium.Systems in steel. Tall buildings in steel developed as a result ofseveral types of structural innovations. The innovations have been applied to the construction of both office and apartment buildings.Frame with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior columns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses,a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used. A good example of this system is the First Wisconsin Bank Building(1974) in Milwaukee.Framed tube. The maximum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building, for both strength and stiffness,to resist wind load can be achieved only if all column element can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground. This particular structural system was probably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in Chicago. The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 110-story World Trade Center building in New York Column-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with diagonal members interesting at the centre line of the columns and beams. This simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Centre in Chicago, using as much steel as is normally needed for a traditional 40-story building.Bundled tube. With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency. The 110-story Sears Roebuck Headquarters Building in Chicago has nine tube, bundled at the base of the building in three rows. Some of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of the building, demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural concept. The Sears tower, at a height of 1450 ft(442m), is the world’s tallest building.Stressed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces (wind and earthquake) and thecontrol of drift (lateral building movement ) in high-rise building. The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further. The development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the façade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing an efficient way of resisting lateral loads in high-rise buildings, and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor area.Because of the contribution of the stressed-skin façade, the framed members of the tube require less mass, and are thus lighter and less expensive. All the typical columns and spandrel beams are standard rolled shapes,minimizing the use and cost of special built-up members. The depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space, is minimized. The structural system has been used on the 54-story One Mellon Bank Center in Pittburgh.Systems in concrete. While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive chanllenge to structural steel systems for both office and apartment buildings.Framed tube. As discussed above, the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building. In this building ,exterior columns were spaced at 5.5ft (1.68m) centers, and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in . -thick (20-m) flat-plate concrete slabs.Tube in tube. Another system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area. The system known as the tube-in-tube system , made it possible to design the world’s present tallest (714ft or 218m)lightweight concrete bu ilding( the 52-story One Shell Plaza Building in Houston) for the unit price of a traditional shear wall structure of only 35 stories.Systems combining both concrete and steel have also been developed, an examle of which is the composite system developed by skidmore, Owings &Merril in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing, thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structural steel systems. The 52-story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system.Steel construction refers to a broad range of building construction in which steel plays the leading role. Most steel construction consists of large-scale buildings or engineering works, with the steel generally in the form of beams, girders, bars, plates, and other members shaped through the hot-rolled process. Despite the increased use of other materials, steel construction remained a major outlet for the steel industries of the U.S, U.K, U.S.S.R, Japan, West German, France, and other steel producers in the 1970s.二、原文翻译高层结构与钢结构近年来，尽管一般的建筑结构设计取得了很大的进步，但是取得显著成绩的还要属超高层建筑结构设计。

土木工程--外文文献翻译

土木工程--外文文献翻译-CAL-FENGHAI.-(YICAI)-Company One1学院：专业：土木工程姓名：学号：外文出处： Structural Systems to resist (用外文写)Lateral loads附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。

附件1：外文资料翻译译文抗侧向荷载的结构体系常用的结构体系若已测出荷载量达数千万磅重，那么在高层建筑设计中就没有多少可以进行极其复杂的构思余地了。

确实，较好的高层建筑普遍具有构思简单、表现明晰的特点。

这并不是说没有进行宏观构思的余地。

实际上，正是因为有了这种宏观的构思，新奇的高层建筑体系才得以发展，可能更重要的是：几年以前才出现的一些新概念在今天的技术中已经变得平常了。

如果忽略一些与建筑材料密切相关的概念不谈，高层建筑里最为常用的结构体系便可分为如下几类：1.抗弯矩框架。

2.支撑框架，包括偏心支撑框架。

3.剪力墙，包括钢板剪力墙。

4.筒中框架。

5.筒中筒结构。

6.核心交互结构。

7. 框格体系或束筒体系。

特别是由于最近趋向于更复杂的建筑形式，同时也需要增加刚度以抵抗几力和地震力，大多数高层建筑都具有由框架、支撑构架、剪力墙和相关体系相结合而构成的体系。

而且，就较高的建筑物而言，大多数都是由交互式构件组成三维陈列。

将这些构件结合起来的方法正是高层建筑设计方法的本质。

其结合方式需要在考虑环境、功能和费用后再发展，以便提供促使建筑发展达到新高度的有效结构。

这并不是说富于想象力的结构设计就能够创造出伟大建筑。

正相反，有许多例优美的建筑仅得到结构工程师适当的支持就被创造出来了，然而，如果没有天赋甚厚的建筑师的创造力的指导，那么，得以发展的就只能是好的结构，并非是伟大的建筑。

无论如何，要想创造出高层建筑真正非凡的设计，两者都需要最好的。

虽然在文献中通常可以见到有关这七种体系的全面性讨论，但是在这里还值得进一步讨论。

设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论。

土木工程外文翻译-原文

外文原文Response of a reinforced concrete infilled-frame structure to removal of twoadjacent columnsMehrdad Sasani_Northeastern University, 400 Snell Engineering Center, Boston, MA 02115, UnitedStatesReceived 27 June 2007; received in revised form 26 December 2007; accepted 24January 2008Available online 19 March 2008AbstractThe response of Hotel San Diego, a six-story reinforced concrete infilled-frame structure, is evaluated following the simultaneous removal of two adjacent exterior columns. Analytical models of the structure using the Finite Element Method as well as the Applied Element Method are used to calculate global and local deformations. The analytical results show good agreement with experimental data. The structure resisted progressive collapse with a measured maximum vertical displacement of only one quarter of an inch (6.4 mm). Deformation propagation over the height of the structure and the dynamic load redistribution following the column removal are experimentally and analytically evaluated and described. The difference between axial and flexural wave propagations is discussed. Three-dimensional Vierendeel (frame) action of the transverse and longitudinal frames with the participation of infill walls is identified as the major mechanism for redistribution of loads in the structure. The effects of two potential brittle modes of failure (fracture of beam sections without tensile reinforcement and reinforcing bar pull out) are described. The response of the structure due to additional gravity loads and in the absence of infill walls is analytically evaluated.c 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.Keywords: Progressive collapse; Load redistribution; Load resistance; Dynamic response; Nonlinear analysis; Brittle failure1.IntroductionThe principal scope of specifications is to provide general principles and computation al methods in order to verify safety of structures. The “ safety factor ”, which accor ding to modern trends is independent of the nature and combination of the materials u sed, can usually be defined as the ratio between the conditions. This ratio is also prop ortional to the inverse of the probability ( risk ) of failure of the structure.Failure has to be considered not only as overall collapse of the structure but also as un serviceability or, according to a more precise. Common definition. As the reaching of a “ limit state ” which causes the construction not to accomplish the task it was desi gned for. There are two categories of limit state :(1)Ultimate limit sate, which corresponds to the highest value of the load-bearing cap acity. Examples include local buckling or global instability of the structure; failure of some sections and subsequent transformation of the structure into a mechanism; failure by fatigue; elastic or plastic deformation or creep that cause a substantial change of t he geometry of the structure; and sensitivity of the structure to alternating loads, to fire and to explosions.(2)Service limit states, which are functions of the use and durability of the structure. E xamples include excessive deformations and displacements without instability; early o r excessive cracks; large vibrations; and corrosion.Computational methods used to verify structures with respect to the different safety co nditions can be separated into:(1)Deterministic methods, in which the main parameters are considered as nonrandom parameters.(2)Probabilistic methods, in which the main parameters are considered as random para meters.Alternatively, with respect to the different use of factors of safety, computational meth ods can be separated into:(1)Allowable stress method, in which the stresses computed under maximum loads are compared with the strength of the material reduced by given safety factors.(2)Limit states method, in which the structure may be proportioned on the basis of its maximum strength. This strength, as determined by rational analysis, shall not be less than that required to support a factored load equal to the sum of the factored live load and dead load ( ultimate state ).The stresses corresponding to working ( service ) conditions with unfactored live and dead loads are compared with prescribed values ( service limit state ) . From the four possible combinations of the first two and second two methods, we can obtain some u seful computational methods. Generally, two combinations prevail:(1)deterministic methods, which make use of allowable stresses. (2)Probabilistic meth ods, which make use of limit states.The main advantage of probabilistic approaches is that, at least in theory, it is possible to scientifically take into account all random factors of safety, which are then combin ed to define the safety factor. probabilistic approaches depend upon :(1) Random distribution of strength of materials with respect to the conditions of fabri cation and erection ( scatter of the values of mechanical properties through out the str ucture ); (2) Uncertainty of the geometry of the cross-section sand of the structure ( fa ults and imperfections due to fabrication and erection of the structure );(3) Uncertainty of the predicted live loads and dead loads acting on the structure; (4)U ncertainty related to the approximation of the computational method used ( deviation of the actual stresses from computed stresses ). Furthermore, probabilistic theories me an that the allowable risk can be based on several factors, such as :(1) Importance of the construction and gravity of the damage by its failure; (2)Numbe r of human lives which can be threatened by this failure; (3)Possibility and/or likeliho od of repairing the structure; (4) Predicted life of the structure. All these factors are rel ated to economic and social considerations such as：(1) Initial cost of the construction;(2) Amortization funds for the duration of the construction;(3) Cost of physical and material damage due to the failure of the construction;(4) Adverse impact on society;(5) Moral and psychological views.The definition of all these parameters, for a given safety factor, allows constructio n at the optimum cost. However, the difficulty of carrying out a complete probabilistic analysis has to be taken into account. For such an analysis the laws of the distribution of the live load and its induced stresses, of the scatter of mechanical properties of mat erials, and of the geometry of the cross-sections and the structure have to be known. F urthermore, it is difficult to interpret the interaction between the law of distribution of strength and that of stresses because both depend upon the nature of the material, on t he cross-sections and upon the load acting on the structure. These practical difficulties can be overcome in two ways. The first is to apply different safety factors to the mate rial and to the loads, without necessarily adopting the probabilistic criterion. The seco nd is an approximate probabilistic method which introduces some simplifying assump tions ( semi-probabilistic methods ) . As part of mitigation programs to reduce the likelihood of mass casualties following local damage in structures, the General Services Administration [1] and the Department of Defense [2] developed regulations to evaluate progressive collapse resistance of structures. ASCE/SEI 7 [3] defines progressive collapse as the spread of an initial local failure from element to element eventually resulting in collapse of an entire structure or a disproportionately large part of it. Following the approaches proposed by Ellinwood and Leyendecker [4], ASCE/SEI 7 [3] defines two general methods for structural design of buildings to mitigate damage due to progressive collapse: indirect and direct design methods. General building codes and standards [3,5] use indirect design by increasing overall integrity of structures. Indirect design is also used in DOD [2]. Although the indirect design method can reduce the risk of progressive collapse [6,7] estimation of post-failure performance of structures designed based on such a method is not readily possible. One approach based on direct design methods to evaluate progressive collapse of structures is to study the effects of instantaneous removal of load-bearing elements, such as columns. GSA [1] and DOD [2] regulations require removal of one load bearing element. These regulations are meant to evaluate general integrity of structures and their capacity of redistributing the loads following severe damage to only one element. While such an approach provides insight as to the extent to which the structures are susceptible to progressive collapse, in reality, the initial damage can affect more than just one column. In this study, using analytical results that are verified against experimental data, the progressive collapse resistance of the Hotel San Diego is evaluated, following the simultaneous explosion (sudden removal) of two adjacent columns, one of which was a corner column. In order to explode the columns, explosives were inserted into predrilled holes in the columns. The columns were then well wrapped with a few layers of protective materials. Therefore, neither air blast nor flying fragments affected the structure.2. Building characteristicsHotel San Diego was constructed in 1914 with a south annex added in 1924. The annex included two separate buildings. Fig. 1 shows a south view of the hotel. Note that in the picture, the first and third stories of the hotel are covered with black fabric. The six story hotel had a non-ductile reinforced concrete (RC) frame structure with hollow clay tile exterior infill walls. The infills in the annex consisted of two withes (layers) of clay tiles with a total thickness of about 8 in (203 mm). The height of the first floor was about 190–800 (6.00 m). The height of other floors and that of the top floor were 100–600 (3.20 m) and 160–1000 (5.13 m), respectively. Fig. 2 shows the second floor of one of the annex buildings. Fig. 3 shows a typical plan of this building, whose response following the simultaneous removal (explosion) of columns A2 and A3 in the first (ground) floor is evaluated in this paper. The floor system consisted of one-way joists running in the longitudinal direction (North–South), as shown in Fig. 3. Based on compression tests of two concrete samples, the average concrete compressive strength was estimated at about 4500 psi (31 MPa) for a standard concrete cylinder. The modulus of elasticity of concrete was estimated at 3820 ksi (26 300 MPa) [5]. Also, based on tension tests of two steel samples having 1/2 in (12.7 mm) square sections, the yield and ultimate tensile strengths were found to be 62 ksi (427 MPa) and 87 ksi (600 MPa), respectively. The steel ultimate tensile strain was measured at 0.17. The modulus of elasticity of steel was set equal to 29 000 ksi (200000 MPa). The building was scheduled to be demolished by implosion. As part of the demolition process, the infill walls were removed from the first and third floors. There was no live load in the building. All nonstructural elements including partitions, plumbing, and furniture were removed prior to implosion. Only beams, columns, joist floor and infill walls on the peripheralbeams were present.3. SensorsConcrete and steel strain gages were used to measure changes in strains of beams and columns. Linear potentiometers were used to measure global and local deformations. The concrete strain gages were 3.5 in (90 mm) long having a maximum strain limit of ±0.02. The steel strain gages could measure up to a strain of ±0.20. The strain gages could operate up to a several hundred kHz sampling rate. The sampling rate used in the experiment was 1000 Hz. Potentiometers were used to capture rotation (integral of curvature over a length) of the beam end regions and global displacement in the building, as described later. The potentiometers had a resolution of about 0.0004 in (0.01 mm) and a maximum operational speed of about 40 in/s (1.0 m/s), while the maximum recorded speed in the experiment was about 14 in/s (0.35m/s).4. Finite element modelUsing the finite element method (FEM), a model of the building was developed in the SAP2000 [8] computer program. The beams and columns are modeled with Bernoulli beam elements. Beams have T or L sections with effective flange width on each side of the web equal to four times the slab thickness [5]. Plastic hinges are assigned to all possible locations where steel bar yielding can occur, including the ends of elements as well as the reinforcing bar cut-off and bend locations. The characteristics of the plastic hinges are obtained using section analyses of the beams and columns and assuming a plastic hinge length equal to half of the section depth. The current version of SAP2000 [8] is not able to track formation of cracks in the elements. In order to find the proper flexural stiffness of sections, an iterative procedure is used as follows. First, the building is analyzed assuming all elements are uncracked. Then, moment demands in the elements are compared with their cracking bending moments, Mcr . The moment of inertia of beam and slab segments are reduced by a coefficient of 0.35 [5], where the demand exceeds the Mcr. The exteriorbeam cracking bending moments under negative and positive moments, are 516 k in (58.2 kN m) and 336 k in (37.9 kN m), respectively. Note that no cracks were formed in the columns. Then the building is reanalyzed and moment diagrams are re-evaluated. This procedure is repeated until all of the cracked regions are properly identified and modeled.The beams in the building did not have top reinforcing bars except at the end regions (see Fig. 4). For instance, no top reinforcement was provided beyond the bend in beam A1–A2, 12 inches away from the face of column A1 (see Figs. 4 and 5). To model the potential loss of flexural strength in those sections, localized crack hinges were assigned at the critical locations where no top rebar was present. Flexural strengths of the hinges were set equal to Mcr. Such sections were assumed to lose their flexural strength when the imposed bending moments reached Mcr.The floor system consisted of joists in the longitudinal direction (North–South). Fig. 6 shows the cross section of a typical floor. In order to account for potential nonlinear response of slabs and joists, floors are molded by beam elements. Joists are modeled with T-sections, having effective flange width on each side of the web equal to four times the slab thickness [5]. Given the large joist spacing between axes 2 and 3, two rectangular beam elements with 20-inch wide sections are used between the joist and the longitudinal beams of axes 2 and 3 to model the slab in the longitudinal direction. To model the behavior of the slab in the transverse direction, equally spaced parallel beams with 20-inch wide rectangular sections are used. There is a difference between the shear flow in the slab and that in the beam elements with rectangular sections modeling the slab. Because of this, the torsional stiffness is setequal to one-half of that of the gross sections [9].The building had infill walls on 2nd, 4th, 5th and 6th floors on the spandrel beamswith some openings (i.e. windows and doors). As mentioned before and as part of the demolition procedure, the infill walls in the 1st and 3rd floors were removed before the test. The infill walls were made of hollow clay tiles, which were in good condition. The net area of the clay tiles was about 1/2 of the gross area. The in-plane action of the infill walls contributes to the building stiffness and strength and affects the building response. Ignoring the effects of the infill walls and excluding them in the model would result in underestimating the building stiffness and strength.Using the SAP2000 computer program [8], two types of modeling for the infills are considered in this study: one uses two dimensional shell elements (Model A) and the other uses compressive struts (Model B) as suggested in FEMA356 [10] guidelines.4.1. Model A (infills modeled by shell elements)Infill walls are modeled with shell elements. However, the current version of the SAP2000 computer program includes only linear shell elements and cannot account for cracking. The tensile strength of the infill walls is set equal to 26 psi, with a modulus of elasticity of 644 ksi [10]. Because the formation ofcracks has a significant effect on the stiffness of the infill walls, the following iterative procedure is used to account for crack formation:(1) Assuming the infill walls are linear and uncracked, a nonlinear time history analysis is run. Note that plastic hinges exist in the beam elements and the segments of the beam elements where moment demand exceeds the cracking moment have a reduced moment of inertia.(2) The cracking pattern in the infill wall is determined by comparing stresses in the shells developed during the analysis with the tensile strength of infills.(3) Nodes are separated at the locations where tensile stress exceeds tensile strength. These steps are continued until the crack regions are properly modeled.4.2. Model B (infills modeled by struts)Infill walls are replaced with compressive struts as described in FEMA 356 [10] guidelines. Orientations of the struts are determined from the deformed shape of the structure after column removal and the location of openings.4.3. Column removalRemoval of the columns is simulated with the following procedure.(1) The structure is analyzed under the permanent loads and the internal forces are determined at the ends of the columns, which will be removed.(2) The model is modified by removing columns A2 and A3 on the first floor. Again the structure is statically analyzed under permanent loads. In this case, the internal forces at the ends of removed columns found in the first step are applied externally to the structure along with permanent loads. Note that the results of this analysis are identical to those of step 1.(3) The equal and opposite column end forces that were applied in the second step are dynamically imposed on the ends of the removed column within one millisecond [11] to simulate the removal of the columns, and dynamic analysis is conducted.4.4. Comparison of analytical and experimental resultsThe maximum calculated vertical displacement of the building occurs at joint A3 inthe second floor. Fig. 7 shows the experimental and analytical (Model A) vertical displacements of this joint (the AEM results will be discussed in the next section). Experimental data is obtained using the recordings of three potentiometers attached to joint A3 on one of their ends, and to the ground on the other ends. The peak displacements obtained experimentally and analytically (Model A) are 0.242 in (6.1 mm) and 0.252 in (6.4 mm), respectively, which differ only by about 4%. The experimental and analytical times corresponding to peak displacement are 0.069 s and 0.066 s, respectively. The analytical results show a permanent displacement of about 0.208 in (5.3 mm), which is about 14% smaller than the corresponding experimental value of 0.242 in (6.1 mm).Fig. 8 compares vertical displacement histories of joint A3 in the second floor estimated analytically based on Models A and B. As can be seen, modeling infills with struts (Model B) results in a maximum vertical displacement of joint A3 equal to about 0.45 in (11.4 mm), which is approximately 80% larger than the value obtained from Model A. Note that the results obtained from Model A are in close agreement with experimental results (see Fig. 7), while Model B significantly overestimates the deformation of the structure. If the maximum vertical displacement were larger, the infill walls were more severely cracked and the struts were more completely formed, the difference between the results of the two models (Models A and B) would be smaller.Fig. 9 compares the experimental and analytical (Model A) displacement of joint A2 in the second floor. Again, while the first peak vertical displacement obtained experimentally and analytically are in good agreement, the analytical permanent displacement under estimates the experimental value.Analytically estimated deformed shapes of the structure at the maximum vertical displacement based on Model A are shown in Fig. 10 with a magnification factor of 200. The experimentally measured deformed shape over the end regions of beamsA1–A2 and A3–B3 in the second floorare represented in the figure by solid lines. A total of 14 potentiometers were located at the top and bottom of the end regions of the second floor beams A1–A2 and A3–B3, which were the most critical elements in load redistribution. The beam top and corresponding bottom potentiometer recordings were used to calculate rotation between the sections where the potentiometer ends were connected. This was done by first finding the difference between the recorded deformations at the top and bottom of the beam, and then dividing the value by the distance (along the height of the beam section) between the two potentiometers. The expected deformed shapes between the measured end regions of the second floor beams are shown by dashed lines. As can be seen in the figures, analytically estimated deformed shapes of the beams are in good agreement with experimentally obtained deformed shapes.Analytical results of Model A show that only two plastic hinges are formed indicating rebar yielding. Also, four sections that did not have negative (top) reinforcement, reached cracking moment capacities and therefore cracked. Fig. 10 shows the locations of all the formed plastic hinges and cracks.。

土木工程外文翻译

Exploring the environmental modeling of road construction operations using discrete-event simulationVicente González a ,Tomás Echaveguren b ,⁎a Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,Faculty of Engineering,The University of Auckland,New Zealand bDepartment of Civil Engineering,Faculty of Engineering,Universidad de Concepcion,Chilea b s t r a c ta r t i c l e i n f o Article history:Accepted 17February 2012Available online 22March 2012Keywords:Discrete-event simulation Road construction operations Environmental modelsFugitive and exhaust emissions Sustainable construction Traf ﬁc modelsThe practical implementation of sustainability is a challenge for the construction industry,for which there have been several research efforts to model sustainability.However,the current approaches for modeling sustainability have several limitations:they are mainly deterministic and do not properly describe the dy-namic nature of the productive environment in construction.To overcome this,a dynamic modeling frame-work based on discrete-event simulation,which integrates environmental and traf ﬁc models,is explored in this paper.This modeling framework explicitly incorporates environmental goals (a sustainable goal)in the design of road construction operations,in terms of the fugitive and exhaust emissions generated by the pro-duction and traf ﬁc conditions.A hypothetical project is studied to illustrate the use of this framework.The main results show that an optimum number of trucks and front loaders can minimize the emission levels.Further research should consider multi-objective analyses involving cost,time and emission levels.©2012Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.1.IntroductionSustainable development is a relevant goal of nations worldwide.According to the World Commission on Environment and Develop-ment,sustainable development can be de ﬁned as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of fu-ture generations to meet their own needs [1].In practice,sustainable development implies a trade-off between three divergent objectives:economic growth,social equity and environmental sustainability.The environment,which is de ﬁned as the whole components (biotic and abiotic)that support life on earth,is affected by human activities.Thus,all of the human efforts for balancing economic growth,social equity and environmental sustainability imply small and sometimes unperceivable disruptions in the planetary equilibrium.Research efforts worldwide have been focused on providing tools for ef ﬁciently managing natural resources to achieve sustainable develop-ment,including monitoring tools,green technologies,education,laws and policies as a part of environmental management systems.In the last ﬁfteen years,there had been a growing effort to deal with sustainability issues in construction and their practical implementation [1–4].Several approaches for modeling different sustainability aspects in construction have been studied with a strong emphasis on the environment.However,the modeling frameworks of these approaches have limitations in terms of how they model theuncertainty and the dynamic relationships existing in the productive environment of construction projects.To overcome these previous limitations,this paper explores a modeling approach based on discrete-event simulation (DES)to model the sustainability performance of construction operations in terms of its environmental effects (emissions).This modeling approach also integrates environmental and traf ﬁc models and is applied to hypothetical road construction operations.By using this framework,environmental goals are explicitly incorporated as a decision variable in the design of construction operations.Thus,this modeling framework could be a managerial tool for construction operations,involving sustainability considerations in the planning phase or even the construction phase.The following sections of this paper address some of the relevant sus-tainability aspects in construction,the sustainability and environmental implications of road construction,and the existing modeling and simu-lation methods of sustainability in construction.The research objectives and the methodology are then addressed.The environmental modeling framework to model emissions in road construction composed by DES,traf ﬁc and environmental models is described.This framework is then il-lustrated by applying it to a hypothetical construction project.Finally,the main ﬁndings and conclusions are discussed.2.Background2.1.Sustainable constructionKibert [2]proposed the term ‘sustainable construction ’as a way to include sustainability in the construction industry under the generalAutomation in Construction 24(2012)100–110⁎Corresponding author.E-mail addresses:v.gonzalez@ (V.González),techaveg@udec.cl (T.Echaveguren).0926-5805/$–see front matter ©2012Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.autcon.2012.02.011Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirectAutomation in Constructionj o u r n a l h o m e p a g e :w w w.e l s e v i e r.c o m/l o c a t e /a u t c onconcept mentioned earlier.Kibert's concept stated that‘sustainable construction’or‘green construction’means creating a healthy built environment using resource-efﬁcient,ecologically based principles. Under the sustainable development concept,Hill and Bowen[3]pro-posed four pillars of sustainable construction:social sustainability, economic sustainability,biophysical sustainability,and technical sustainability.Essentially,the deﬁnition of sustainable construction includes the‘technical sustainability’component as a new directive. The practical implementation of these concepts is the actual challenge for the construction industry,but their implementation could lead to a better matching between the seemingly antagonistic of sustainability and development[4].2.2.Sustainable road construction and its environmental effectsWith regard to sustainable construction,efforts have mainly focused on building projects instead of linear projects,such as road construction.In developing countries,the environmental assessment of this type of projects is mainly focused on applying standardized mitigation measurements in the construction and the operation phases of projects.The concept of sustainable construction is not commonly applied and the systematic management of the environ-mental effects of construction operations is neglected.Environmental effects are externalities that affect the air,the ground or the water, among other environmental factors,to various degrees.In this context,several frameworks and tools have been developed to in-clude environmental concepts in construction practices.For example, environmental management systems(EMS)provide the necessary means to effectively deal with these issues in construction[5–8]. One of the key components of EMS is the assessment and the quanti-ﬁcation of environmental performance using environmental indices by which a project's effects on speciﬁc and individual environmental components can be studied[9,10].Applying these concepts to road construction projects,for which the design,the construction and the operations are owned by differ-ent managers with different,sometimes opposing objectives,is still a challenge.An exception is concessed highways,in which public–private partnership approaches,allow a general EMS framework to be applied.However,in most countries,this case is an exception and not the rule.As opposed to building projects,road projects spread over a large territory.The road construction process includes three areas:on-site installation,front work areas and the link between the two.Materials are the inputs for the on-site installation,while the outputs are wastes and new materials.In the front work areas,the inputs are the mate-rials transported to build the embankment,the pavement and the structures,while the outputs are wastes mainly originating from the earthwork.Transport is typically done with trucks at low speeds and constant accelerations and decelerations.In some cases,drivers allow truck engines to idle while waiting in queues.Furthermore, work sites deﬁne a network of pathways for trucks that depends on the locations of the material accumulation,the crushers,the ofﬁces, the garages,the portable concrete or asphalt plants,and so on.Therefore,a suitable environmental index should consider the en-vironmental outputs of those three areas.Considering local environ-mental policy,it is possible to design the road construction process during the planning stage with the objective of studying the project's environmental performance during that phase.By doing so,a prelim-inary,practical task could be to measure the on-site air emissions during the construction operations.Other air emissions are composed of noise,exhaust emissions originating from the combustion of equip-ment engines and fugitive emissions caused by dust that is suspended and re-suspended by equipment operations.This study is focused on exhaust and fugitive emissions.In road construction,air emissions mainly consist of carbon monoxide(CO),nitrogen oxides(NO x),sul-fur dioxide(SO2),volatile organic compounds(VOC),particulate matter lower than 2.5μm(PM2.5),particulate matter lower than 10μm(PM10)and dust.Theﬁrst four elements are exhaust emissions, while the last three are fugitive emissions.Equipment with combus-tion engines used during the construction and/or the transport oper-ations creates the same type of emissions.Permanent human exposure to these components can produce diseases,health injuries, and other direct effects.Air emissions are considered a negative out-put of construction because some of them increase the construction project's carbon footprint,including CO,NO x and VOC.Other compo-nents,such as PM2.5,are aspirated by people,and particles are depos-ited progressively in the lung,inducing irreversible respiratory diseases.This effect is relevant for people that work in the front work areas.SO2is responsible for acid rain,and PM10is a carcinogen component that can affect workers that are repeatedly exposed to it. If exhaust emissions are controlled,the carbon footprint and the prevalence of workers'diseases will decrease and the health of those living close to the front work area will improve.In general,ef-forts to reduce emissions will contribute to the environmental sus-tainability of construction activities.Eq.(1)shows a generalized model to estimate exhaust emissions, where Eff is the efﬁciency associated with the type of equipment;P is the productivity,which depends on the type and number of pieces of equipment used during each part of the construction process;and EF is the emission factor,which depends on the type of pollutant.P can be measured as daily operation hours,the material transferred during each productive cycle or the distance traveled(in km)by vehicles when transporting the waste or the inputs[11].Exhaust Emission¼EFðÞÂPðÞEffðÞ:ð1ÞThe fugitive emissions are estimated by Eq.(2),which relates the EFs and P in different production and environmental conditions. Fugitive Emission¼EFðÞÂPðÞ:ð2Þ2.3.Modeling and simulation of sustainability issues in construction2.3.1.Modeling of sustainability in constructionSeveral authors have proposed a number of modeling approaches to analyze different issues related to sustainable construction.Al-though the emphasis has not exclusively been on the environmental dimension of sustainability,these authors provide important insights about the existing modeling approaches.Šaparauskas and Turskis [12]developed a mathematical multi-criteria model to assess the sus-tainability of construction processes,while Castro-Lacouture et al.[13]proposed a mixed integer optimization model to select materials using the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design(LEED)rat-ing system.Ugwu et al.[14]used the‘weighted sum model’technique in the multi-criteria decision analysis(MCDA)and the‘additive utility model’in the analytical hierarchical process(AHP)for multicriteria decision-making,developing a sustainability index for infrastructure design and construction.Shena et al.[15]proposed a quantitative model to measure the environmental performance of contractors, and Sihabuddin and Ariaratnam[16]developed a quantitative model to measure the emissions of underground construction activi-ties and consider both costs and environmental parameters to create the most sustainable construction solutions.It is argued that these modeling approaches have a number of limitations;ﬁrst,they are mainly deterministic,as most construction project estimates repre-sent‘rough’or‘average’parameter estimates,including the process duration;productivity;equipment capacity and utilization;sched-ules;and the amount of material used,among others.These ap-proaches do not capture project uncertainties properly.Second,they do not describe the interrelationships or the dynamic nature of the productive environment in construction properly,including the decision rules under which different processes and operation are101V.González,T.Echaveguren/Automation in Construction24(2012)100–110performed;the continuous interaction and feedback between the project processes and components that evolve over time;the use of different resources from different sources;and the overall interaction of all of these aspects.These limitations negatively affect the ability of these modeling approaches to assess and predict the environmental performance of projects.2.3.2.Simulation of sustainability in constructionModels designed for other industrial areas,such as manufacturing, phosphoric acid production,pharmaceutical intermediate produc-tion,and cement production,have faced similar limitations to those mentioned previously,as sustainability issues have primarily been characterized through static models instead of more dynamic solu-tions[17–20].One of the means to overcome these modeling limita-tions is the use of advanced modeling techniques,such as discrete event simulation(DES).DES models describe systems evolving over time,where state variables change instantaneously at separate points in time.DES models are able to model and handle complex systems with highly dynamic decision rules and relationships between different entities and resources,and they explicitly include system uncertainty[21].In practice,DES modeling allows the simultaneous analysis of any production process involving resources,energy,residuals and/or emissions and helps to develop accurate and representative models of processes and thus quantify their sustainable(and environmental) behavior.DES has been used by a number of researchers.Solding and Thollander[22]and Solding and Petku[23]used DES to determine the energy bottlenecks in foundries.Persson and Karlsson,Alvemark and Persson,and Ingvarsson and Johansson[24–26]used DES as a tool for environmental measurements in food production.To consider the environmental impacts of a process,it is important that the environ-mental parameters and the process parameters are assessed simulta-neously in the same simulation model.In construction,DES modeling has been given a signiﬁcant amount of attention,and during the last three decades,researchers have de-veloped several simulation tools and engines to model and optimize construction operations[27–30].The simulation of construction oper-ations using the DES approach involving road construction operations such as excavations,loading,hauling and dumping has also been a speciﬁc concern of several researchers[31,32].However,the study of a project's environmental effects has not received much attention in construction yet,except for some recent studies that have focused on the analysis of emissions in construction projects using DES modeling techniques and environmental models[33–35].One interestingﬁnding provided by these studies was the demonstration that emission estimates using the traditional Life Cycle Analysis (LCA)approach or the integration of emission models and standard bills of materials can be improved with DES techniques.3.Research objectives and methodologyThe objective of this paper was to study the incorporation of envi-ronmental goals,such as the reduction of emission levels,as a deci-sion variable in the design of construction operations in terms of analyzing how the amount of equipment involved(e.g.,the number of trucks and front loaders)affects emissions levels.To achieve this objective,a modeling framework that integrates DES,trafﬁc and envi-ronmental models was explored.This type of framework was studied to overcome the limitations of the current approaches for modeling sustainability in construction.From a simulation standpoint,the in-vestigated framework involved additional modeling components such as trafﬁc models,which enable DES models to develop a more realistic analysis of the environmental impacts of construction.There-fore,this research also explores a means to quantify the environmen-tal performance of its operations and a construction management approach that could explicitly consider not only typical performance goals to design construction operations,such as time and cost,but also environmental goals in the planning or the construction phases (the latter depends on the preferences and the needs of construction decision makers during the construction phase).As mentioned earlier,this research focuses on the emission analy-sis of road construction operations during their life cycle in terms of the fugitive and exhaust emissions generated by production and traf-ﬁc conditions on-site.These types of operations were chosen due to the fact that they have repeated production cycles that are easily rec-ognizable,production stages that are relatively simple to model and potential environmental impacts that are high in terms of generated emissions.The emissions analysis,which determines the amounts of fugitive and exhaust emissions,is carried out for different production and trafﬁc conditions.To accomplish the aforementioned objective,the following research methodology was performed:1.Standardization of the operations:In this stage,the characteriza-tion of the road construction operations and equipment was devel-oped.Afterwards,the analysis of these operations was developed.2.Emissions modeling:For each type of equipment,the exhaust andfugitive(dust)emission factors were estimated.3.Development of the modeling framework:In this stage,a simula-tion model for road construction operations was developed using DES software,which explicitly integrated emission and trafﬁc models by assuming operation in un-signalized intersections.The modeling framework was studied through the analysis of a hypo-thetical road construction project.4.Development of the experiments:A factorial design was proposedfrom which simulation runs were performed.The simulation out-puts were subjected to a statistical analysis and data interpreta-tion,an analysis of variance(ANOVA)and an analysis of the interactions and the main effects.5.Result analysis:In this stage,the graphics and the relations amongthe main variables were developed to determine the relationship between the equipment and the emissions.Finally,the mainﬁnd-ings of the study are discussed.In general,modeling inputs,such as simulation inputs,represent the assumptions made by authors using their own experience of road construction operations to illustrate the study's research. Additionally,the authors recognize that the focus of this paper is to explore the environmental impacts of road construction operations using the proposed modeling framework in terms of how the non-deterministic and dynamic nature of these operations can affect these impacts and how analyzing environmental impacts in this way can inﬂuence the outcomes of the construction operation design process.The exploratory nature of this study requires further research to validate and implement these ideas and thus develop a consolidated methodology based on the proposed modeling framework to be applied in construction projects.4.Integrating simulation,environmental and trafﬁc modelingThis section describes road construction operations,the explored modeling approaches and the way in which these approaches are integrated to model the environmental impacts of road construction operations.4.1.Description of road construction operationsIn this paper,the modeled road construction operations are those typically involved in road projects.Fig.1shows a hypothetical layout for these operations.Thisﬁgure provides the information needed to understand the movement of equipment in excavation,loading, hauling and dumping operations that is inﬂuenced,among other102V.González,T.Echaveguren/Automation in Construction24(2012)100–110things,by transport distances and traf ﬁc volumes (the latter is analyzed in-depth in the subsequent sections).The left side of Fig.1shows the zone in which the excavation operation is performed.Strictly speaking,the operation starts at the ‘Project Start ’point,from which trucks are driven to the road excava-tion zone to be loaded with the excavated material.The trucks travel a variable distance ‘x ’that characterizes the term ‘Variable Internal Transport ’(VIT),which varies in terms of the progressed distance on the work front,i.e.,the excavation distance.Once the trucks arrive at the ‘Maneuvering Entrance Zone ’point,they enter the ‘Trucks Transport Maneuvering ’(TTM)zone,which has a distance of 40m (in this paper,some constant distances are assumed to illustrate the methodology used).In the TTM zone,the trucks are positioned to re-ceive loads from the front loaders.From the ‘Work Front ’point,the front loaders excavate the road ground following the direction of the ‘Progress of Work ’.Note that the total road distance to be excavat-ed is 1200m,so the distance ‘x ’in the VIT zone theoretically ranges from 0to 1200m,as these values change as construction progresses (i.e.the excavation operation is executed and the front loaders re-move material).Otherwise,the distance of the road excavation zone decreases theoretically from 1200to 0m as construction progresses.Once the trucks are completely loaded,they return and pass several zones.The TTM and the VIT zones are passed ﬁrst,followed by the ‘Internal Transport 1’(IT1)zone.The IT1zone has a distance of 500m.At the end of this zone,the trucks arrive at the ﬁrst ‘Intersec-tion 1’(I1)with a main highway,where they must wait in a queue.The right side of Fig.1shows that trucks perform the hauling,the dumping and the return operations.When the trucks leave the queue in I1,they enter the highway and interact with different traf ﬁc levels affecting their travel speed (analyzed in subsequent sections);this zone is referred to as the ‘External Transport ’(ET)zone.When the trucks arrive at the ‘Intersection 2’(I2),they wait in a queue to turn left towards the dump zone.Once the trucks leave the queue in I2,they enter the ‘Internal Transport 2’(IT2)zone,which has a distance of 500m.Then the trucks dump the material in the ‘Dump Transport ’(DT)zone,which has a distance of 100m.As a modeling assumption,the trucks travel this distance to dump material at the end of the DT zone;thus,they return to the excavation zone by passing through the IT2,the ET and the IT1zones and repeat the cycle until the roadis completely excavated.The next section describes the modeling ap-proach used and the road construction operations analyzed in-detail.4.2.Modeling frameworkWhen a road construction operation is being designed and,for in-stance,the size of the truck ﬂeet is being determined,a key inquiry is the number of necessary trucks such that costs are reduced,produc-tivity is increased,or both simultaneously.Typically,the construction decision frame considers the operating costs,the schedule and the productivity as goals,depending on the required performance,which de ﬁnes the corresponding inputs to be placed in the work front.However,this solution does not guarantee that negative exter-nalities,such as emissions or truck noise,are reduced,as the attention is focused on the productivity issues of the projects instead of their environmental issues.A more realistic and sustainable operation de-sign could also consider the reduction of the environmental impacts,such as emissions,of road construction operations.Fig.2shows the overall modeling framework used in this paper.This framework integrates several modeling approaches to combine the production,environmental and traf ﬁc dimensions of the road construction operations studied.The framework includes a number of components,which are explained below.•The Overall Discrete Event-Simulation Modeling component is the core of the modeling framework,providing the DES modeling archi-tecture for the entire road construction operation shown schematically in Fig.1,including the excavation,loading,hauling (internal and external transport)and dumping operations.This component integrates the Simulation and Traf ﬁc Inputs,which are related to the road construction operations and the hauling opera-tions (performed speci ﬁcally by trucks),respectively.•The Simulation Inputs component provides the probability density functions (PDFs)for the duration of the operations (i.e.,the excava-tion,loading,dumping and hauling operations,without considering the hauling operations in the ‘I1’,the ‘I2’and the ‘ET ’zones)and the decision rules of the system in terms of the road construction production steps,which are incorporated into the DES model.(100m)VIT IT1ETIT2(500 m)Work FrontProject EndDT I1I2ET: External Transport / IT: Internal Transport / VIT: Variable Internal Transport /DT: Dump Transport / TTM: Transport Truck Maneuvering / I: Intersection /:Movement of Trucks and Front Loaders / (…): Distance in Meters / : Progress of WorkTTM(1200 m)Project Start (40 m)(‘x’ m)(1000 m)(500m)Maneuvering Entrance Zoneyout of the road construction operations.103V.González,T.Echaveguren /Automation in Construction 24(2012)100–110•The Traf ﬁc Inputs is a special component within the modeling frame-work,due to the fact that it allows more realistic traf ﬁc conditions experienced by trucks in the ‘I1’,the ‘I2’and the ‘ET ’zones to be modeled (see Fig.1).Using a traf ﬁc behavior model for the intersec-tions,the PDFs for the hauling time affected by delays and queues in these zones are modeled and integrated in the DES model.•The Environmental Modeling and Simulation component is another key component of the modeling framework,integrating the Environmental Inputs related to the equipment emissions and the inputs from the Overall Discrete-Event Simulation Modeling com-ponent.The latter component produces the discrete-event simula-tion/traf ﬁc modeling outputs,which in turn represent an input for the Environmental Modeling and Simulation component.•The Environmental Inputs component considers the equipment emission models,which characterize the emissions produced by trucks and front loaders performing productivity activities.The DES model provides the necessary information (the duration of the operations,the weight of the material transferred per time-unit and/or the travel distance per time-unit)to these models to calculate the fugitive and exhaust emissions produced during the road construction operations.•The Simulation and Environmental Outputs component produces the resulting production and environmental responses from the overall modeling framework.In this paper,the production responses are focused on the cycle times and productivity,while the production and operating costs will be focused on in future research.The subsequent sections describe each component of the modeling framework in-detail.4.3.Overall simulation modeling:Simulation architecture,inputs and outputsA DES software,Extend ™,was selected to simulate the construc-tion operations given its powerful features to visualize and handle highly dynamic,complex systems [36].Extend ™is based on the Process Interaction simulation strategy,in which entities ﬂow as integer units throughout the system [37].Environmental and traf ﬁc models are subsequently integrated into the simulation models through Extend ™.Fig.3shows the simulation architecture used,including a detailed description of each operation involved in the road construction,the inputs,and the outputs.Fig.3shows three zones and the outputs.1)Excavation in the Work Front —Zone 1:road material is excavated and loaded by the front loaders;2)Haul to Dump —Zone 2:trucks are loaded with excavated material and haul it to be dumped;3)Return to Load —Zone 3:trucks return empty to be loaded with excavated material;and 4)Outputs:simulation/environmental outputs are produced,integrating the different inputs considered.In Zone 1,the AmountExcMat block de ﬁnes the total amount of excavated material to be processed by the model in m 3.The #FrontLoaders block sets the number of front loaders excavating theroad,each with a capacity of 1m 3.In Zone 3,the #Trucks block sets the number of trucks hauling the excavated material,each with a capacity of 10m 3.At the beginning of the simulation,these blocks release m 3-units,front loaders and trucks as single entities into the system from the left to the right side;these entities ﬂow throughout the model and are combined,batched and un-batched according to the system rules and processes performed.Note that additional experimental factors and simulation input levels are described in Section 5.1.In Zone 1,once the AmountExcMat and #FrontLoaders blocks release the ﬁrst entities,i.e.,one m 3-unit and one front loader,they are batched in the #BatchZone 1block;the ﬁrst m 3-unit is then processed.This process is repeated to excavate the entire amount of material.As the road construction operations are stochastic process-es,a queue-process framework is used in Extend ™,queue blocks are labeled with a ﬁrst Q letter (e.g.,QExcavate )and process blocks are labeled without such a letter (e.g.,Excavate ).In Zone 1,the excavation operation performed by the front loaders consists of the Excavate,LoadedHaul,LoadTrucks and EmptyHaul process blocks,which represent the sequential processes in the excavation.The Load-Trucks process block is slightly different because it considers a deci-sion to release an entity that is asked whether there is a truck available and in position to be loaded with a m 3-unit.The duration PDF per m 3-unit are set in seconds,using the following input blocks,PDFs and parameters for each process:ExcDuration —Triangular (10,20,30);LoHaDuration —Triangular (10,20,30);LoTrDuration —Uniform (5,7);and EmHaDuration —Triangular (10,15,20).When a truck is loaded by a front loader through the LoadTrucks process block,the front loader and the m 3-unit are released by the UnBatch-Zone1block.While the m 3-unit ﬂows to Zone 2,the front loader ﬂows to the EmptyHaul process block to return and repeat the excava-tion operation.In Zone 2,when 10m 3of material has been excavated and accu-mulated in the BatchZone2block,it is batched along with the truck released from Zone 3as a single entity,representing the process of hauling to dump the excavated material using the trucks.This entity passes for several queues and process blocks,depicting the same hauling operation shown in Fig.1(for simplicity,the distance and operations nomenclature shown in Fig.1is used for the process blocks).The hauling operation includes the TTM process block in Zone 3and ﬁnishes at the DT process block in Zone 2.The hauling duration for that block is set constant at 14.3s in the TTMDuration block,so there is a small distance of 40m.A constant speed of 10km/h is as-sumed for truck maneuvering.In Zone 2,the VIT process block models the hauling duration of the trucks as a variable of the distance,i.e.,from 0to 1200m (see Fig.1).The assumed cross-sectional shape of the excavated road has a width of 5.5m and a height of 0.6m,provid-ing approximately 4000m 3of material.However,for simulation ef-fects,120strips with a width of 3.0m (width of the front loaders blade)are considered,with a total of 10m 3is loaded into each strip (i.e.,the capacity of the trucks).Then an external algorithm was developed in a spreadsheet to calculate the variable distance and the excavation volume;this algorithm was integrated into the model through the VITDuration1input.The hauling duration in the VIT process block is calculated using two speeds for different dis-tances:10km/h between 0m and 200m and 40km/h between 201m and 1200m.The IT1process block estimates the hauling dura-tion by a Triangular PDF in km/h (45,50,55)for truck speed (IT1Speed block)and the IT1Distance block.The I1,ET and I2process blocks have the inputs of the traf ﬁc modeling as duration PDFs (see Section 4.4),which are obtained from an external spreadsheet.The I1process block models the truck delays and queues in I1(see Fig.1),characterizing waiting times before the trucks can enter the highway.Note that there is a queue before that block,the QI1block,to respect the queue-process framework imposed to model theOverall Discrete-Event SimulationModeling Traffic InputsSimulation InputsEnvironmentalInputsSimulation and EnvironmentalOutputsEnvironmental Modeling and Simulation Fig.2.Overall modeling framework for the road construction operations.104V.González,T.Echaveguren /Automation in Construction 24(2012)100–110。

土木工程专业外语词汇大全中英翻译

土木工程专业外语词汇大全中英翻译1. 综合类大地工程geotechnical engineering1. 综合类反分析法back analysis method1. 综合类基础工程foundation engineering1. 综合类临界状态土力学critical state soil mechanics1. 综合类数值岩土力学numerical geomechanics1. 综合类土soil, earth1. 综合类土动力学soil dynamics1. 综合类土力学soil mechanics1. 综合类岩土工程geotechnical engineering1. 综合类应力路径stress path1. 综合类应力路径法stress path method2. 工程地质及勘察变质岩metamorphic rock2. 工程地质及勘察标准冻深standard frost penetration2. 工程地质及勘察冰川沉积glacial deposit2. 工程地质及勘察冰积层（台）glacial deposit2. 工程地质及勘察残积土eluvial soil, residual soil2. 工程地质及勘察层理beding2. 工程地质及勘察长石feldspar2. 工程地质及勘察沉积岩sedimentary rock2. 工程地质及勘察承压水confined water2. 工程地质及勘察次生矿物secondary mineral2. 工程地质及勘察地质年代geological age2. 工程地质及勘察地质图geological map2. 工程地质及勘察地下水groundwater2. 工程地质及勘察断层fault2. 工程地质及勘察断裂构造fracture structure2. 工程地质及勘察工程地质勘察engineering geological exploration 2. 工程地质及勘察海积层（台）marine deposit2. 工程地质及勘察海相沉积marine deposit2. 工程地质及勘察花岗岩granite2. 工程地质及勘察滑坡landslide2. 工程地质及勘察化石fossil2. 工程地质及勘察化学沉积岩chemical sedimentary rock2. 工程地质及勘察阶地terrace2. 工程地质及勘察节理joint2. 工程地质及勘察解理cleavage2. 工程地质及勘察喀斯特karst2. 工程地质及勘察矿物硬度hardness of minerals2. 工程地质及勘察砾岩conglomerate2. 工程地质及勘察流滑flow slide2. 工程地质及勘察陆相沉积continental sedimentation2. 工程地质及勘察泥石流mud flow, debris flow2. 工程地质及勘察年粘土矿物clay minerals2. 工程地质及勘察凝灰岩tuff2. 工程地质及勘察牛轭湖ox-bow lake2. 工程地质及勘察浅成岩hypabyssal rock2. 工程地质及勘察潜水ground water2. 工程地质及勘察侵入岩intrusive rock2. 工程地质及勘察取土器geotome2. 工程地质及勘察砂岩sandstone2. 工程地质及勘察砂嘴spit, sand spit2. 工程地质及勘察山岩压力rock pressure2. 工程地质及勘察深成岩plutionic rock2. 工程地质及勘察石灰岩limestone2. 工程地质及勘察石英quartz2. 工程地质及勘察松散堆积物rickle2. 工程地质及勘察围限地下水（台）confined ground water 2. 工程地质及勘察泻湖lagoon2. 工程地质及勘察岩爆rock burst2. 工程地质及勘察岩层产状attitude of rock2. 工程地质及勘察岩浆岩magmatic rock, igneous rock2. 工程地质及勘察岩脉dike, dgke2. 工程地质及勘察岩石风化程度degree of rock weathering 2. 工程地质及勘察岩石构造structure of rock2. 工程地质及勘察岩石结构texture of rock2. 工程地质及勘察岩体rock mass2. 工程地质及勘察页岩shale2. 工程地质及勘察原生矿物primary mineral2. 工程地质及勘察云母mica2. 工程地质及勘察造岩矿物rock-forming mineral2. 工程地质及勘察褶皱fold, folding2. 工程地质及勘察钻孔柱状图bore hole columnar section3. 土的分类饱和土saturated soil3. 土的分类超固结土overconsolidated soil3. 土的分类冲填土dredger fill3. 土的分类充重塑土3. 土的分类冻土frozen soil, tjaele3. 土的分类非饱和土unsaturated soil3. 土的分类分散性土dispersive soil3. 土的分类粉土silt, mo3. 土的分类粉质粘土silty clay3. 土的分类高岭石kaolinite3. 土的分类过压密土（台）overconsolidated soil3. 土的分类红粘土red clay, adamic earth3. 土的分类黄土loess, huangtu(China)3. 土的分类蒙脱石montmorillonite3. 土的分类泥炭peat, bog muck3. 土的分类年粘土clay3. 土的分类年粘性土cohesive soil, clayey soil3. 土的分类膨胀土expansive soil, swelling soil3. 土的分类欠固结粘土underconsolidated soil3. 土的分类区域性土zonal soil3. 土的分类人工填土fill, artificial soil3. 土的分类软粘土soft clay, mildclay, mickle3. 土的分类砂土sand3. 土的分类湿陷性黄土collapsible loess, slumping loess3. 土的分类素填土plain fill3. 土的分类塑性图plasticity chart3. 土的分类碎石土stone, break stone, broken stone, channery, chat, crushed stone, deritus 3. 土的分类未压密土（台）underconsolidated clay3. 土的分类无粘性土cohesionless soil, frictional soil, non-cohesive soil3. 土的分类岩石rock3. 土的分类伊利土illite3. 土的分类有机质土organic soil3. 土的分类淤泥muck, gyttja, mire, slush3. 土的分类淤泥质土mucky soil3. 土的分类原状土undisturbed soil3. 土的分类杂填土miscellaneous fill3. 土的分类正常固结土normally consolidated soil3. 土的分类正常压密土（台）normally consolidated soil3. 土的分类自重湿陷性黄土self weight collapse loess4. 土的物理性质阿太堡界限Atterberg limits4. 土的物理性质饱和度degree of saturation4. 土的物理性质饱和密度saturated density4. 土的物理性质饱和重度saturated unit weight4. 土的物理性质比重specific gravity4. 土的物理性质稠度consistency4. 土的物理性质不均匀系数coefficient of uniformity, uniformity coefficient4. 土的物理性质触变thixotropy4. 土的物理性质单粒结构single-grained structure4. 土的物理性质蜂窝结构honeycomb structure4. 土的物理性质干重度dry unit weight4. 土的物理性质干密度dry density4. 土的物理性质塑性指数plasticity index4. 土的物理性质含水量water content, moisture content4. 土的物理性质活性指数4. 土的物理性质级配gradation, grading4. 土的物理性质结合水bound water, combined water, held water4. 土的物理性质界限含水量Atterberg limits4. 土的物理性质颗粒级配particle size distribution of soils, mechanical composition of soil 4. 土的物理性质可塑性plasticity4. 土的物理性质孔隙比void ratio4. 土的物理性质孔隙率porosity4. 土的物理性质粒度granularity, grainness, grainage4. 土的物理性质粒组fraction, size fraction4. 土的物理性质毛细管水capillary water4. 土的物理性质密度density4. 土的物理性质密实度compactionness4. 土的物理性质年粘性土的灵敏度sensitivity of cohesive soil4. 土的物理性质平均粒径mean diameter, average grain diameter4. 土的物理性质曲率系数coefficient of curvature4. 土的物理性质三相图block diagram, skeletal diagram, three phase diagram4. 土的物理性质三相土tri-phase soil4. 土的物理性质湿陷起始应力initial collapse pressure4. 土的物理性质湿陷系数coefficient of collapsibility4. 土的物理性质缩限shrinkage limit4. 土的物理性质土的构造soil texture4. 土的物理性质土的结构soil structure4. 土的物理性质土粒相对密度specific density of solid particles4. 土的物理性质土中气air in soil4. 土的物理性质土中水water in soil4. 土的物理性质团粒aggregate, cumularpharolith4. 土的物理性质限定粒径constrained diameter4. 土的物理性质相对密度relative density, density index4. 土的物理性质相对压密度relative compaction, compacting factor, percent compaction, coefficient of compaction4. 土的物理性质絮状结构flocculent structure4. 土的物理性质压密系数coefficient of consolidation4. 土的物理性质压缩性compressibility4. 土的物理性质液限liquid limit4. 土的物理性质液性指数liquidity index4. 土的物理性质游离水（台）free water4. 土的物理性质有效粒径effective diameter, effective grain size, effective size4. 土的物理性质有效密度effective density4. 土的物理性质有效重度effective unit weight4. 土的物理性质重力密度unit weight4. 土的物理性质自由水free water, gravitational water, groundwater, phreatic water4. 土的物理性质组构fabric4. 土的物理性质最大干密度maximum dry density4. 土的物理性质最优含水量optimum water content5. 渗透性和渗流达西定律Darcy s law5. 渗透性和渗流管涌piping5. 渗透性和渗流浸润线phreatic line5. 渗透性和渗流临界水力梯度critical hydraulic gradient5. 渗透性和渗流流函数flow function5. 渗透性和渗流流土flowing soil5. 渗透性和渗流流网flow net5. 渗透性和渗流砂沸sand boiling5. 渗透性和渗流渗流seepage5. 渗透性和渗流渗流量seepage discharge5. 渗透性和渗流渗流速度seepage velocity5. 渗透性和渗流渗透力seepage force5. 渗透性和渗流渗透破坏seepage failure5. 渗透性和渗流渗透系数coefficient of permeability5. 渗透性和渗流渗透性permeability5. 渗透性和渗流势函数potential function5. 渗透性和渗流水力梯度hydraulic gradient6. 地基应力和变形变形deformation6. 地基应力和变形变形模量modulus of deformation6. 地基应力和变形泊松比Poisson s ratio6. 地基应力和变形布西涅斯克解Boussinnesq s solution6. 地基应力和变形残余变形residual deformation6. 地基应力和变形残余孔隙水压力residual pore water pressure6. 地基应力和变形超静孔隙水压力excess pore water pressure6. 地基应力和变形沉降settlement6. 地基应力和变形沉降比settlement ratio6. 地基应力和变形次固结沉降secondary consolidation settlement6. 地基应力和变形次固结系数coefficient of secondary consolidation6. 地基应力和变形地基沉降的弹性力学公式elastic formula for settlement calculation 6. 地基应力和变形分层总和法layerwise summation method6. 地基应力和变形负孔隙水压力negative pore water pressure6. 地基应力和变形附加应力superimposed stress6. 地基应力和变形割线模量secant modulus6. 地基应力和变形固结沉降consolidation settlement6. 地基应力和变形规范沉降计算法settlement calculation by specification6. 地基应力和变形回弹变形rebound deformation6. 地基应力和变形回弹模量modulus of resilience6. 地基应力和变形回弹系数coefficient of resilience6. 地基应力和变形回弹指数swelling index6. 地基应力和变形建筑物的地基变形允许值allowable settlement of building6. 地基应力和变形剪胀dilatation6. 地基应力和变形角点法corner-points method6. 地基应力和变形孔隙气压力pore air pressure6. 地基应力和变形孔隙水压力pore water pressure6. 地基应力和变形孔隙压力系数Apore pressure parameter A6. 地基应力和变形孔隙压力系数Bpore pressure parameter B6. 地基应力和变形明德林解Mindlin s solution6. 地基应力和变形纽马克感应图Newmark chart6. 地基应力和变形切线模量tangent modulus6. 地基应力和变形蠕变creep6. 地基应力和变形三向变形条件下的固结沉降three-dimensional consolidation settlement 6. 地基应力和变形瞬时沉降immediate settlement6. 地基应力和变形塑性变形plastic deformation6. 地基应力和变形谈弹性变形elastic deformation6. 地基应力和变形谈弹性模量elastic modulus6. 地基应力和变形谈弹性平衡状态state of elastic equilibrium6. 地基应力和变形体积变形模量volumetric deformation modulus6. 地基应力和变形先期固结压力preconsolidation pressure6. 地基应力和变形压缩层6. 地基应力和变形压缩模量modulus of compressibility6. 地基应力和变形压缩系数coefficient of compressibility6. 地基应力和变形压缩性compressibility6. 地基应力和变形压缩指数compression index6. 地基应力和变形有效应力effective stress6. 地基应力和变形自重应力self-weight stress6. 地基应力和变形总应力total stress approach of shear strength6. 地基应力和变形最终沉降final settlement7. 固结巴隆固结理论Barron s consolidation theory7. 固结比奥固结理论Biot s consolidation theory7. 固结超固结比over-consolidation ratio7. 固结超静孔隙水压力excess pore water pressure7. 固结次固结secondary consolidation7. 固结次压缩（台）secondary consolidatin7. 固结单向度压密（台）one-dimensional consolidation7. 固结多维固结multi-dimensional consolidation7. 固结固结consolidation7. 固结固结度degree of consolidation7. 固结固结理论theory of consolidation7. 固结固结曲线consolidation curve7. 固结固结速率rate of consolidation7. 固结固结系数coefficient of consolidation7. 固结固结压力consolidation pressure7. 固结回弹曲线rebound curve7. 固结井径比drain spacing ratio7. 固结井阻well resistance7. 固结曼代尔－克雷尔效应Mandel-Cryer effect7. 固结潜变（台）creep7. 固结砂井sand drain7. 固结砂井地基平均固结度average degree of consolidation of sand-drained ground7. 固结时间对数拟合法logrithm of time fitting method7. 固结时间因子time factor7. 固结太沙基固结理论Terzaghi s consolidation theory7. 固结太沙基－伦杜列克扩散方程Terzaghi-Rendulic diffusion equation7. 固结先期固结压力preconsolidation pressure7. 固结压密（台）consolidation7. 固结压密度（台）degree of consolidation7. 固结压缩曲线cpmpression curve7. 固结一维固结one dimensional consolidation7. 固结有效应力原理principle of effective stress7. 固结预压密压力（台）preconsolidation pressure7. 固结原始压缩曲线virgin compression curve7. 固结再压缩曲线recompression curve7. 固结主固结primary consolidation7. 固结主压密（台）primary consolidation7. 固结准固结压力pseudo-consolidation pressure7. 固结K0固结consolidation under K0 condition8. 抗剪强度安息角（台）angle of repose8. 抗剪强度不排水抗剪强度undrained shear strength8. 抗剪强度残余内摩擦角residual angle of internal friction8. 抗剪强度残余强度residual strength8. 抗剪强度长期强度long-term strength8. 抗剪强度单轴抗拉强度uniaxial tension test8. 抗剪强度动强度dynamic strength of soils8. 抗剪强度峰值强度peak strength8. 抗剪强度伏斯列夫参数Hvorslev parameter8. 抗剪强度剪切应变速率shear strain rate8. 抗剪强度抗剪强度shear strength8. 抗剪强度抗剪强度参数shear strength parameter8. 抗剪强度抗剪强度有效应力法effective stress approach of shear strength 8. 抗剪强度抗剪强度总应力法total stress approach of shear strength8. 抗剪强度库仑方程Coulomb s equation8. 抗剪强度摩尔包线Mohr s envelope8. 抗剪强度摩尔－库仑理论Mohr-Coulomb theory8. 抗剪强度内摩擦角angle of internal friction8. 抗剪强度年粘聚力cohesion8. 抗剪强度破裂角angle of rupture8. 抗剪强度破坏准则failure criterion8. 抗剪强度十字板抗剪强度vane strength8. 抗剪强度无侧限抗压强度unconfined compression strength8. 抗剪强度有效内摩擦角effective angle of internal friction8. 抗剪强度有效粘聚力effective cohesion intercept8. 抗剪强度有效应力破坏包线effective stress failure envelope8. 抗剪强度有效应力强度参数effective stress strength parameter8. 抗剪强度有效应力原理principle of effective stress8. 抗剪强度真内摩擦角true angle internal friction8. 抗剪强度真粘聚力true cohesion8. 抗剪强度总应力破坏包线total stress failure envelope8. 抗剪强度总应力强度参数total stress strength parameter9. 本构模型本构模型constitutive model9. 本构模型边界面模型boundary surface model9. 本构模型层向各向同性体模型cross anisotropic model9. 本构模型超弹性模型hyperelastic model9. 本构模型德鲁克－普拉格准则Drucker-Prager criterion9. 本构模型邓肯－张模型Duncan-Chang model9. 本构模型动剪切强度9. 本构模型非线性弹性模量nonlinear elastic model9. 本构模型盖帽模型cap model9. 本构模型刚塑性模型rigid plastic model9. 本构模型割线模量secant modulus9. 本构模型广义冯·米赛斯屈服准则extended von Mises yield criterion 9. 本构模型广义特雷斯卡屈服准则extended tresca yield criterion9. 本构模型加工软化work softening9. 本构模型加工硬化work hardening9. 本构模型加工硬化定律strain harding law9. 本构模型剑桥模型Cambridge model9. 本构模型柯西弹性模型Cauchy elastic model9. 本构模型拉特－邓肯模型Lade-Duncan model9. 本构模型拉特屈服准则Lade yield criterion9. 本构模型理想弹塑性模型ideal elastoplastic model9. 本构模型临界状态弹塑性模型critical state elastoplastic model9. 本构模型流变学模型rheological model9. 本构模型流动规则flow rule9. 本构模型摩尔－库仑屈服准则Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion9. 本构模型内蕴时间塑性模型endochronic plastic model9. 本构模型内蕴时间塑性理论endochronic theory9. 本构模型年粘弹性模型viscoelastic model9. 本构模型切线模量tangent modulus9. 本构模型清华弹塑性模型Tsinghua elastoplastic model9. 本构模型屈服面yield surface9. 本构模型沈珠江三重屈服面模型Shen Zhujiang three yield surface method 9. 本构模型双参数地基模型9. 本构模型双剪应力屈服模型twin shear stress yield criterion9. 本构模型双曲线模型hyperbolic model9. 本构模型松岗元－中井屈服准则Matsuoka-Nakai yield criterion9. 本构模型塑性形变理论9. 本构模型谈弹塑性模量矩阵elastoplastic modulus matrix9. 本构模型谈弹塑性模型elastoplastic modulus9. 本构模型谈弹塑性增量理论incremental elastoplastic theory9. 本构模型谈弹性半空间地基模型elastic half-space foundation model9. 本构模型谈弹性变形elastic deformation9. 本构模型谈弹性模量elastic modulus9. 本构模型谈弹性模型elastic model9. 本构模型魏汝龙－Khosla－Wu模型Wei Rulong-Khosla-Wu model9. 本构模型文克尔地基模型Winkler foundation model9. 本构模型修正剑桥模型modified cambridge model9. 本构模型准弹性模型hypoelastic model10. 地基承载力冲剪破坏punching shear failure10. 地基承载力次层（台）substratum10. 地基承载力地基subgrade, ground, foundation soil10. 地基承载力地基承载力bearing capacity of foundation soil10. 地基承载力地基极限承载力ultimate bearing capacity of foundation soil10. 地基承载力地基允许承载力allowable bearing capacity of foundation soil10. 地基承载力地基稳定性stability of foundation soil10. 地基承载力汉森地基承载力公式Hansen s ultimate bearing capacity formula10. 地基承载力极限平衡状态state of limit equilibrium10. 地基承载力加州承载比（美国）California Bearing Ratio10. 地基承载力局部剪切破坏local shear failure10. 地基承载力临塑荷载critical edge pressure10. 地基承载力梅耶霍夫极限承载力公式Meyerhof s ultimate bearing capacity formula 10. 地基承载力普朗特承载力理论Prandel bearing capacity theory10. 地基承载力斯肯普顿极限承载力公式Skempton s ultimate bearing capacity formula 10. 地基承载力太沙基承载力理论Terzaghi bearing capacity theory10. 地基承载力魏锡克极限承载力公式V esic s ultimate bearing capacity formula10. 地基承载力整体剪切破坏general shear failure11. 土压力被动土压力passive earth pressure11. 土压力被动土压力系数coefficient of passive earth pressure11. 土压力极限平衡状态state of limit equilibrium11. 土压力静止土压力earth pressue at rest11. 土压力静止土压力系数coefficient of earth pressur at rest11. 土压力库仑土压力理论Coulomb s earth pressure theory11. 土压力库尔曼图解法Culmannn construction11. 土压力朗肯土压力理论Rankine s earth pressure theory11. 土压力朗肯状态Rankine state11. 土压力谈弹性平衡状态state of elastic equilibrium11. 土压力土压力earth pressure11. 土压力主动土压力active earth pressure11. 土压力主动土压力系数coefficient of active earth pressure12. 土坡稳定分析安息角（台）angle of repose12. 土坡稳定分析毕肖普法Bishop method12. 土坡稳定分析边坡稳定安全系数safety factor of slope12. 土坡稳定分析不平衡推理传递法unbalanced thrust transmission method12. 土坡稳定分析费伦纽斯条分法Fellenius method of slices12. 土坡稳定分析库尔曼法Culmann method12. 土坡稳定分析摩擦圆法friction circle method12. 土坡稳定分析摩根斯坦－普拉斯法Morgenstern-Price method12. 土坡稳定分析铅直边坡的临界高度critical height of vertical slope12. 土坡稳定分析瑞典圆弧滑动法Swedish circle method12. 土坡稳定分析斯宾赛法Spencer method12. 土坡稳定分析泰勒法Taylor method12. 土坡稳定分析条分法slice method12. 土坡稳定分析土坡slope12. 土坡稳定分析土坡稳定分析slope stability analysis12. 土坡稳定分析土坡稳定极限分析法limit analysis method of slope stability 12. 土坡稳定分析土坡稳定极限平衡法limit equilibrium method of slope stability 12. 土坡稳定分析休止角angle of repose12. 土坡稳定分析扬布普遍条分法Janbu general slice method12. 土坡稳定分析圆弧分析法circular arc analysis13. 土的动力性质比阻尼容量specific gravity capacity13. 土的动力性质波的弥散特性dispersion of waves13. 土的动力性质波速法wave velocity method13. 土的动力性质材料阻尼material damping13. 土的动力性质初始液化initial liquefaction13. 土的动力性质地基固有周期natural period of soil site13. 土的动力性质动剪切模量dynamic shear modulus of soils13. 土的动力性质动力布西涅斯克解dynamic solution of Boussinesq13. 土的动力性质动力放大因素dynamic magnification factor13. 土的动力性质动力性质dynamic properties of soils13. 土的动力性质动强度dynamic strength of soils13. 土的动力性质骨架波akeleton waves in soils13. 土的动力性质几何阻尼geometric damping13. 土的动力性质抗液化强度liquefaction stress13. 土的动力性质孔隙流体波fluid wave in soil13. 土的动力性质损耗角loss angle13. 土的动力性质往返活动性reciprocating activity13. 土的动力性质无量纲频率dimensionless frequency13. 土的动力性质液化liquefaction13. 土的动力性质液化势评价evaluation of liquefaction potential13. 土的动力性质液化应力比stress ratio of liquefaction13. 土的动力性质应力波stress waves in soils13. 土的动力性质振陷dynamic settlement13. 土的动力性质阻尼damping of soil13. 土的动力性质阻尼比damping ratio14. 挡土墙挡土墙retaining wall14. 挡土墙挡土墙排水设施14. 挡土墙挡土墙稳定性stability of retaining wall14. 挡土墙垛式挡土墙14. 挡土墙扶垛式挡土墙counterfort retaining wall14. 挡土墙后垛墙（台）counterfort retaining wall14. 挡土墙基础墙foundation wall14. 挡土墙加筋土挡墙reinforced earth bulkhead14. 挡土墙锚定板挡土墙anchored plate retaining wall14. 挡土墙锚定式板桩墙anchored sheet pile wall14. 挡土墙锚杆式挡土墙anchor rod retaining wall14. 挡土墙悬壁式板桩墙cantilever sheet pile wall14. 挡土墙悬壁式挡土墙cantilever sheet pile wall14. 挡土墙重力式挡土墙gravity retaining wall15. 板桩结构物板桩sheet pile15. 板桩结构物板桩结构sheet pile structure15. 板桩结构物钢板桩steel sheet pile15. 板桩结构物钢筋混凝土板桩reinforced concrete sheet pile15. 板桩结构物钢桩steel pile15. 板桩结构物灌注桩cast-in-place pile15. 板桩结构物拉杆tie rod15. 板桩结构物锚定式板桩墙anchored sheet pile wall15. 板桩结构物锚固技术anchoring15. 板桩结构物锚座Anchorage15. 板桩结构物木板桩wooden sheet pile15. 板桩结构物木桩timber piles15. 板桩结构物悬壁式板桩墙cantilever sheet pile wall16. 基坑开挖与降水板桩围护sheet pile-braced cuts16. 基坑开挖与降水电渗法electro-osmotic drainage16. 基坑开挖与降水管涌piping16. 基坑开挖与降水基底隆起heave of base16. 基坑开挖与降水基坑降水dewatering16. 基坑开挖与降水基坑失稳instability (failure) of foundation pit16. 基坑开挖与降水基坑围护bracing of foundation pit16. 基坑开挖与降水减压井relief well16. 基坑开挖与降水降低地下水位法dewatering method16. 基坑开挖与降水井点系统well point system16. 基坑开挖与降水喷射井点eductor well point16. 基坑开挖与降水铅直边坡的临界高度critical height of vertical slope 16. 基坑开挖与降水砂沸sand boiling16. 基坑开挖与降水深井点deep well point16. 基坑开挖与降水真空井点vacuum well point16. 基坑开挖与降水支撑围护braced cuts17. 浅基础杯形基础17. 浅基础补偿性基础compensated foundation17. 浅基础持力层bearing stratum17. 浅基础次层（台）substratum17. 浅基础单独基础individual footing17. 浅基础倒梁法inverted beam method17. 浅基础刚性角pressure distribution angle of masonary foundation 17. 浅基础刚性基础rigid foundation17. 浅基础高杯口基础17. 浅基础基础埋置深度embeded depth of foundation17. 浅基础基床系数coefficient of subgrade reaction17. 浅基础基底附加应力net foundation pressure17. 浅基础交叉条形基础cross strip footing17. 浅基础接触压力contact pressure17. 浅基础静定分析法（浅基础）static analysis (shallow foundation)17. 浅基础壳体基础shell foundation17. 浅基础扩展基础spread footing17. 浅基础片筏基础mat foundation17. 浅基础浅基础shallow foundation17. 浅基础墙下条形基础17. 浅基础热摩奇金法Zemochkin s method17. 浅基础柔性基础flexible foundation17. 浅基础上部结构－基础－土共同作用分析structure- foundation-soil interactionanalysis 17. 浅基础谈弹性地基梁（板）分析analysis of beams and slabs on elastic foundation 17. 浅基础条形基础strip footing17. 浅基础下卧层substratum17. 浅基础箱形基础box foundation17. 浅基础柱下条形基础18. 深基础贝诺托灌注桩Benoto cast-in-place pile18. 深基础波动方程分析Wave equation analysis18. 深基础场铸桩（台)cast-in-place pile18. 深基础沉管灌注桩diving casting cast-in-place pile18. 深基础沉井基础open-end caisson foundation18. 深基础沉箱基础box caisson foundation18. 深基础成孔灌注同步桩synchronous pile18. 深基础承台pile caps18. 深基础充盈系数fullness coefficient18. 深基础单桩承载力bearing capacity of single pile18. 深基础单桩横向极限承载力ultimate lateral resistance of single pile18. 深基础单桩竖向抗拔极限承载力vertical ultimate uplift resistance of single pile18. 深基础单桩竖向抗压容许承载力vertical ultimate carrying capacity of single pile18. 深基础单桩竖向抗压极限承载力vertical allowable load capacity of single pile18. 深基础低桩承台low pile cap18. 深基础地下连续墙diaphgram wall18. 深基础点承桩（台）end-bearing pile18. 深基础动力打桩公式dynamic pile driving formula18. 深基础端承桩end-bearing pile18. 深基础法兰基灌注桩Franki pile18. 深基础负摩擦力negative skin friction of pile18. 深基础钢筋混凝土预制桩precast reinforced concrete piles18. 深基础钢桩steel pile18. 深基础高桩承台high-rise pile cap18. 深基础灌注桩cast-in-place pile18. 深基础横向载荷桩laterally loaded vertical piles18. 深基础护壁泥浆slurry coat method18. 深基础回转钻孔灌注桩rotatory boring cast-in-place pile18. 深基础机挖异形灌注桩18. 深基础静力压桩silent piling18. 深基础抗拔桩uplift pile18. 深基础抗滑桩anti-slide pile18. 深基础摩擦桩friction pile18. 深基础木桩timber piles18. 深基础嵌岩灌注桩piles set into rock18. 深基础群桩pile groups18. 深基础群桩效率系数efficiency factor of pile groups18. 深基础群桩效应efficiency of pile groups18. 深基础群桩竖向极限承载力vertical ultimate load capacity of pile groups 18. 深基础深基础deep foundation18. 深基础竖直群桩横向极限承载力18. 深基础无桩靴夯扩灌注桩rammed bulb ile18. 深基础旋转挤压灌注桩18. 深基础桩piles18. 深基础桩基动测技术dynamic pile test18. 深基础钻孔墩基础drilled-pier foundation18. 深基础钻孔扩底灌注桩under-reamed bored pile18. 深基础钻孔压注桩starsol enbesol pile18. 深基础最后贯入度final set19. 地基处理表层压密法surface compaction19. 地基处理超载预压surcharge preloading19. 地基处理袋装砂井sand wick19. 地基处理地工织物geofabric, geotextile19. 地基处理地基处理ground treatment, foundation treatment19. 地基处理电动化学灌浆electrochemical grouting19. 地基处理电渗法electro-osmotic drainage19. 地基处理顶升纠偏法19. 地基处理定喷directional jet grouting19. 地基处理冻土地基处理frozen foundation improvement19. 地基处理短桩处理treatment with short pile19. 地基处理堆载预压法preloading19. 地基处理粉体喷射深层搅拌法powder deep mixing method19. 地基处理复合地基composite foundation19. 地基处理干振成孔灌注桩vibratory bored pile19. 地基处理高压喷射注浆法jet grounting19. 地基处理灌浆材料injection material19. 地基处理灌浆法grouting19. 地基处理硅化法silicification19. 地基处理夯实桩compacting pile19. 地基处理化学灌浆chemical grouting19. 地基处理换填法cushion19. 地基处理灰土桩lime soil pile19. 地基处理基础加压纠偏法19. 地基处理挤密灌浆compaction grouting19. 地基处理挤密桩compaction pile, compacted column19. 地基处理挤淤法displacement method19. 地基处理加筋法reinforcement method19. 地基处理加筋土reinforced earth19. 地基处理碱液法soda solution grouting19. 地基处理浆液深层搅拌法grout deep mixing method19. 地基处理降低地下水位法dewatering method19. 地基处理纠偏技术19. 地基处理坑式托换pit underpinning19. 地基处理冷热处理法freezing and heating19. 地基处理锚固技术anchoring19. 地基处理锚杆静压桩托换anchor pile underpinning19. 地基处理排水固结法consolidation19. 地基处理膨胀土地基处理expansive foundation treatment19. 地基处理劈裂灌浆fracture grouting19. 地基处理浅层处理shallow treatment19. 地基处理强夯法dynamic compaction19. 地基处理人工地基artificial foundation19. 地基处理容许灌浆压力allowable grouting pressure19. 地基处理褥垫pillow19. 地基处理软土地基soft clay ground19. 地基处理砂井sand drain19. 地基处理砂井地基平均固结度average degree of consolidation of sand-drained ground 19. 地基处理砂桩sand column19. 地基处理山区地基处理foundation treatment in mountain area19. 地基处理深层搅拌法deep mixing method19. 地基处理渗入性灌浆seep-in grouting19. 地基处理湿陷性黄土地基处理collapsible loess treatment19. 地基处理石灰系深层搅拌法lime deep mixing method19. 地基处理石灰桩lime column, limepile19. 地基处理树根桩root pile19. 地基处理水泥土水泥掺合比cement mixing ratio19. 地基处理水泥系深层搅拌法cement deep mixing method19. 地基处理水平旋喷horizontal jet grouting19. 地基处理塑料排水带plastic drain19. 地基处理碎石桩gravel pile, stone pillar19. 地基处理掏土纠偏法19. 地基处理天然地基natural foundation19. 地基处理土工聚合物Geopolymer19. 地基处理土工织物geofabric, geotextile19. 地基处理土桩earth pile19. 地基处理托换技术underpinning technique19. 地基处理外掺剂additive19. 地基处理旋喷jet grouting19. 地基处理药液灌浆chemical grouting19. 地基处理预浸水法presoaking19. 地基处理预压法preloading19. 地基处理真空预压vacuum preloading19. 地基处理振冲法vibroflotation method19. 地基处理振冲密实法vibro-compaction19. 地基处理振冲碎石桩vibro replacement stone column19. 地基处理振冲置换法vibro-replacement19. 地基处理振密、挤密法vibro-densification, compacting19. 地基处理置换率（复合地基）replacement ratio19. 地基处理重锤夯实法tamping19. 地基处理桩式托换pile underpinning19. 地基处理桩土应力比stress ratio20. 动力机器基础比阻尼容量specific gravity capacity20. 动力机器基础等效集总参数法constant strain rate consolidation test20. 动力机器基础地基固有周期natural period of soil site20. 动力机器基础动基床反力法dynamic subgrade reaction method20. 动力机器基础动力放大因素dynamic magnification factor20. 动力机器基础隔振isolation20. 动力机器基础基础振动foundation vibration20. 动力机器基础基础振动半空间理论elastic half-space theory of foundation vibr ation20. 动力机器基础基础振动容许振幅allowable amplitude of foundation vibration 20. 动力机器基础基础自振频率natural frequency of foundation20. 动力机器基础集总参数法lumped parameter method20. 动力机器基础吸收系数absorption coefficient20. 动力机器基础质量－弹簧－阻尼器系统mass-spring-dushpot system21. 地基基础抗震地基固有周期natural period of soil site21. 地基基础抗震地震earthquake, seism, temblor21. 地基基础抗震地震持续时间duration of earthquake21. 地基基础抗震地震等效均匀剪应力equivalent even shear stress of earthquake 21. 地基基础抗震地震反应谱earthquake response spectrum21. 地基基础抗震地震烈度earthquake intensity21. 地基基础抗震地震震级earthquake magnitude21. 地基基础抗震地震卓越周期seismic predominant period21. 地基基础抗震地震最大加速度maximum acceleration of earthquake21. 地基基础抗震动力放大因数dynamic magnification factor21. 地基基础抗震对数递减率logrithmic decrement21. 地基基础抗震刚性系数coefficient of rigidity21. 地基基础抗震吸收系数absorption coefficient22. 室内土工试验比重试验specific gravity test22. 室内土工试验变水头渗透试验falling head permeability test22. 室内土工试验不固结不排水试验unconsolidated-undrained triaxial test22. 室内土工试验常规固结试验routine consolidation test22. 室内土工试验常水头渗透试验constant head permeability test22. 室内土工试验单剪仪simple shear apparatus22. 室内土工试验单轴拉伸试验uniaxial tensile test22. 室内土工试验等速加荷固结试验constant loading rate consolidatin test22. 室内土工试验等梯度固结试验constant gradient consolidation test22. 室内土工试验等应变速率固结试验equivalent lumped parameter method22. 室内土工试验反复直剪强度试验repeated direct shear test22. 室内土工试验反压饱和法back pressure saturation method22. 室内土工试验高压固结试验high pressure consolidation test22. 室内土工试验各向不等压固结不排水试验consoidated anisotropically undrained test 22. 室内土工试验各向不等压固结排水试验consolidated anisotropically drained test 22. 室内土工试验共振柱试验resonant column test22. 室内土工试验固结不排水试验consolidated undrained triaxial test22. 室内土工试验固结快剪试验consolidated quick direct shear test22. 室内土工试验固结排水试验consolidated drained triaxial test22. 室内土工试验固结试验consolidation test22. 室内土工试验含水量试验water content test22. 室内土工试验环剪试验ring shear test22. 室内土工试验黄土湿陷试验loess collapsibility test22. 室内土工试验击实试验22. 室内土工试验界限含水量试验Atterberg limits test22. 室内土工试验卡萨格兰德法Casagrande s method22. 室内土工试验颗粒分析试验grain size analysis test22. 室内土工试验孔隙水压力消散试验pore pressure dissipation test22. 室内土工试验快剪试验quick direct shear test22. 室内土工试验快速固结试验fast consolidation test22. 室内土工试验离心模型试验centrifugal model test22. 室内土工试验连续加荷固结试验continual loading test22. 室内土工试验慢剪试验consolidated drained direct shear test22. 室内土工试验毛细管上升高度试验capillary rise test22. 室内土工试验密度试验density test22. 室内土工试验扭剪仪torsion shear apparatus22. 室内土工试验膨胀率试验swelling rate test22. 室内土工试验平面应变仪plane strain apparatus22. 室内土工试验三轴伸长试验triaxial extension test22. 室内土工试验三轴压缩试验triaxial compression test22. 室内土工试验砂的相对密实度试验sand relative density test22. 室内土工试验筛分析sieve analysis。

土木工程外文翻译

英文翻译1外文原文出处：School of Civil Engineering, Civil Engineering Materials Unit (CEMU), University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UKReceived 10 February 2000;原文1Compatibility of repair mortars with concrete in a hot-dryenvironmentAbstractStrengthening, maintenance and repair of concrete structures are becoming more recognised in the field of civil engineering. There is a wide range of repair mortars with varying properties, available in the market and promoted by the suppliers, which makes the selection of the most suitable one often difficult. A research programme was conducted at Leeds University to investigate the properties of cementitious, polymer and polymer modified (PMC) repair mortars. Following an earlier publication on the intrinsic properties of the materials, this paper presents results on the compatibility of these materials with concrete. The dimensional stability is used in this study to investigate the compatibility of the repair mortars and the parent concrete. Composite cylindrical specimens (half repair mortar/half concrete)were prepared and used for the measurements of modulus of elasticity and shrinkage. The results of the different combined systems were obtained and compared to those calculated using a composite model. The variations between the measured and calculated values were less than 10%. The paper attempts to quantify the effect of indirect differential shrinkage on the permeability and diffusion characteristics of the different combined systems.Author Keywords:Compatibility; Concrete; Dimensional stability; Modulus of elasticity; Oxygen diffusion; Oxygen permeability; Repair mortars; Shrinkage1. IntroductionDeterioration of concrete structures is a major problem in civil engineering, which is mainly associated with contamination, cracks and spalling of the cover concrete. In many instances, the serviceability of the deteriorated structure becomes an important issue and therefore the most cost-effective solution is often to use patch repair, which involves the removal of the deteriorated parts and reinstatement with a fresh repair mortar . The effectiveness of this approach is influenced by the intrinsic properties of the selected repair material (to eliminate the cause of initial deterioration), the chloride contamination level of the concrete adjacent to the repaired zone [1 and 2] and the compatibility of the combined system (concrete/repair).Compatibility in a repair system is the combination of properties between the repair material and the existing concrete substrate which ensures that the combined system withstands the applied stresses and maintains its structural integrity and protective properties in a certain exposure environment over a designated service life [3and 4]. Dimensional stability, chemical, electrochemical, and transport properties of the repair material and the parent concrete are the main aspects of compatibility.The dimensional stability is probably the most important factor which controls the volume changes due to shrinkage, thermal expansion, and the effects of creep and modulus of elasticity [5, 6and 7]. The chemical and electrochemical properties include attack due to alkali silica reaction, sulphate content, pH, electrical resistivity, chloride and carbonation induced corrosion, whereas the permeability and diffusion characteristics of both materials and at the interface between them are the main consideration for a durable combined system.Previous studies [5 and 6] compared properties of various repair mortars and then used finite elements analysis to study the performance of axially loaded reinforced concrete.In this study the compatibility of five repair mortars and concrete,in terms of modulus of elasticity and shrinkage, was investigated . The paper reviews a simple model describing the modulus and shrinkage behaviour of composite materials and presents an experimental programme on the application of the model. It emphasises the indirect effect of differential shrinkage on the transport properties of the different combined systems.2. Model theoryLet the combined system of parent concrete and repair mortar be subjected to an external stress (σ0), have a modulus of elasticity –E0, Poisson's ratio –μ0and shrinkage –S0. The corresponding properties of the two phases are shown in (parent concrete:symbol ―c‖ and repair mortar: ―m‖).3. Experimental work3.1. Parent concreteThe control concrete mix had the composition of OPC:sand:gravel in the weight ratio of 1:2.33:3.5, with a cement content of 325 kg/m3. The sand grading conformed to zone M of BS 882 [9], and the gravel had a maximum size of 10 mm. The w/c used was 0.55, which resulted in a slump value of 55 mm.Cylindrical specimens (150 mm diameter and 300 mm height, and 75 mm diameter and 265 mm height) were cast for the dimensional stability study. Additional cubes (100 mm) and slabs (400×250×40 mm3) were also cast for studying the properties of the parent concrete.The specimens were demoulded after 24 h and cured in a fog room maintained at 20°C and 99% relative humidity (RH). The properties of the control concrete substrate, measured at the age of 28 days, are given in.The cylindrical concrete specimens were kept in the fog room for 3 months. This long curing period was chosen to provide a relatively old concrete substrate for the repair mortars. The cylinders were then split along their longitudinal axis into two halves following the procedure of BS 1881: Part 117 [10] for tensile splitting strength. The loose particles were removed and the fractured surfaces were cleaned using a wire brush. The split cylinders were transferred to the hot dry environmental chamber controlled at 35°C, 45% RH and 3 m/s wind velocity, and kept there for 7 days beforecasting the repair mortars.3.2. Repair mortarsFive repair materials were selected in this investigation. These include: conventional cementitious, epoxy resin (EP) and polymer modified mortars (PMC). Table 1gives details of the repair materials. The repair mortars used in the study are the same investigated in [11], where their intrinsic properties are reported.3.3. Combined specimensThe half cylinder specimens were sprayed with water and placed again into their original moulds. The other halves of the moulds were cast with the different repair mortars to produce combined specimens. The specimens were compacted and kept covered overnight with wet hessian and polyethylene sheets. After 24 h, the combined specimens were demoulded and cured for 27 days in the same hot dry environment (35°C, 45% RH and 3 m/s wind velocity).The 75-mm diameter cylinders were used for the measurements of shrinkage strains between 3 and 28 days. Demec points were attached to the combined cylinders, on both sides (concrete/repair material), at a gauge length of 200 mm. After 28 days, cores (50-mm diameter) were drilled to have one half of the repair mortar and the other of the parent concrete.These cores were used for studying the effect of differential shrinkage on the transport properties of the combined systems. shows details of the shrinkage cylinder with locations of the Demec points and the drilled cores.The (150-mm) cylinders were used for the measurements of compressive modulus of elasticity and strength at 28 days. Flat loading surfaces were produced by grinding the opposite faces of each cylinder. Strain gauges (20-mm length) were fixed on each side of the repair mortar and the parent concrete as shown in Fig. 4. The specimens were tested using the Tonipact-3000 (cube crushing machine), with a loading rate of 0.2 N/mm2/s. The top loading plate of the machine is initially free to level with the test specimens (up to 5 kN load), then locked automatically to minimise the effect of load eccentricity. Load-strain readings were recorded automatically using a computer data acquisition system.Duplicate specimens were used for each test and the average values were used in presenting the results. The variation of results was less than 10% for the engineering and shrinkage properties, and less than 25% for the transport properties. The testing procedures used for measuring shrinkage, modulus of elasticity and transport properties were similar to those used for testing the individual repair materials in [11].4. Presentation of results4.1. Modulus of elasticityThe modulus of elasticity is the property which controls the load distribution of a combined system composed of two materials. The elastic stress–strain behaviour (up to 1/3 of the failure load) of the individual repair mortars, concrete,and the average values of the combined systems (labelled as Comb) are presented in Figs. 5(a)–(e). The individual values are given in Table 3together with the measured average of the combined systems. Table 3gives also the moduli for the different combined systems (E0), as calculated from Eq. (8) using the individual values of E c and E m.Fig. 5. Stress–strain relationships for the different combined systems: (a) OPC/ concrete system; (b) FA/concrete system, the comb curve falls behind the conc curve; (c) SF/concrete system; (d) PMC/concrete system; (e) EP/concrete system.The results show that, except for the PMC and EP, the modulus values of the cementitious repair mortars are quite similar to that of the parent concrete. Consequently, when combined together, the modulus of OPC, FA and SF combined systems did not change much, indicating only a slight effect on the load distribution of the combined systems and hence modulus compatibility. In contrast to the cementitious mortars, the PMC and the EP mortars had different modulus values to that of the concrete.As a result of the combined action, the PMC repair mortar increased the modulus of concrete,whereas the EC mortar caused a reduction in the concrete modulus.When the values of modulus are compared, the combined (measured) modulus agreeswith the average modulus of the individual materials (E0) to within 10%. This is in compliance with the theory of combined modelling when there is no discontinuity of strain at the interface, for example, cracking and a transitional zone effect. It also suggests that the effect of Poisson's ratio as considered in the derivation of Eq. (6a) is not significant for the materials used.4.2. Compressive strengthFig. 6 shows the stress–strain relationships for the different combined cylinders up to failure, whereas the numerical values of the 28 days compressive strength for the individual repair mortars and the combined cylinders are given in Table 4. Although the PMC showed a relatively higher modulus than that of the concrete, its stress–strain behaviour when combined with the parent concrete was found to be quite similar to those of the cementitious mortars. In fact the compressive strength value for the PMC/concrete was slightly higher than that of the parent concrete. The EP/concrete system showed a different behaviour and exhibited a strength value of 38.4 MPa. This value is relatively low when compared with the individual materials and also when compared to the other combined systems. However, its strain capacity was the greatest .4.3. ShrinkageShrinkage is another important property regarding the dimensional stability of combined systems. Incompatibility due to drying shrinkage causes internal stresses, which might lead to failure at the interface or within the lower strength material. The shrinkage results of the different combined systems are presented in Figs. 7(a)–(e), where the average combined values (Comb) are plotted with values of the individual materials.The results indicate that long moist curing (3 months) significantly reduces the shrinkage of the control concrete even when exposed to the hot dry environment. Most of the shrinkage strains developed within the first 2 weeks, after which it levelled off to show an overall low shrinkage value at the age of 28 days. In contrast to the modulus results, the EP/concrete system (Fig. 7(e)) showed similar behaviour to that of the parent concrete indicating compatibility of shrinkage behaviour. The PMC repair mortars usually incorporate expanding additives whichreduce the shrinkage at early age. This can be seen in Fig. 7(d), where the PMC/ concrete system showed low shrinkage values within the first 10 days, after which the rate of shrinkage development was relatively higher than that of the parent concrete.Incompatibility of shrinkage can be seen clearly from comparing the combined systems with the cementitious repair mortars. Table 5 gives the 28-day shrinkage for the individual materials (S c, S m) together with the average combined measured values (S0) and as calculated from Eq. (9). It should be noted that the values of E in Eq. (2) should strictly be effective values to account for creep. In the present analysis, the difference in creep between the repair material and the parent concrete was neglected. Also, it was assumed that no moisture transfer occurred across the interface since the fractured surface of the substrate was sprayed with water prior to the repair materials being cast.Table 5. Shrinkage strain at 28 days (Microstrains)The highest differential shrinkage was found with the OPC/concrete system. The FA and SF combined systems showed similar behaviour to that of the OPC/ concrete.Similar to the modulus results, the combined shrinkage values (calculated and measured) agree to within 10%, confirming the validity of the combined model proposed and the small influence of Poisson's ratio as considered in the derivation of Eq. (7).4.4. Transport propertiesThe transport properties are of great importance when considering the durability of the repair system. The combined specimens were conditioned and tested in a similar manner to the individual materials used in [11] following the procedure described in [12and 13], which involve the removal of the evaporable water to eliminate the effect of moisture on the measured transport properties. The effect of differential shrinkage on the intrinsic coefficient of oxygen permeability of the combined systems is presented , whereas gives the coefficient of oxygen diffusionresults.By comparing the results of the combined systems, it can be seen that the OPC/ concrete system exhibited the highest permeability value whereas the lowest value was found with the EP/concrete system. This trend is similar to that obtained from the shrinkage results. In fact the permeability of the OPC/concrete and the FA/ concrete systems were about one order of magnitude higher than the individual materials (OPC, FA mortars and parent concrete).The results of oxygen diffusion agree with those obtained from the permeability results. The shrinkage compatibility of the EP/concrete system reduces the diffusion value to be similar to that of the parent concrete.The performance of the PMC/concrete system was adequate when compared with the EP/concrete system.In general the trend of the transport properties of the combined specimens appears to be associated with the differential shrinkage found with the different systems. This would be expected since any weakening at the interface, and consequent increase in permeability and diffusion, would be greater for a higher differential shrinkage. show the coefficients of permeability and diffusion plotted against the relative shrinkage (S m/S c) for the tested combined systems. The general linear relationships obtained indicate that higher differential shrinkage results in higher transport properties and therefore lower resistance to the penetration of harmful substances from aggressive environments.5. DiscussionCompatibility of concrete and repair materials involves matching of different properties between the two systems, as mentioned earlier. Dimensional stability under load application (modulus) was one of the issues considered in this study for the different systems investigated.Mismatch in the modulus of elasticity becomes of great concern in repairs when the applied load is parallel to the bond line in a combined system. The material with the lower modulus deforms more and, therefore, transfers the load, through the interface, to the higher modulus material [14]. If the transferred load exceeds theload-carrying capacity of the material or the bond at the interface, fracture occurs. For the design of an efficient repair,it has been recommended that the repair material should have greater modulus (>30%) than the concrete substrate [15]. Within the different repair mortars used in the study the cementitious mortars provided almost similar moduli values to that of the parent concrete,whereas the mismatch can be seen clearly with the epoxy (polymer) mortar used ( Table 3). Due to the high bond strength of epoxy mortars [16], it forces the concrete to deform more under load application ( Fig. 5and Fig. 6), leading to an early concrete fracture and consequently failure of the combined system.Drying shrinkage was the other parameter used to study the dimensional stability in repair systems. It is mainly influenced by the composition of the materials and the surrounding environments, and achieves a great part of its ultimate value at early ages considering the small size of the samples tested [17]. Larger specimens with a higher volume-to-surface ratio will definitely take more time to shrink. As the fresh repair material tends to shrink, the parent concrete(relatively old) restrains it. The differential movements cause tensile stresses in the repair mortar balanced by compressive stresses within the concrete.Creep in such a situation is an advantage, as it releases part of these stresses. As shrinkage proceeds, the stresses accumulate, which might cause cracks and failure if exceeded the tensile capacity of the repair material or the bond strength at the interface.In contrast to the modulus results, the shrinkage incompatibility is more associated with the cementitious mortars, which reduces sharply with the use of PMC to reach minimum for polymer (EP) mortars. Similar trend of results was found with the transport properties of the different systems, suggesting their dependence on the dimensional stability of combined systems. A general correlation appears to exist between transport properties and differential shrinkage.In general, the results obtained in this investigation indicate that in spite of the superior properties of the epoxy mortar, its compatibility with concrete is mainly affected by the low modulus. The high shrinkage of the cementitious mortars, especially when exposed to hot dry environments limits their compatibility. The most appropriate performance was obtained for the PMC mortar, which showed adequate compatibility in modulus and shrinkage with improved engineering and transportproperties.6. ConclusionsFor the repair materials used in this study and stored under a hot-dry environment, the conclusions can be summarised as follows:1. High shrinkage strains of the cementitious repair mortars affected their compatibility with concrete,and increased indirectly the permeability at the interface of the combined system by one order of magnitude.2. The mismatch in modulus of elasticity between concrete and the epoxy mortar used in the study reduced the load carrying capacity of the combined system.3. Transport properties (namely permeability and diffusion) correlated fairly well with differential shrinkage of the repair material and parent concrete.4. The PMC repair mortar showed the most appropriate properties in terms of dimensional stability with concrete due to similar elastic modulus and low shrinkage strains when compared to the parent concrete.Future research should investigate the dimensional compatibility, including creep and autogenous shrinkage, of repair materials with microstructural studies of the interface and transition zoneCopyright © 1996 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.K. E. Hassan,, J. J. Brooks and L. Al-Alawi中文翻译1在干燥环境下砂浆和混凝土修复的兼容性摘要:在民用工程领域中，建筑物的加固、维护和修理将被更多得关注到。

土木施工外文翻译

土木施工外文翻译Lesson 1 Civil Engineering——土木工程土木工程是最古老的工程专业之一，它包括对建筑外界的规划、设计、施工以及管理。

建筑外界包括从灌溉排水系统到火箭发射设施在内的所有按科学原理建造的结构物。

土木工程师修建道路、桥梁、隧道、大坝、港口、发电厂、给排水系统、医院、学校、公共交通等公共设施，这些是现代社会和人口密集地所必需的。

他们也修建私有设施，如飞机场、铁路、管道、摩天大楼等工业、商业或居住用的大型结构物。

另外，土木工程师规划、设计和建造完整的城镇，最近还设计了设备齐全的空间站。

单词“ civil”来自于拉丁文中的“citizen”。

1872年，英国人John Smeaton 采用这一术语把他的民用工程与那时占主导地位的的军事工程区别开来。

从此，“土木工程”经常用于指修建公共设施的工程师的工作领域，虽然“土木工程”所包含的领域要宽广得多。

——范围土木工程工作范围很广，因此可以把土木工程细分为许多技术专业。

不同类型的项目可能需要许多技术专业土木工程师的技术合作。

开始一个项目时，负责功能（给水、排水、电力管线）布置的工程师对工地进行测量并绘制成图；土工专家进行土壤试验以确定泥土是否可以承受得住结构物重量；环境专家研究工程对当地的影响，包括空气和地下水的可能污染，对当地动植物的影响以及如何设计以达到政府旨在保护环境的要求；交通工程专家选择交通设施类型以缓解项目竣工时对当地道路和其它交通网络所增加的负担；同时，结构专家利用初步数据进行细部设计、整体设计和工程说明制定。

从工程开始到完工，由工程管理专家统一管理、协调这些土木工程师的工作。

在其他专家提供的信息的基础上，工程管理人员预算人工、材料的数量和费用，安排所有的工作进度，订购材料和设备，雇佣承包人和分包人，以及其它的工程管理以确保工程保质保量按时完成。

任何项目中土木工程师都广泛应用到计算机。

计算机（指计算机辅助设计或CAD）被用于设计工程的各种单元和管理工程。

土木工程外文文献翻译(含中英文)

Experimental research on seismic behavior of abnormal jointin reinforced concrete frameAbstract :Based on nine plane abnormal joint s , one space abnormal joint experiment and a p seudo dynamic test of a powerplant model , the work mechanism and the hysteretic characteristic of abnormal joint are put to analysis in this paper. A conception of minor core determined by the small beam and small column , and a conclusion that the shear capacity of ab2normal joint depends on minor core are put forward in this paper. This paper also analyzes the effect s of axial compres2 sion , horizontal stirrup s and section variation of beam and column on the shear behavior of abnormal joint . Finally , the formula of shear capacity for abnormal joint in reinforced concrete f rame is provided.Key words : abnormal j oint ; minor core ; seismic behavior ; shear ca paci t yCLC number :TU375. 4 ; TU317. 1 Document code :A Article ID :100627930 (2006) 022*******1 Int roductionFor reinforced concrete f rame st ructure , t he joint is a key component . It is subjected to axialcomp ression , bending moment and shear force. The key is whet her the joint has enough shear capaci2ty. The Chinese Code f or S eismic Desi gn of B ui l di ngs ( GB5001122001) adopt s the following formulato calculate t he shear capacity of the reinforced concrete f rame joint .V j = 1. 1ηj f t b j h j + 0. 05ηj Nb jb c+ f yv A svjh b0 - a′ss(1)Where V j = design value of t he seismic shear capacity of the joint core section ;ηj = influential coefficient of t he orthogonal beam to the column ;f t = design value of concrete tensile st rength ;b j = effective widt h of the joint core section ;h j = dept h of the joint core section , Which can be adopted as t he depth of the column section int he verification direction ;N = design value of axial compression at t he bot tom of upper column wit h considering the combi2 nation of the eart hquake action , When N > 015 f c b c h c , let N = 0. 5 f c b c h c ;b c = widt h of t he column section ;f yv = design value of t he stirrup tensile st rengt h ;A svj = total stirrup area in a set making up one layer ;h b0 = effective dept h of t he beam.If t he dept h of two beams at the side of t he joint is unequal , h b0 = t he average depth of two beams.a′s = distance f rom the cent roid of the compression beam steel bar to the ext reme concrete fiber . s = distance of t he stirrup .Eq. 1 is based on t he formula in t he previous seismiccode[1 ] and some modifications made eavlicr and it is suit2able to the normal joint of reinforced concrete f rame , butnot to t he abnormal one which has large different in t hesection of t he upper column and lower one (3 600 mm and1 200 mm) , lef t beam and right beam (1 800 mm and 1200 mm) . The shear capacity of abnormal joint s calculat2ed by Eq. 1 may cause some unsafe result s. A type of ab2normal joint which of ten exist s in t he power plant st ruc2t ure is discussed ( see Fig. 1) , and it s behavior was st ud2ied based on t he experiment in t his paper2 Experimental workAccording to the above problem , and t he experiment of plane abnormal joint s and space abnormal joint , a p seudo dynamic test of space model of power plant st ruct ure was carried out . The aim of t hisst udy is to set up a shear force formula and to discuss seismic behavior s of t he joint s.According to the characteristic of t he power plant st ruct ure , nine abnormal joint s and one space abnormal joint were designed in t he experiment . The scale of the model s is one2fif t h. Tab. 1 and Tab.2 show t he dimensions and reinforcement detail s of t he specimens.Fig. 2 shows the typical const ruction drawing of t he specimen. Fig. 3 shows the loading set up . These specimens are subjected to low2cyclic loading , the loading process of which is cont rolled by force and displacement , t he preceding yield loading by force and subsequent yield by t he displacement .The shear deformation of the joint core , t he st rain of the longit udinal steel and t he stirrup are main measuring items.3 Analysis of test result s3. 1 Main resultsTab. 3 shows t he main result s of t he experiment .3. 2 Failure process of specimenBased on t he experiment , t he process of t he specimens’failure includes four stages , namely , t he initial cracking , t he t horough cracking , the ultimate stage and t he failure stage.(1) Initial cracking stageWhen t he first diagonal crack appears along t he diagonal direction in t he core af ter loading , it s widt h is about 0. 1mm , which is named initial cracking stage of joint core. Before t he initial cracking stage , t he joint remains elastic performance , and the variety of stiff ness is not very obvious on t hep2Δcurve. At t his stage concrete bear s most of the core shear force while stirrup bears few. At t he timewhen t he initial crack occur s , t he st ress of t he stirrup at t he crack increase sharply and t he st rain is a2bout 200 ×10 - 6 —300 ×10 - 6 . The shear deformation of t he core at t his stage is very small (less than 1×10 - 3 radian ,generally between 0. 4 ×10 - 3 and 0. 8 ×10 - 3 radian) .(2) Thorough cracking stageWit h the load increasing following t he initial cracking stage , the second and t hird crossing diago2 nal cracks will appear at t he core. The core is cut into some small rhombus pieces which will become at least one main inclined crack across t he core diagonal . The widt h of cracks enlarges obviously , andt he wider ones are generally about 0. 5mm , which is named core t horough cracking stage. The st ress of stirrup increases obviously , and the stirrup in t he middle of t he core is near to yielding or has yiel2 ded. The joint core shows nonlinear property on t he p2Δcurve , and it enter s elastic2plastic stage. Theload at t horough cracking stage is about 80 % —90 % load.(3) Ultimate stageAt t his stage , t he widt h of t he cracks is about 1mm or more and some new cracks continue to oc2 cur . The shear deformation at t he core is much larger and concrete begins to collap se. Af ter several cyclic loading , the force reaches the maximum value , which is called ultimate stage. The load increase is due to t he enhancing of the concrete aggregate mechanical f riction between cracks. At t he same timet he st ress of stirrup increases gradually. On t he one hand stirrup resist s t he horizontal shear , and on t he ot her hand the confinement effect to t he expanding compression concrete st rengthens continuous2ly , which can also improve t he shear capacity of diagonal compression bar mechanism.(4) Failure stageAs the load circulated , concrete in t he core began to collap se , and t he deformation increased sharply , while the capacity began to drop . It was found t hat t he slip of reinforcement in t he beam wasvery serious in t he experiment . Wit h t he load and it s circulation time increasing , t he zoon wit houtbond gradually permeated towards t he internal core , enhancing t he burden of t he diagonal compressionbar mechanism and accelerates the compression failure of concrete. Fig. 4 shows t he p hotos of typical damaged joint s.A p seudo dynamic test of space model ofpower plant st ruct ure was carried out to researcht he working behavior of t he abnormal joint s in re2al st ructure and the seismic behavior of st ructure.Fig. 5 shows the p hoto of model .The test includes two step s. The fir st is thep seudo dynamic test . At t his step , El2Cent rowave is inp ut and the peak acceleration variesf rom 50 gal to 1 200 gal . The seismic response is measured. The second is t he p seudo static test . Theloading can’t stop until t he model fail s.Fig. 7 Minor coreThe experiment shows t hat t he dist ribution and development of t hecrack is influenced by t he rest rictive effect of the ort hogonal beam , andt he crack of joint core mainly dist ributes under t he orthogonal beam( see Fig. 6) , which is different f rom t he result of t he plane joint test ,but similar to J 4210.3. 3 Analysis of test results3. 3. 1 Mechanical analysisIn t he experiment , t he location of the initial crack of t he exteriorjoint and the crushed position of concrete both appear in the middle oft he joint core , and t he position is near t he centerline of t he upper col2umn. The initial crack and crushed position of t he concrete of the interior joint both appear in t he mi2 nor core ( see Fig. 4 ,Fig. 7) . For interior abnormal joint t he crack doesn’t appear or develop in t he ma2j or core out side of the mi nor core until t horough cracking takes place , while t he crack seldom appearsin t he shadow region ( see Fig. 7) as the joint fail s. Therefore , for abnormal joint , t he shear capacity oft he joint core depends on t he properties of t he mi nor core , namely , on t he st rengt h grades of concrete ,t he size and the reinforcement of t he mi nor core , get t he effect of t he maj or core dimension can’t be neglected.Mechanical effect s are t he same will that of t he normal joint , when t he forces t ransfer to t he mi2 nor core t hrough column and beam and reinforcement bar . Therefore , t he working mechanisms of nor2mal joint , including t russ mechanism , diagonal compression bar mechanism and rest rictive mechanismof stirrup , are also suitable for mi nor core of t he abnormal joint , but their working characteristic is not symmet rical when the load rever ses. Fig. 8 illust rates t he working mechanism of t he abnormal joint .When t he load t ransfer to mi nor core , t he diagonal compression bar area of mi nor core is biggert han normal joint core2composed by small column and small beam of abnormal joint , which is due to t he compressive st ress diff usion of concrete compressive region of the beam and column , while at t hesame time t he compression carried by the diagonal compression bar becomes large. Because t he main part of bond force of column and beam is added to t he diagonal comp ression bar but cont rasting wit h t he increased area of diagonal compression bar , t he increased action is small . The region in the maj orcore but out of the mi nor core has less st ress dist ribution and fewer cracks. The region can confine t heexpansion of t he concrete of t he mi nor core diagonal compression bar concrete , which enhances t he concrete compressive st rengt h of mi nor core diagonal compression bar .Making t he mi nor core as st udy element , the area increment of concrete diagonal compression barin mi nor core is related to t he st ress diff usion of t he beam and column compressive region. The magni2t ude of diff usion area is related to height difference of t he beam sections and column sections. Name2ly , it is related to t he size of mi nor core section and maj or core section. Thus , the increased shearst rengt h magnit ude caused by mi nor core rest rictive effect on maj or core can be measured quantitative2ly by t he ratio of maj or core area to mi nor core area. And it al so can be expressed that t he rest rictive effect is quantitatively related to t he ratio. Obviously , t he bigger t he ratio is and t he st ronger t he con2finement is , t he st ronger t he bearing capacity is.The region in the maj or core but under the mi nor core still need stirrup bar because of t he hori2 zontal force t ransferred by bigger beam bar . But force is small .3. 3. 2 load2displacement curves analysisFig. 9 shows t he typical load2displacement curves at t he beam end of t he exterior and interiorjoint . The figure showing t hat t he rigidity of t he specimens almo st doesn’t degenerate when t he initialcrack appear s in t he core , and a turning point can be found at t he curve but it isn’t very obvious. Wit ht he crack developing , an obvious t urning point can be found at t he curve , and at t his time , t he speci2men yields. Then t he load can increase f urt her , but it can’t increase too much f rom yielding load to ultimate load. When t he concrete at t he core collap ses and the plastic hinge occured at t he beamend ,t he load begins to decrease rat her t han increase.The ductility coefficient of two kinds of joint s is basically more than 3 (except for J 3 - 9) . But it should be noted t hat the design of specimens is based on the principle of joint core failure. The ratio of reinforcement of beam and column tends to be lower t han practical project s. If t he ratio is larger , t he failure of joint is probably prior to t hat of beam and column , so t he hysteretic curve reflect s t he ductil ity property of joint core.Joint experiment should be a subst ruct ure test (or a test of composite body of beams and col2 umns) . So t he load2displacement curves at t he beam end should be a general reflection of t he joint be2havior work as a subst ruct ure. Providing t hat the joint core fails af ter t he yield of beam and column (especially for beam) , t he load2displacement curves at t he beam end is plump , so the principle of “st rong col umn and weak beam , st ron ger j oi nt" should be ensured which conforms to t he seismic re2sistant principle.The experiment shows t hat t he stiff ness of joint core is large. Before the joint reaches ultimatestage , t he stiff ness of joint core decreases a little and the irrecoverable residual deformation is very small under alternate loading. When joint core enter s failure stage , t he shear deformation increases sharply , and t he stiff ness of joint core decreases obviously , and t he hysteretic curve appears shrink2 age , which is because of t he cohesive slip of beam reinforcement .3. 4 Influential Factors of Abnormal Joint Shear CapacityThe fir st factor is axial compression. Axial compression can enlarge t he compression area of col2 umn , and increase t he concrete compression area of joint core[124 ] . At t he same time , more shearst ransferred f rom beam steel to t he edge of joint core concrete will add to t he diagonal compression bar ,which decreases t he edge shear t hat leads to the crack of joint core concrete. So t he existence of axial comp ression cont ributes to imp roving t he capacity of initial cracks at joint core.The effect of axial compression on t horough cracking load and ultimate load isn’t very obvious[1 ] . The reason is t hat cont rasting wit h no axial compression , the accumulated damage effect of joint coreunder rever sed loading wit h axial compression is larger . Alt hough axial compression can improve t heshear st rengt h of concrete , it increases accumulated damage effect which leads to a decrease of the ad2vantage of axial compression. Therefore t he effect of axial compression on t horough cracking loadandultimate load is not very obvious.Hence , considering the lack of test data of abnormal joint , t he shear capacity formula of abnormal joint adopt 0. 05 nf c b j h j to calculate the effect of axial compression , which is based on the result s of t his experiment and referenced to t he experimental st udy and statistical analysis of Meinheit and J irsa ,et [5 ] .The second factor is horizontal stirrup . Horizontal stirrup has no effect on t he initial crackingshear of abnormal joint , while greatly improves t he t horough cracking shear . Af ter crack appeared , t he stirrup begins to resist t he shear and confines t he expansion of concrete[ 6 ] . This experiment showst hat t he st ress of stirrup s in each layer is not equal . When the joint fail s , t he stirrup s don’t yield simultaneous. Fig. 10 shows t he change of st ress dist ribution of stirrup s along core height wit h t he loadincreasing. Through analyzing test result s , it can be known t hat 80 percent of the height at the joint core can yield.The last factor is the change of sec2tion size of t he beam and column. Thesection change decreases t he initial crack2ing load about 30 p resent of abnormaljoint and makes t he initial crack appear att he position of joint mi nor core. The rea2son for t his p henomenon is t hat small up2per column section makes t he confinementof mi nor core concrete decrease and t heedge shear increase. But t he section change has lit tle effect on thorough cracking load. Af ter t horoughcracking , the joint enter s ultimate state while the external load can’t increase too much , which is dif2 ferent f rom t he behavior of abnormal joint t hat can carry much shear af ter thorough cracking.3. 5 Shear force formula of abnormal jointAs a part of f rame , t he design of joint shall meet t he requirement s of the f rame st ruct ure design , namely , t he joint design should not damage t he basic performance of t he st ruct ure.According to the principle of st ronger j oi nt , it is necessary for joint to have some safety reserva2 tion. The raised cost for conservational estimation of t he joint bearing capacity is small . But t he con2 servational estimation is very important to t he safety of the f rame st ruct ure. At t horough cracking stage , t he widt h of most cracks is more t han 0. 2 mm , which is bigger than t he suggested limit value in t he concrete design code. Big cracks will influence t he durability of st ruct ure. Hence , the bearing capacity at t horough cracking stage is applied to calculating t he bearing capacity of joint . According to t he analysis of t he working mechanisms of abnormal joint , it could be concludedt hat t he bearing capacity of joint core mainly depends on mi nor core when t he force t ransferred f rommaj or core to mi nor core. All kinds of working mechanisms are suitable to mi nor core element . Thus , a formula for calculating t he shear capacity of abnormal joint can be obtained based on Eq. 1. According to the above analysis of influential factor s of shear capacity of abnormal joint , and ref2 erence to Eq. 1 , a formula for calculating t he shear capacity of reinforced concrete f rame abnormal jointis suggested as followsV j = 0. 1ηjξ1 f c b j h j + 0. 1ηj nξ2 f c b j h j +ξ3 f yv A svj h0 - a′s s(2)Where h0 = effective dept h of small beam section in abnormal joint ;ξ1 = influential coefficient consider2ing mi nor core on working as cont rol element for calculating ;ξ2 = influential coefficient considering effect of axial compression ratio , it s value is 0. 5 , andξ3 = influential coefficient considering t hestir2rup doesn’t yield simultaneous , it s value is 0. 8 , n = N/ f c b c h j .From Fig. 8 , the shear capacity of abnormal joint depends on mi nor core , while maj or core has re2st rictive effect on mi nor core. The effect is related to t he ratio of maj or core area to mi nor core area , so assumingξ1 =αA d A x (3)Where A d = area of abnormal joint maj or core , choosing it as t he value of t he dept h of big beam multiplying t he height of lower column ; A x = area of abnormal joint mi nor core , choosing it as t he value oft he depth of small beam multiplying the height of upper column ; andα= parameter to be defined , it s value is 0. 8 derived f rom t he result s of t he experiment ( see Tab. 4)Then Eq. 2 can be replaced byV j = 0. 1ηjαA d A x f c b j h j + 0. 05ηj n f c b j h j + 0. 8 f yv h0 - a′s s(4)4 ConclusionsThe following conclusions can be drawn f rom t his study.(1) The seismic behavior of abnormal joint in reinforced concrete f rame st ruct ure is poor . Af tert horough cracking , t he joint enter s ultimate state while the external load can’t increase too much , andt he safety reservation of joint isn’t sufficient .(2) The characteristic of bearing load of minor core is similar to that of normal joint , but t he area bearing load is different . The shear capacity depend on t he size , t he st rengt h of concrete and the rein2forcement of mi nor core in abnormal joint . The maj or core has rest rictive effect on mi nor core. (3) Joint experiment should be a subst ruct ure test or a test of composite body of beams and col2 umns. Therefore t he load2displacement curves of t he beam end should be a general reflection of t he joint behavior working as a subst ruct ure. Studies of t he hysteretic curve of subst ruct ure should be based on t he whole st ructure. It is critical to guarantee t he stiff ness and st rengt h of joint core in prac2tice.(4) The formula of shear capacity for abnormal joint in reinforced concrete f rame is provided.References[1 ] TAN GJ iu2ru . The seismic behavior of steel reinforced concrete f rame [M] . Nanjing :Dongnan University Press ,1989 :1572163.[2 ] The research group of reinforcement concrete f rame joint . Shear capacity research of reinforced concrete f rame jointon reversed2cyclic loading[J ] . Journal of Building St ructures , 1983 , (6) :9215.[3 ] PAULA Y T ,PARK R. Joint s reinforced concrete f rames designed for earthquake resistance[ R] . New Zealand :De2partment of civil Engineering , University of Canterbury , Christchurch , 1984.[4 ] FU Jian2ping. Seismic behavior research of reinforced concrete f rame joint with the consideration of axialforce[J ] .Journal of Chongqing Univ , 2000 , (5) :23227.[5 ] MEINHEIT D F ,J IRSA J O. Shear st rength of R/ C beam2column connections [J ] . ACI St ructural Journal , 1993 ,(3) :61271.[6 ] KITA YAMA K, OTANI S ,AO YAMA H. Development of design criteria for RC interior beam2column joints ,de2sign of beam2column joint s for seismic resistance[ R] . SP123 ,ACI ,Det roit , 1991 :61272.[7 ] GB5001122001 ,Code for seismic design of buildings [ S] . Beijing : China Architectural and BuildingPress ,2001.钢筋混凝土框架异型节点抗震性能试验研究摘要：基于8个钢筋混凝土框架异型节点的试验研究，分析了异型框架节点的受力与常规框架节点的异同。

土木工程外文翻译

土木工程外文翻译Overview of Engineering MechanicsAs we look around us we see a world full of ‘things’: machines, devices, tools; things that we have designed, built and used; things made of wood, metals, ceramics, and plastics. We know from experience that some things are better than others; they last longer, cost less, are quieter, look better, or are easier to use.当我们看我们周围的世界,我们会发现许多东西：机器、设备,:我们拥有的工具,我们设计、建造和使用的东西;有木头、金属、陶瓷、塑料制品。

我们从经验得知,有些事情是比其他人好,比他们更耐用,成本低,是安静的,看起来更好,或者是更容易使用。

Ideally, however, every such item has been designed according to some set of ‘functional requirements; as perceived by the designers—that is, it has been designed so as to answer the question, ‘Exactly what function should it perform?’In the world of engineering, the major function frequently is to support some type of loading due to weight, inertia, pressure etc. From the beams in our homes to the wings of an airplane, there must be an appropriate melding of materials, dimensions, and fastenings to produce structures that will perform their functions reliably for a reasonably cost over a reasonable lifetime.不管怎么样最理想的是每一个这样的项目根据一些规定的功能要求所设计,正如设计者所理解的那样,它被有计划的回答这个问题,“这个功能应该怎么正确完成?”世界上的一些工程，他主要功能是经常支持某一些由于自重，惯性压力等这些类型的荷载。

土木工程中文文献英文翻译

Carbon fiber reinforcement technology as a new type of structural reinforcement technology in the construction engineering, is the use of resin bonded materials to the concrete surface,making concrete and carbon fiber to form a composite whole, and work together.At the same time, the technology has the advantages of convenient construction, high strength, wide application and light weight.Therefore, carbon fiber reinforcement technology in the construction defects reinforcement treatment has been widely used, so as to ensure the building bearing ability and stability, improve the shear resistance and bending capacity of building structural members, improve the quality of the whole construction project, achieve the purpose to the building structure reinforcement, and prolong the service life of the building.One, carbon fiber reinforced structural component technology principle.Carbon fiber reinforced structural component technology is the concrete structure of the external paste fiber reinforced composite sheet, both work together in order to achieve the purpose of strengthening.Because the carbon fiber material has good corrosion resistance, high strength, light weight and elastic modulus higher advantages, compared with ordinary steel , the tensile strength of carbon fiber is about ten times that of it, and elastic modulus higher than it.For reinforced concrete structures,the carbon fiber materials we used can be divided into two kinds: carbon fiber material and matching pared with the construction steel, the tensile strength of carbon fiber is ten times and elastic modulus is quite equal to it, even some of the elastic modulus of carbon fiber in it more than two times, and has a good durability and construction performance, so carbon fiber is a very good reinforcement and repair materials.In addition, for supporting resin, including resin of the substrate, the leveling resin and bonding resin, the resin of the substrate and leveling resin have an important role on carbon fiber bonding quality, and bonding resin can make concrete and carbon fiber forming a complex whole, work together, in order to improve the bearing capacity of building structural members, to achieve the purpose of building structure member strengthening.Two,the basic characteristics of carbon fiber materials.1, carbon fiber sheet.According to the mechanical properties of the material, the elastic modulus of the carbonfiber material is not the same.According to the mechanical properties of carbon fiber sheet, the main is the high modulus, high strength and medium modulus.The high modulus carbon fiber cloth is characterized by its low elongation at break but high elastic modulus.The unit weight of carbon fiber cloth is not comparable with that of steel,Carbon fiber sheet is very thin,but because of the chemical structure of carbon fiber, the fiber can be used for any acid salt and all kinds of chemical medium environment, do not be afraid of corrosion and can resist the low temperature or high temperature thermal expansion and contraction.2, supporting resin bonded materials.In the construction project, the main material used in the reinforced concrete structure repair technology is bottom coating,putty,bonding resin or impregnated resin,and its functions are different.First of all, for the bottom coating, the concrete surface is more applicable, can speed up the bond, in order to ensure the stability of the interface.Secondly, for the putty, mainly on various parts of the surface are filled, fill up the gap of the entire surface,so that the function of carbon fiber sheet can be fully played.Then, the bonding resin has the function of sticking to the carbon fiber board, and the impregnated resin has the function of sticking to the carbon fiber cloth.The bonding resin and the impregnated resin are used mainly to bond the carbon fiber sheet to each part of the concrete component, which can make the scattered parts form a whole, and the two work together.In addition, the epoxy resin is mainly applied to the highway concrete bridge, the use of carbon fiber sheet reinforcement technology is also more appropriate,when present in a variety of circumstances, with the change of temperature, it has some influence on its curing properties,therefore, to a large extent, the quality of paste is good or bad, which has an important impact on the number of regular traffic disruption time.Three, strengthening construction technology of carbon fiber reinforced materials.Strengthening construction technology of carbon fiber reinforced materials:unloading--basal treatment--base rubber--leveling--paste--protection.1, unloading.For unloading, it is to remove the non tube components, so that it can make the impact on other components reduce effectively.2, basal treatment.（1）If the concrete surface produces the phenomenons of corrosion, hollowing, honeycomb and spalling,you need to cut out of these parts.For a larger area of poor quality, after the cutting operation, the epoxy mortar should be used to repair the work.（2）For the part that produces the crack,it should be treated in a fully closed manner.（3）For the float, oil and other impurities on the concrete surface,we should use concrete grinder, sandpaper to remove.In addition,to ensure the surface of the component is smooth,polish the raised part of the surface,the corner should make Chamfering processing, and be polished into a circular arc.（4）Before the base operation, must keep the concrete surface dry clean, if not in line with the requirements of the construction, we should use the hair dryer to blow it.3, base rubber.（1）The main agent and curing agent should be placed in the container,the proportion of the main agent and the curing agent must be measured accurately according to the standard of construction,then the electric mixer is used to mix it evenly,determine the amount of the dosage according to the actual temperature of the construction site,and control the use of time strictly , usually run out within an hour.（2）Through the use of roller brush brushing the bottom evenly in the concrete surface,and the next process can be carried out only when the glue is solidified.4, leveling.（1）For leveling operation in Construction Engineering,it can make the difference in height has been further reduced,we can use FE glue level the part of the surface of the concrete which is sunken,template joints and other parts.（2）We can also use FE glue to mend the corner to a smooth arc.5, paste.（1）The size and number of layers of carbon fiber cloth shall be determined according to the actual requirements of the construction.（2）To carry out the deployment and mix of FR glue,and apply it evenly to the position where it needs to be pasted.（3）When the carbon fiber cloth is pasted,no bubbles can be created,if there are bubbles,we can use the special roller along the direction of the fiber to carry out repeated rolling, and makethe FR glue fully soaked carbon fiber cloth.Only when the carbon fiber cloth surface dry ,you can carry on the next layer of paste.（4）Apply FR glue evenly on the surface of the last layer of carbon fiber cloth.6, protection.Plastering and fireproof coating should be adopted to Protect the surface of the reinforced carbon fiber cloth.Four, the application of carbon fiber materials in building structure reinforcement.1, the scope of application of carbon fiber reinforced materials.Applicable to various shapes, any part of the structure, brick masonry reinforcement repair.2,Specification for reinforced concrete structures strengthened with carbon fiber sheets.When the concrete is strengthened by carbon fiber sheet, the component and carbon fiber sheet are bonded together seamlessly,at this time, the carbon fiber sheet and concrete integrate into a whole, together to withstand the stress.3,Carbon fiber sheet can be used in the following ways to strengthen the concrete structural member.When the carbon fiber sheet is used for bending and strengthening of the beam and plate member in the tension zone,the direction of the fiber should be consistent with the direction of the reinforcement;When the beams and columns are subjected to shear and reinforcement,it can be closed U paste or side paste,at this time,fiber direction should be perpendicular to the axial direction of the component;The anti seismic reinforcement of buildings can be pasted fully enclosed,at this time, the fiber direction should be perpendicular to the column axial direction;When there is sufficient evidence, the carbon fiber sheet can also be reinforced according to the stress state of the concrete structure;When the carbon fiber sheet is bonded to the concrete structure, we can according to the national standard, use limit state design method based on probability theory,the ultimate bearing capacity and normal carrying capacity of concrete structures are calculated respectively.Meanwhile,on the one hand, reinforced concrete structure should be based on the nationalstandard, determine the corresponding material design index, and then through the detection to sure its actual strength whether can achieve the relevant requirements;On the other hand,the carbon fiber sheet should be based on the elastic stress-strain curve when the component reaches the limit state to determine the corresponding stress;In general,the ultimate tensile strength of carbon fiber sheet should not be less than 95% of the guaranteed rate of the manufacturer as a marker of the tensile strength.When the member is strengthened with carbon fiber sheet,consideration should be given to the effects of strengthening materials on the components and their properties;As before the use of carbon fiber reinforcement, we should try to remove the live load, in order to reduce the impact on other components.The stress of live load bearing should be fully considered if it can not be completely unloaded.In addition,for members subjected to bending, shear reinforcement,the concrete strength of the strengthened member shall not be less than C15.The strength grade of concrete should not be less than C10 in the whole closed type of reinforcement concrete columns.In short,due to the carbon fiber material has the advantages of all kinds of concrete,Carbon fiber reinforcement technology apply in the construction more and more widely,and become the main reinforcement treatment method of the current construction project,it will have broad application prospects.Building is the infrastructure of city construction, and it plays a very important role in the development of urban modernization.Then with the large number of urban population growth,and with the impact of the environment, load, construction and other factors,the carrying capacity of building structure is gradually reduced,It is necessary to take effective reinforce measures to the building structure in order to improve the bearing capacity of the building structure.It is found that the measures of building structure reinforcement mainly include increasing section method, sticking carbon fiber, applying prestressing tendon, sticking steel plate method and so on,but the prestress method can significantly improve the bearing capacity of the structure, improve the stability of the building structure, security.One, Building structure reinforcement technologyIn the use of building structure,we often found that the beam plate structure appear various problems, such as cracks, steel corrosion, torsion spent large and so on.The cracks in the concrete structure of the building is one of the frequently occurring diseases among these,in the process of the long time use of building structure,under the repeated effects of external loading,it is easy to cause the load cracks in the building structure;In addition,in the construction stage,may be due to various reasons, such as unreasonable ratio of concrete mixture, water cement ratio is not reasonable, the construction process of improper placement and so on,these factors can lead to cracks in the beam structure.If the crack width exceeds a certain range, the bearing capacity of the concrete structure will be greatly reduced.Under the action of earthquake, it is very easy to appear the harm of collapse hazard.Steel corrosion,because the building structure is in the outdoor, the structure is subjected to the action of carbon dioxide for a long time, and the carbonation of concrete occurs.If the carbonation depth of concrete exceeds the protective layer of the reinforcing steel bar, the basic protection of the steel bar can be destroyed,resulting in corrosion of steel reinforcement, and reduce the bonding between steel and concrete,the harms it causes to he carrying capacity of the overall structure of the construction can not be ignored.Therefore, it is necessary to reinforce the building structure effectively.(1)prestressed reinforcement technologyThe prestressed reinforcement is arranged on the beam plate of the building structure, and the prestressing force which is applied to the beam plate forms an external prestressing strengtheningforce system to reinforce the beam plate structure.Prestressed reinforcement technology, its reinforcement effect is obvious, and it can greatly improve the bearing capacity of the building structure, can improve the bearing capacity of 30% ~40%, and can reduce the cracks and structural deformation in the structure.In addition,prestressed reinforcement construction has less impact on the construction of the use of space.Generally,we complete prestressed reinforcement construction under the condition of no restriction on the use of buildings.(2)increasing cross section technologyThis method is widely used in the seismic strengthening of the compression building structure, also can be used in the tensile members, mainly used to strengthen the rod which the raw material has consistent performance , such as steel structure reinforcement.After increasing the cross section of the rod, the strength of the component can be greatly enhanced, and the stability of the structure can be improved.At the same time, it can also be strengthened with reinforced concrete wrapped wooden pieces.(3)pasting steel plate technologyIn this method, the steel plate is pasted on the surface of the structure by the construction adhesive, thereby making full use of the bonding force of the steel plate to make the steel plate and the building structure to be effectively bonded together, to form the two force component.In the bonding structure, the steel plate plays the use of the tensile reinforcing steel bar, which greatly increases the bearing capacity of the structure.Problems should be paid attention to in strengthening:First of all,To remove the paint layer on the surface of the concrete structure, expose the surface of concrete structure; and clean the dust on the surface of concrete structures which is to be reinforced;Secondly, when pasting steel plate,we should avoid strengthening if the air outside is under humid conditions , and to ensure that the temperature of the strengthening of the environment is not higher than 60 degrees.(4)anchorage reinforcement methodThis method is mainly used in the bending and compression member of reinforced concrete.The main principle is to drill holes and inject glue in the original structure,to ensure that the steel bars in the borehole are solidified and rooted.It has good anchorage performance and tensile properties for the steel bars which drill hole is shallow.This method is a new structural strengthening method, and the reinforcement process is relatively simple, and it has less influenceon the force of structure.Matters needing attention for anchorage reinforcement method:This method is suitable to be used in the condition of the ambient temperature above 5 ℃, and the performance of the cementing agent is not damaged;When the environment of strengthening is lower than 5 ℃,we can take the appropriate method to increase the temperature, so that the quality of reinforcement can be ensured.Two, Advantages of prestressed reinforcement on architectureBuilding prestress strengthening technology mainly has the following advantages:First, the reinforcement effect is obvious,it can effectively reduce cracks of the beam plate structure , and extend the service life of the building;Second, prestressed reinforcement construction technology does not reduce the use of space, and greatly improve the carrying capacity of building structure.Third, the prestressing reinforcement construction period is short, the labor force is less, the economy is higher;Four,Prestressed reinforcement of the construction has a small increase in weight,and the maintenance is convenient.Three, The strengthening technology of the construction of our countryIn the actual construction project,for the prestressed reinforcement beams and trusses, the steel boots can be used to anchor nodes;For the frame beam, type steel casing hoop or Perforated bolt can be used to anchor node.3.1 transverse prestressed reinforcement technologyIn the building structure, if the distance between the two ends of the reinforced concrete beam is small, then the two ends of the beam can not conduct prestressed tension operation, then you can use the method of transverse prestressing reinforcement construction.This loading method is mainly install prestressed tendons which is reinforced in the lower edge of the main girder of the symmetrical center line,and we need to curved prestressed reinforcement in suitable position at the end of the beam,then anchor effectively in the end of the main beam of the anchor plate with the support of the fulcrum,its "U" - shaped anchor plate is sheathed on the lower flange of the main beam.Meanwhile,the prestressing tendon is divided into several sections in the horizontal section of the prestressing tendon,and the end of the stick can be used as a fulcrum,in the middle of the prestressing tendon, the tightening bolt is used to tighten the symmetry,prestress is producedin the course of the tension of the prestressing tendon.The study found that this method can effectively reduce the positive moment of middle beam, and can not reduce the shear force at the end of the beam.3.2 longitudinal prestressing reinforcement technologyLongitudinal prestressed reinforcement technology is a reinforcement construction method which apply prestressing tendons portrait along the beam plate.Before the longitudinal prestressing reinforcement,we need to arrange the prestressed tendons along the longitudinal beam,and bend the longitudinal prestressing tendon which is in the position of the end of the beam where sets up guide block,then anchor the longitudinal prestressing tendon on the web plate or top plate of the girder,and stretch prestressing tendon so that the shear force of the end of beam can be reduced effectively.It is found that the longitudinal prestressed reinforcement anchoring structure is mainly longitudinal anchorage structure,which is mainly divided into roof bolting and the web anchor.The advantages of longitudinal prestressed reinforcement is cutting through the amount of concrete in bridge deck,that is the tension construction in the deck operation.In the prestressed reinforcement tensioning operation, we need to pay attention to the tension operation of the symmetrical center line, and the tension operation of the same beam should be synchronized to ensure that the prestressed tendons on both sides of the beam have the same stress state.The prestressed tension program is the same as the prestressed concrete beam.3.3 vertical prestressed reinforcement technologyThe vertical prestressed reinforcement technology is a reinforcement construction method which arranges prestressed tendons symmetrically on both sides of the beam and slab.According to the construction experience,most of the vertical prestressing reinforcement technology do side anchorage in the end of the beam,make vertical tension in the middle of the prestressing tendon,and small cross beams are used to fix the prestressing tendon at the bottom of the beam rib.The vertical prestressed reinforcement method not only has the characteristics of small tension and large tension stroke, but also can effectively overcome the excessive loss of the longitudinal stress,compared with other prestressed reinforcement technology, it has obvious strengthening effect, and can effectively reduce the cracks in the existing building structure.In the construction of vertical prestressed tension, it is needed to carry out piece by piece, and the tension operation needs to be symmetrical to the center line, so as to reduce the loss of elastic compressioneffectively.Four, Concluding remarksTo sum up,with the large number of urban population growth, as well as the environment, load, construction and other factors, the bearing capacity of the construction gradually decreased,so it is necessary to take effective measures to strengthen the building structure to improve the bearing capacity of the building structure.The prestressed reinforcement technology not only can effectively strengthen the building beam and plate, improve the bearing characteristics of the overall structure, but also does not change the shape of the building structure,so that it can improve the stability and safety of the building structure.。

(完整版)土木工程毕业设计外文文献翻译

外文文献翻译Reinforced ConcreteConcrete and reinforced concrete are used as building materials in every country. In many, including the United States and Canada, reinforced concrete is a dominant structural material in engineered construction. The universal nature of reinforced concrete construction stems from the wide availability of reinforcing bars and the constituents of concrete, gravel, sand, and cement, the relatively simple skills required in concrete construction, and the economy of reinforced concrete compared to other forms of construction. Concrete and reinforced concrete are used in bridges, buildings of all sorts underground structures, water tanks, television towers, offshore oil exploration and production structures, dams, and even in ships.Reinforced concrete structures may be cast-in-place concrete, constructed in their final location, or they may be precast concrete produced in a factory and erected at the construction site. Concrete structures may be severe and functional in design, or the shape and layout and be whimsical and artistic. Few other building materials off the architect and engineer such versatility and scope.Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension. As a result, cracks develop whenever loads, or restrained shrinkage of temperature changes, give rise to tensile stresses in excess of the tensile strength of the concrete. In a plain concrete beam, the moments about the neutral axis due to applied loads are resisted by an internal tension-compression couple involving tension in the concrete. Such a beam fails very suddenly and completely when the first crack forms. In a reinforced concrete beam, steel bars are embedded in the concrete in such a way that the tension forces needed for moment equilibrium after the concrete cracks can be developed in the bars.The construction of a reinforced concrete member involves building a from of mold in the shape of the member being built. The form must be strong enough to support both the weight and hydrostatic pressure of the wet concrete, and any forces applied to it by workers, concrete buggies, wind, and so on. The reinforcement is placed in this form and held in placeduring the concreting operation. After the concrete has hardened, the forms are removed. As the forms are removed, props of shores are installed to support the weight of the concrete until it has reached sufficient strength to support the loads by itself.The designer must proportion a concrete member for adequate strength to resist the loads and adequate stiffness to prevent excessive deflections. In beam must be proportioned so that it can be constructed. For example, the reinforcement must be detailed so that it can be assembled in the field, and since the concrete is placed in the form after the reinforcement is in place, the concrete must be able to flow around, between, and past the reinforcement to fill all parts of the form completely.The choice of whether a structure should be built of concrete, steel, masonry, or timber depends on the availability of materials and on a number of value decisions. The choice of structural system is made by the architect of engineer early in the design, based on the following considerations:1. Economy. Frequently, the foremost consideration is the overall const of the structure. This is, of course, a function of the costs of the materials and the labor necessary to erect them. Frequently, however, the overall cost is affected as much or more by the overall construction time since the contractor and owner must borrow or otherwise allocate money to carry out the construction and will not receive a return on this investment until the building is ready for occupancy. In a typical large apartment of commercial project, the cost of construction financing will be a significant fraction of the total cost. As a result, financial savings due to rapid construction may more than offset increased material costs. For this reason, any measures the designer can take to standardize the design and forming will generally pay off in reduced overall costs.In many cases the long-term economy of the structure may be more important than the first cost. As a result, maintenance and durability are important consideration.2. Suitability of material for architectural and structural function.A reinforced concrete system frequently allows the designer to combine the architectural and structural functions. Concrete has the advantage that it is placed in a plastic condition and is given the desired shapeand texture by means of the forms and the finishing techniques. This allows such elements ad flat plates or other types of slabs to serve as load-bearing elements while providing the finished floor and / or ceiling surfaces. Similarly, reinforced concrete walls can provide architecturally attractive surfaces in addition to having the ability to resist gravity, wind, or seismic loads. Finally, the choice of size of shape is governed by the designer and not by the availability of standard manufactured members.3. Fire resistance. The structure in a building must withstand the effects of a fire and remain standing while the building is evacuated and the fire is extinguished. A concrete building inherently has a 1- to 3-hour fire rating without special fireproofing or other details. Structural steel or timber buildings must be fireproofed to attain similar fire ratings.4. Low maintenance.Concrete members inherently require less maintenance than do structural steel or timber members. This is particularly true if dense, air-entrained concrete has been used for surfaces exposed to the atmosphere, and if care has been taken in the design to provide adequate drainage off and away from the structure. Special precautions must be taken for concrete exposed to salts such as deicing chemicals.5. Availability of materials. Sand, gravel, cement, and concrete mixing facilities are very widely available, and reinforcing steel can be transported to most job sites more easily than can structural steel. As a result, reinforced concrete is frequently used in remote areas.On the other hand, there are a number of factors that may cause one to select a material other than reinforced concrete. These include:1. Low tensile strength.The tensile strength concrete is much lower than its compressive strength ( about 1/10 ), and hence concrete is subject to cracking. In structural uses this is overcome by using reinforcement to carry tensile forces and limit crack widths to within acceptable values. Unless care is taken in design and construction, however, these cracks may be unsightly or may allow penetration of water. When this occurs, water or chemicals such as road deicing salts may cause deterioration or staining of the concrete. Special design details are required in such cases. In the case of water-retaining structures, special details and /of prestressing are required to prevent leakage.2. Forms and shoring. The construction of a cast-in-place structure involves three steps not encountered in the construction of steel or timber structures. These are ( a ) the construction of the forms, ( b ) the removal of these forms, and (c) propping or shoring the new concrete to support its weight until its strength is adequate. Each of these steps involves labor and / or materials, which are not necessary with other forms of construction.3. Relatively low strength per unit of weight for volume.The compressive strength of concrete is roughly 5 to 10% that of steel, while its unit density is roughly 30% that of steel. As a result, a concrete structure requires a larger volume and a greater weight of material than does a comparable steel structure. As a result, long-span structures are often built from steel.4. Time-dependent volume changes. Both concrete and steel undergo-approximately the same amount of thermal expansion and contraction. Because there is less mass of steel to be heated or cooled, and because steel is a better concrete, a steel structure is generally affected by temperature changes to a greater extent than is a concrete structure. On the other hand, concrete undergoes frying shrinkage, which, if restrained, may cause deflections or cracking. Furthermore, deflections will tend to increase with time, possibly doubling, due to creep of the concrete under sustained loads.In almost every branch of civil engineering and architecture extensive use is made of reinforced concrete for structures and foundations. Engineers and architects requires basic knowledge of reinforced concrete design throughout their professional careers. Much of this text is directly concerned with the behavior and proportioning of components that make up typical reinforced concrete structures-beams, columns, and slabs. Once the behavior of these individual elements is understood, the designer will have the background to analyze and design a wide range of complex structures, such as foundations, buildings, and bridges, composed of these elements.Since reinforced concrete is a no homogeneous material that creeps, shrinks, and cracks, its stresses cannot be accurately predicted by the traditional equations derived in a course in strength of materials forhomogeneous elastic materials. Much of reinforced concrete design in therefore empirical, i.e., design equations and design methods are based on experimental and time-proved results instead of being derived exclusively from theoretical formulations.A thorough understanding of the behavior of reinforced concrete will allow the designer to convert an otherwise brittle material into tough ductile structural elements and thereby take advantage of concrete’s desirable characteristics, its high compressive strength, its fire resistance, and its durability.Concrete, a stone like material, is made by mixing cement, water, fine aggregate ( often sand ), coarse aggregate, and frequently other additives ( that modify properties ) into a workable mixture. In its unhardened or plastic state, concrete can be placed in forms to produce a large variety of structural elements. Although the hardened concrete by itself, i.e., without any reinforcement, is strong in compression, it lacks tensile strength and therefore cracks easily. Because unreinforced concrete is brittle, it cannot undergo large deformations under load and fails suddenly-without warning. The addition fo steel reinforcement to the concrete reduces the negative effects of its two principal inherent weaknesses, its susceptibility to cracking and its brittleness. When the reinforcement is strongly bonded to the concrete, a strong, stiff, and ductile construction material is produced. This material, called reinforced concrete, is used extensively to construct foundations, structural frames, storage takes, shell roofs, highways, walls, dams, canals, and innumerable other structures and building products. Two other characteristics of concrete that are present even when concrete is reinforced are shrinkage and creep, but the negative effects of these properties can be mitigated by careful design.A code is a set technical specifications and standards that control important details of design and construction. The purpose of codes it produce structures so that the public will be protected from poor of inadequate and construction.Two types f coeds exist. One type, called a structural code, is originated and controlled by specialists who are concerned with the proper use of a specific material or who are involved with the safe design of a particular class of structures.The second type of code, called a building code, is established to cover construction in a given region, often a city or a state. The objective of a building code is also to protect the public by accounting for the influence of the local environmental conditions on construction. For example, local authorities may specify additional provisions to account for such regional conditions as earthquake, heavy snow, or tornados. National structural codes genrally are incorporated into local building codes.The American Concrete Institute ( ACI ) Building Code covering the design of reinforced concrete buildings. It contains provisions covering all aspects of reinforced concrete manufacture, design, and construction. It includes specifications on quality of materials, details on mixing and placing concrete, design assumptions for the analysis of continuous structures, and equations for proportioning members for design forces.All structures must be proportioned so they will not fail or deform excessively under any possible condition of service. Therefore it is important that an engineer use great care in anticipating all the probable loads to which a structure will be subjected during its lifetime.Although the design of most members is controlled typically by dead and live load acting simultaneously, consideration must also be given to the forces produced by wind, impact, shrinkage, temperature change, creep and support settlements, earthquake, and so forth.The load associated with the weight of the structure itself and its permanent components is called the dead load. The dead load of concrete members, which is substantial, should never be neglected in design computations. The exact magnitude of the dead load is not known accurately until members have been sized. Since some figure for the dead load must be used in computations to size the members, its magnitude must be estimated at first. After a structure has been analyzed, the members sized, and architectural details completed, the dead load can be computed more accurately. If the computed dead load is approximately equal to the initial estimate of its value ( or slightly less ), the design is complete, but if a significant difference exists between the computed and estimated values of dead weight, the computations should be revised using an improved value of dead load. An accurate estimate of dead load is particularly important when spans are long, say over 75 ft ( 22.9 m ),because dead load constitutes a major portion of the design load.Live loads associated with building use are specific items of equipment and occupants in a certain area of a building, building codes specify values of uniform live for which members are to be designed.After the structure has been sized for vertical load, it is checked for wind in combination with dead and live load as specified in the code. Wind loads do not usually control the size of members in building less than 16 to 18 stories, but for tall buildings wind loads become significant and cause large forces to develop in the structures. Under these conditions economy can be achieved only by selecting a structural system that is able to transfer horizontal loads into the ground efficiently.钢筋混凝土在每一个国家，混凝土及钢筋混凝土都被用来作为建筑材料。

土木工程外文文献及翻译

本科毕业设计外文文献及译文文献、资料题目：Designing Against Fire Of Building 文献、资料来源：国道数据库文献、资料发表（出版）日期：2008.3.25院（部）：土木工程学院专业：土木工程班级：土木辅修091姓名：xxxx外文文献:Designing Against Fire Of BulidingxxxABSTRACT:This paper considers the design of buildings for fire safety. It is found that fire and the associ- ated effects on buildings is significantly different to other forms of loading such as gravity live loads, wind and earthquakes and their respective effects on the building structure. Fire events are derived from the human activities within buildings or from the malfunction of mechanical and electrical equipment provided within buildings to achieve a serviceable environment. It is therefore possible to directly influence the rate of fire starts within buildings by changing human behaviour, improved maintenance and improved design of mechanical and electrical systems. Furthermore, should a fire develops, it is possible to directly influence the resulting fire severity by the incorporation of fire safety systems such as sprinklers and to provide measures within the building to enable safer egress from the building. The ability to influence the rate of fire starts and the resulting fire severity is unique to the consideration of fire within buildings since other loads such as wind and earthquakes are directly a function of nature. The possible approaches for designing a building for fire safety are presented using an example of a multi-storey building constructed over a railway line. The design of both the transfer structure supporting the building over the railway and the levels above the transfer structure are considered in the context of current regulatory requirements. The principles and assumptions associ- ated with various approaches are discussed.1 INTRODUCTIONOther papers presented in this series consider the design of buildings for gravity loads, wind and earthquakes.The design of buildings against such load effects is to a large extent covered by engineering based standards referenced by the building regulations. This is not the case, to nearly the same extent, in the case of fire. Rather, it is building regulations such as the Building Code of Australia (BCA) that directly specify most of the requirements for fire safety of buildings with reference being made to Standards such as AS3600 or AS4100 for methods for determining the fire resistance of structural elements.The purpose of this paper is to consider the design of buildings for fire safety from an engineering perspective (as is currently done for other loads such as wind or earthquakes), whilst at the same time,putting such approaches in the context of the current regulatory requirements.At the outset,it needs to be noted that designing a building for fire safety is far morethan simply considering the building structure and whether it has sufficient structural adequacy.This is because fires can have a direct influence on occupants via smoke and heat and can grow in size and severity unlike other effects imposed on the building. Notwithstanding these comments, the focus of this paper will be largely on design issues associated with the building structure.Two situations associated with a building are used for the purpose of discussion. The multi-storey office building shown in Figure 1 is supported by a transfer structure that spans over a set of railway tracks. It is assumed that a wide range of rail traffic utilises these tracks including freight and diesel locomotives. The first situation to be considered from a fire safety perspective is the transfer structure.This is termed Situation 1 and the key questions are: what level of fire resistance is required for this transfer structure and how can this be determined? This situation has been chosen since it clearly falls outside the normal regulatory scope of most build- ing regulations. An engineering solution, rather than a prescriptive one is required. The second fire situation (termed Situation 2) corresponds to a fire within the office levels of the building and is covered by building regulations. This situation is chosen because it will enable a discussion of engineering approaches and how these interface with the building regulations–since both engineering and prescriptive solutions are possible.2 UNIQUENESS OF FIRE2.1 IntroductionWind and earthquakes can be considered to b e “natural” phenomena over which designers have no control except perhaps to choose the location of buildings more carefully on the basis of historical records and to design building to resist sufficiently high loads or accelerations for the particular location. Dead and live loads in buildings are the result of gravity. All of these loads are variable and it is possible (although generally unlikely) that the loads may exceed the resistance of the critical structural members resulting in structural failure.The nature and influence of fires in buildings are quite different to those associated with other“loads” to which a building may be subjected to. The essential differences are described in the following sections.2.2 Origin of FireIn most situations (ignoring bush fires), fire originates from human activities within the building or the malfunction of equipment placed within the building to provide a serviceable environment. It follows therefore that it is possible to influence the rate of fire starts by influencing human behaviour, limiting and monitoring human behaviour and improving thedesign of equipment and its maintenance. This is not the case for the usual loads applied to a building.2.3 Ability to InfluenceSince wind and earthquake are directly functions of nature, it is not possible to influence such events to any extent. One has to anticipate them and design accordingly. It may be possible to influence the level of live load in a building by conducting audits and placing restrictions on contents. However, in the case of a fire start, there are many factors that can be brought to bear to influence the ultimate size of the fire and its effect within the building. It is known that occupants within a building will often detect a fire and deal with it before it reaches a sig- nificant size. It is estimated that less than one fire in five (Favre, 1996) results in a call to the fire brigade and for fires reported to the fire brigade, the majority will be limited to the room of fire origin. In oc- cupied spaces, olfactory cues (smell) provide powerful evidence of the presence of even a small fire. The addition of a functional smoke detection system will further improve the likelihood of detection and of action being taken by the occupants.Fire fighting equipment, such as extinguishers and hose reels, is generally provided within buildings for the use of occupants and many organisations provide training for staff in respect of the use of such equipment.The growth of a fire can also be limited by automatic extinguishing systems such as sprinklers, which can be designed to have high levels of effectiveness.Fires can also be limited by the fire brigade depending on the size and location of the fire at the time of arrival. 2.4 Effects of FireThe structural elements in the vicinity of the fire will experience the effects of heat. The temperatures within the structural elements will increase with time of exposure to the fire, the rate of temperature rise being dictated by the thermal resistance of the structural element and the severity of the fire. The increase in temperatures within a member will result in both thermal expansion and,eventually,a reduction in the structural resistance of the member. Differential thermal expansion will lead to bowing of a member. Significant axial expansion will be accommodated in steel members by either overall or local buckling or yielding of local- ised regions. These effects will be detrimental for columns but for beams forming part of a floor system may assist in the development of other load resisting mechanisms (see Section 4.3.5).With the exception of the development of forces due to restraint of thermal expansion, fire does not impose loads on the structure but rather reduces stiffness and strength. Such effects are not instantaneous but are a function of time and this is different to the effects of loads such as earthquake and wind that are more or less instantaneous.Heating effects associated with a fire will not be significant or the rate of loss of capacity will be slowed if:(a) the fire is extinguished (e.g. an effective sprinkler system)(b) the fire is of insufficient severity – insufficient fuel, and/or(c)the structural elements have sufficient thermal mass and/or insulation to slow the rise in internal temperatureFire protection measures such as providing sufficient axis distance and dimensions for concrete elements, and sufficient insulation thickness for steel elements are examples of (c). These are illustrated in Figure 2.The two situations described in the introduction are now considered.3 FIRE WITHIN BUILDINGS3.1 Fire Safety ConsiderationsThe implications of fire within the occupied parts of the office building (Figure 1) (Situation 2) are now considered. Fire statistics for office buildings show that about one fatality is expected in an office building for every 1000 fires reported to the fire brigade. This is an order of magnitude less than the fatality rate associated with apartment buildings. More than two thirds of fires occur during occupied hours and this is due to the greater human activity and the greater use of services within the building. It is twice as likely that a fire that commences out of normal working hours will extend beyond the enclosure of fire origin.A relatively small fire can generate large quantities of smoke within the floor of fire origin. If the floor is of open-plan construction with few partitions, the presence of a fire during normal occupied hours is almost certain to be detected through the observation of smoke on the floor. The presence of full height partitions across the floor will slow the spread of smoke and possibly also the speed at which the occupants detect the fire. Any measures aimed at improving housekeeping, fire awareness and fire response will be beneficial in reducing thelikelihood of major fires during occupied hours.For multi-storey buildings, smoke detection systems and alarms are often provided to give “automatic” detection and warning to the occupants. An alarm signal is also transmitted to the fire brigade.Should the fire not be able to be controlled by the occupants on the fire floor, they will need to leave the floor of fire origin via the stairs. Stair enclosures may be designed to be fire-resistant but this may not be sufficient to keep the smoke out of the stairs. Many buildings incorporate stair pressurisation systems whereby positive airflow is introduced into the stairs upon detection of smoke within the building. However, this increases the forces required to open the stair doors and makes it increasingly difficult to access the stairs. It is quite likely that excessive door opening forces will exist(Fazio et al,2006)From a fire perspective, it is common to consider that a building consists of enclosures formed by the presence of walls and floors.An enclosure that has sufficiently fire-resistant boundaries (i.e. walls and floors) is considered to constitute a fire compartment and to be capable of limiting the spread of fire to an adjacent compartment. However, the ability of such boundaries to restrict the spread of fire can be severely limited by the need to provide natural lighting (windows)and access openings between the adjacent compartments (doors and stairs). Fire spread via the external openings (windows) is a distinct possibility given a fully developed fire. Limit- ing the window sizes and geometry can reduce but not eliminate the possibility of vertical fire spread.By far the most effective measure in limiting fire spread, other than the presence of occupants, is an effective sprinkler system that delivers water to a growing fire rapidly reducing the heat being generated and virtually extinguishing it.3.2 Estimating Fire SeverityIn the absence of measures to extinguish developing fires, or should such systems fail; severe fires can develop within buildings.In fire en gineering literature, the term “fire load” refers to the quantity of combustibles within an enclosure and not the loads (forces) applied to the structure during a fire. Similarly, fire load density refers to the quantity of fuel per unit area. It is normally expressed in terms of MJ/m2 or kg/m2 of wood equivalent. Surveys of combustibles for various occupancies (i.e offices, retail, hospitals, warehouses, etc)have been undertaken and a good summary of the available data is given in FCRC (1999). As would be expected, the fire load density is highly variable. Publications such as the International Fire Engineering Guidelines (2005) give fire load data in terms of the mean and 80th percentile.The latter level of fire load density is sometimes taken asthe characteristic fire load density and is sometimes taken as being distributed according to a Gumbel distribution (Schleich et al, 1999).The rate at which heat is released within an enclosure is termed the heat release rate (HRR) and normally expressed in megawatts (MW). The application of sufficient heat to a combustible material results in the generation of gases some of which are combustible. This process is called pyrolisation.Upon coming into contact with sufficient oxygen these gases ignite generating heat. The rate of burning(and therefore of heat generation) is therefore dependent on the flow of air to the gases generated by the pyrolising fuel.This flow is influenced by the shape of the enclosure (aspect ratio), and the position and size of any potential openings. It is found from experiments with single openings in approximately cubic enclosures that the rate of burning is directly proportional to A h where A is the area of the opening and h is the opening height. It is known that for deep enclosures with single openings that burning will occur initially closest to the opening moving back into the enclosure once the fuel closest to the opening is consumed (Thomas et al, 2005). Significant temperature variations throughout such enclosures can be expected.The use of the word ‘opening’ in relation to real building enclosures refers to any openings present around the walls including doors that are left open and any windows containing non fire-resistant glass.It is presumed that such glass breaks in the event of development of a significant fire. If the windows could be prevented from breaking and other sources of air to the enclosure limited, then the fire would be prevented from becoming a severe fire.Various methods have been developed for determining the potential severity of a fire within an enclosure.These are described in SFPE (2004). The predictions of these methods are variable and are mostly based on estimating a representative heat release rate (HRR) and the proportion of total fuel ςlikely to be consumed during the primary burning stage (Figure 4). Further studies of enclosure fires are required to assist with the development of improved models, as the behaviour is very complex.3.3 Role of the Building StructureIf the design objectives are to provide an adequate level of safety for the occupants and protection of adjacent properties from damage, then the structural adequacy of the building in fire need only be sufficient to allow the occupants to exit the building and for the building to ultimately deform in a way that does not lead to damage or fire spread to a building located on an adjacent site.These objectives are those associated with most building regulations includingthe Building Code of Australia (BCA). There could be other objectives including protection of the building against significant damage. In considering these various objectives, the following should be taken into account when considering the fire resistance of the building structure.3.3.1 Non-Structural ConsequencesSince fire can produce smoke and flame, it is important to ask whether these outcomes will threaten life safety within other parts of the building before the building is compromised by a loss of structural adequacy? Is search and rescue by the fire brigade not feasible given the likely extent of smoke? Will the loss of use of the building due to a severe fire result in major property and income loss? If the answer to these questions is in the affirmative, then it may be necessary to minimise the occurrence of a significant fire rather than simply assuming that the building structure needs to be designed for high levels of fire resistance. A low-rise shopping centre with levels interconnected by large voids is an example of such a situation.3.3.2 Other Fire Safety SystemsThe presence of other systems (e.g. sprinklers) within the building to minimise the occurrence of a serious fire can greatly reduce the need for the structural elements to have high levels of fire resistance. In this regard, the uncertainties of all fire-safety systems need to be considered. Irrespective of whether the fire safety system is the sprinkler system, stair pressurisation, compartmentation or the system giving the structure a fire-resistance level (e.g. concrete cover), there is an uncertainty of performance. Uncertainty data is available for sprinkler systems(because it is relatively easy to collect) but is not readily available for the other fire safety systems. This sometimes results in the designers and building regulators considering that only sprinkler systems are subject to uncertainty. In reality, it would appear that sprinklers systems have a high level of performance and can be designed to have very high levels of reliability.3.3.3 Height of BuildingIt takes longer for a tall building to be evacuated than a short building and therefore the structure of a tall building may need to have a higher level of fire resistance. The implications of collapse of tall buildings on adjacent properties are also greater than for buildings of only several storeys.3.3.4 Limited Extent of BurningIf the likely extent of burning is small in comparison with the plan area of the building, then the fire cannot have a significant impact on the overall stability of the building structure. Examples of situations where this is the case are open-deck carparks and very large area building such as shopping complexes where the fire-effected part is likely to be small in relation to area of the building floor plan.3.3.5 Behaviour of Floor ElementsThe effect of real fires on composite and concrete floors continues to be a subject of much research.Experimental testing at Cardington demonstrated that when parts of a composite floor are subject to heating, large displacement behaviour can develop that greatly assists the load carrying capacity of the floor beyond that which would predicted by considering only the behaviour of the beams and slabs in isolation.These situations have been analysed by both yield line methods that take into account the effects of membrane forces (Bailey, 2004) and finite element techniques. In essence, the methods illustrate that it is not necessary to insulate all structural steel elements in a composite floor to achieve high levels of fire resistance.This work also demonstrated that exposure of a composite floor having unprotected steel beams, to a localised fire, will not result in failure of the floor.A similar real fire test on a multistory reinforced concrete building demonstrated that the real structural behaviour in fire was significantly different to that expected using small displacement theory as for normal tempera- ture design (Bailey, 2002) with the performance being superior than that predicted by considering isolated member behaviour.3.4 Prescriptive Approach to DesignThe building regulations of most countries provide prescriptive requirements for the design of buildings for fire.These requirements are generally not subject to interpretation and compliance with them makes for simpler design approval–although not necessarily the most cost-effective designs.These provisions are often termed deemed-to-satisfy (DTS) provisions. All aspects of designing buildings for fire safety are covered–the provision of emergency exits, spacings between buildings, occupant fire fighting measures, detection and alarms, measures for automatic fire suppression, air and smoke handling requirements and last, but not least, requirements for compartmentation and fire resistance levels for structural members. However, there is little evidence that the requirements have been developed from a systematic evaluation of fire safety. Rather it would appear that many of the requirements have been added one to another to deal with another fire incident or to incorporate a new form of technology. There does not appear to have been any real attempt to determine which provision have the most significant influence on fire safety and whether some of the former provisions could be modified.The FRL requirements specified in the DTS provisions are traditionally considered to result in member resistances that will only rarely experience failure in the event of a fire.This is why it is acceptable to use the above arbitrary point in time load combination for assessing members in fire. There have been attempts to evaluate the various deemed-to-satisfy provisions (particularly the fire- resistance requirements)from a fire-engineering perspective taking intoaccount the possible variations in enclosure geometry, opening sizes and fire load (see FCRC, 1999).One of the outcomes of this evaluation was the recognition that deemed-to- satisfy provisions necessarily cover the broad range of buildings and thus must, on average, be quite onerous because of the magnitude of the above variations.It should be noted that the DTS provisions assume that compartmentation works and that fire is limited to a single compartment. This means that fire is normally only considered to exist at one level. Thus floors are assumed to be heated from below and columns only over one storey height.3.5 Performance-Based DesignAn approach that offers substantial benefits for individual buildings is the move towards performance-based regulations. This is permitted by regulations such as the BCA which state that a designer must demonstrate that the particular building will achieve the relevant performance requirements. The prescriptive provisions (i.e. the DTS provisions) are presumed to achieve these requirements. It is necessary to show that any building that does not conform to the DTS provisions will achieve the performance requirements.But what are the performance requirements? Most often the specified performance is simply a set of performance statements (such as with the Building Code of Australia)with no quantitative level given. Therefore, although these statements remind the designer of the key elements of design, they do not, in themselves, provide any measure against which to determine whether the design is adequately safe.Possible acceptance criteria are now considered.3.5.1 Acceptance CriteriaSome guidance as to the basis for acceptable designs is given in regulations such as the BCA. These and other possible bases are now considered in principle.(i)compare the levels of safety (with respect to achieving each of the design objectives) of the proposed alternative solution with those asso- ciated with a corresponding DTS solution for the building.This comparison may be done on either a qualitative or qualitative risk basis or perhaps a combination. In this case, the basis for comparison is an acceptable DTS solution. Such an approach requires a “holistic” approach to safety whereby all aspects relevant to safety, including the structure, are considered. This is, by far, the most common basis for acceptance.(ii)undertake a probabilistic risk assessment and show that the risk associated with the proposed design is less than that associated with common societal activities such as using pub lic transport. Undertaking a full probabilistic risk assessment can be very difficult for all but the simplest situations.Assuming that such an assessment is undertaken it will be necessary for the stakeholders to accept the nominated level of acceptable risk. Again, this requires a “holistic”approach to fire safety.(iii) a design is presented where it is demonstrated that all reasonable measures have been adopted to manage the risks and that any possible measures that have not been adopted will have negligible effect on the risk of not achieving the design objectives.(iv) as far as the building structure is concerned,benchmark the acceptable probability of failure in fire against that for normal temperature design. This is similar to the approach used when considering Building Situation 1 but only considers the building structure and not the effects of flame or smoke spread. It is not a holistic approach to fire safety.Finally, the questions of arson and terrorism must be considered. Deliberate acts of fire initiation range from relatively minor incidents to acts of mass destruction.Acts of arson are well within the accepted range of fire events experienced by build- ings(e.g. 8% of fire starts in offices are deemed "suspicious"). The simplest act is to use a small heat source to start a fire. The resulting fire will develop slowly in one location within the building and will most probably be controlled by the various fire- safety systems within the building. The outcome is likely to be the same even if an accelerant is used to assist fire spread.An important illustration of this occurred during the race riots in Los Angeles in 1992 (Hart 1992) when fires were started in many buildings often at multiple locations. In the case of buildings with sprinkler systems,the damage was limited and the fires significantly controlled.Although the intent was to destroy the buildings,the fire-safety systems were able to limit the resulting fires. Security measures are provided with systems such as sprinkler systems and include:- locking of valves- anti-tamper monitoring- location of valves in secure locationsFurthermore, access to significant buildings is often restricted by security measures.The very fact that the above steps have been taken demonstrates that acts of destruction within buildings are considered although most acts of arson do not involve any attempt to disable the fire-safety systems.At the one end of the spectrum is "simple" arson and at the other end, extremely rare acts where attempts are made to destroy the fire-safety systems along with substantial parts of the building.This can be only achieved through massive impact or the use of explosives. The latter may be achieved through explosives being introduced into the building or from outside by missile attack.The former could result from missile attack or from the collision of a large aircraft. The greater the destructiveness of the act,the greater the means and knowledge required. Conversely, the more extreme the act, the less confidence there can be in designing against suchan act. This is because the more extreme the event, the harder it is to predict precisely and the less understood will be its effects. The important point to recognise is that if sufficient means can be assembled, then it will always be possible to overcome a particular building design.Thus these acts are completely different to the other loadings to which a building is subjected such as wind,earthquake and gravity loading. This is because such acts of destruction are the work of intelligent beings and take into account the characteristics of the target.Should high-rise buildings be designed for given terrorist activities,then terrorists will simply use greater means to achieve the end result.For example, if buildings were designed to resist the impact effects from a certain size aircraft, then the use of a larger aircraft or more than one aircraft could still achieve destruction of the building. An appropriate strategy is therefore to minimise the likelihood of means of mass destruction getting into the hands of persons intent on such acts. This is not an engineering solution associated with the building structure.It should not be assumed that structural solutions are always the most appropriate, or indeed, possible.In the same way, aircrafts are not designed to survive a major fire or a crash landing but steps are taken to minimise the likelihood of either occurrence.The mobilization of large quantities of fire load (the normal combustibles on the floors) simultaneously on numerous levels throughout a building is well outside fire situations envisaged by current fire test standards and prescriptive regulations. Risk management measures to avoid such a possibility must be considered.4 CONCLUSIONSFire differs significantly from other “loads” such as wind, live load and earthquakes i n respect of its origin and its effects.Due to the fact that fire originates from human activities or equipment installed within buildings, it is possible to directly influence the potential effects on the building by reducing the rate of fire starts and providing measures to directly limit fire severity.The design of buildings for fire safety is mostly achieved by following the prescriptive requirements of building codes such as the BCA. For situations that fall outside of the scope of such regulations, or where proposed designs are not in accordance with the prescriptive requirements, it is possible to undertake performance-based fire engineering designs.However, there are no design codes or standards or detailed methodologies available for undertaking such designs.Building regulations require that such alternative designs satisfy performance requirements and give some guidance as to the basis for acceptance of these designs (i.e. acceptance criteria).This paper presents a number of possible acceptance criteria, all of which use the measure of risk level as the basis for comparison.Strictly, when considering the risks。

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本科毕业设计（论文）外文翻译译文学生姓名：院（系）：专业班级：指导教师：完成日期：钢筋混凝土填充框架结构对拆除两个相邻的柱的响应作者：美国波士顿东北大学，斯奈尔设计中心收稿日期：年月日，修整后收稿日期年月日，录用日期年月日，网上上传日期年月日。

摘要：本文是评价圣地亚哥旅馆对同时拆除两根相邻的外柱的响应问题，圣地亚哥旅馆是个层钢筋混凝土填充框架结构。

结构的分析模型应用了有限元法和以此为基础的分析模型来计算结构的整体和局部变形。

分析结果跟实验结果非常吻合。

当测量的竖向位移增加到为四分之一英寸（即）的时候，结构就发生连续倒塌。

通过实验分析方法评价和讨论随着柱的移除而产生的变形沿着结构高度上的发展和荷载动态重分配。

讨论了轴向和弯曲的变形传播的不同。

结构横向和纵向的三维桁架在填充墙的参与下被认为是荷载重分配的主要构件。

讨论了两种潜在的脆性破坏模型（没有拉力加强的梁的脆断和有加筋肋的梁的挤出）。

分析评价了结构对额外的重力和无填充墙时的响应。

关键词：连续倒塌；荷载重分配；对荷载抵抗能力；动态响应；非线性分析；脆性破坏。

介绍：作为减小由于结构的局部损坏而造成大量伤亡的可能性措施的一部分，美国总务管理局【】和国防部【】出台了一系列制度来评价结构对连续倒塌的抵抗力。

【】定义连续倒塌为，由原始单元的局部破坏在单元间的扩展最终造成结构的整体或不成比例的大部破坏。

通过和【】建议的方法，定义了两种一般模型来减小结构设计时连续倒塌效应产生的损害，它们分为直接和间接的设计方法。

一般建筑规范和标准用增加结构的整体性的间接设计方法。

间接设计法也应用于美国国防部的降低连续倒塌设计和未归档设备标准中。

尽管间接设计法可以降低连续破坏的风险【，】，对基于此法设计的结构破坏后的表现的判断是不容易实现的。

有一种基于直接设计的方法通过研究瞬间消除受载构件，比如柱子，对结构的影响来评价结构的连续倒塌。

美国防部和国家事务管理局的规章是要求去除一个受荷构件，考虑其影响。

这样的规范目的是评价结构的整体性和结构的一个单元出现严重的毁坏时的分荷能力。

这种方法是研究结构受连续倒塌的影响的程度，但是事实上初始结构损伤的影响不止局限于某一根柱子。

在本论文中，应用通过实验证实的分析结果，评价圣地亚哥旅馆抵抗连续破坏的能力，实验中瞬间移除两个相邻的柱子，其中一个柱是拐角柱。

为了爆除这两个柱子，将炸药放在预先在柱子上钻的孔里面。

柱子然后再用几层保护材料包裹好，以避免爆炸时的冲击波和碎片影响结构的其他部分。

建筑的特性圣地亚哥旅馆建造于年，在年又向南扩展了一部分，此部分包括两个分离的结构。

图是从南边看旅馆的样子。

注意这张照片，旅馆的第一和第三层被用黑色的布蒙了起来。

这个六层的旅馆是无延性的钢筋混凝土框架结构，其中还有由空心砖构成的填充外墙。

扩展部分的填充墙有两层共厚。

第一层的楼高为，其他楼盖高为，顶楼高度为。

图为其中一个扩展部分的第二层。

图为对本建筑的实施计划，即瞬间爆除一层相邻的柱和，以评价其影响。

左图：图圣地亚哥旅馆的南端视角，本论文研究其中心结构右图：图扩展结构的第二层（南端视角）下图：图拟对旅馆南扩展部分实施的柱的移除计划，第一层要被移除的柱用叉号标出如图所示楼盖系统纵向（南北向）有一个托梁。

根据两个混凝土构件受压的实验结果，对一个标准的混凝土柱，受压承载力为。

混凝土的弹性模量大概为左右。

同样，通过横截面的钢筋受拉实验，其屈服和极限抗拉强度分别为和。

钢筋的极限变形为。

钢筋的弹性模量近似为。

这个建筑按计划将被爆破摧毁。

作为摧毁的一个步骤，第一层和第三层的填充墙被移除。

移除时上面没有活荷载。

所有的非结构部件包括隔墙、管道设备、家具都被事先搬走了，只有梁、柱、楼板梁和在边梁上的填充墙被留下。

传感器布置混凝土和钢筋的应变传感器是用来测量梁和柱的应变变化的。

线性电位计用来测量整体和局部变形。

混凝土应变测量仪常，最大应变为钢筋应变测量仪应变极限为。

应变测量仪可以带到几百千赫兹。

电位计用来测量建筑中梁沿一端的转动和整体位移，这些以后将讲到。

电位计的分辨率为，最大速度为，实验中最大记录速度为。

有限元模型通过有限单元法，在软件【】中生成一个建筑模型。

梁和柱都被抽象成单元。

和型梁的翼缘计算宽度为四倍的较厚板的厚度【】。

塑性铰可以发生在任何钢筋可能发生屈服的地方，包括单元的端点、加筋肋分离点和弯矩的屈服点。

在分析中，塑性铰的范围是构件高度的一半。

现行版本的不能计算出单元斜裂缝的构成。

为了得出正确的构件挠曲刚度，反复做以下步骤：首先假设建筑的所有单元都是没有裂缝的；然后，需要弯矩同构件的出现裂缝的弯矩相比较。

分别降低板厚和梁的惯性矩，使需求弯矩大于裂缝出现弯矩。

梁外部出现裂缝的正负弯矩分别为和。

需要注意的是柱子没有裂缝出现。

再后，再按以上方法重新分析建筑和弯矩简图。

重复这些步骤直到所有的裂缝区域被鉴定和用模型表示出来。

除了两端区域建筑结构里的梁上部不配筋（图）。

例如，梁在距点以后，其上部不配筋（如图和）。

为了确定出可能丧失挠曲强度的截面位置，将裂纹铰布置在上部没有配筋的可能的弯曲破坏点上。

塑性铰的挠曲强度设为于相等，当所受的弯矩达到时，该截面即发生破坏。

图二层的梁和梁详细配筋情况楼盖系统有沿纵向（南北向）的次梁。

图所示为一典型的楼盖的横截面。

为了计算出次梁和板的可能的非线性响应，用梁单元为楼盖建立模型。

次梁按型梁计算，翼缘的计算宽度为各自板厚的四倍【】。

选取轴和轴的纵梁和其之间的一个宽英寸的梁间的格栅为板的计算模型。

为了给出板沿横向的计算模型，同样用一个宽英寸于横梁平行的梁。

在方形的板中其剪力流和梁单元的中的不一样。

所以其扭转刚度取为整个截面刚度的一半【】。

图梁的上部配筋弯曲位置（于梁相似，在邻近建筑靠近柱的地方）图典型的楼盖的次梁系统图实验和分析的第二层柱的竖向位移建筑的、、、层有填充墙，并在门窗等开口位置有过梁，如前面提到的第、三层的填充墙，在爆除前已经拆掉。

填充墙是用良好的空隙砖砌成的，空心砖的净空是其总大小的一半。

填充墙的平面效应增强了建筑的刚度和强度，并且影响建筑的对荷载反应即变形。

如果忽略墙的影响将得不到准确的建筑的刚度和强度。

在中考虑了两种填充墙的形式：一种是用平面框架模型（模型），另一种是【】中建议的受压杆件模型（模型）。

模型是平面框架模型，但是，现行版本的只能计算线性框架模型，不能计算裂缝的发展情况。

填充墙的抗拉强度大概为，弹性模量为【】。

由于裂缝的发展对填充墙的刚度影响很大，重复以下步骤来计算裂缝的形成：（）假设填充墙是线性的而且没有开裂，运行非线性历史分析。

由于梁中的塑性铰的存在，梁中弯矩大于裂缝出现弯矩时候，对截面惯性矩有一个折减。

（）判定填充墙出现的依据是看其应力于墙的抗拉强度大小关系。

（）节点在拉应力大于抗拉强度的地方分离。

重复上面的步骤直到裂缝区域被确定。

模型（受压杆件模型）如【】所述用受压杆件来代替填充墙，杆件的方向根据移除柱后的结构变形形式和开口位置确定。

柱的移除按以下步骤模拟柱的移除。

结构是在只受永久荷载下分析的，内力在柱端测定，将随着柱的移除而卸荷。

模型的建立是在移除第一层的柱、的情况下进行的。

结构同样是在永久荷载下进行静态分析的。

在此情况下，测得的柱端内力被当成永久外部荷载施加在结构上。

注意此分析结果跟第一步的分析是等价的。

第二步中大小相等方向相反的柱端力，被瞬间施加在原柱的位置上，然后进行动态分析。

实验和分析结果的比较结构计算最大竖向位移在第二层的柱上，图所示为按模型的实验和分析的梁竖向位移的比较。

实验数据是用三个粘在两端的传感器记录的。

实验和分析得到的最大位移分别是和，相差尽为。

实验和分析的位移产生所用时间分别为和。

分析结果显示永久位移为，比实验结果小，实验结果为。

图第二层的柱在模型和下分别沿时间的竖向位移图比较了第二层的柱分别在模型和下分析的沿时间的竖向位移。

由图中可以看出，按受压杆件模型（模型）得出的最大竖向位移为比用模型得出的结果高出约。

在图可以看出按模型得出的结果与实验结果是想接近的，模型得出的结构变形过高。

如果最大竖向位移偏大的话，填充墙开裂情况会更加严重，更偏向于受压杆件形成，模型和模型得出结果差异将减小。

图比较了用模型时第二层的柱的分析和实验的位移值。

同样，第一次达到最大位移值的实验和分析值非常接近，分析的永久位移值比实验的位移值略微低些。

图所示为根据模型得出的最大竖向位移的结构变形放大倍后的情况。

图第二层的柱竖向位移实验和分析结果比较图按模型，分析的结构变形形式（第二层的实验得出变形形式也给出）通过实测得的变形形式在图中也用实线标出了。

在二层的梁、的上下端部应力重分配复杂的地方共用了个电位计。

梁上部和对应的下部电位计接在一起用来测量梁的扭转变形。

用上下端部电位计的差值除以电位计的距离（沿梁高）。

分析推算的二层梁端部变形曲线如图中的曲线所示。

由图可以看出，分析的变形梁的变形曲线跟实验所得结果非常吻合。

根据模型分析结果表明预示钢筋屈服的塑性铰只有两个，四个没有上部配筋的截面，到达屈服极限而开裂。

图给出了所有的塑性铰及开裂位置。

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