语言学框架(参考文档)

C h a p t e r1I n t r o d u c t i o n1.1W h a t i s l i n g u i s t i c s?1.1.1D e f i n i t i o n★Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.1.1.2T h e s c o p e o f l i n g u i s t i c s语言学范畴Phonetics语音学/Phonology音系学/Morphology形态学/Syntax句法学/Semantics 语义学/Pragmatics语用学Macrolinguistics宏观语言学：sociolinguistics社会语言学/Psycholinguistics心理语言学/Applied linguistics应用语言学1.1.3I m p o r t a n t d i s t i n c t i o n s i n l i n g u i s t i c s语言学中重要区别1) prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性2) synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历时性Saussure3) speech & writing 口语和书面语4) langue & parole 语言(抽象)和言语(具体) Saussure5) competence & performance 能力和运用Chomsky6) traditional grammar & modern linguistics 传统语法和现代语言学★索绪尔——现代语言学之父1.2W h a t i s l a n g u a g e?1.2.1D e f i n i t i o n o f l a n g u a g e★Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.2.2D e s i g n f e a t u r e s o f l a n g u a g e语言的区别性特征H o c k e t t (1) Arbitrariness任意性：符号的音与义之间没有逻辑联系。

比如说，不同的语言使用不同的音指相同的事物。

(2) Productivity/Creativity创造性：语言可以被创造。

(3) Duality二重性：语言在结构上存在两个层次——低层次（音标）和高层次（词素、单词等）。

(4) Displacement移位性：语言不受语言时空距离的影响。

(5) Cultural transmission文化传递性：语言体系具体内容的习得要通过后天的学习来获得。

1.2.3F u n c t i o n o f l a n g u a g e(descriptive function/expressive function/social function)informative信息功能/interpersonal人际功能/performative施为功能/emotive感情功能/phatic communication寒暄功能/recreational 娱乐功能/metalinguistic元语言功能C h a p t e r2P h o n o l o g y音系学2.1T h e p h o n i c m e d i u m o f l a n g u a g e语言的声音媒介2.2P h o n e t i c s语音学2.2.1W h a t i s p h o n e t i c s?什么是语音学？★Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.articulatory phonetics发音语音学研究语言的产生three points of view auditory phonetics听觉语音学研究语言怎样被感知acoustic phonetics声学语音研究语音的物理属性2.2.2O r g a n s o f s p e e c h发音器官the pharyngeal cavity - the throat咽腔the oral cavity - the mouth口腔the nasal cavity - the nose鼻腔2.2.3B r o a d a n d n a r r o w t r a n s c r i p t i o n s宽式和窄式音标★The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA国际音标) --- Daniel Jones --- 18882.3P h o n o l o g y音系学2.3.1P h o n o l o g y a n d p h o n e t i c s音系学和语音学★Phonology is the study about how speech sound in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.★Phonetics is the scientific study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with defining and classifying speech sounds.phonology 研究抽象的音位类型与规则--- 一样Differences: [l] in leap & peelphonetics 研究具体发音部位与方式--- 不同2.3.2P h o n e,p h o n e m e,a n d a l l o p h o n e音素、音位和音位变体（1）音素：是语音学研究的单位，是一个个具体的声音。

“[ ]”（2）音位：是音系学研究的单位，是抽象的概念，每一个音位是一组语音特征的集合体，音位具有区别意义的作用。

“/ /”（3）音位变体：是一个音位在特定的语音环境力的具体体现，同一音位在不同语音环境里体现为不同的变体，也就是语音。

[ ]/k/: [k] school [k h] coll [k’] ski [k’h] keel总结：语音学- 音素- 发音- [ ]音系学- 音位- 不发音- / /2.3.3P h o n e m i c c o n t r a s t,c o m p l e m e n t a r y d i s t r i b u t i o n,a n d m i n i m a l p a i r音位对立，互补分布，最小对立体（1）音位对立：两个音位出现在相同的语音环境中，且具有区别语义的功能。

例：tip和dip中的/t/和/d/；rope和robe中的/p/和/b/（2）互补分布：同一音位不同音位变体之间的关系，且没有区别意义的功能。

例：top中送气的[th］和stop中不送气的[t]（3）最小对立体：出现在同一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的两个语音组合。

例：bill和pill（辅音）, bet和but（元音）2.3.4S o m e r u l e s i n p h o n o l o g y音系学规则2.3.4.1 Sequential rules序列规则三辅音连缀规则：/s/ --- /p/, /t/, /k/ --- /l/, /r/, /w/2.3.4.2 Assimilation rule同化规则2.3.4.3 Deletion rule省略规则：[g]2.3.5S u p r a s e g m e n t a l f e a t u r e s超音段特征2.3.5.1 Stress重读2.3.5.2 Tone音调/声调2.3.5.3 Intonation语调C h a p t e r3M o r p h o l o g y形态学3.1I n t r o d u c t i o n★Morphology is concerned with word formation and word structure.形态学研究单词的内部结构和构词规则。

3.2O p e n c l a s s a n d c l o s e d c l a s s(1) Open class words开放词类：content words实词--- nouns, verbs, adjectives...(2) Closed class words封闭词类：function words虚词--- conjunctions, articles...3.3M o r p h e m e s---t h e m i n i m a l u n i t s o f m e a n i n g词素——最小的“语义”单位( reader是一个单词，read 和er 是两个词素/ boys是一个单词，boy和s是两个词素）(1) Free and bound morphemes自由词素和黏着词素①自由词素——有完整语义如：book; helpful中的help②黏着词素——词根、词缀(2) Allomorphs词素变体如：①a放在辅音前；an放在元音前②books, bags, judges中的s三种不同的读音3.4A n a l y z i n g w o r d s t r u c t u r e sroots and affixes (prefix, infix, suffix)3.5D e r i v a t i o n a l a n d i n f l e c t i o n a l m o r p h e m e s(1) derivational morphemes派生词素：构成新单词如：-ate, inter-, -ism...(2) inflectional morphemes曲折词素：改变数、时、格、级如：-s, -ed, -er, -est...自由词素free ~ 前缀prefix 词素morphemes派生词素derivational ~黏着词素bound ~ 后缀suffix曲折词素inflectional ~3.6M o r p h o l o g i c a l r u l e s o f w o r d f o r m a t i o n3.7D e r i v a t i o n派生词3.8C o m p o u n d s复合词3.8.1D e f i n i t i o n★ A compound word is made when two words are joined to form a new word.3.8.2复合词特征：(1)Orthographically书写特征：in three ways: solid (airmail); hyphenated (air-conditioning); open (air force, air raid) (2) Syntactically句法特征：复合词的词性一般取决于复合词最后一个成分的词性(3)Semantically语义特征：复合词的意义具有习语性质，许多复合词的意义都不是其构成成分意义和总和(4) Phonetically语音特征：复合词的单词重音落在第一个构成成分上C h a p t e r4S y n t a x句法学4.1W h a t i s s y n t a x?★Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.4.2C a t e g o r i e s4.2.1W o r d-l e v e l c a t e g o r i e s（1）major lexical categories: n. v. a. prep.（2）minor lexical categories: determiner（Det限定词）—the, a, this, those...degree words（Deg程度词）—quite, so, more...qualifier（Qual频率词）—often, always, almost...auxiliary（Aux助动词）—must, should, can...conjunction（Con连接词）—and, but, or...4.2.2P h r a s e c a t e g o r i e s a n d t h e i r s t r u c t u r e s。