Language Competence and Language Performance
语言学名词解释07790
名词解释1.Prescriptive and Descriptive规定性的和描述性的Prescriptive and descriptive represent two kind of different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive.描述性的研究主要以观察和描述人们实际所使用的语言为目的。
规定性的研究以制定语言使用的规范和标准为主要目的，即为使用者指出语言的标准用法，什么是正确的用法，什么是错误的用法，为语言使用者提供典范。
ngue and Parole 语言和言语Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. %Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Parole is the concrete use of the convention and the application of rules.语言是一种社会机制、是一种语言的理想形式、是为一个团体所有成员所接受的社会惯例的抽象的语言系统。
Elanguage-and-Ilanguage
内在化语言具有另一种主要特征，就是具有下意识性，即往往只可意 会不能言传。
Native speaker’s intuition(语感或直 觉）
(A) ＊/bkil/, ＊ /ilbk/, ＊ /kbli/ (B) ＊Mary goed home yesterday. (C) ＊a beautiful girl with glasses of linguistics (D) The bed was murdered by the dog. (E) Mike saw a girl with binocular.
a student of physics with long hair
N′
N′
N′
PP (adjunct)
N
PP
student of physics with long hair
＊A student with long hair of physics
NP
Det
N′
N′
N
a student
PP PP with long hair of physics
Conclusion
Linguistic knowledge: Competence; I-language
Linguistic representation: Performance; E-language
语言知识: 语言能力；I-语言； 语法 语言体现: 语言利用；E-语言；语言
1.Why this distinction are discussed? 2. Which language is the target in linguistic study?
语言学名词解释07790
名词解释1.Prescriptive and Descriptive规定性的和描述性的Prescriptive and descriptive represent two kind of different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive.描述性的研究主要以观察和描述人们实际所使用的语言为目的。
规定性的研究以制定语言使用的规范和标准为主要目的，即为使用者指出语言的标准用法，什么是正确的用法，什么是错误的用法，为语言使用者提供典范。
ngue and Parole 语言和言语Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by.Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Parole is the concrete use of the convention and the application of rules.语言是一种社会机制、是一种语言的理想形式、是为一个团体所有成员所接受的社会惯例的抽象的语言系统。
英语语言能力和英语语感的相关性研究
英语语言能力和英语语感的相关性研究随着全球化的发展，英语已经成为全世界范围内最重要的语言之一。
对于英语学习者而言，英语语言能力和英语语感是两个非常重要的概念。
英语语言能力指的是人们所具备的理解、使用英语的能力，包括英语的语音、语法、词汇、阅读和写作等方面。
而语感则是指人们对于英语内涵和用法的熟悉和敏感程度，也就是人们在运用英语时的直觉和感觉。
英语语言能力和英语语感两者之间具有很大的相关性，二者相互促进，相辅相成。
一方面，英语语言能力是英语语感的基础。
只有掌握了英语的语音、语法、词汇等基本知识，才能够准确地理解英语中所包含的意思和内涵。
因此，对于英语学习者而言，首先应该注重英语语言能力的培养，通过不断的学习和训练提升自己的英语水平。
另一方面，英语语感也是英语语言能力发挥得更加出色的重要因素。
英语语感的好坏不仅影响着英语学习者的阅读、写作和口语表达能力，还直接影响着学生对英语的兴趣和学习积极性。
良好的英语语感能够让学生更加敏锐地捕捉词汇和句子中的关键信息，更加准确地理解作者表达的意思，更加自如地运用英语进行交流和表达。
另外，近年来越来越多的学者对于英语语感的培养进行了深入的研究，并提出了很多有价值的观点。
其中，最为重要的就是培养学生的语言环境和语言交际能力。
通过丰富的语言学习场景和互动学习方式，让学生能够真正感受到英语这门语言本身的美丽和魅力，从而激发学生的学习兴趣和热情，进一步提升学生的英语水平。
总的来说，英语语言能力和英语语感的相关性密不可分，英语学习者必须要重视并加以培养。
只有通过不断的锤炼和实践，才能够真正掌握英语这门语言，更好地进行交流和表达，更好地融入国际社会。
外语教学研究中的知识能力与运用能力
外语教学研究中的知识、能力与运用能力摘要：清晰具体的语言能力目标是语言教学和评价的基础，而界定语言知识、语言能力及其相关概念则是制定能力目标的前提。
通过对Chomsky,Hymes,Canale和Swain,Widdowson,Ellis,Bachman 以及Skehan等数位西方语言学者关于知识、能力、运用能力和能力表现的论述，我们可以进一步深入理解这些概念的主要涵义及其演变，并从语言教学的角度认识它们之间的异同。
作者综合各家对于知识、能力、运用能力以及行为表现的相关看法，提出了一个外语语言运用能力形成过程的模式，旨在帮助设计教学活动、确定教学评价的内容和选择恰当的评价学生语言能力的方式。
关键词：外语教学；知识—能力；运用能力；能力表现教育部颁布的《全日制义务教育普通高级中学英语课程标准（实验稿）》（以下简称《课程标准》）提出英语教学的目标是“培养学生综合运用语言的能力”。
究竟何为语言运用能力，它与语言能力、交际语言能力之间的关系是什么？国外外语教学界对此论述颇多。
但是，因为英语中knowledge, competence, ability, performance 等四个词都有“能力”的意思，在阅读文献时容易将这些概念混淆。
究竟这些词语的确切概念是什么，它们之间的关系如何阐释？为了更明确地理解这些概念，以便更好地理解《课程标准》提出的目标，笔者提出以下两个需要研究的问题。
1.国外语言教学界如何界定这些概念并论述它们之间的关系？2.如何理解知识、能力到运用能力形成的过程？一、国外语言教学界的讨论从词典的定义来看，美国《韦伯斯特词典》（2003），对于competence有如下解释：competence...【is】the knowledge that enables a person to speak and understand a language.[1]《朗文语言教学及应用语言学辞典》（Richards等，1998，中译本）关于competence的解释是：语言能力，（转换生成语法中）指一个人语言语法的内化知识，指人能够理解并说出句子，包括从来没有听过的句子。
英语语言能力和英语语感的相关性研究
英语语言能力和英语语感的相关性研究引言英语是全球通用的语言之一，具有重要的国际交流和商务沟通作用。
随着全球化的发展，人们对英语语言能力和语感的要求愈发提高。
英语语感指的是对英语语言的灵活运用和真实感知，它是英语语言能力的重要组成部分。
本文将探讨英语语言能力和英语语感之间的相关性，并提出相关的研究结论和建议。
英语语言能力的内涵英语语言能力是指个体在实际运用英语时所展现的语言水平和技能。
它包括英语的听、说、读、写四项基本技能，以及语法、词汇、句型、逻辑思维等多个方面。
英语语言能力的提高需要经过长期的学习和实践，同时也受个体的天赋和母语环境的影响。
英语语感的内涵英语语感是指个体对英语语言的敏感度和理解力，包括对语音、语调、用词和表达方式的敏锐感知和准确把握。
英语语感是个体在用英语进行交际时所展现的对语言的敏感和情感体验。
它的形成需要个体对英语语言的长期接触和积累，并且受到所处语言环境和文化背景的影响。
英语语言能力和英语语感的相关性英语语言能力和英语语感是相辅相成的。
英语语言能力的提高需要个体对语言知识和技能的巩固和提升，同时也需要对语言的细微变化和情感色彩的敏感。
英语语感可以帮助个体更好地理解和运用英语，提高交际的流畅度和准确性。
而且，英语语感也可以促进个体对英语语言的情感投入和热情，激发学习英语的积极性和主动性。
研究方法本研究采用了问卷调查和实地调研相结合的方法。
在问卷调查中，我们邀请了一定数量的英语学习者和教育专家，通过提问和选项的方式来收集他们对英语语言能力和英语语感相关性的看法和评价。
我们还进行了一些实地调研，对一些英语学习者进行了深入的访谈和观察，以了解他们的英语语感形成过程和实际应用情况。
研究结果通过问卷调查和实地调研，我们得出了以下研究结果：1. 英语语言能力和英语语感之间存在明显的正相关性。
即英语语言能力强的个体往往也具有较好的英语语感。
2. 英语语感的形成受到许多因素的影响，包括个体的语言天赋、学习环境和文化背景等。
linguisticcompetenceandperformence
Linguistic competence refers to the knowledge of a language system. The term first emerged in the work of Noam Chomsky, where it referred specifically to syntactic competence, and was specifically opposed to linguistic performance. The term was used more broadly by Dell Hymes in formulating the concept of communicative competence. Like communicative competence, language competence is often divided into various subcompetences, such as syntactic competence and lexical competence.According to Chomsky, competence is the ideal speaker /hearer, i.e. an idealized but not a real person who would have a complete knowledge of language. This means a person’s ability to create and understand sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.Performance is the actual use of the language by individuals in speech and writing.Speakers’ linguistic knowledge permits them to form longer and longer sentences by joining sentences and phases together or adding modifiers to a noun. whether you stop at three, five or eighteen adjectives, it is impossible to limit the number you could add if desired. Very long sentences are theoretically possible, but they are highly improbable.Evidently, there is a difference between having the knowledge necessary to produce sentences of a language, and applying this knowledge. It is a difference between what you know, which is your linguistic competence, and how you use this knowledge in actual speech production and comprehension, which is your linguistic performance.When we speak, we usually wish to convey some message. At some stage in the act of producing speech, we must organize our thoughts into strings of words. Sometimes the message is garbled. We may stammer, or pause, or produce slips of the tongue. We may even sound like the baby, who illustrates the difference between linguistic knowledge and the way we use that knowledge in performance.Linguistic competence is the system of linguistic knowledge possessed by native speakers of a language, it is in contrast to the concept of Linguistic performance, the way the language system is used in communication. The concept was first introduced by Noam Chomsky[1] as part of the foundations for his Generative grammar, but it has since been adopted and developed by other linguists, particularly those working in the generativist tradition. In the generativist tradition competence is the only level of language that is studied, because this level gives insights into the Universal Grammar, that generativists see as underlying all human language systems. Functional theories of grammar tend to dismiss the sharp distinction between competence and performance, and particularly the primacy given to the study of competence.According to Chomsky, competence is the 'ideal' language system that makes it possible for speakers to produce and understand an infinite number [nb 1] of sentences in their language, and to distinguish grammatical sentences from ungrammatical sentences. This is unaffected by "grammatically irrelevant conditions" such as speech errors.[1]Competence versus performance"Linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener, in a completely homogeneous speech-community, who knows its (the speech community's) language perfectly and is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors (random or characteristic) in applying his knowledge of this language in actual performance."~Chomsky,1965[1]Chomsky differentiates competence, which is an idealized capacity, from performance being the production of actual utterances. According to him, competence is the ideal speaker-hearer's knowledge of his or her language and it is the 'mental reality' which is responsible for all those aspects of language use which can be characterized as 'linguistic'.[2] Chomsky argues that only under an idealized situation whereby the speaker-hearer is unaffected by grammatically irrelevant conditions such as memory limitations and distractions will performance be a direct reflection of competence. A sample of natural speech consisting of numerous false starts and other deviations will not provide such data. Therefore, he claims that a fundamental distinction has to be made between the competence and performance.[1] Chomsky dismissed criticisms of delimiting the study of performance in favor of the study of underlying competence, as unwarranted and completely misdirected. He claims that the descriptivist limitation-in-principle to classification and organizationof data, the "extracting patterns" from a corpus of observed speech and the describing "speech habits" etc. are the core factors that precludes the development of a theory of actual performance.Competence and components of grammarOne's competence is defined by the grammar,[nb 2][3] or set of language rules, that is represented mentally and manifested based on his or her own understanding of acceptable usage in a given linguistic idiom. Therefore, grammatical competence defines an innate knowledge of rules rather than knowledge of items or relations. According to Chomsky, it is regarded to be innate because one does not have to be trained to develop it and will still be able to apply it in an infinite number of unheard examples.[4]The core components of the grammar are included in the speaker's linguistic competence and these components corresponds to five of the major subfields of linguistics:Phonetics: Phonology: Morphology: Syntax: Semantics:Linguictic performanceIn linguistics, performance has two senses:[1](1) A technique used in phonetics whereby aspiring practitioners of the subjectare trained to control the use of their vocal organs(2) A term used in the linguistic theory of transformational generativegrammar, referring to language being seen as a set of specific utterancesproduced by native speakersIt is also one of the two elements in Chomsky's performance-competence distinction, which relates to Language production(parole), with an emphasis upon how this is different from Competence, or the mental knowledge of language itself. Linguistic performance does not simply reflect the intrinsic sound-meaning connections established by the system of linguistic rules. It involves many other factors, such as extra-linguistic beliefs concerning the speaker and the situation play a fundamental role in determining how speech is produced, identified and understood. Furthermore, it is governed by principles of cognitive structure such as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors (random or characteristic) that are technically not considered to be aspects of language.Communicative competenceCommunicative competence is a term in linguistics which refers to a language user's grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately.The term was coined by Dell Hymes in 1966,[1]reacting against the perceived inadequacy of Noam Chomsky's (1965) distinction between competence and performance.[2]To address Chomsky's abstract notion of competence, Hymes undertook ethnographic exploration of communicative competence that included "communicative form and function in integral relation to each other".[3] The approach pioneered by Hymes is now known as the ethnography of communication.Debate has occurred regarding linguistic competence and communicative competence in the second and foreign language teaching literature, and scholars have found communicative competence as a superior model of language following Hymes' opposition to Chomsky's linguistic competence. This opposition has been adopted by those who seek new directions toward a communicative era by taking for granted the basic motives and the appropriateness of this opposition behind the development of communicative competence.communicative competenceAnother functionalist theory advances the notion of communicative competence, which focuses on socially-situated performance, was developed by Dell Hymes in response to the abstract nature of linguistic competence.[22][23]Communicative competence is also sometimes referred to as pragmatic or sociolinguistic competence, especially when the emphasis is on how to interpret the speaker's intended meaning in a particular utterance, apart from the literal meaning.The major criticism towards Chomsky's notion of linguistic competence by Hymes is the inadequate distinction of competence and performance. Furthermore, he commented that it is unreal and that no significant progress in linguistics is possible without studying forms along with the ways in which they are used. As such, linguistic competence should fall under the domain of communicative competence since it comprises four competence areas, namely, linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic.[25]Use in educationThe notion of communicative competence is one of the theories that underlies the communicative approach to foreign language teaching.[3]Canale and Swain (1980) defined communicative competence in terms of three components:1.grammatical competence: words and rules2.sociolinguistic competence: appropriateness3.strategic competence: appropriate use of communication strategiesCanale (1983) refined the above model, adding discourse competence: cohesion and coherenceA more recent survey of communicative competence by Bachman (1990) divides it into the broad headings of "organizational competence," which includes both grammatical and discourse (or textual) competence, and "pragmatic competence," which includes both sociolinguistic and "illocutionary" competence.[6] Strategic Competence is associated with the interlocutors' ability in using communication strategies (Faerch & Kasper, 1983; Lin, 2009).Through the influence of communicative language teaching, it has become widely accepted that communicative competence should be the goal of language education, central to good classroom practice.[7] This is in contrast to previous views in which grammatical competence was commonly given top priority. The understanding of communicative competence has been influenced by the field of pragmatics and the philosophy of language concerning speech acts as described in large part by John Searle and J.L. Austin.Competence vs. PerformanceLinguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener, in a completely homogeneous speech-communication, who know its (the speech community's) language perfectly and is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors (random or characteristic) in applying his knowledge of this language in actual performance. (Chomsky, 1965, p. 3)In this definition, Chomsky separates 'competence,' an idealized capacity, from the production of actual utterances, 'performance.' Additionally, competence, being an ideal, is located as a psychological or mental property or function (Lyons, 1996). This is in contrast to performance, which refers to an actual event.This definition of linguistic competence has come to be associated with a rigid and narrowly defined concept of grammatical competence. Therefore, Hymes (1974)introduced the idea of 'communicative competence." This has become generally defined as 'the socially appropriate use of language" (Paulston, 1992, p. xiv). Linguistic competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, competence refers to a language user’s underlying knowledge about the linguistic system of the rules. When we talk about it, the speaker is an ideal speaker. It is someone who has a complete knowledge of the language, has the ability to create and understand sentences, even the sentence they had never heard before. One’s competence is insensible and is an abstract conception.Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations. It is sensible and is the actual use of the language by individuals in speech and writing. It is sensible, in other words, others can see and know how the person act or express.In my opinion, competence and performance, they are all linguistic abilities. However, they are much different from each other. Competence is the ability to use the language, while performance is how people use language. With linguistic competence, we can form sentences by joining sentences and phases together or adding modifiers to a noun, as long as we can. We have the ability to speak due to competence. While performance requires people make their speech or writings more attractive, they should have different methods to speak and express. When they are in different situations, they will perform differently. In addition, they shall pay attention to how they perform, it depends on the roles they play in conversations.As a teacher, it is quite important to have both competence and performance. For many of the teachers, they are equipped with abundant professional knowledge. As speakers of the language, they are professional and have great linguistic competence. While in the class, they are not just speakers, the most important role for them is: teacher. Then they should act as teachers and impart knowledge in a proper manner, but not just tell the knowledge. The act of telling can be done by everyone who majors in the language or studies it, a translator, an interpreter or just a language learner, etc.I do think it will be much easier for a teacher to develop linguistic rather than try it for level of performance. But we need to pay attention to it. E.g. when we are having linguistic class, the teacher doesn’t only tell us the deep knowledge, but also gives us a lot of examples to get us understand it. Another example, when I learnt the word” Christmas” in middle school. The teacher told us a story about Christmas and taught us some more words. She wouldn’t just tell us how to spell and write the words, she thought of ways to make the word impressive for us. This is linguistic performance for a teacher in teaching.。
英语教学中的语言能力与语言运用-最新教育文档
英语教学中的语言能力与语言运用美国语言学家Chomsky关于“语言能力”（linguistic competence）和“语言运用”（linguistic performance）的区分已经得到了语言学界的公认。
语言能力是说话人、听话人有关自己母语的无意识知识，语言运用是对这种知识在具体场合中的应用。
但在实际教学中，我们教师经常会遇到这样一些问题：语言能力与语言运用到底是一种什么关系；如何实现两者之间的转化；如何加强听说读写各个环节的技能训练以提高学生的语言运用能力等等。
本文试图根据语言教学方面的理论，对这些问题做一些探讨。
一、语言能力Chomsky提出的关于语言能力的理解是认为语言能力是人的内在的能力，即辨认什么句子是合乎语法规则的能力。
它分为语音、词汇和语法三个部分，要求能识别音素，并能见词发音，见文朗读；能识别单词和习惯用语的语义和语法作用，并能用于听、说、读、写之中；能识别语法的词法、句法，把语法运用于听、说、读、写之中。
每一个使用同一种母语的人都具备大致相同的语言能力。
这种能力使他们能够轻易听懂每一句他们从来没有听说过的复杂的句子，并准确判断某种说法是否符合本族语言的语法。
语法习得的完成意味着儿童也能够听懂母语中复杂句子的含义，但是“听懂”某种意思也并不是说语法土就完全正确，事实上我们对于大多数的“病句”也能够理解。
因此，儿童的语言能力绝大多数情况下指的是“内化语言”（internalized language），即“说话人所获得的并表征于心智、大脑中的语言能力系统”相对应的“外化语言”（externalized language）则仍然需要不断学习与强化，也就是精细化与精确化过程，以确保能熟练运用母语表达自己的思维与情感，并尽量减少失误。
因此，重新建立一套新的中学教学语法体系，不仅必要，而且可能。
在语音方面，复习国际音标、读音规则，纠正发音，传授朗读技巧能使其能识别音素，见词发音，见文朗读，且语音语调基本正确。
languageproficiency名词解释
languageproficiency名词解释嘿，咱今儿个就来唠唠“language proficiency”这个词儿哈！language proficiency 呢，简单说就是语言熟练程度啦！就好比你学骑自行车，从歪歪扭扭到能在路上自由驰骋，这就是你骑自行车的熟练程度提高啦！那 language proficiency 也是这么个道理呀！
比如说，你学英语，一开始可能只会说几句简单的问候语，像“Hello”“How are you”之类的。
但随着你不断学习、练习，你能说的句
子越来越长，越来越复杂，还能跟外国人进行流畅的对话呢！这就是
你的英语 language proficiency 在提升呀！
再想想，一个精通多国语言的人，那他的 language proficiency 得多
高呀！就像一个武林高手，各种武功招式都耍得特别溜！人家可以轻
松地在不同语言之间切换，和不同国家的人交流都毫无压力呢！
咱身边肯定也有这样的人呀，你看那谁谁谁，英语说得可棒啦，跟
外国人聊天一点都不怯场，这就是 language proficiency 高的表现呀！
那咱是不是也得加把劲，努力提高自己的 language proficiency 呢？难
道咱就甘心落后吗？
咱学习语言，不就是为了能更好地和别人交流，了解不同的文化吗？那要做到这些，没有一定的 language proficiency 可不行呀！所以呀，
咱得下功夫，多听、多说、多读、多写，让自己的 language proficiency 蹭蹭往上涨！
总之呢，language proficiency 就是衡量我们语言能力的一个重要指标，咱可不能小瞧它！咱得朝着更高的language proficiency 努力前进！。
专业英语八级模拟试卷及答案解析(12)
D.They don´t have their particular personal and cultural values.
第19题
18．
A.The project was launched about five years ago.
专业英语八级模拟试卷及答案解析（12）
(1~16/共26题)
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第1题
Question and Answer Choice Order This lecture is a part of a series of lectures on survey designing. We tend to talk about the ways to determine the question and answer choice order, contributing to a successful questionnaire. I. Two Broad Issues A. How the order can encourage people to【T1】______the survey.【T1】______ B. How the order could affect the【T2】______of the survey.【T2】______ II. Solutions to the First Issue A. question order—listing the questions from easy to difficult can build【T3】______【T3】______—grouping together questions on the same topic—leaving difficult or【T4】______questions until near the end【T4】______ B. answer choice order—using the【T5】______order【T5】______—presenting agree-disagree choices—positive to negative and【T6】______to poor scales【T6】______—numeric rating scales:【T7】______should mean more agreeing answers【T7】______ III. Solutions to the Second Issue A. something【T8】______mentioned【T8】______—solutions: randomize the order of related questions or separating related questions with【T9】______ones【T9】______ B.【T10】______【T10】______—solutions: a. use good softwares to list questions in a random order b. ask a short series of【T11】______at a point【T11】______ c. change the "positive" answer by【T12】______some questions【T12】______ C. answer choice order—solutions: a. If answer choices have【T13】______, use that order.【T13】______ b. If questions are about【T14】______or recall or with long answer choices,【T14】______ use software to list them in a random order. IV. Conclusion—【T15】______: keep the questionnaire as short as possible【T15】______ If a question is not necessary, do not include it.
语言学英汉术语比较
1. 语言的普遍特征：任意性arbitrariness双层结构duality 既由声音和意义结构多产性productivity移位性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西文化传播性cultural transmission2。
语言的功能：传达信息功能informative人济功能：interpersonal行事功能：Performative表情功能：Emotive寒暄功能：Phatic娱乐功能recreatinal元语言功能metalingual3. 语言学linguistics：包括六个分支语音学Phonetics音位学phonology形态学Morphology句法学syntax语义学semantics语用学pragmatics4. 现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinand de saussure提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语language and parole ，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语5. 语法创始人：Noam Chomsky提出概念语言能力与语言运用competence and performance1. Which of the following statements can be used to describe displacement. one of the unique properties of language:a. we can easily teach our children to learn a certain languageb. we can use both 'shu' and 'tree' to describe the same thing.c. we can u se language to refer to something not presentd. we can produce sentences that have never been heard before.2.What is the most important function of language?a. interpersonalb. phaticc. informatived.metallingual3.The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it ?"is __a informativeb. phaticc. directived. performative4.The distinction between competence and performance is proposed by __a saussurec. chomskyd. the prague school5. Who put forward the distinction between language and parole?a. saussureb. chomskyc. hallidayd anomymous第二节语音学1.发音器官由声带the vocal cords和三个回声腔组成2.辅音consonant：there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.3.辅音的发音方式爆破音complete obstruction鼻音nasals破裂音plosives部分阻塞辅音partial obstruction擦音fricatives破擦音affricates等4.辅音清浊特征voicing辅音的送气特征aspiration5.元音vowel分类标准舌翘位置，舌高和嘴唇的形状6双元音diphthongs,有元音过渡vowel glides1. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies __.a. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechb. the perception of soundsc. the combination of soundsd. the production of sounds2. The distinction between vowel s and consonants lies in __a. the place of articulationb.the obstruction f airstreamc. the position of the tongued. the shape of the lips3. What is the common factor of the three sounds: p, k ta. voicelessb. spreadc.voicedd.nasal4. What phonetic feature distinguish the p in please and the p in speak?a. voicingb. aspirationc.roundnessd. nasality5.Which of the following is not a distinctive feature in English?b.nasalc. approximationd. aspiration6.The phonological features of the consonant k are __a. voiced stopb. voiceless stopc. voiced fricatived. voiceless fricative7.p is divverent from k in __a. the manner of articulationb. the shape of the lipsc. the vibration of the vocal cordsd.the palce of articualtion8.Vibration of the vocal cords results in __a. aspirationb.nasalityc. obstructiond. voicing第三节音位学phonology1.音位学与语音学的区别：语音学着重于语音的自然属性，主要关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音；音位学则强调语音的社会功能，其对象是某一种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音。
英语语言能力和英语语感的相关性研究
英语语言能力和英语语感的相关性研究随着全球化和知识经济的不断发展，英语已经成为国际通用语言，许多人意识到学好英语的重要性。
英语语言能力和英语语感都是英语学习过程中需要关注的方面。
英语语言能力指的是学习者掌握英语的语音、语法、词汇、听、说、读、写等方面的能力。
英语语感则指的是学习者对英语的音、韵、韵律、语调、语气、语境、习惯用语等方面的感知和理解能力。
本文将探讨英语语言能力和英语语感的相关性。
首先，英语语言能力是英语语感的基础。
在学习英语的初期，学习者需要掌握英语的基本语音、语法和词汇。
只有掌握了这些基本要素，学习者才能正确地发音、理解英语句子和表达自己的意见。
同时，学习者需要在词汇上下功夫，积累足够的词汇量，才能理解英语文章、听懂英语对话和表达自己的思想。
因此，英语语言能力是英语语感的基础，离开了语言能力的支持，英语语感会变得苍白无力。
再次，英语语言能力和英语语感相互依存。
良好的英语语感需要基于英语语言能力，而不是孤立存在。
在掌握了英语的基本语言要素之后，学习者需要通过多读英语文本、多听英语广播和多与英语母语者交流，不断提升自己的英语语感。
而在不断提升英语语感的过程中，学习者也可以加强自己的英语语言能力，持续提升自己在听、说、读、写等方面的表达能力。
最后，英语语感和英语语言能力的相互促进需要有一定的时间和机会支持。
在学习英语的过程中，学习者需要注重长期和有计划的学习，不断积累和运用英语语言能力。
同时，学习者也需要注重英语语感的培养，通过多听、多读、多思考等方式，逐渐提升自己的语感。
因此，学习者需要有足够的时间和机会来支持英语语言能力和英语语感的相互促进。
Competence and performance
1、competence and performance1.1 The definitionAccording to the text book, c ompetence is the knowledge you subconsciously possess about how to speak a language. Performance is your real world linguistic output. For my understanding ,the competence consists in the knowledge of language which the language user in principle has; the performance is the result of the psychological process that employs this knowledge----in producing or in interpreting language utterances1.2.The RelationshipLanguage competence and performance are interdependent and complementary to each other.On the one hand ,language competence is the premise of language performance. Competence is to performance what composer’s s kills is to composing or improvising music.without solid language skills can not gain a good ability of language use.On the other hand ,to improve the ability of language performance can enhance and consolidate the level of language competence .performance is reflected in the competence ,since language ability is not equal to the ability to use the language.performance can neither be replaced by nor improved in space with competence ,but to gain by training and practicing.1.3 ExampleAs mentioned above, Performance may accurately reflect competence, but it also may include speech errors due to slips of the tongue or memory problems, etc.To understand this distinction, it is helpful to to think about a time when you've made some sort of error in your speech. For example, let's say you are a native speaker of English and utter the following:I finded a beautiful place last weekend.As a proficient speaker, it isn't that you don't know that the past tense of find is found , you've just mistakenly applied the regular rule to an irregular verb. You're unlikely to make this kind of error more than a small portion of the time, and may never say "finded" again. Your competence is fine - you know how to conjugate irregular English verbs, it is your performance that has let you down2、Langue and parole2.1 The definitionLangue is the system of a language, the language as a system of signs, whereas parole is actual speech, the speech acts which are make possible by the language. Langue is what the individual assimilates when he learns a language; it is social and abstract and enables the members of a speech community to communicate linguistically.Parole, on the other hand, is individual and concrete; it is the realization of the language system. In separating langue from parole, we are separating what is social from what is individual and what is essential from what is accidental. The task of linguist is to study langue, language as a system.2.2.The RelationshipLangue is used to express the voice of the complex and the most important of human communication tool. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual.Parole constitutes the immediately accessible data, thelinguist’s proper object is the langue of each community, the lexicon, grammar, and phonology implanted in each individual by his upbringing in society and on the basis of which he speaks and understands his language.when we say parole, the speaker uses the vocal cords and all kinds of vocal organ to issue voice to convey meaning so that those who listen to can understand the communication process.But langue is closely related with the thinking of mankind, and the essential character that different from other animals.2.21 the differenceFirst,langue is abstract and parole is concrete . Parole has sound and written form,which can be saw and heard.Second,langue is a generally accepter way of communication.It is social and national,which cannot be easily changed by individual.A person shares the same langue.On the other hand,parole is simply a personal choice.Third,langue is relatively fixed and parole is temporary.Only when a new word gains public recognition,can it be accepted as part of the langue.Finally langue denotes the abstract systematic principles of a language. Parole, on the other hand, designates individual acts, statements and utterances, events of language use. So we can see the key points are “systematic principle” and “individual language use”.2.22 the relationFrom all above, we can make a clear conclusion on the relationship between langue and paroleParole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.That parole must depend on langue, and without parole, there would not be any existing significance for langue.I think langue and parole are interdependent. They together constitute language.。
英语语言能力和英语语感的相关性研究
英语语言能力和英语语感的相关性研究在当今全球化的时代，英语已成为全球最重要的国际交流语言之一。
因此，拥有良好的英语语言能力是非常重要的，无论是在学术领域还是职业领域都有着很大的优势。
而英语语感则是指对英文语言的理解和运用能力，尤其是说话和写作方面的表达，是一种重要的英语学习能力。
本文将探讨英语语言能力和英语语感的相关性。
首先，英语语言能力和英语语感虽然相似，但还是有所不同。
英语语言能力包括语音、语法、词汇和阅读等方面的掌握能力，可以通过阅读、写作、听力和口语等多种途径进行提高。
而英语语感则是指对英语语言的感觉、把握和理解，人们会有一种天生的语感，这种语感可以通过不断的学习和实践来提高。
因此，英语语感和英语语言能力是相辅相成的。
此外，英语语感同样对英语语言能力的提高产生重要的影响。
因为英语语感的提高会帮助人们更好地理解和使用英语语言，其不仅仅能提高英语学习的效率，还能提高英语交流的精准度。
例如，在进行口语表达或者写作时，有了一定的英语语感，我们能更准确、自然地运用各种词汇和语法，从而达到更好的表达效果。
最后，要提高英语语言能力和英语语感，必须注重实践。
虽然英语学习需要学习语言知识，但实际上只有通过不断的实践，才能真正提高自己的语言能力和语感。
例如，在表达和写作中，可以运用各种语言知识来实践自己的语感和能力，多与外教讨论，多进行口音、读音的练习和模仿等，来提高自己的英语水平。
综上所述，英语语言能力和英语语感是相辅相成的，互相影响而又相互支持的。
因此，在英语学习中，我们应该注重英语语言能力和英语语感的双重提高，不断地进行实践和探索，从而有效提高英语学习的效率和准确度。
英语语言学考研真题与典型题详解1
1。
3考研真题与典型题详解I。
Fill in the blanks。
1。
The features that define our human languages can be called ______ features. (北二外2006研）2。
Linguistics is usually defined as the ______study of language。
（北二外2003研)3. Language， broadly speaking， is a means of______ communication。
4。
In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences b ased on limited rules。
This feature is usually termed______5。
Linguistics is the scientific study of______。
6。
Modern linguistic is______ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some r ules for people to observe.7. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of ______ over writing.8。
The branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of a language is called ______. (北二外2003研)9. The branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words is called______。
英语语言学
第一章:Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.(语言学普遍被定义为对语言进行的科学研究.)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(语言是用于人类交际目的的一套任意的有声符号系统.)The scope of linguistics(语言学的研究视野):1.phonetics(语音学)2.phonology(音位学)3.morphology(形态学)4.syntax(句法学)5.semantics(语义学)6.pragmatics(语用学)Some important distinctions in linguistics(语言学中的一些重要区分):1.prescriptive & descriptive(规定性与描写性)2.synchronic & diachronic(共时性与历时性)3.speech and writing(言语与文字)nguage and parole(语言与言语)petence and performance(语言能力与语言运用)6.traditional grammar and modern linguistics(传统语法与现代语言学)The difference between traditional grammar and modern linguistics(传统语法与现代语言学之间的异同点):1.Linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.2.Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.3.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.The design/defining features of human language(语言的甄别性特征):1.Arbitrariness(语言的武断性/任意性)2. Productivity(语言的创造性)3.Duality(语言的二重性)4.Displacement(语言的移位性)5.Cultural transmission(语言的文化传递性)第二章:Phonetics(语音学) is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds th at occur in the world’s languages.(语音学指的是对语言的语音媒介进行的研究)Three branches of phonetics:1.Articulatory phonetics(发音语音学)—from the speakers’ point of view,”how speakers produce speech sounds.”2.Auditory phonetics(听觉语音学)—from the hearer’s point of view,”how sounds are perceived.”3.Acoustic phonetics(声学语音学)—from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.Speech organs(发音器官):three important areas:1.the pharyngeal cavity(咽腔)----the throat2.the oral cavity(口腔)----the mouth3.the nasal cavity(鼻腔)----the noseThe diagram of speech organs:1.lips(唇)2.teeth(齿)3.teeth ridge(alveolus)(牙齿/龈)4.hard palate(硬腭)5.soft palate(velum)(软腭)6.uvula(小舌)7.tip of tongue(舌尖)8.blade of tongue(舌面)9.back of tongue(舌后) 10.vocal cords(声带) 11.pharyngeal cavity(咽腔) 12.nasal cavity(鼻腔)Orthographic representation of speech sounds(语音的正字法表征):1. A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet(IPA)国际音标.2. The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.(其基本原则是一个字母待变一个音.)Braod transcription(宽式标音)----used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics.Narrow transcription(严式标音)----used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics.Classification of English consonants(辅音的分类):Ⅰ、in terms of manner of articulation(发音方式):1.stops(闭塞音)/plosives(爆破音)2.fricatives(摩擦音)3.affricates(塞擦音)4.liquids(流音)5.nasals(鼻音)6.glides(滑音)/semivowels(半元音)Ⅱ、in terms of place of articulation(发音部位):1.bilabial(双唇音)biodental(唇齿音)3.dental(齿音)4.alveolar(齿龈音)5.palatal(腭音)6.velar(软腭音)7.glottal(喉音)Classification of English vowels(元音的分类):1.monophthongs or pure/single vowels(单元音)2.diphthongs(双元音)Phonology(音位学) studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is , the ways in which speech sounds forms systems and patterns in human languages.(音位学研究的是语音如何组合在一起并在交流中传达意义.)Phone(音素):a phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.(音素是一个语音单位或者说语音段.我们在语言交际中听到的、发出的语音都是音素。
第一章句法
第一章引论诺姆·乔姆斯基（Noam Chomsky）是生成语法理论的创始人，因此他的名字一般用作该理论的代名词。
自从乔姆斯基于1957年发表了其《句法结构》以来，在语言学领域掀起了一场革命。
这场革命给传统语法理论，特别是给当时占统治地位的结构主义理论带来了极大的冲击，从而出现了新的、最有活力的语言学流派 生成语法学派。
虽然这一学派起源于美国，但其影响很快波及到世界各国的语言学界，引起了不同的反响。
我国学者也在及时地翻译和介绍该学派代表性论著方面做了大量的工作，并且利用该理论分析和研究了汉语中的个别问题，取得了一定的成果。
我在学习该理论的过程中发现，生成语法理论更适用于研究维吾尔语这样形态较发达的语言。
然而，我们在以往的维吾尔语及其他阿尔泰语言的研究中，多以传统的或结构主义的理论为指导思想，很少谈到生成语法理论，很少有人把这一理论应用到这些语言的研究上。
因此在这一章里，我觉得有必要先简要介绍一下乔姆斯基的语言理论、研究方法以及该理论的优越性。
1.1 阿弗拉姆·诺姆·乔姆斯基阿弗拉姆·诺姆·乔姆斯基（Avram Noam Chomsky）于1928年12月7日生于美国宾夕法尼亚州费城。
他早年在费城的橡树巷乡村田间学校和中心中学读书，后来进入宾夕法尼亚大学攻读语言学、数学、哲学等课程，获得博士学位。
他在1951年至1955年期间任哈佛大学研究学会初级研究员。
1955年以来，他一直是麻省理工学院的现代语言和现代语言学教授。
乔姆斯基的父亲是有声望的希伯来语言学家。
他一开始从父亲那里学到了历史语言学的知识。
但对乔姆斯基的学术发展上起到更重要影响的人是宾夕法尼亚大学的语言学教授齐律格·哈里斯（Zellig Harris）。
由于他对哈里斯政治观点的同情以及他本人对逻辑学及数学原理的兴趣，他开始学习语言学并创建了自己的生成语法体系。
他在学术上取得的重大成就使他在学术界赢得了很高的声誉。
Language competence and performance
构词法是迅速扩大英语词汇量的有效方法Language competence and performance学生应该学美式发音还是英式发音元音：英语和美语的发音最大的区别之一在它们对浑元音（schwa，音标中的倒写e，）的处理。
英语中，浑元音在单元音中常通发生在一些非重读的短音a（如about）和短音er（如computer）上。
美语中的er很少为浑元音，并有时对短音i（如sentimental,actuality）和u（如wuss），甚至短音的oo（如：hooker）采用了浑元音。
（这四个例子在英语中的发音分别为[i], [i], [u:], [u]）浑元音的读音是不定的，但是听起来差不多像一个急促的介于“俄”和“啊”的发音。
英语和美语的发音最具代表性的区别是对er的发音的不同。
英语中，短音的er是如上所述的浑元音，但长音的er也不过是个拉长了的浑元音，听起来是一个很夸张的介于“俄”和“啊”的声音。
而美语中，er听起来怎么都是个“儿”音（例外是一些俗语中发成浑元音）。
ar：除了轻读短音（如singular）和者后连元音（如clarity），英语的ar全部清一色的长音[a:]，而美语中，是“阿尔”。
事实上，凡是有r在一个音节尾部的时候，美英发音通常都是不一样的，如tour(英：吐啊，美：吐儿)，tear(英：踢啊，美：踢儿)，pair（英：pe啊，美：pe儿）。
甚至在刚才提到的clarity中，英语['kleriti],美语['kle儿r(er)ti]元音的发音中还有一个比较重要的区别。
一是[o]音：短音的o（如often），英语中发音仅仅为一个缩短了的长音o（如or），而美式的短音o听起来和英语的短音[/]很像，同时长音o 后面如果有r都通常像上一段里说的那样儿化了，没有的话（如plausible, applause）就自动变成了一个短音的o的发音。
另外对u，i和其他元音组合的浑元音化，前面提到了一些，其他就*大家自己体会了。
语言学习与语言教学的原则
ADULT: Now Adam, listen to what i say. Tell me which is better to say...some water, or a water.
ADAM: Pop go weasel.
Comprehension and Production
competence
高永奇.第二语言习得.苏州：苏州大学出版社，2014.9
贾冠杰.英语教学基础理论.上海外语教育出版社，2010
Universal
Werner Leopold: phonological and grammatical universals Maratsos: universal linguistic categories
word order tone agreement(eg. of subject and verb) nouns and noun classes verbs and verb classes
saussure(1916:9) : speech is many-sided and heterogeneous: straddling several areas simultaneously--physical, physiological, and psychological.
Language and Thought
Teaching must enable learners to grasp the five components of communicative competence, but not just the linguistic competence.
Bibliography
Adamson,H.D.1988.Variation Theory and Second Language Aquisition.Washington DC: Georgetown University Press.
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An essay on linguistics Language Competence and Language PerformanceName：xxxClass：xxxNumber ：xxx[Abstract]Language is a tool of communication. The fundamental purpose to master a language is to communicate. This article lists Chomsky’s and Hymes’ definition of language competence and performance, an analysis of their distinction, relationship and enlightenments to foreign language learning, expecting to provide some help to the learners.[Key words] language competence, language performance, learning.In the process of language learning, people often talk about competence and performance which are two skills of language learning. They rely on each other as well as promote each other. Understanding their meanings and differences correctly takes a positive influence to our foreign language learning.Ⅰ.The Differences between Competence and Performance In order to understand the two concepts of language competence and language performance, it’s worth mentioning the two linguistics’ points of view.1.1 Chomsky’s standpointChomsky is a U.S. linguist famous for his important ideas about language, including the idea that everyone is born with knowledge about grammar.According to Chomsky, language competence and language performance are completely different. Competence is an ability to recognize and understand sentences, including summarizing the language materials and deducing them to the language rules and regular sentences. He thought, language refers to the ability of the speakers’ and liste ners’ internal knowledge. Competence is the speakers’ underlying linguistic knowledge and the abstract master to language system. Performance is just the actual behavior of competence. Although performance is derived from competence, it’s not equal to competence. Performance is unique and diverse, and always dependent on the environment. Competence is an abstract concept that is full of details but unable to confirm. They are totally two fundamentally different phenomenons. To attachimportance to language is to attach to the most basic things, namely language competence.1.2 Hymes’ standpoint.Hymes is an American anthropologist and linguist famous for his idea about communicative competence.In accordance with Hymes, language competence refers to not only make sentences obey the grammatical rules, but also use the language appropriately. He put forward communicative competence that is antagonistic to Chomsky's language competence. Hymes thought, Chomsky’s thought only involves language rules but ignores the social rules which is the important characteristic of communicative functions as a social phenomenon. In his view, competence is the ability to communicate in a particular environment with using language smoothly. That is to say, one’s communicative compe tence includes not only language knowledge, but also the ability to use language appropriately in social environment. Training the four basic language skills—listening, speaking, reading, writing—should reflect the interdependence of language and communication.Ⅱ.The Relationship between Competence and PerformanceLanguage competence and language performance are interdependent and complementary to each other.On the one hand, language competence is the premise of language performance. Competence is to perfo rmance what composer’s skills is to composing or improvising music. Without solid language skills can not gain a good ability of language use.On the other hand, to improve the ability of language performance can enhance and consolidate the lever of language competence. Performance is reflected in the competence, since language ability is not equal to have the ability to use the language. Performance can neither be replaced by nor improve in pace with competence, but to gain by training and practicing.Ⅲ. Enlightenments to Foreign Language LearningThe ultimate purpose of foreign language learning is not only to learn grammatical knowledge, but also to cultivate students' ability of using language. If we only emphasize the use of language ability, while neglect the basic knowledge of language learning, it is not possible to complete the task of foreign language learning. In another word, ignoring either competence or performance is not able to reach the purpose of foreign language learning. The ideal learning effect is that language competence and language performance should keep in the same pace.Ⅳ.ConclusionI think that for the students of foreign language, competence needs to be nurtured in the process of enhancing performance, but competence calls for more efforts at the beginning stage while success in performance may motivate the acquisition of competence.References1.胡壮麟语言学教程第四版北京：北京大学出版社20112.胡壮麟、姜望琪语言学高级教程北京：北京大学出版社20023.王宗炎语言与语言的应用上海：上海外语教育出版社1998。