专业英语文献翻译
工业工程专业英语最全翻译
UNIT ONEIndust rialEngine ering Educat ion for the 21st Centur y21世纪的工业工程教育The 21st centur y is just a few yearsaway. Strate gic planne rs all over the world a re usingthe year 2000 as the pointfuture busine ss activi ties.Are we all ready f or that time? As the indust rialworldprepar es to meet the techno logic al chall e n gesof the 21st centur y, thereis a need to focuson the people who will take it there. People will be the most import ant of the “man-machin e-materi al” system s compet ing in the next centur y. IEs should play a crucia l role in prepar ing organ i z atio ns for the 21st centur y throug h theirrolesas change initia torsand facil i t ator s. Improv ement s are needed in IE underg radua te educat ion if that role is to be succes sfull y carrie d out.21世纪来临在即，全世界的战略家们把2000年作为商业活动的焦点。
英语专业文献的翻译
简单句的翻译一、转换法英汉两种语言在造句方式和表达习惯上有较大区别，翻译中如果词类、成分一一对应直译，会使译文不通顺、难理解甚至无法交流，其最大的原因就是不会用转换法。
转换法包括词类或词性转换、句子成分转换、修饰词与被修饰词的转换等。
词类转换就是翻译处理时将某种词类的词译成另一种词类，因此句子结构也随之发生改变。
1、转化为汉语动词最常见的是英语中的名词、动名词或名词化结构转化为汉语中的动词，其原因是英语动词发达，而汉语则是动词占优势。
还有英语的形容词、副词、介词等结构转化为汉语的动词。
We also realized the growing need and necessity to industrialize certain sectors of the economy.我们也认识到越来越需要将某些经济部门工业化。
A successful scientist must be a good observer, accurate, patient and objective.一位成功的科学家必须善于观察，准确、耐心而客观。
With such knowledge one can decide which properties are relevant to one’s problem and whether the list values for specific properties are directly applicable.有了这样的知识，我们就能确定那些性能和我们考虑的特定问题有关，以及某些特定性能所列数值是否可以直接应用。
形容词转化为汉语动词更常见的是“the ＋形容词”组成的名词性结构如“theold, the infirm, the ill, the very young”（老、弱、病、幼者）。
此外还有一些作表语的形容词，包含感觉、知觉、情感、想法、信含、欲望等含义，其后常搭配一定的介词、不定式或that从句。
zotero翻译英文文献
zotero翻译英文文献如果你正在进行英文论文写作或者学术研究，那么你一定知道翻译英文文献这个问题非常重要。
如果你的英文水平较低或者文献来源于国外，那么你可能需要一些辅助工具。
今天，我们将介绍一个非常重要的翻译工具，那就是Zotero。
Zotero是一个免费的引用管理器，它可以帮助你轻松地保存，管理和分享你的文献。
除此之外，它还内置了一个翻译工具，可以帮助你翻译英文文献。
以下是使用Zotero翻译英文文献的步骤：第一步，下载并安装Zotero。
你可以在Zotero的官方网站上下载并安装。
第二步，添加你的文献。
你可以通过复制粘贴文献的URL或者ISBN号码来添加一个文献到Zotero中。
当然，最好的方法是安装Zotero的浏览器扩展程序，这样你可以直接抓取网页上的文献。
第三步，选择你要翻译的文献。
在Zotero中选中你要翻译的文献，右键点击鼠标，在弹出菜单中选择“翻译”选项。
第四步，选择翻译的语言。
在弹出的翻译菜单中，选择你要翻译的语言。
Zotero支持多种语言的翻译，包括英语、中文、德语、法语、西班牙语等。
第五步，等待翻译完成。
Zotero会自动连接翻译引擎，并在几秒钟内为你翻译好整个文献的内容。
在翻译完成后，你可以看到翻译后的文献内容，帮助你更好地理解文献。
值得一提的是，虽然Zotero内置了翻译工具，但是翻译质量并不保证。
Zotero只是调用了一些免费的翻译引擎，并不能保证所有内容都翻译得准确无误。
因此，在使用翻译工具时，我们还是需要对翻译结果进行验证和调整。
综上所述，使用Zotero翻译英文文献非常简单，只需要几个简单的步骤即可完成。
但需要注意的是，翻译结果并不保证翻译得十分精确，我们需要对翻译后的文献内容进行验证和调整。
最好的方法是学习英语并自己翻译文献，这样可以更好地理解文献，提高自己的语言能力。
各专业的英文翻译
哲学Philosophy马克思主义哲学Philosophy of Marxism中国哲学Chinese Philosophy外国哲学Foreign Philosophies逻辑学Logic伦理学Ethics美学Aesthetics宗教学Science of Religion科学技术哲学Philosophy of Science and Technology经济学Economics理论经济学Theoretical Economics政治经济学Political Economy经济思想史History of Economic Thought经济史History of Economic西方经济学Western Economics世界经济World Economics人口、资源与环境经济学Population, Resources and Environmental Economics应用经济学Applied Economics国民经济学National Economics区域经济学Regional Economics财政学（含税收学）Public Finance (including Taxation)金融学（含保险学）Finance (including Insurance)产业经济学Industrial Economics国际贸易学International Trade劳动经济学Labor Economics统计学Statistics数量经济学Quantitative Economics中文学科、专业名称英文学科、专业名称国防经济学National Defense Economics法学Law法学Science of Law法学理论Jurisprudence法律史Legal History宪法学与行政法学Constitutional Law and Administrative Law刑法学Criminal Jurisprudence民商法学(含劳动法学、社会保障法学) Civil Law and Commercial Law (including Science of Labour Law and Science of Social Security Law )诉讼法学Science of Procedure Laws经济法学Science of Economic Law环境与资源保护法学Science of Environment and Natural Resources Protection Law国际法学(含国际公法学、国际私法学、国际经济法学、) International law (including International Public law, International Private Law and International Economic Law)军事法学Science of Military Law政治学Political Science政治学理论Political Theory中外政治制度Chinese and Foreign Political Institution科学社会主义与国际共产主义运动Scientific Socialism and InternationalCommunist Movement中共党史(含党的学说与党的建设) History of the Communist Party of China(including the Doctrine of China Party and Party Building)马克思主义理论与思想政治教育Education of Marxist Theory and Education in Ideology and Politics国际政治学International Politics国际关系学International Relations外交学Diplomacy社会学Sociology社会学Sociology人口学Demography人类学Anthropology民俗学(含中国民间文学) Folklore (including Chinese Folk Literature)民族学Ethnology民族学Ethnology马克思主义民族理论与政策Marxist Ethnic Theory and Policy中国少数民族经济Chinese Ethnic Economics中国少数民族史Chinese Ethnic History中国少数民族艺术Chinese Ethnic Art教育学Education教育学Education Science教育学原理Educational Principle课程与教学论Curriculum and 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材料科学与工程Materials Science and Engineering材料物理与化学Materials Physics and Chemistry材料学Materialogy材料加工工程Materials Processing Engineering冶金工程Metallurgical Engineering冶金物理化学Physical Chemistry of Metallurgy钢铁冶金Ferrous Metallurgy有色金属冶金Non-ferrous Metallurgy动力工程及工程热物理Power Engineering and Engineering Thermophysics 工程热物理Engineering Thermophysics热能工程Thermal Power Engineering动力机械及工程Power Machinery and Engineering流体机械及工程Fluid Machinery and Engineering制冷及低温工程Refrigeration and Cryogenic Engineering化工过程机械Chemical Process Equipment电气工程Electrical Engineering电机与电器Electric Machines and Electric Apparatus电力系统及其自动化Power System and its Automation高电压与绝缘技术High V oltage and Insulation Technology电力电子与电力传动Power Electronics and Power Drives电工理论与新技术Theory and New Technology of Electrical Engineering电子科学与技术Electronics Science and Technology物理电子学Physical Electronics电路与系统Circuits and Systems微电子学与固体电子学Microelectronics and Solid State Electronics电磁场与微波技术Electromagnetic Field and Microwave Technology信息与通信工程Information and 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Engineering航空宇航器制造工程Manufacturing Engineering of Aerospace Vehicle人机与环境工程Man-Machine and Environmental Engineering兵器科学与技术Armament Science and Technology武器系统与运用工程Weapon Systems and Utilization Engineering兵器发射理论与技术Armament Launch Theory and Technology火炮、自动武器与弹药工程Artillery, Automatic Gun and Ammunition Engineering军事化学与烟火技术Military Chemistry and Pyrotechnics核科学与技术Nuclear Science and Technology核能科学与工程Nuclear Energy Science and Engineering核燃料循环与材料Nuclear Fuel Cycle and Materials核技术及应用Nuclear Technology and Applications辐射防护及环境保护Radiation and Environmental Protection农业工程Agricultural Engineering农业机械化工程Agricultural Mechanization Engineering农业水土工程Agricultural Water-Soil Engineering农业生物环境与能源工程Agricultural Biological Environmental and Energy Engineering农业电气化与自动化Agricultural Electrification and Automation林业工程Forestry Engineering森林工程Forest Engineering木材科学与技术Wood Science and Technology林产化学加工工程Chemical Processing Engineering of Forest Products环境科学与工程Environmental Science and 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Medicine临床兽医学Clinical Veterinary Medicine林学Forestry林木遗传育种学Forest Tree Genetics and Breeding森林培育学Silviculture森林保护学Forest Protection森林经理学Forest Management野生动植物保护与利用Wildlife Conservation and Utilization园林植物与观赏园艺Ornamental Plants and Horticulture水土保持与荒漠化防治Soil and Water Conservation and Desertification Combating 水产学Fisheries Science水产养殖学Aquaculture Science捕捞学Fishing Science渔业资源学Science of Fisheries Resources医学Medicine基础医学Basic Medicine人体解剖与组织胚胎学Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology免疫学Immunology病原生物学Pathogenic Organisms病理学与病理生理学Pathology and Pathophysiology法医学Forensic Medicine放射医学Radiation Medicine航空航天与航海医学Aerospace and Nautical medicine临床医学Clinical Medicine内科学（含心血管病学、血液病学、呼吸系病学、消化系病学、内分泌与代谢病学、肾脏病学、风湿病学、传染病学）Internal medicine (including Cardiology, Hematology, Respiratory, Gastroenterology, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Nephrology, Rheuma-tology, Infectious Diseases)儿科学Pediatrics老年医学Geriatrics神经病学Neurology精神病与精神卫生学Psychiatry and Mental Health皮肤病与性病学Dermatology and 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数学专业英语第二版的课文翻译
2－A Why study geometry Many leading institutions of higher learning have recognized that positive benefits can be gained by all who study this branch of mathematics. This is evident from the fact that they require study of geometry as a prerequisite to matriculation in those schools. 许多居于领导地位的学术机构承认，所有学习这个数学分支的人都将得到确实的受益，许多学校把几何的学习作为入学考试的先决条件，从这一点上可以证明。
Geometry had its origin long ago in the measurement by the Babylonians and Egyptians of their lands inundated by the floods of the Nile River. The greek word geometry is derived from geo, meaning “earth” and metron, meaning “measure” . As early as 2000 . we find the land surveyors of these people re-establishing vanishing landmarks and boundaries by utilizing the truths of geometry . 几何学起源于很久以前巴比伦人和埃及人测量他们被尼罗河洪水淹没的土地，希腊语几何来源于geo ，意思是”土地“，和metron 意思是”测量“。
土木工程给水排水英文文献及翻译-英语论文
土木工程给水排水英文文献及翻译-英语论文土木工程给水排水英文文献及翻译Building drainage of water-saving techniquesWith people's quality of life，the quality and quantity of water are constantly expanding. Implement sustainable water use and protection of water resources from destruction. And access to healthy water, recycling of water, has become the government and the broad masses of the people the focus of attention. All this gave to the construction of drainage works on the design of the many new requirements, water supply advanced technology of the urgent need to accelerate the pace. This paper will explore more of the building for drainage of water-saving technology; we hope to arouse the awareness of water conservation to build water-saving city efforts.Construction of a water-saving project, in addition to the water saving should formulate laws and regulations to strengthen the management and day-to-day publicity and education use price leverage to promote water conservation work, but also take effective measures, to ensure that the construction of water-saving work carried out in-depth and comprehensive. We are aware that the water supply network's coverage, the extension of transmission mains and the construction of the building because arisingfrom the difference in height, will be used to increase the water pressure before the end of ways to protect the most disadvantaged water points will be adequate water supply, This will be a large number of regional supply of high pressure water supply is. Therefore accessories before the water hydrostatic head greater than outflow, the flow was greater than the rated flow capacity. Beyond the rated flow capacity of that part of the normal flow did not have the use efficiency is a waste of water. As a result of this water is being wasted is not easy to detect and understand, it could be called a "stealth" wasting water.It has been in a different type of floor, the building 67 water distribution points so the overpressure from the measured flow analysis, Statistical results are 55% of the iron spiral movements - taps (hereinafter referred to as "ordinary water") and 61% of the ceramic valve - leading the flow of water-saving more than their rated flow, the super-flow pressure from the state. Two endings the largest flow out of the rated flow capacity of about three times [1]. This shows that in our existing buildings, water supply system overpressure out-flow phenomenon is widespread and it is a fairly serious. In distribution point pressure As overpressure flow out of the "invisible" water is not wasted paid enough attention to, So in our existing "building water supply and drainage design" and "construction water supply and drainage design GBJ15-20 00 draft "(hereinafter referred to as" draft "), although the wateraccessories and home support the greatest pressure certain restrictive provisions in [2], but this is only to prevent water from the high pressure parts will lead to damage to the point of consideration, not prevent excess pressure from the out-flow point of view, the pressure is too lenient restrictions on the flow overpressure no fundamental role. Therefore, in accordance with the water supply system overpressure flow from the actual situation, the pressure on the water supply system to make reasonable limit.1.2 measures taken decompressionWater supply system in a reasonable allocation of decompression device is to control pressure within the limits required to reduce excess pressure from the flow of technical support.1.2.1 Jangled nervesRelief valve is a good decompression device, can be divided into proportional (lower left) of direct action and the type (Photo) The former is based on the ratio of the area to determine the proportion of decompression, which can be set under pressure prior decompression, When the water-stop water, you can also be controlling the vacuum tube pressure is not increased, Decompression can achieve dynamic can achieve static decompression.1.2.2 Decompression orifice and conserving Cypriots1106土木工程给水排水英文文献及翻译Orifice decompression compared with jangled nerves example, the system is relatively simple, less investment, easy management. The practice of some units, water-saving effects are fairly obvious, If Shanghai Jiao tong University in the school bathroom water pipe installation aperture of 5 mm orifice, water-saving about 43%. But decompression orifice only by the dynamic pressure, static pressure can be reduced and the pressure downstream with the upstream pressure and the flow is changed, is not stable enough. In addition, the vacuum orifice plug easy. In better water quality and water pressure more stable, by using [3]. Cutting expenditure and the role of Cypriot advantages and decompression orifice basically are the same. Suitable for the small diameter and accessories installed to use [3].1.3 adopt water-saving leadingA trial showed that the leading Practical water-saving taps and the general state of the full, flow out of the former than the latter out of the flow. That is the same pressure, the leading water conservation has good water saving, water-saving volume in 20% ~ 30% between. And the higher the pressure ordinary tap water from the larger, water-saving is leading the greater the volume of water-saving. Therefore, should the building (especially in the standard water pressure in water distribution points) leading installation of water-saving, reduce water wastage. In 1999 theMinistry of Construction, State Economic and Trade Commission, State Bureau of Building materials apparatuses jointly issued a document "on the elimination of residential buildings behind the products notified" require large and medium-sized cities in new residential prohibit the use of helical-style cast iron nozzle movements, actively adopt "ceramic cartridge faucets" and "common faucet technical conditions of the ceramic cartridge faucets [4]. Since the main building of our school building earlier in the toilet faucet is still an ordinary spiral movement - iron taps. We have often seen leading loosening and tightening the leading difficulty caused by the leakage phenomenon. In fact, there is such a faucet overpressure caused by the "invisible" huge waste of water. Schools should arouse the concern of the relevant departments, from the long-term interests for the use of water-saving new leader, reduce unnecessary losses.2 vigorously develop the construction of water facilities, "watercourse." As the name suggests is not delivered on the waterways clean water is not sullied by sewage contamination. Residents put a wash, bathing, washing clothes and other water washing and flushing water together, after CO., filtration and disinfection, Sterilization, which imported waterway network, for toilet flushing, washing cars, and pouring green, onto the road and other non-drinking purposes. China therefore waterway is also known as miscellaneous water Road. With a watercourse which cubic metersof water, equivalent to the use of one cubic meters of clean water, emit less nearly a cubic meter of sewage and kill two birds with one stone. Water-saving achieved nearly 50% [3]. Therefore, the channel has many of the world's water shortage in cities used extensively.2.1 full use washing wastewater and other quality miscellaneous drainage The existing water facilities built in most hotels, colleges, and the basic source for the bathroom bathing wastewater. For some small units, smaller than bathing wastewater, and discharge time is too concentrated, Water facilities are not stable and adequate source of water. And washing with water wastewater, the use of time more evenly, water treatment and the advantages of relatively good, as a water source, to be fully exploited.2.2 Develop and implement as soon as possible the return to the new water quality standardsThe current construction of water reused implementation of the existing “life miscellaneous water quality standards.” The total coli form standards and the requirements of "sanitary standard for drinking water," the same, compared to the developed countries and the Chinese water standards apply to the swim-minus III also strict standards. This has led to two problems: First, many of the existing water works is less than the standard; 2 are fulfilled with a certain degree of difficulty, improvethe water project investment and processing cost. So should develop appropriate indicators of the value of water works to promote the spread土木工程给水排水英文文献及翻译and popularize. Water Saving water is not limiting, or even prevents the water. But reasonable people to water, efficient use of water and not waste. As long as we pay attention to fit the family's bad habits, we will be able to water-saving around 70% [3]. Water and waste a lot of the habits, such as: flush toilets single wash cigarette butts and broken fine waste; to access a cup of cold water. Many people will not venting water; spend the potatoes, carrots after peeling, washing or after the optional vegetables; when the water stopped (open access customers, answer the phone, change TV channels), not turning off the tap; During the suspension, forget turning off the tap; toilets, wash, brush, let the water has been flowing; Before sleep, go out, do not check the faucet; equipment leaks, not promptly repaired. From the following table, we can see in many parts of life as long as we interested to note that the conservation of water is very impressive.3 to promote the use of water-saving devicesIn addition to the family of water-saving attention to cultivate good habits of water, using water-saving devices is very important and also the most effective. Some people prefer laissez-faire, but also refusedto replace water-saving devices, in fact, so much water is a long time down the uneconomical. Thus vigorously promote the use of water-saving devices is the construction of water-saving important ways and means.3.1Water-saving taps3.1.1 Water Saving leading CeramicsCurrently most of the water-saving taps used Ceramics taps. Such taps compared with ordinary taps, water was typically up to 20% ~ 30%; and other types of water-saving compared to the leading and cheap [3]. Therefore, in the residential buildings of architectural vigorously promote the use of such water-saving lead. We taught the fifth floor of the dormitory building and are used by such leading.3.1.2 Closed since delay tapsSince the delay in the water taps closed after a certain time, shut down automatically to avoid Changliushui phenomenon. Water timing to be in a certain range adjustment, both for the convenience of Health has complied with the water-saving requirements suitable for washing in public places with.3.1.3 Photoelectric controlled tapsClosed since the delay of water-saving taps but water while fixed time and meet the different requirements of the use of the object. Photoelectric controlled taps will be able to overcome the above drawbacks, such as the latest one of the type of infrared device control wash, Thefirst installation will be self-inspection of the device in front of or below the fixed reflectors (for example, vanity) and based on the reflectors adjust their distance from work to avoid the past because of automatic water obstacles closer to the front of regular water, Such intelligent device can wash your hands although below action without washing their hands without water. a long time will wash water and do not have long-term can also regularly flush Water Seal failure to avoid a supply shortage ahead of the police [3].3.2The total water-saving flush3.2.1 Use of small volume cisterns commodeChina is promoting the use of water tanks 6 L fecal water-saving devices, and have flushing water to 4.5 L or even less, stood on the stool available. However, we should also pay attention to the drainage system to ensure the normal work of the use of small volume cisterns commode, otherwise they will be brought to plug the pipeline, not a net wash, and other issues. Two respectively flushing cisterns in urine, flushing water for 4 L (or less); Washing stool, Chong stood at 9 L (or less) [3]. (Map is a two-valve I-Yuan annually to the water tanks, to open the stool below the drain urine when opened above the drain Pictured left is the two-block cisterns switch several forms) Israel's construction regulations require all new buildings to install two respectively wash cisterns. China should also vigorously promoted two respectively cisterns, because one day, thenumber is far higher than the urine stool frequency. To three homes as an example, per person per day for a meeting of feces, urine four times and the use of existing water tanks L 9, day to 135 L of water; 6 L of water use, 90 L of water a day;土木工程给水排水英文文献及翻译and the use of cisterns two respectively, 75 L of water a day, can be seen using two respectively cisterns 9 L 6 L than using more water-saving cisterns [3]. 6 L Yuan annually to the use of water-saving cisterns better results. The use of tanks in two trances another advantage is not right and the replacement of the total drainage system to carry out reform therefore particularly applicable to existing buildings the total replacement of water tanks.3.2.2-washing UrinalThe United States launched the Urinal-washing, which is not water, the stench from the toilets without using utensils, In fact, only in one end Urinal add special "trap" devices, but because the economic, health, water effectively, So popular station.3.2.3Photoelectric control UrinalUrinal photoelectric controls in a number of public buildings installations.3.2.4 Delayed flushing valve closedIt is the use of guide-work principle, water officials directly connected with the water pressure high enough circumstances, can protect the instantaneous flushing commode needs to replace tanks and accessories, installation is simple and easy to use, health, low prices, Water-saving effect of the obvious characteristics [3]. We carpentry center is used for such cleaning.3.3 in hot water systems installed in various forms of water-saving devicesIf installed in public bathrooms limited flow orifice, in the cold, hot water imported pressure balance between the installation of equipment; Installation of low-flow plumbing. Inflatable hot water thermostat and cooling, hot water mixed hydrants.3.4 to further develop various forms of water-saving devices3.4.1 Development of different water taps outSome countries, in different places with different water out of taps, Singapore provides water for washing vegetables pots 6 L / min, shower water 9 L / min; China's Taiwan Province launched the spray-wash special taps, the flow was 1 L / min. In China, various taps most of the rated flow capacity of 0.2 L / s, that is 12 L / min, excessive [4]. Therefore be reasonable to develop taps the rated flow, and gradually installed in different places different from water taps.3.4.2 Vacuum water-saving techniquesTo ensure that sanitary ware and sewer cleaning effect of vacuum technology can be applied to drainage works Most of the air instead of using water, relying on the vacuum of high-speed gas-water mixture, and rapid disposal of the sewage, dirt-gully clean and save water and drain away the effects of dirty air. A complete vacuum drainage system, including: vacuum valve and with a magnitude of suction devices occupants, the closed aqueduct, vacuum collection containers. Vacuum pumps, control equipment and channels and so on. Together with the vacuum generated 40 ~ 5min the negative pressure of sewage pumped to the collection containers, then will collect sewage pump effluent into the municipal sewer. Different types of construction in the use of vacuum technology, the average water-saving exceed 40%. The use of the office building water-saving will rate-70% [2].3.4.3 Development zone leading to the wash waterIn Japan, many families use with the leading water wash, wash all the wastewater into water tanks for back flushing. If the water tank, they can directly turn on the water faucet open. Irrigation water use, it can not only save water but also reduce the costs. At present, the water in China has sales.土木工程给水排水英文文献及翻译随着人民生活质量的提高，对供水量和质的要求正不断扩展.同时实施水的可持续利用和保护，使水资源不受破坏，并能进入良性的水质、水量再生循环，也已成为政府和广大人民群众关注的焦点。
八大英文文献翻译神器
你值得拥有的八大英文文献翻译神器不管是做科研还是写SCI论文，开始都需要阅读大量的文献，做课题至少查阅600篇，粗看300篇，细看100篇，研读50篇，在看到一叠叠论文后，由于语言问题，往往会觉得无从下手，下面分享几款常用的文献翻译神器。
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2、SCI Translate9.0目前有9.0普通版以及VIP版，VIP版内置Google 人工智能云翻译引擎，翻译精准度很强；没有广告。
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6、LingoesLingoes是一款简明易用的词典与文本翻译软件，支持全球超过80多种语言的词典查询、全文翻译、屏幕取词、划词翻译、例句搜索、网络释义和真人语音朗读功能。
7、有道词典有道词典是个神器，尤其是查词、划词、取词的方面特别突出，词库中有所有专业用语的补充包，可以让你瞬间翻译出各种专业的英文单词，从复杂的有机化合物，到稀奇古怪的动物名，哪里不会点哪里。
8、Copy Translator比较适用于即时翻译，内置了谷歌翻译、百度翻译、有道翻译、搜狗翻译、彩云翻译和腾讯翻译几种不同的翻译引擎，随意切换，总有一个适合你。
医用英语医学文献翻译4（缺5,9整理版）
医⽤英语医学⽂献翻译4（缺5,9整理版）UNIT 1 TEXT B刷⽛，使⽤⽛线，以及每年2次的⽛齿检查是⼝腔卫⽣保健标准，但是保护你珍珠样洁⽩的⽛齿的好处远⽐我们知道的还要多。
在⼀篇评论⽂章中，塔夫茨⼤学⽛科医学院的⼀个教员破除了常见的⽛科神话，并概述了饮⾷和营养如何影响⼉童，青少年，孕妇，成年⼈和⽼年⼈的⼝腔健康。
误区1：⼝腔卫⽣的不良后果是限制嘴巴准妈妈也许不知道她们所吃的⾷物会影响到胎⼉的⽛齿发育。
在怀孕过程中的营养缺乏也许会使未出⽣的孩⼦在今后的⽣活中更容易出现蛀⽛。
“在14周到4个⽉⼤的时候，缺乏钙，维⽣素D，维⽣素A，蛋⽩质和卡路⾥会导致⼝腔软组织缺损，” Carole Palmer说。
Carole Palmer是，教育学博⼠(EdD)，注册营养师(RD)，塔夫茨⼤学教授，公共健康和社会服务系营养和⼝腔健康推进部的负责⼈。
有数据表明缺乏⾜够的维⽣素B6和B12可能是导致患唇裂和阻碍味觉形成的危险因素。
在童年的时候，最普遍的疾病是蛀⽛，⼤约⽐⼉童哮喘⾼五倍。
“如果⼀个⼉童因为蛀⽛⽽嘴巴受伤，他/她在学校会⽐较难集中注意⼒，⽽且会更喜欢吃容易咀嚼的⾷物，这些⾷物含有的营养往往更少些。
甜甜圈和点⼼这样的⾷物⼤多营养品质低下，含糖量⾼于其他需要咀嚼的富含营养的⾷物，⽐如⽔果和蔬菜，” Palmer说。
“⼝腔并发症与不良的饮⾷习惯会造成认知和⽣长发育问题，以及导致肥胖。
”误区2：吃越多糖，越容易蛀⽛这与你吃了多少糖⽆关，⽽是糖和⽛齿接触的时间有多少。
“⾷物，⽐如慢慢溶解的糖果和苏打⽔在嘴巴⾥停留的时间会⽐较久。
这增加了⽛齿暴露在⼝腔细菌由糖产⽣成的酸中的时间，” Palmer说。
有研究表明，⼗⼏岁的青少年⼤约40%的碳⽔化合物是由软饮料中摄取的。
这些源源不断地软饮料增加了⽛齿腐烂的风险。
⽆糖碳酸饮料和酸性饮料，⽐如柠檬⽔，往往被认为⽐含糖饮料对⽛齿更安全，但是经常⾷⽤的话仍会造成⽛齿釉质脱矿。
专业英语文献翻译及总结
Drying characteristics ofsweet cherrya b s t r a c tThe effects of alkali emulsion of ethyl oleate and air temperature (60, 70 and 75 ◦C) on the drying characteristics of sweet cherrywere studied using a hot air dryer at a constant air velocity of 2.0 m/s. Itwas observed that both the alkali emulsion of ethyl oleate and air temperature affected the drying time. The drying times of pre-treated samples were 19.5–22.6% shorter than those of control samples. Five semi-theoretical thin-layer models, namely, Lewis, Henderson and Pabis, Logarithmic, Page,Wang and Singh modelswere used for the modeling of the drying kinetics. The fit quality obtained with each model was evaluated using statistical tests. After comparing experimentally obtained values with the calculated values from the models, it was concluded that Page model represents the drying characteristics better than the other models. The effective moisture diffusivity was determined by using Fick’s second law and was observed to lie between 5.683×10−10 and 1.544×10−9m2/s for the pre-treated and control samples. Rehydration ratio was significantly affected by pre-treatment and air temperature. It was found to increase proportionally with the increase in air drying temperature.Keywords: Sweet cherry; Drying; Mathematical models; Pre-treatment solution; Rehydration ratio1.IntroductionCherries occupy the Cerasus subgenus within Prunus genous of Rosaceae family, subfamily Prunodeae. Prunus甜樱桃的干燥特性摘要对油酸乙酯碱乳液和空气温度（60℃，70℃，75℃）对甜樱桃干燥特性的影响进行了研究，使用热风干燥机在一个恒定的空气流速为2.0m/s进行干燥。
【精品】53中英文双语英语翻译专业外文文献翻译成品：在翻译中迷失？译者在国际商务中的文化、语言与角色
外文标题：Lost in translation? Culture, language and the role of the translator in international business外文作者：John Blenkinsopp and Maryam Shademan Pajouh文献出处: 《Critical Perspectives on International Business》 , 2018 , 6 (1) :38-52(如觉得年份太老，可改为近2年，毕竟很多毕业生都这样做)英文3189单词， 17020字符(字符就是印刷符)，中文5098汉字。
此文档是毕业设计外文翻译成品（含英文原文+中文翻译），无需调整复杂的格式！下载之后直接可用，方便快捷！本文价格不贵,也就几十块钱！一辈子也就一次的事！Lost in translation? Culture, language and the role of thetranslatorin international businessJohn Blenkinsopp and Maryam Shademan PajouhTeesside University Business School, UKAbstractPurpose Issues of language in international business have been the focus of a growing body of theoretical and empirical work, and this paper contributes to this literature, focusing specifically on issues of translation. The role of translator will vary depending on the language strategy adopted, with strategies linked to differing perspectives on language in international business – mechanical, cultural and political. We examine these perspectives through the lens of a specific problem for transnational communication –…untranslatable‟ words and concepts. Design/methodology/approach Interviews were conducted withprofessional linguists (translators and interpreters) to explore how they dealt with issues of untranslatable but cultural salient words in their day-to- day work with international businesses, using the problems of translating the Farsi word tarouf into English as a case in point.Findings The linguists agreed that tarouf was an untranslatable word, and described their strategies to deal with this problem. The commoneststrategy was avoidance, stemming from linguists‟ concern to maintain their professional standing with clients, a finding which reflects an emerging emphasis on the importance of context and relationships forunderstanding inter-cultural communication.Practical implications The study highlights the crucial role of the translator in international business, and draws attention to the potential for cross-cultural communication problems arising from mutual lack of awareness of culturally-salient but inherently untranslatable words or phrases.Social implications Effective inter-cultural communication is an issue ofgreat importance to wider society, and business has historically been thecommonest site of such communication. Our study highlights an issue of considerable importance for improving inter-cultural communications, contributing to a growing inter-disciplinary literature in this area.Originality/value Much of the research on language in internationalbusiness has focused on the emergence of English as a lingua franca, but the present study focuses on specific issues of translation and does so in an under-researched location, Iran. It draws attention to a problem of translation not widely discussed, and shows how important this issue can be for international business.Keywords: international business; interpreters; language; tarouf; translators; cross-cultural communicationIntroductionThe multinational corporation (MNC) is, by definition, a multilingual organisation (Fredriksson et al, 2006) and multilingual situations occurwith increasing regularity at various levels of the organisation (Charles and Marschan-Piekkari, 2002). Though issues of communication within MNCs have been a concern within the field of international business for an extended period, the specific issue of language was neglected until relatively recently (Janssens et al, 2004; Welch et al, 2005). A possible explanation is that international business practice has also been somewhat blind to this issue – though the practicalities of language barriers were widely recognised, the full implications of …talking a different language‟ were not. Welch and Welch suggest language is …a mental model, framing activity and behaviour‟ (2008: 341), and these framing effects can be visible even at the level of a single word.An example is offered by Wierzbicka‟s (2001) examination of the Polish word przykro. Usually translated as hurt, offended, sorry or sad, Wierzbicka suggests something is lost in translation, describing przyko as a …culturally salien Polish emotion. …That is not to say that speakers of English never experience the emotion associated in Polish with the word przykro; only that they do not think habitually about their experiences in these terms‟(Wierzbicka, 2001: 22). The Chinese word guanxi offers another obvious example of a word which is both culturally salient and yet inherently …untranslatable‟. Gaunxi has become widely known –discussed and researched to a point where there is a degree of awareness of the concept and its importance in international business.Linguistic imperialismMuch of the literature on the role of language in international business has focused on two particular features. The first is the decisions made by MNCs regarding language use, particularly around choices as to whether to adopt a corporate lingua franca (and if so, which language to adopt)and related issues of translation and interpretation. The second is thestudy of the growth of English as a lingua franca, through linguistic imperialism (Philipson, 1992).Though a complex notion, linguistic imperialism is usefully captured as the process by which speakers of onelanguage come to feel it necessary to use anoth er language, …to the point where they believe they can and should use only that foreign language when it comes to transactions dealing with the more advanced aspects of life‟ (Ansre, 1979, cited in Sliwe, 2008). Ansre is clearly describing a final outcome, and the process of linguistic imperialism is likely to be highly contested. Though the present article is focused on issues of translation in international business, the rise of English as a lingua franca through linguistic imperialism forms an important backdrop our study, and we will briefly explore this literature.Language barriers in international businessThese issues of translation can obviously be viewed as a language barrier for international business, but Harzing and Feely (2008) argue that the idea of …language barriers‟ has been rather under-defined. They propose a model of communication in which different components contribute to a vicious circle which creates the language barrier – failure to communicate effectively leads to uncertainty, anxiety and mistrust, which produces misattribution, conflict and cognitive distortion, to which the various parties respond by engaging in greater formality in communication, which is less effective...and the circle is completed. Their model focuses on the HQ- subsidiary relationship in MNCs, but the idea that communication problems arising from language differences might produce a vicious circle seems relevant to a range of settings within international business. Jameson argues that language …defines cultura l groups, as well as being the most frequently used symbolic systems through which culture is conveyed‟ (2007: 214), and as such it is core to cross-cultural communication in all settings. One of the key issues which led us to examine the issue of …untranslatable‟ words is that they are likely to lead to situations in which the failure to communicate effectively is either not recognised, or is recognised but baffling to the parties involved. Translation StudiesIn this section we want to examine some of the key ideas in the field of translation studies which might shed light on the present study, though it is useful to recall Nida‟s point that many translators will not draw upon theory in any conscious fashion:Instead of speaking of theories of translation, we should perhapsspeak more about various approaches to the task of translating, different orientations which provide helpful insight, and diverse ways of talking about how a message can be transferred from onelanguage to another.(Nida, 1991: 21).We can see that the translator has a key role to play in this process, but Pym (2006) notes that until recently the field of translation studies has paid relatively little attention to their role as mediators. It should be noted that although we have used translator as a generic term, it is more preciseto use this to refer to those who translate the written word. Translators of the spoken word are more commonly referred to as interpreters, and Pym(2006) suggests that the importance of the mediating role is more obviousand immediate for interpreters. Consistent with this, our findings suggest that the issue of untranslatable words presents more of a problem for interpreters thantranslators.An overview of TaroufTarouf (…tar-off’) is a Farsi word which describes a complex cultural construct. Three different English-Farsi dictionaries offer the following translations:- salutation, compliment, comity, chivalry- compliment, ceremony, offer, present- compliment(s), ceremony, offer, gift, flummery, courtesy, flattery,formality, good manners, soft tongue, honeyed phrases.Many of these words have only limited relation to each other, and this is because they can be seen as facets of tarouf, and the kinds of behaviours associated with it. Two examples illustrate tarouf more effectively than these definitions. The first is an Iranian joke:Many years ago, a young Persian woman became pregnant. Themonths passed and she kept getting bigger, finally nine months came but no baby came out. She kept getting bigger and b igger…but still no baby! Years went by until she became an old woman with a huge belly. Finally the doctors had a machine that could look into her belly and see what was going on in there. They looked inside and saw two men with beards saying to each other, ‘after you’, ‘no, after you’, ‘no please, after you’.A second example was told to us by an Iranian about his cousin, born inthe UK of Iranian parents, who made his first visit to Iran in his early 20s.He took a taxi back to the airport, and he and the driver chatted for the whole of the journey. When he got to the airport he asked the driver to tell him the fare, but the driver said there was no charge, it had been a pleasure to talk with him. My cousin didn’t know about tarouf, so he took this at fac e value, thanked him profusely and left!The driver, despite no doubt being aghast at this turn of events, let him go.This illustrates that tarouf is deeply culturally embedded –the driver could ill afford to offer a free fare for such a long journey, yet faced with a customer who did not recognise the conventions of tarouf he felt unable to step outside of them and demand the fare.MethodIn order to explore the idea of tarouf as an …untranslatable‟ word, we interviewed translators working in English and Farsi. We were unable to secure access to translators through agencies, who appeared concerned our approach was a ruse to gain access to translators without paying an agency fee. We therefore adopted a snowball sampling approach, going directly to individual translators based in Iran, and asking them torecommend other potential participants for us to contact. Clearly the study was premised on our claim that tarouf is untranslatable, so we initially asked all participants whether they agreed with that assertion. All confirmed that it was so, and we proceeded to explore the three empirical questions listed above via in-depth telephone interviews with 31individuals – 16 translators (5 men, 11 women) and 14 interpreters (12men, 2 women). Six of the interpreters were interviewed twice, and were also sentfollow-up e-mails seeking clarification of key points. It was not possible to record the interviews so we were unable to produce transcripts, however detailed notes were taken. The opportunity for follow-up interviews and e-mails provided a further rigour to the data gathering process. The question of the implications for international business communication was something upon which they could provide some insight, but we decided to compare their views to those of practising managers so after completing the interviews with the translators, we undertook telephone interviews with five managers (three Iranian, two British) working for MNCs in Iran. The data analysis approached adopted was somewhat simplistic, in t hat we treated the participants‟ response as reporting fact, rather than as texts for analysis.FindingsHow do you deal with the word tarouf in your work?Though the concept of tarouf permeates all Iranian writing and speech, the word itself will occur relatively infrequently in the kinds of business documents which translators handle. They were initially rather defensive when we asked them about the difficulties in translating tarouf. Once they understood we were not criticising their practice, but interested in how they dealt with the problem, they explained that where possible they would seek a word which captured as far as possible the particular element of tarouf which was relevant in that passage. (Note: if the translated passages were then subjected to back translation, often seen as the acid test of good translation, the second translator would almost certainly not translate any of these words as …tarouf‟). The challenge of translation posed by tarouf was not confined to the word itself. There are what might be called …tarouf phrases‟, expressions of politeness which serve a …phatic function‟ (Tietze, 2007), that is, a function in maintaining social relationships.DiscussionThe first is that translators have a clear view on how to handle the issue of untranslatable words. They generally choose either to find the closest approximation in the target language, or to ignore the word altogether. Only when neither option seems possible do they choose to raise the issue of the untranslatable nature of a word or phrase, and on such occasions they will provide an explanation of the cultural context in order to help the audience understand what the author/speaker is attempting to convey. The fact they engage in such explanations only when deemed unavoidableappears to arise from a concern about the impact of this on theirprofessional image.ConclusionThis study highlights the significance of …untranslatable‟ words in multi- cultural communications, and the crucial mediating role of the translator/interpreter in international business communication. Our participants‟description of their practice reflected elements of all three perspectives on language use – mechanical, cultural and political –described by Janssens et al (2004). Their core practice remained wedded to the mechanical perspective, as they attempted to render documents or speech between Farsi and English as accurately as possible. The…untranslatable‟ nature of tarouf tested this preferred way of working to its limits, but only in certain circumstances did they choose to provide their clients with the cultural perspective required to understand fully the nature of their business interactions. Their choices demonstrate the significant power dimension of their role, consistent with the political perspective, butwhereas Janssens et al (2004) highlight organisational power dynamics, in this instance it is the professional status and personal business concerns of the translator/interpreter which dominate. Their judgement as to whether or not to offer an explanation of tarouf is based upon their view of whether this will enhance or diminish their standing in the eyes of their clients (and by extension, whether or not this will lead to repeat business). This suggests a need for greater attention to the role of the translator, and in particular greater clarity from clients as to what they require. The irony of course is that when dealing with …untranslatable‟ words and conceptsthe clients do not know what they are missing, and are therefore unlikelyto see the need to specify their requirements.ReferencesBarner-Rasmussen, W, and Bjorkman, I. (2005), “Surmounting interunit barriers”, International Studies of Management and Organisation, Vol. 35 No.1, pp. 28-46. Bjerregaard, T, Lauring, J, and Klitmoll er, A. (2009). “A critical analysis of intercultural communication research in cross-cultural management: Introducing newer developments in anthropology”, Critical Perspectives on International Business , Vol. 5 No. 3, pp. 207-228.Charles, M. (2007), “Language matters in global communication”, Journal of Business Communication, Vol.44 No. 3, pp. 260-282.Charles, M, and Marschan-Piekkari, R. 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(2008), International Management and Language, London, Routledge.Tietze, S. (2007), “Language and international management emergent themes and new perspectives”, Bradford University School of Management Working Paper, No. 07/35.Tollefson, J.W. (1991), Planning Language, Planning Inequality, Language Policy in the Community, New York, Longman.Toury, G. (1995), Descriptive Translation Studies and beyond, Amsterdam and Philadelphia, Benjamins.Welch, D.E, and Welch, L.S. (2008), “The importance of language in international knowled ge transfer”, Management International Review, Vol.48 No. 3, pp. 339-360.Welch, D, Welch. L, and Piekkari, R. (2005), “Speaking in tongues: The impact of language in international management processes”, International Studies of Management and Organization, Vol. 35 No. 1, pp. 10-27. Wierzbicka, A. (2001), “A Culturally Salient Polish Emotion: Przykro ['Pshickro]”, International Journal of Group Tensions, Vol. 30 , pp. 3-27.在翻译中迷失？译者在国际商务中的文化、语言与角色约翰．布莱金索普和玛雅姆．塞得门．帕乔英国梯塞德大学商学院摘要目标：国际商务中有关的语言问题一直是越来越多的理论和实证性工作的焦点，本文促成了这些文献并专注于翻译问题。
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New York: Arco Publishing Company. 1978.四、学术期刊翻译相关论文举例爱泼斯坦、林戊荪、沈苏儒. 呼吁重视对外宣传中的外语工作. 中国翻译, 2000 (6).蔡春露. 论《木匠的哥特式古屋》叙述的不确定性. 外国文学研究, 2004 (4).蔡春露. 论悲剧《李尔王》中的意象. 辽宁师范大学学报, 2002 (4).丁衡祁. 对外宣传中的英语质量亟待提高. 中国翻译, 2002 (4).丁金国. 汉英对比研究中的理论原则. 外语教学与研究，1996 (3).范敏、陈天祥. 论汉语成语的英译. 山东外语教学，200 (5).封宗颖、邵志洪.英汉第三人称代词深层回指对比与翻译. 外语学刊，2004 (5).冯寿农. 翻译是“异化”, 或是“化异”? 法国研究, 2002 (2).傅似逸. 试论对外宣传材料英译“以语篇为中心”的原则. 外语与外语教学, 2001 (11).高健. 语言个性与翻译. 外国语，1999 (4).关坤英. 朱自清散文的朦胧美——从《荷塘月色》谈起. 北京师范大学学报，1987 (5).郭建中. 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化. 外国语，1998 (2).郭建中. 汉语歇后语翻译的理论与实践. 中国翻译，1996 (2).韩庆果. “歇后语”一词的英译名及歇后语翻译初探. 外语与外语教学, 2002 (12).何兆熊. 英语人称代词使用中的语义含糊. 外国语. 1986 (4).侯维瑞. 文体研究和翻译. 外语教学与研究，1988 (3).胡密密. 从思维差异看汉英科技文体与科技论文的英译. 中国科技翻译. 2002 (3).胡兆云. 晚清以来Jury、Juror汉译考察与辨误. 外语与外语教学, 2009 (1).胡兆云. 柏拉图、黑格尔灵感论与文学翻译中灵感现象浅析. 外国语言文学, 2003 (3).胡兆云. 从康德的人类“共通感”看异化翻译法. 华南师范大学学报, 2003 (3).胡兆云. 华盛顿交还军权与还权对答翻译探究. 外国语言文学, 2005 (3).胡兆云. 克罗齐表现主义翻译观及其发展浅析. 外语与外语教学, 2003 (5).胡兆云. 论英语和汉语的词汇借用. 山东外语教学, 1998 (3).胡兆云. 论英语学习中的重要输入法—阅读. 山东大学学报, 2000 (增刊).胡兆云. 中英美四大政法文化词语系统与对应翻译策略. 外语与外语教学, 2005 (9).胡兆云. Administration与Government文化语义辨析及其翻译. 外语与外语教学, 2006 (9).胡兆云. 自然语法与书本语法浅论. 山东大学学报, 1995 (3).黄爱华. 文学文体的语言特征及其运作. 浙江大学学报. 1996 (3).黄龙. 古诗文英译脞语. 南京师范大学学报. 1985 (3).黄友义. 坚持“外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题. 中国翻译, 2004 (6).纪玉华. 帕尔默文化语言学理论的构建思路. 外国语, 2002 (2).江宛棣、闫昕霞. 翻译是“文化的翻译”——赵启正谈对外传播之中的翻译事业. 对外大传播, 2004 (10).金积令. 汉英词序对比研究——句法结构中的前端重量原则和末端重量原则. 外国语. 1998(1).李正栓. 文化背景与学习风格—中国语境下英语专业学生学习风格调查. 中国外语, 2007(2). 李正栓. 徐忠杰的翻译原则研析. 外语与外语教学, 2005(10).李正栓. 唐诗宋词英译研究：比较与分析. 中国外语, 2005(3).李正栓. 实践、理论、比较：翻译教学的几个重要环节. 河北师范大学学报（教育版）, 2003(4). 李正栓. 忠实对等：汉诗英译的一条重要原则. 外语与外语教学, 2004(8).李正栓. 汉诗英译中的忠实对等原则. 广东外语外贸大学学报, 2004(2).林大津. Meme的翻译. 外语学刊, 2008(10.林大津. 国外英汉对比修辞研究及其启示. 外语教学与研究. 1994 (3).凌云. 汉语类比造词初探. 语言教学与研究, 1999 (2).刘莉. 论法律文体翻译的准确性问题. 西南民族学院学报. 1999 (3).刘全福. 语境分析与褒贬语义取向. 中国科技翻译，1999 (3).刘全福. “批评法”在翻译课教学中的运用，中国翻译，1996 (5).刘全福. 对翻译教材译例的审美性思考与评价. 上海科技翻译，1998 (3).刘全福. 试析我国酒类产品简介英译存在的问题. 上海科技翻译，1997 (2).刘全福. 英汉叹词比较与翻译. 外国语，1996 (4).。
医学专业英语翻译
医学专业英语翻译既使没有生词,没有复杂的句子结构,要想理解医学英语专业文献,对于非医学人士也非易事，下面小编为大家分享医学专业英语翻译，希望对大家有用。
silver clip 银夹子silvering 镀银silverized catgut 银肠线silver nitrate 硝酸银silver probe 银探子silver stick 硝酸银棒silver transfusion canula 银质输血导管silver wire suture 银丝缝线simple 简单的，单纯的simple articulator 简易咬合器simple cut 单切simple microscope 单式显微镜simple oxygen system 简易供氧装置simple resuscitator 简易复苏器simplified microtome 简易切片机simplify 简化simply respirator 简易呼吸器simply rib approximator 简易肋骨合拢器Sims's speculum 席姆斯氏窥镜simulation 模拟，仿真simulator 模拟器，模拟设备，仿真器simultaneous 同时的，同时发生的simultaneous multisection radiographic adapter 多层快速摄影接合器simultaneous X-ray quantometer 同步X 射线光量计 singing 蜂鸣，振鸣single beam speotrophotometer 单光束分光光度计single channel blown balloon 单道鼓气球single crystal camera 单晶照像机single cut 单切single-ended amputating knife 单刃截肢刀single hyperbaric oxygen chamber 单人高压氧舱single lens reflex camera 单镜头反光照像机single mlcroscope 单目显微镜single mode 单模single needle monitor 单针监视器single patient dialysis unit 单人透析装置single patient haemodialysis machine artificial kidney 单人血液透析人工肾single prong hook 单尖头钩single prlse laser 单脉冲激光器single range balance 电子天平single side razor blade 单面保险刀片single ureter cystoscope 单侧输尿管膀胱镜 sinistro- 左，左侧sinistrogyration 左旋sink 洗涤盒，槽sinking pump 浸没泵sino- 窦sino-atrial 窦房的sino-atrial node 窦房结sinogram 窦腔X 射线片sinography 窦腔X 射线照像术sinoscope 窦镜sinotest 液晶乳腺癌诊断或sinus 窦房结，窦sinus applicator 鼻窦卷棉子sinus forceps 鼻窦钳sinus hook 窦钩sinusopuncture 窦穿刺术sinus rasp 鼻窦锉sinus tachycardia 窦性心动过速siphon 虹吸，虹吸管siphon sound 虹吸探子siphon tube 虹吸管sipping nozzle 喷口，喷嘴site 地点，位置，场所site plan 平面布置图sitotoxism 食物中毒situation 位置，场所，处境size 大小，尺寸，号码skeleto- 骨胳skeleton ①骨胳②轮廓，计划skenoscope 尿道旁腺镜sketch 草图，设计图，概略skewing ①时滞，相位差②偏移，弯曲skia- 影像skiagram X 线照片skiagraph X 线照片skiagraphy X 射线照像术skiameter X 射线量测定器，X 射线量计skiametry ①X 射线量测定法②视网膜镜检查 skiascope ①视网膜镜②X 射线透视镜skiascope optometer 检影视力计skiascopic chimney 视网膜镜灯罩skiascopy X 射线透视检查skimmer 撇渣器，分液器skin ①皮肤②外壳skin amalysor 皮肤分析器skin forceps 皮镊skin graft 皮移植片skin grafting knife 植皮刀skin grafting retractor 皮肤移植拉钩skin grafting spatula 植皮板铲skin hook 皮肤钩skin potential 皮肤电位skin temperature transducer 皮肤温度传感器 skirt ①裙子②套筒，边缘skoliosis 脊柱侧凸skoliosometer 脊柱侧凸计skopometer 浊度计，视测浊度计skoto- 暗，盲skotogram X 射线照片，暗室显影片skotograph X 射线照片，暗室显影片skull 头颅skull breaker 头盖骨破裂器skull chisel 颅骨凿skull clamp 头颅夹skull clamp adaptor 头颅夹接头skull clamp pin 头颅夹针skull cutting forceps 颅骨钳skull elevator 颅骨起子，颅骨橇skull forceps 颅骨钳skull gouge 颅骨圆凿skull hook 颅骨钩skull membrane dissector 颅骨膜剥离器 skull perforator set 颅骨钻skull plate 颅骨板skull punch 颅骨打孔器skull rongeur 咬颅骨钳skull saw 颅骨锯skull tongs 头颅钳skull traction tongs 颅骨牵引钳skull trephine 头颅环钻slab 板，片slabber 涎，唾液slaked lime 熟石灰，消石灰slave ①从属的，受控制的②从动装置slave monitor 从动监视器slay 心子，铁心sledge 橇，滑板sledge microtome 滑动式切片机sleeve ①袖子②套筒，套管slice 薄切片，切片slicer ①切片机②活组织切片slide ①载玻片②滑板③幻灯片slide box 载玻机盒slide cabinet 载玻片柜slide gauge 游标卡尺，滑尺slide micrometer 载玻片测微计slide plateform 幻灯片座slide projector 幻灯机slide rule 计算尺slide stainer 组织切片染色机sliding caliper 游标卡尺sliding microtome 滑动式切片机slight 轻微的，纤细的sling 悬带sling dogs 吊钩sling psychrometer 悬摇式空气湿度计sling bottle 吊钩slip ①纸片②套，罩③滑动slipper ①滑动部分，滑板②游标slippers 拖鞋slit 裂隙，槽slit image 裂隙像slit lamp 裂隙灯slit lamp corneal microscope 裂隙灯角膜显微镜 slit lamp microscope 裂隙灯显微镜slitter 纵断器，切刀slit ultramicroscope 超裂隙显微镜slope 斜度，斜率，斜面slope type traction frame 斜坡式牵引架slop pail 污水桶slot 缝，槽slotted bone plate 长孔接骨板slow scan 慢扫描slurry ①膏剂，软膏②粘合液Sm (samarium) 钐small bone cutting forceps 小切骨钳small cervical retractor 小型颈牵开器small dissecting instruments 微型解剖器械small hook 小钩small intestinal fiberscope 小肠纤维镜 small intestine 小肠smear 涂片，污点smell 乏味，实味Smellie's scissors 斯梅利氏剪smoke 烟，烟雾smoked drum 烟纸鼓smoked paper 熏烟纸smoked recorder 熏烟纸记录器smoked spectacles 墨镜smooth 平滑的，光滑的smooth broach 平滑髓针smooth forceps 无齿钳smooth pliers 平嘴钳smudge 斑点，黑点，光点Sn (stannum) 锡snapshot 快照，快照拍摄snare 圈断器，勒除器，圈套器snare wire 圈套器钢丝snide ①假的，伪造的②低劣的snow ①雪，下雪②雪花效应snow glasses 雪镜snubber 减震器，缓冲器，消音器soap 肥皂soap box 肥皂盒society 学会，协会，会socket ①座，插座②孔，槽臼soda 苏打，碳酸钠sodalime 内石灰sodalime cartridge 苏打石灰筒soda soap 钠皂，硬皂sodium (abbr. Na) 钠sodium amalgam 钠汞合金，钠汞齐sodium borate 硼砂，硼酸钠sodium carbonate 碳酸钠sodium carboxymethylcellulose 羧甲基纤维素钠 sodium chloride 氯化钠sodium hydroxide 氢氧化钠，苛性钠sodium byposulfite 硫代硫酸的，大苏打sodium iodide 碘化钠sodium lamp 钠光灯sodium potassium analyzer 钠钾分析器soft catheter 软导管soft palate retractor 软颚拉钩soft rubber catheter 橡皮导尿管soft soap 软皂，绿皂software 软件，软设备，程序设备soft water 软水，去离子水soil ①土壤②污物，脏东西soiled dressing pail 污敷料桶soil pipe 污水管sol 溶胶，溶液solaode 太阳能电池solar 太阳的，日光的solar battery 太阳能电池solar cell 太阳能电池solar energy 太阳能solarization 日晒，曝晒solder 焊剂，焊片soldering block 焊板soldering clamp 焊夹soldering flux paste 合金助焊剂soldering pliers 焊钳sole ①单独的，唯一的②底基，底板 solenoid 螺线管，筒形线圈，电磁线圈solenoid valve 电磁阀solicitor 律师solid 固体的，坚固的solid blade forceps 实叶钳solidify 固结，固化solidmicyowowesourceprotatg therapy system 固态微玻源前列腺治疗仪solidography 实体放射线摄影法solid particle 固体微粒solid state diathermy generator 晶体透热电疗机 solt 盐，食盐solubility 溶解度，可溶性soluble ①可溶解的②可解决的soluble bougie 可溶探条soluble ligature 可溶化结扎线solute 溶质，溶解物solution 溶液solvent 溶剂，溶媒soma 体，躯体somatic effector 躯体效应器somato- 躯体，身体somatogram 躯体X 射线照片somatome 胎体刀，载胎刀somatometry 人体测量术somatoscopy 体格检查somatosensory stimulator 身体感觉刺激器 somatotype 体型，体式somni- 睡眠somnocinematograph 睡眠运动记录器sonar 声讷，声波定位仪sonarography 超声扫描术sonde ①探子，探针②探测器sone 宋sonic 声音的，声波的sonic applicator 声波治疗仪sonicator 远距离声波定位器soniclizer 超声波雾化器sonic stimulator 音刺激器sonic vibration 声振动sonic wave 声波sonifer 助听器SONOAN (sonic nose analyzer) 噪声分析仪 sonochemistry 声化学sonoencephalograph 超声波测脑仪sonogram 声波图sonograph 声谱仪sonolator 声谱显示仪sonolayer 音层仪sonolayergraph 超声波诊断装置sonometer 听力计sonoprobe 探声器，声纳探测器sonoradiography 超声放射照像术sorbefacient ①吸收剂②促吸收的 sorbent 吸着剂Sorby's cell 索比氏容器Soresi cannula 血管吻合套管sorption 吸收作用，吸附sort 种类，类别，分类sorter 分拣器，分类机soterocyte 血小板souffle 杂音，吹气音soul 灵魂，精华sound ①声音②探子，探条sound analyzer 声分析器sound board 共鸣板sound conducting apparatus 传音器sound deadener 减声器sound detector 检声器，测音器sounder ①音响器②探测器，探针sound head 录音头，拾声头sounding 探通术sound level calibrator 声级校准器sound level meter 声级计，噪声计soundlocator 声波定位器，声纳soundmeter 噪音计，测声计sound monitor 监听器sound perceiving appartus 觉音器sound pick-up 拾音器sound source 声源sound spectrograph 声谱仪sound synthesis analyzor 音综合分析器sound volume 音量sound wave 声波source ①源，来源②电源source book 原始资料source index 资料索引spc (single photon counting) 单光子计数CT；单光子CTsource of light 光源sovereignty 主权，统治权space 空间，距离，腔space maintainer 间隙保持器spacer 垫片，衬垫space simulator 空间模拟器spacing 间距，间隔spade 铲spagirism 炼丹术，练金术spanner 扳手，螺旋钳spano- 减少，稀少spanopnea 呼吸减少sparadrap 膏药，药绷带spare ①多余的，备用的②备件spare lamp 备用灯泡spare parts 备用件spare parts kit 备用零件箱，零件箱 spare parts list 备用零件清单spark 电花，火花spark ball electrode 火花球电极spark gap 放电器，避雷器spatial 立体的，空间的spatial vectorcardiography 空间心电向量描记法 spatula ①药刀，软膏刀②铲③压舌板SPCG (spectral phonocardiogram) 频谱心音图speak 说，讲，陈述speaker 扬声器，话筒，喇叭speaking tube 传音筒spear drill 矛状锥，剑尖锥spear point drill 剑尖锥spear poing flat drill 剑尖平锥Spec. () ①说明书②标本special ①特殊的，专门的②专刊special accessories 专用附件special digital computer 专用计算机special effect generator 特技效果发生器specialist 专家speciality 特点，专业specialize 专门化，特殊化，限定special licence 特别许可证special procedure equipment 特殊程序设备special purpose computer 专用计算机species 种类specific 特有的，专门的，比specific activity 比活性specification (abbr. Spec.) ①说明书②规格，规范specific density 比重specific gravity (abbr. sp. gr.) 比重specific gravity balance 比重天平specific gravity bottle 比重瓶specific heat 比热specific ion electrode 离子选择电极specificity 特异性，专一性specific ratio 比率specific resistance 电阻率，比电阻specific value 比值specific volume 比容specific weight 比重specify ①规定，指定②详细说明specillum 探子，探杆specimen 标本，样品specimen bottle 样本瓶specimen copy 样本specimen disc 样品盘specimen holder 标本夹specimen jar 标本缸specimen trap 标本收集器specimen trimmer 标本粗割机specimen vial 标本管形瓶spectacles 眼镜，平光眼镜spectral 光谱，频谱的spectral lamp 光谱灯spectral line 光谱线spectral phonoangiography 光谱血管音描记术spectral phonocardiogram 光谱心音图spectral phonocardiograph 光谱心音描记器spectro- 光谱，分光spectrochrome 色光谱的spectrocolorimeter ①分光比色计②单色盲分光镜 spectrocolorimetry 光谱色度学spectrocomparator 光谱比较仪spectrofluorimeter 荧光分光计spectrofluorometer 荧光分光计spectrofluorometry 荧光光谱测定法spectrofluorophotometer 荧光分光光度计spectrogram 光谱图spectrogrph 摄谱仪，光谱仪spectrographic camera 光谱照像机spectrography 摄谱术spectrometer 分光计，光谱计spectrometry 分光术，光谱测定法spectromicroscope 分光显微镜spectromonitor 分光监视器spectrophotometer 分光光度计，分光比色计 spectrophotometer cell 分光光度计比色皿 spectrophotometry 分光光度测定法spectropolarimeter 分光偏振计，旋光分光计 spectropyrheliometer 日射光谱仪spectroradiometer 分光辐射谱仪spectroscope 分光镜，分光仪spectroscopy 分光镜检查spectrum 光谱，光系，谱specular image 镜像speculum ①窥器，张开器②窥镜speculum forceps 窥器钳speech 语言，演说speech amplifier 音频放大器speech coder 语言编码器speech recognizing machine 语言识别机speed 速率，速度，转数speed autoclave 快速灭菌器speedometer 示速器，里程计spermatangium 精子器SPF (spectrophotofluorometer) 荧光分光光度计 sp. gr. (specific gravity) 比重spheno- 楔形，蝶骨sphenoidal rasp 蝶骨锉sphenoid sinus canula 蝶窦套管sphenoid sinus curette 蝶窦刮匙sphenoid sinus rongeur 鼻蝶窦咬骨钳sphenometer 骨片测量器sphenotribe 碎颅器sphere 球体，区域，范围，界sphere introducer 眼球置入器spherical aberration 球面像差spherical lens 球面镜片spherical projection perimeter 球形投影视野计 spherocylinder 球柱透镜spheroid ①球形的②球形体spherometer 球径计sphincter 括约肌sphincteroscope 肛门括约肌镜sphincteroscopy 肛门括约肌匀检查sphincterotome 括约肌切开器sphygmo- 脉，脉搏sphygmobologram 脉能图，胸压曲线sphygmobolograph 脉能描记器sphygmobolometer 脉能描记器，脉压计sphygmobolometry 脉能描记法，脉压测量术 sphygmocardiogram 脉搏心动图sphygmocardiograph 脉搏心动描记器sphygmocardioscope 脉搏心音描记器sphygmochronograph 脉搏自动描记器sphygmochronography 脉搏自动描记法sphygmodynamometer 脉搏力计sphygmodynamometry 脉搏测量法sphygmogram 脉搏图，脉搏曲线sphygmograph 脉搏描记器，脉搏计sphygmograph transducer 脉搏计换能器sphygmography 脉搏描记法sphygmoid 脉样的，脉搏状的sphygmology 脉学，脉搏学sphygmomanometer 血压计sphygmomanometroscope 复式血压计sphygmomanometry 血压测量法sphygmometer 脉搏计sphygmometrograph 血压描记器(记录最高和最低动脉血压)sphygmometroscope 听脉血压计，听力测压器sphygmo-oscillometer 示波血压计，振动血压计sphygmopalpation 按脉，切脉sphygmophone 脉音听诊器sphygmoplethysmogrph 脉搏体积描记器，脉搏容积计 sphygmoscope 脉搏检视器，脉镜sphygmoscopy 脉搏检查sphygmosignal 脉辐检视器，脉搏信号器sphygmosystole 收缩期脉搏曲线sphygmotachograph 血流速度描记器sphygmotachymeter 脉搏速度计sphygmotonogram 血压脉搏图skphygmotonograph 血压脉搏描记器，脉动力描记器 sphygmotonometer ①脉动力计，动脉管壁弹力计②眼底血压计sphygmous 脉搏的sphygmoviscosimetry 血压血液粘度测量法 spica 穗形绷带，人字形绷带spica bandage 人字形绷带spider ①蜘蛛②三脚架，支座spider- web antenna 蛛网天线spigot ①插口，插销②龙头spike ①钉②脉冲，波峰spike potential 峰电位spinal bone plate 脊柱接骨板spinal cord 脊髓spinal forceps 脊柱钳spinal fusion curette 脊柱凑合术刮匙 spinal fusion osteotome 脊凑合术骨凿 spinal fusion plate 脊柱接合板spinal manometer 脊椎测压计spinal marrow 骨髓spinal needle 脊椎穿刺针spinal retractor 脊柱牵开器spinal rongeur 棘突咬骨钳spinal screw 脊柱螺钉spinal support 脊柱支持器spinawl 破皮锥，破皮钻spine ①脊柱②棘，刺spine chisel 脊柱凿spine saw 脊柱锯spinner 旋转器spinogram ①脊柱X 射线片②脊髓造影照片 spinthariscope 闪烁镜spintherometer X 射线透度计spintometer X 射线透度计spiral ①螺旋的②螺旋管③螺旋钻spiral agitator 螺旋式搅拌器spiral bandage 螺旋绷带spiral drill 螺丝钻头spiral separator 螺旋分离器spirit 酒精，醑剂spirit blowtorch 酒精喷灯spirit gauge 酒精比重计spirit lamp 酒精灯spirit thermometer 酒精温度计spiro- 呼吸spiroanalyzer 呼吸功能分析器spirocomputer 呼吸功能计算器spirogram 呼吸图spirograph 呼吸量描记器，肺功能测定仪 spirography 呼吸描记法spiroid 螺旋样的spiro-index 呼吸指数spirometer 呼吸量计，呼吸气量测定器 spirometer alarm 呼吸量计报警器spirometric 肺量测定的spirometry 肺量测定法，呼吸量测定法 spirophore 柜式人工呼吸器spiropulsator 吸入麻醉器spiroscope 呼吸量测视器spiroscopy 呼吸量测视法spittoon 痰盂splanchna 内脏splanchnic retractor 内脏牵开器splanchno- 内脏splanchnoscopy 内窥镜检查splanchnotribe 夹肠器spleen 脾spleen pedicle clamp 脾蒂钳splenic venography 脾门静脉造影术spleno- 脾splenogram 脾X 射线照片splenography 脾 X 射线照像术splenoportography 脾门静脉X 射线造影术 splice ①缝接②加板splint 夹板，夹splint and bandage 夹板绷带splinter 裂片，碎片屑splinter forceps 取裂片镊splint of wood 木夹板split antenna 隙缝天线split stream inyector 分流注射器splitter ①分裂器②分离器③分流器splitting chisel 裂片凿splitting forceps 分劈钳splitting instrument 分解器split ventricular trocar 裂隙室套管spokeshave 鼻用环形刀sponge 海绵sponge biopsy 棉拭活组织检查sponge bowl 海绵碗sponge dressing forceps 弹性敷料镊sponge forceps 海绵钳sponge holder 海绵夹，持绵器sponge holding forceps 海绵夹持钳，持海绵钳 sponge probang 海绵除鲠器sponge tent 海绵塞条spongia 海绵sponsor ①发起人，资助人②发起，主办spontaneous 任意的，自发的spontaneous brain wave 自发性脑电波spool 线圈，卷盘spoon 匙spoonful 匙，一匙量spoon knife 匙型刀spoon shaped clamp 匙型夹spoon shaped speculum 匙形窥器spoon type anastomosis forceps 匙型吻合钳 spot 斑，光点，部位spot film device X 射线点片器spot film radiography 适时X 射线照像术spot film roentgenography 适时X 射线照像术 spotlight 聚光灯，反光灯spotlighting illuminator 焦点照明器spot paper 点滴反应用滤纸spout 喷嘴，槽spray ①喷雾器，喷嘴②喷雾剂spray bottle 喷雾瓶spray bottle heater 喷雾瓶加热器spray bottle nozzle 喷雾瓶嘴spray bottle warmer 喷雾瓶加温器spray dryerin lab 实验室喷雾干燥器sprayer ①喷雾器②喷嘴spray jet 喷雾器spray nozzle 喷嘴spray pistol 喷雾枪spreader 摊开器，扩张器spreading forceps 扩张钳spring ①弹簧②弹性spring balance 弹簧天平，弹簧称spring bending pliers 曲簧钳spring forceps 弹簧钳spring guide 弹簧导子SRS X-knife(stereotactil Radiosuryerysystem) 立体定位放射外科系统SRT 多向立体定位放射疗法spring knife 弹簧刀spring kymograph 弹簧记波器spring lancet ①弹簧刀②弹簧刺血针 spring manometer 弹簧测压计spring mattress 弹簧褥子spring phlebotome 弹簧静脉刀spring scarificator 弹簧划痕器spring socket 弹簧插座spring washer 弹簧垫圈spring wire 弹簧丝sprue former 铸道形成针spud 铲，剥皮刀spur crusher 骨刺压碎器spurious 假的，伪造的spurt 喷出，喷射sputum 痰sputum bottle 痰瓶sputum cup 痰杯sputum tube 容痰管square 正方形，平方squared paper 方格纸square punch 方型钻孔器square shaped 方型的square tray anth cap 有盖方盘squeeze 压缩，挤sqyeeze dtbanineter 手握力计squeezer 压榨器squeezing forceps 砂眼压榨镊SQUID 超导量子干涉仪squint hook 斜视钩squint knife 斜视刀Sr (strontium) 锶SRS 立体安位射线外科SSEG (segmental spinal electrogram) 节段性脊电图 stab ①刺②杆SQUID (superconduction quantum interference device) 超导量子干涉仪stabber 锥，穿索针stability 稳定性stabilivolt 稳压管stabilization 稳定stabilizator ①稳压器②稳定器stabilizer ①稳压器②固位器，稳定器stabilograph 稳定性测定器stabilovolt tube 稳压管stab knife 穿刺刀stable tracer isotope 稳定示踪同位素 stack ①堆积，叠②捆，束，组，套stacked antenna 多层天线stacker ①可升降摄像机台②叠式存储器 stactometer 测滴计，滴量计stadia computer 视距计算器stadiometer 测距仪staff ①探杆，导引探子②杆stage 载物台，镜台stage micrometer 镜台测微器stagonometer 滴重计stain 着色剂，染料stained preparation 染色标本stainer 染色器staining 染色，染色法staining bottle 染色瓶staining dish 染色皿staining jax 染色缸staining machine 染色机staining technique 染色技术stainless 不锈的，不锈钢的stainless steel 不锈钢=yustlessstcel stainless steel silk 不锈钢丝stainless steel wire 不锈钢丝stain smear 染色涂片stalagmometer 表面张力滴定计，滴数计 stall 手指护套stalloy 硅钢片stamp ①图章②盖印，标出③邮票stand 台，座，支架standard () 标准，规格，样品standard accessory 标准附件standard candle 标准烛光standard cell 标准电池standard curve 标准曲线standard deviation 标准偏差standard electrode 标准电极standard emitron 光电摄像管standard error () 标准误差standardizition 标准化，标定法standard lead 标准导程standard lens 标准镜头standard rocking microtome 标准摇动式切片机 standard set-up 标准装置standard solution 标准溶液standard specifications 标准规格standard technique 标准技术，标准法standard volume 标准容积stand-by ①备用品②准备standing ①放置②固定的，直立的stand magnet 立式吸铁器standpoint 立场，观点stannum () 锡staphylagra 悬雍垂钳staphyle 悬雍垂staphylo- 悬雍垂staphylorrhaphy elevator 软腭缝合用起子staphylotome 悬雍垂切除刀staple ①U 形钉，肘钉②钉书钉staple driver 骨科U 形钉起子stapler ①小钉书机②中药袋封口机star 星，星形物starch 淀粉starch-sugar 糊精star connection 星形联接start 起动，开始starter 起动器，发射器stasimetry 稠度测量法stat. 镭射气单位state ①状态，情况②叙述，说明statement 声明，报告书statement of claims 索赔清单static ①静电的②固定的static campimeter 静态平面视野计，中心量光觉视野计static electrical apparatus 间动电疗机static electricity 静电static electrometer 静电计static probe 固定探头statics ①静电学②静电干扰station 电台，站，地点stationary grid 静止滤线栅statistical distribution 统计分布statistics 统计学statometer 眼球突出计statoscope 自记微气压计，微动气压计status 状况，地位stay suture clamp 支座缝合夹std. atm. (standard atmosphere) 标准大气压 steadiness apparatus 共济失调描记器steady 稳定的，均匀的steam 蒸汽，汽steam autoclave 蒸汽灭菌器steam disinfecting apparatus 蒸汽消毒器steam disinfector 蒸汽消毒器steam gage 汽压计，蒸汽压力表steam inhalar apparatus 蒸汽吸入器steam inhaler 蒸汽吸入器steam kettle 蒸汽锅steam piston 蒸汽活塞steam pressure gauge 蒸汽压力表steam pressure respirator 蒸汽加压呼吸器 steam sterilization 蒸汽灭菌法steam sterilizer 蒸汽灭菌器steam under pressure 加压蒸汽steam vapor cabinet 蒸汽浴箱steam vaporiser 蒸汽喷雾器steel 钢steel bending wire 钢曲丝steel bur 钢钻steel measure tape 钢卷尺steel rule 钢尺steel spoon 钢匙steel strip 钢条steel tape 钢卷尺steel thimble 钢套管steel wire 钢丝steering 操纵，控制stellite 钨铬钴合金stem 柄，杆，把stem-pessary 有杆子宫托stencil ①模绘板②蜡纸Stender dish 施滕德氏皿stenocompressor 腮腺管压闭器 stenopaic spectacles 小孔镜stenosis 狭窄step ①极，档，阶梯②间歇式的 step-down transformer 降压器 step lens 棱镜stepless 连续的，均匀的step-penetrameter 楔形梯级式X 射线透度计step-up 升高，加快step-up transformer 升压器step-wedge 楔形梯级step-wedge penetrameter 楔形梯级式X 射线透度计 steradian 球面度stere 千升，立方米stereo ①立体，实体②立体镜③立体照片stereo- 立体，实体stereo-amplifier 立体声放大器stereobinocular microscope 立体双目显微镜stereo-camera 立体摄像机stereocampimeter 立体视野计stereocardiography 空间心电向量描记法stereo-cinefluorography 立体荧光电影摄像术stereo effect 立体声效应stereoencephaloscope 立体窥脑器，脑检视仪stereoencephalotome 立体脑切开器，脑定点切开器 stereoencephalotomy 脑定点切开术stereofluoroscopy 立体荧光屏透视检查stereogram 立体照片，立体X 射线照片stereograph 立体照片，立体X 射线照片stereography 立体X 射线照像术stereoisomer 立体异构体stereoisomerism 立体异构stereo-magnifier 立体放大镜stereometer ①体积计②比重计stereometry ①体积测定法②比重测定法stereomicrography 立体显微摄影stereomicroscope 实体显微镜，体视显微镜stereomodel 立体模型stereomonoscope 双眼单体镜stereo-movie 立体电影stereo-ophthalmoscope 双目检眼镜，立体检眼镜 stereo-orthoptor 视轴矫正实体镜，体视矫正器 stereophantoscope 体视绘图器stereophenomenon 体视现象stereophonic broadcast 立体声广播stereophony 立体声stereophorometer 立体隐斜视矫正器stereophoroscope 活动影片检视器stereophotogrammetry 立体照像测量术stereophotograph 立体照片stereophotography 立体摄影，立体照像术stereophotomicrograph 立体显微照片stereoplotter 立体绘图仪stereopter 实体视力检查器stereopticon ①幻灯②幻灯机，投影放大器stereoradiographic unit 立体摄影装置stereoradiography 实体X 射线照像术stereo receiver 立体声收音机stereo recorder 立体声录音机stereo reflex camera 立体反射线照像机stereoroentgenograph 立体X 射线照片stereoroentgenoscopy 立体X 线透视检查stereoscan photograph 扫描电镜照片stereoscope 立体镜，体视镜stereoscope picture 立体照片stereoscopic 立体的，体视的stereoscopic camera 立体照像机stereoscopic film 立体电影，立体影片stereoscopic fluoroscopy 实体荧光屏透视检查 stereoscopic image 立体影像stereoscopic microscope 立体显微镜stereoscopic radiograph 立体X 射线照片stereoscopic television 立体电视stereoscopic zoom microscope 体视变焦显微镜stereoscopy 实体镜检查法stereoskiagraphy 立体X 射线照像术stereostroboscope 立体动态镜，体视频闪观测器stereotactic 立体定位的stereo tape 立体声录音带stereotactic Rodiosurgery srstem(SRS) 立体立位放射手术系统stereotaxic apparatus 立体定位仪stereotelevision 立体电视stereo viewer 立体观片灯sterilamp 灭菌灯sterile 灭菌的，消毒的sterile chamber 无菌容器，灭菌室sterile solution 无菌溶液sterile working 无菌操作steriliser 消毒器，灭菌器sterility detector 灭菌检验器sterilization 灭菌，消毒sterilize 灭菌，消毒sterilized dressing 无菌敷料sterilizer 消毒器，灭菌器sterilizing forceps 消毒钳sterilizing lamp 灭菌灯sterilizing room 无菌室sterilometer 消毒测定器sternal 胸骨的sternal biopsy 胸骨髓活组织检查sternal knife 胸骨刀sternal needle holder 胸骨持针器 sternal punch 胸骨钻孔器sternal puncture needle 胸骨穿刺针 sternal retractor 胸骨牵开器sterno- 胸骨sternogoiometer 胸骨角度测量器sternotomy air saw 风动胸骨锯sternum 胸骨sternum chisel 胸骨凿sternum knife 胸骨刀sternum shears 胸骨剪stethendoscope 胸部X 射线透视机stetho- 胸stethocyrtograph 胸廓曲度描记器stethogoniometer 胸廓曲度计stethograph 胸动描记器stethography ①胸动描记法②心音描记法 stethokyrtograph 胸廓曲度描记器stethometer 胸围计，胸廓张度计stethophone ①胸音传播器②听诊器stethophonometer ①胸音计②听诊测音器 stethopolyscope 多管听诊器stethoscope 听诊器stethoscope chestpiece 胸部听诊头stethoscope diaphragm 听诊器薄膜stethoscope transducer 听诊器传感器stethoscopy 听诊器检查stew ①噪声②热浴室stheno- 力量sthenometer 肌力计sthenometry 体力测量法stibium (abbr. Sb) 锑stick 棍，棒，操纵杆stiffness 硬度，稳定性stigma ①气孔，小孔②斑，点stigmatic ①像散校正的②小孔的stigmatometer 视网膜检视镜stigmatoscope 细孔屈光镜stilb 熙提stilet ①通管丝，管心针②细探子③锥刺 stilette ①通管丝，管心针②细探子③锥刺 still 蒸馏器stilligout 点滴管stilling 蒸馏stilus ①通管丝，管心针②细探子③棒剂 stimulant 兴奋剂，刺激物stimulating electrode 刺激电极stimulation 兴奋，刺激stimulation level 刺激级stimulator ①刺激器②刺激物stimulator ophthalmoscope 刺激检眼镜stimulus threshold 刺激阀stipulation ①规定，限制②合同，契约stir 搅拌stirrer ①搅拌器②搅棒stirrer bar 搅棒stirring machine 搅拌机stirring rod 搅棒stirrup 镫形件，U 形卡stitch 缝线stiching instrument 缝合器stitch scissors 缝合剪stochastic 随机的，机遇的stock ①原料，存货②台，座，架stock-cutter 切料机stocking 长袜，袜套stoechiometer 化学计算器，化学计量器stoichiometer 化学计算器，化学计量器stomach 胃stomach brush 胃刷stomach catheter 胃导管stomach cells adopter 胃细胞取样器stomach clamp 胃夹，胃钳stomach evacuator 洗胃排液器stomach forceps 胃钳stomach irrigator 洗胃器stomach model 胃模型stomach pump 胃抽器，胃唧筒stomach resection and suturing clamp 胃切除缝合器stomach siphon 胃虹吸管stomach tube 胃管stomach washer 胃脏冲洗器stomat- 口，口腔stomatic 口的stomatology 口腔学stomatoscope 口腔镜stomatoscopy 口腔镜检查-stomy 造口术，吻合术stone 石，结石stone breaker 碎石器stone dislodger 取结石器stone searcher 膀胱石探杆stools ①凳子②托架，座stop ①停止②制动器③光圈stopcock 开关，活塞，龙头stop-needle 有档针stopper ①充填器②塞子③制动器stop speculum 固定开睑器stop watch 秒表，跑表storage ①储藏，储存②仓库，存储器 storage battery 蓄电池组storage cabinet 储藏柜storage capsule 储存容器storage cell 蓄电池storage oscilloscope 存储示波器store 记忆装置，存储器story 故事，经历stove 炉子，加热器stoving machine 烘干机(standard temperature and pressure) 标准温度和压力STR (systolic time intervals) 收缩时间间期strabism 斜视，斜眼strabismometer 斜视计strabismus forceps 斜视镊strabismus hook 斜视钩strabismus knife 斜视刀strabismus needle 斜视眼针strabismus scissors 斜视剪strabometer 斜视计strabotome 斜视刀straight 直的，直线straight adapter 直接管straight angle 平角straight B/L 直运提单straight handpiece 直机头straight knife 直刀strain ①张力，应变②过滤strainer 滤过器strain gauge 拉力计，应变计strain tube 应变管strand 线，导线束，丝条strap 皮带，条带stratification 层，层次stratigram X 射线断层图，X 射线体层照片stratigraphy 体层X 射线照像术，断层X 射线照像术 stratum 层streak 条纹，划线stream 流，气流，水流street (;Str.) 街道strength ①体力，力量②强度③浓度strephotome 螺钻形刀stress 压力，张力，应力stress amplifier 应变压力放大器stress brdaker 应力中断器stretch 伸展，拉长stretcher ①担架②拉直器stretching pliers 扩张钳striascope 屈光检查器striation 纹，条纹strict 严格的，精确的stricture 狭窄stricture explorer 检狭窄探杆stricturoscope 直肠狭窄镜stricturotome 直肠狭窄切开刀string electrometer 弦线电流计string galvanometer 弦线电流计strip ①磨带，条②剥离strip-cutter 切条器strip penetrameter 条状X 射线透度计 stripper 剥离器strobe ①闸门②闪频观测器strobolaryngoscope 动态喉镜，回旋喉镜 stroboscope ①动态镜②闪光仪stroboscopic disc 动态镜盘，斜视镜盘 strobostereoscope 立体动态镜stroke 发作，冲程stroke volume (abbr. SV) 心搏排血量stromuhr 血流速度计strong 强的，有力的strong anion exchanger 强阴离子交换器strong cation exchanger 强阳离子交换器strontium (abbr. Sr) 锶strontium ophthalmic applicator 眼科用Sr90 敷贴器structure 结构，构成struggle 斗争S-T segment S-T 节段stud 大头钉，栓钉student microscope 教学显微镜study model 研究模型stuff 材料，原料stump bur 牙残根钻stump elevator 牙残根梃子stump file 牙残根锉stump splinter forceps 牙残根碎片钳style ①式样，型②描笔③细探子，管心针stylet ①通管心针，通管丝②细探子stylet mandrel 管心针stylus ①描笔，记录笔②细探子，通管丝，管心针。
学术英语(医学)重点翻译
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2 3 4 5 6
colonoscopy hypertension mammogram neuron nutritionist
结肠镜检查（术） examination of the colon with a colonoscope 高血压 乳房X线照片 abnormally elevated blood pressure an x-ray image of the breast one who is trained or an expert in the field of nutrition a disease in which the bones become weak and break easily
如果病人冷不丁提个要求，即使所提要求十分中肯，也会 让我那内心脆弱的平衡乱作一团，就像井然有序同时演出 三台节目的大马戏场突然崩塌一样。
Unit 1 Doctor s’ Life
2. ... I‘m piling yet another pill onto her ... (Para. 3)我还要再给她另加一种药
3 …she's caught one of my neurons in mid-fire… (Para. 4) 她让我如火如荼的思绪戛然而止… 4. My instinct is to put one hand up and keep all interruptions at bay. (Para. 4)
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9
refill transplant
再配（处方） 移植
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Text B
• This conventional wisdom formed the basis for daily confrontations between an increasingly restless and resentful patient and an increasingly adamant and doompredicting clinical clerk. (Para. 4) 有的病人越来越焦躁不安、越来越愤愤不满，有的临床医生 越来越固执己见、越来越热衷于生死决断。这种传统智慧 就成了这些病人和临床医生之间天天对抗不断的基础 。 My suwas far from uneventful. (Para. 9) 我后来的“临床之路”远非平淡无奇
给水排水工程专业英语文献翻译原文第三篇
Journal of Membrane Science 376 (2011) 196–206Contents lists available at ScienceDirectJournal of MembraneSciencej o u r n a l h o m e p a g e :w w w.e l s e v i e r.c o m /l o c a t e /m e m s ciFouling and cleaning of RO membranes fouled by mixtures of organic foulants simulating wastewater effluentWui Seng Ang 1,Alberto Tiraferri,Kai Loon Chen 2,Menachem Elimelech ∗Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering,P.O.Box 208286,Yale University,New Haven,CT 06520-8286,USAa r t i c l e i n f o Article history:Received 6December 2010Received in revised form 7April 2011Accepted 9April 2011Available online 20 April 2011Keywords:Reverse osmosis FoulingWastewater effluent CleaningOrganic foulantsWastewater treatment Effluent organic matter Wastewater reclamation Membranesa b s t r a c tThe fouling and subsequent cleaning of RO membranes fouled by a mixture of organic foulants sim-ulating wastewater effluent has been systematically investigated.The organic foulants investigated included alginate,bovine serum albumin (BSA),Suwannee River natural organic matter,and octanoic acid,representing,respectively,polysaccharides,proteins,humic substances,and fatty acids,which are ubiquitous in effluent organic matter.After establishing the fouling behavior and mechanisms with a mixture of organic foulants in the presence and absence of calcium ions,our study focused on the clean-ing mechanisms of RO membranes fouled by the mixture of organic foulants.The chemical cleaning agents used included an alkaline solution (NaOH),a metal chelating agent (EDTA),an anionic surfactant (SDS),and a concentrated salt solution (NaCl).Specifically,we examined the impact of cleaning agent type,cleaning solution pH,cleaning time,and fouling layer composition on membrane cleaning effi-ciency.Foulant–foulant adhesion forces measured under conditions simulating chemical cleaning of a membrane fouled by a mixture of the investigated organic foulants provided insights into the chemical cleaning mechanisms.It was shown that while alkaline solution (NaOH)alone is not effective in dis-rupting the complexes formed by the organic foulants with calcium,a higher solution pH can lead to effective cleaning if sufficient hydrodynamic shear (provided by crossflow)prevails.Surfactant (SDS),a strong chelating agent (EDTA),and salt solution (NaCl)were effective in cleaning RO membranes fouled by a mixture of foulants,especially if applied at high pH and for longer cleaning times.The observed cleaning efficiencies with the various cleaning agents were consistent with the related measurements of foulant–foulant intermolecular forces.Furthermore,we have shown that an optimal cleaning agent con-centration can be derived from a plot presenting the percent reduction in the foulant–foulant adhesion force versus cleaning agent concentration.© 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.1.IntroductionAs demand for potable water increases worldwide,the paradigm for selecting water sources to meet this demand is transitioning from conventional sources,such as reservoirs and lakes,to less con-ventional sources,such as treated secondary wastewater effluent.In order to produce water of superior quality,the use of mem-branes in desalination and wastewater reclamation has become more widespread.Membrane fouling is a major impediment to the use of membrane technology for such applications,because fouling is inevitable.Despite research efforts to develop better anti-fouling membranes [1]and improved fouling-control strategies [2,3],membrane fouling still occurs over time.Thus,a long-term∗Corresponding author.Tel.:+12034322789;fax:+12034324387.E-mail address:menachem.elimelech@ (M.Elimelech).1Current address:Public Utility Board of Singapore,Singapore.2Current address:Department of Geography and Environmental Engineering,Johns Hopkins University,Baltimore,MD 21218,United States.solution would be to remove the foulant deposited on the mem-brane via chemical cleaning.To select the appropriate cleaning agents and adopt an effective chemical cleaning protocol for fouled membranes in wastewater reclamation,the implications of wastewater effluent characteris-tics on membrane fouling have to be well-understood.Wastewater effluent contains dissolved organic matter,commonly known as effluent organic matter (EfOM),which comprises polysaccha-rides,proteins,aminosugars,nucleic acids,humic and fulvic acids,organic acids,and cell components [2–4].Organic fouling of the RO membranes by the EfOM can be extensive since EfOM is gener-ally small enough to pass through the pores of pretreatment (MF or UF)membranes [4].In particular,recent findings suggest that while biofouling can prevail on the tail-element of the membrane module,fouling of the lead-element exposed to reclaimed water is dominated by EfOM adsorption [5].In addition,higher potential of fouling was observed for the higher molecular weight hydropho-bic/aromatic fraction of the EfOM [6,7].The presence of Ca 2+in the feed source for the RO membranes has been reported to form complexes with the constituents of EfOM,such as polysaccharidesW.S.Ang et al./Journal of Membrane Science376 (2011) 196–206197[8]and natural organic matter[9],and to significantly enhance membrane fouling.While our previous studies have addressed the fouling of RO membranes by individual organic foulant types,such as polysaccharides[10],proteins[11],and fatty acids[12],only recently have investigations reported on the effects of a combina-tion or mixture of foulants on the fouling of RO membranes[13,14].A variety of chemical cleaning agents are commonly used to clean RO membranes fouled by organic matter[15].Alkaline solutions remove organic foulants on membranes by hydroly-sis and solubilization of the fouling layer.Alkaline solutions also increase the solution pH,and,therefore,increase the negative charges and solubility of the organic foulant.Metal chelating agents remove divalent cations from the complexed organic molecules and weaken the structural integrity of the fouling layer matrix[16]. Surfactants solubilize macromolecules by forming micelles around them[17],thereby facilitating removal of the foulants from the membrane surface.In our earlier study on salt cleaning of organic matter-fouled RO membranes[18],we demonstrated that NaCl and other common inert salts can be used as an effective alternative for the cleaning of RO membranes fouled by gel-forming hydrophilic organic foulants.In the presence of a salt solution,the fouling layer swells and becomes more porous.As a result,this would facil-itate the diffusion of Na+into the fouling layer and breakup of Ca2+–alginate bonds by ion exchange.Understanding the fouling layer characteristics and the interaction of chemical agents with foulants is therefore critical for the effective cleaning of organic matter-fouled RO membranes.Atomic force microscopy(AFM)has been applied in mem-brane fouling/cleaning research to quantify intermolecular forces [10,19–21].Our research has shown that foulant–foulant inter-actions could be determined by performing force measurements using a carboxylate-modified latex colloid probe in an AFMfluid cell[10,20].The technique has been used to quantify the foul-ing behavior of a nanofiltration membrane fouled by humic acid and the cleaning efficiencies of EDTA and SDS[20],and has been extended to quantify RO membrane fouling by organic foulant in the form of alginate[10],BSA[11],and octanoic acid[12].In this study,the AFM has also been employed as an alternative tool to indicate the optimal concentration of cleaning agent for cleaning fouled membranes.The original protocol[11,12]for using the AFM has been modified to investigate the intermolecular adhesion force between different foulants.The objective of this study is to explore the mechanisms govern-ing the fouling of RO membranes by mixtures of organic foulants simulating wastewater effluent,and the ensuing chemical cleaning of the fouled membranes by cleaning agents.To make this study rel-evant to wastewater reclamation,we systematically investigate the fouling of RO membranes by each individual organic foulant type (polysaccharides,proteins,humic acids,or fatty acids)and mix-tures containing several types of organic foulants in the absence and presence of calcium ions.Cleaning experiments are performed with the fouled membranes using NaOH,EDTA,SDS,and NaCl as model alkaline solution,metal chelating agent,surfactant,and salt cleaning solution,respectively.The intermolecular adhesion forces between the different foulants and estimated aggregate sizes in foulant mixtures were used to explain the fouling mechanism of RO membranes and the cleaning behavior of a cleaning agent on the fouled membranes.2.Materials and methodsanic foulants Louis,MO),Suwannee River natural organic matter(SRNOM) (International Humic Substances Society,St.Paul,MN),bovine serum albumin(BSA)(Sigma–Aldrich,St.Louis,MO),and octanoic acid(OA)(Sigma–Aldrich,St.Louis,MO),respectively.According to the manufacturer,the molecular weight of the sodium alginate ranges from12to80kDa.Other characteristics of SRNOM,includ-ing molecular weight and mass fraction of hydrophobic NOM,can be found elsewhere[22,23].According to the manufacturer,the molecular weight of the BSA is about66kDa.BSA is reported to have an isoelectric point at pH4.7[24].Octanoic acid(Sigma–Aldrich,St. Louis,MO)was selected to model fatty acids in EfOM because of its presence in food and solubility in water(saturation concentration of4.7mM at20◦C)[12].Sodium alginate,BSA,and SRNOM were received in powder form,and stock solutions(2g/L)were prepared by dissolving each of the foulants in deionized(DI)water.DI water was supplied from a Milli-Q ultrapure water purification system(Millipore,Billerica, MA).Mixing of the stock solutions was performed for over24h to ensure complete dissolution of the foulants,followed byfil-tration with a0.45-mfilter(Durapore,Millipore,Billerica,MA). Thefiltered stock solutions were stored in sterilized glass bottles at4◦C.Octanoic acid was received in solution(≥98%concentra-tion)and was stored at room temperature.To achieve the intended octanoic acid concentration during fouling,octanoic acid was dis-solved separately for at least8h prior to fouling so that,at the initiation of fouling,octanoic acid could be introduced as a solu-tion.A few hours before the initiation of fouling,the ionic strength of the stock solution was adjusted to the same concentration as that of the feed solution(10mM)and the stock solution pH was elevated,as needed,from ambient pH of3.9–9.0by adding small amounts of1M NaOH.2.2.Chemical cleaning agentsThe chemical cleaning agents used were:NaOH(pH11.0)as an alkaline solution,certified grade disodium ethylenediaminete-traacetate(Na2–EDTA)as a metal chelating agent,certified grade sodium dodecyl sulfate(SDS)as an anionic surfactant,and NaCl as a salt cleaning solution.The agents were purchased from Fisher Sci-entific(Pittsburgh,PA)and used with no further purification.The stock chemical solutions were prepared fresh by dissolving each chemical in deionized(DI)water.The pH of the EDTA,SDS,and NaCl cleaning solutions was adjusted with1.0M NaOH as necessary.2.3.RO membraneThe relatively well-characterized thin-film composite LFC-1 membrane(Hydranautics,Oceanside,CA)was used as a model RO membrane.The average hydraulic resistance was determined to be 9.16(±0.11)×1013m−1corresponding to a hydraulic permeabil-ity of10.9(±0.13)×10−11m s−1Pa−1.The observed salt rejection was98.7–99.3%,determined with a10mM(584mg/L)NaCl feed solution at an applied pressure of300psi(2068.5kPa)and a cross-flow velocity of8.6cm/s.Membrane samples were received as dry large sheets,and were cut and stored in DI water at4◦C.The membrane has been reported to be negatively charged at solu-tion chemistries typical to wastewater effluents,with an isoelectric point at about pH4.6[25].The membrane has been reported to be coated with a neutral polyalcohol layer rich in–COH functional groups,which renders the surface less charged than the surfaces of other polyamide RO membranes without a coating layer[25,26].2.4.Crossflow test unit198W.S.Ang et al./Journal of Membrane Science376 (2011) 196–206unit consists of a membrane cell,pump,feed reservoir,temper-ature control system,and data acquisition system.The membrane cell consisted of a rectangular plate-and-frame unit,which con-tained aflat membrane sheet placed in a rectangular channel with dimensions measuring7.7cm long,2.6cm wide,and0.3cm high. Both permeate and retentate were recirculated back to the feed reservoir.Permeateflux was registered continuously by a digital flow meter(Optiflow1000,Humonics,CA),interfaced with a com-puter.Afloating disc rotameter(King Instrument,Fresno,CA)was used to monitor the retentateflow rate.The crossflow velocity and operating pressure were adjusted using a bypass valve(Swagelok, Solon,OH)in conjunction with a back-pressure regulator(U.S.Para Plate,Auburn,CA).Temperature was controlled by a recirculating chiller/heater(Model633,Polysciences)with a stainless steel coil submerged in the feed water reservoir.2.5.Fouling and cleaning experimentsThe membrane wasfirst compacted with DI water until the permeateflux became constant,followed by the initial baseline performance for1h.The membrane was then stabilized and equi-librated with a foulant-free electrolyte solution for2h.Theflux at which the baseline run was performed was predetermined so that the initialflux would drop to a specifiedflux of2.3×10−5m s−1(or 83L m−2h−1)after adding the electrolyte solution.The chemistry of the foulant-free electrolyte solution and operating conditions adjusted in this stage were similar to those used for the ensuing fouling runs.As octanoic acid takes time to dissolve completely,the mixture of organic foulant solution has to be prepared8h before the fouling run.The feed foulant solution was prepared separately in another container.The chemistry of the feed foulant solution was adjusted to be identical to that of the foulant-free electrolyte solution so that the overall ionic strength and solution chemistry would not change when the feed foulant solution was added to initiate fouling. Fouling runs were carried out for17h.At the end of the fouling run, the solution in the feed reservoir was disposed off and chemical cleaning solution was added to the feed reservoir to clean the fouled membrane.At the end of the cleaning stage,the chemical cleaning solution in the reservoir was discarded,and both the reservoir and membrane cell were rinsed with DI water toflush out the residual chemical cleaning solution.Finally,the cleaned RO membrane was subjected to the second baseline performance with DI water to re-determine the pure waterflux.The crossflow velocity throughout the experiment,except dur-ing cleaning,was maintained at8.6cm/s.The operating conditions (i.e.,initialflux,crossflow velocity,and temperature)at this stage were identical to those applied during the initial baseline perfor-mance,so as to determine the cleaning efficiency by comparing the pure waterfluxes determined before fouling and after clean-ing.Throughout all the fouling/cleaning stages,the feed water in the reservoir,which was located on top of a magnetic stirrer,was mixed rigorously to ensure complete mixing of the feed water and cleaning solution.To confirm the reproducibility of determined cleaning effi-ciency,selected fouling/cleaning runs were duplicated.Results showed that fouling rate and cleaning efficiency obtained from the duplicate runs were within less than a5%difference.To investigate the change in the permeate quality during the fouling stage,permeate samples taken before and at the start and end of fouling were analyzed for salt(NaCl)rejection using an ICP-AES(ICP Optima3000,Perkin Elmer,Waltham,MA).Permeate and feed samplings obtained before the fouling run were collected at the end were collected during thefinal40min of the fouling run.2.6.AFM adhesion force measurementsAtomic force microscopy(AFM)was used to measure the inter-facial force between the foulant in the bulk solution and the foulant in the fouling layer on the membrane.The force measurements were performed with a colloid probe,modified from a commercial-ized SiN AFM probe(Veeco Metrology Group,Santa Barbara,CA).A carboxylate modified latex(CML)particle(Interfacial Dynam-ics Corp.,Portland,OR)was used as a surrogate for the organic foulants,because organic foulants(alginate and SRNOM)carry pre-dominantly carboxylic functional groups.To make a colloid probe, a CML particle with a diameter of4.0m was attached using Nor-land Optical adhesive(Norland Products,Inc.,Cranbury,NJ)to a tipless SiN cantilever.The colloid probe was cured under UV light for20min.The AFM adhesion force measurements were performed in a fluid cell using a closed inlet/outlet loop.The solution chemistries of the test solutions injected into thefluid cell were identical to those used in the bench-scale fouling/cleaning experiments.Once all the air bubbles had beenflushed out of thefluid cell,the injection would stop and the outlet was closed.The membrane was equilibrated with the test solution for30–45min before force measurements were performed.The force measurements were conducted at three tofive different locations,and at least10measurements were taken at each location.Because the focus of this study was on the foulant–foulant interaction(adhesion),only the raw data obtained from the retracting force curves were processed and converted to obtain the force versus surface-to-surface separation curves.The force curves presented were the averages of all the representative force curves obtained at the different locations.The protocol for AFM analysis has been modified slightly to investigate the interaction between different foulant types. The AFM colloidal probe is soaked in organic foulant solution (2000mg/L alginate,BSA,or SRNOM,or>98%octanoic acid)for at least24h(at4◦C for alginate,BSA,and SRNOM solutions to prevent organic degradation,and at room temperature for octanoic acid). The membrane is fouled with200mg/L organic foulant(alginate, BSA,SRNOM,or octanoic acid)using the crossflow unit for about 17h.After transferring the colloidal probe to the AFMfluid cell and the membrane to the AFM disc puck,an electrolyte solution con-taining0.5mM CaCl2and8.5mM NaCl(adjusted to pH6.5±0.2) (identical solution chemistry as during fouling)is injected into the fluid cell.The volume of electrolyte solution added is just enough tofill up thefluid cell so as to minimize the possibility offlush-ing away the foulants on the membrane and probe surfaces.AFM force measurements are taken after20min of equilibration time.To investigate the effect of cleaning agent on the intermolecular adhe-sion force,the cleaning agent was added to the electrolyte solution at the same concentration as that used in the cleaning experiments.2.7.Light scatteringDynamic light scattering experiments were performed on foulant solution to determine the effective hydrodynamic diam-eters of the foulant aggregates in foulant mixtures using a multi-detector light scattering unit(ALV-5000,Langen,Germany). New glass vials(Supelco,Bellefonte,PA)for containing foulant solu-tions under various solution chemistries were cleaned prior to use by soaking overnight in a cleaning solution(Extran MA01,Merck KGaA,Darmstadt,Germany),rinsing with DI water,and drying inW.S.Ang et al./Journal of Membrane Science376 (2011) 196–206199Fig.1.Influence of individual foulant type on fouling of LFC-1membranes:(a)in the absence of Ca2+and(b)in the presence of0.5mM Ca2+.The total ionic strength of the feed solution wasfixed at10mM by adjusting with NaCl and the feed solution pH was adjusted to6.0±0.2,as necessary,by adding NaOH.Fouling conditions: foulant concentration of25mg/L,initial permeateflux of23m/s(or83L m−2h−1), crossflow velocity of8.6cm/s,and temperature of21.0±0.5◦C.of1M NaOH.The vial containing the foulant solution was vortexed (Mini Vortexer,Fisher Scientific)to homogenize the solution.The vial was then allowed to sit for30min before starting the light scattering experiment.All light scattering measurements were conducted by employ-ing the detector positioned at a scattering angle of90◦from the incident laser beam.The detector signal was fed into the correla-tor,which accumulated each autocorrelation function for15s.The intensity-weighted hydrodynamic radius of the colloidal aggre-gates was determined with second-order cumulant analysis(ALV software)[27].The reported size is the average of thefirst20mea-surements.3.Results and discussion3.1.Membrane fouling3.1.1.Fouling with individual foulantsFig.1presents the normalizedflux profiles for LFC-1mem-branes fouled by each individual foulant(alginate,BSA,SRNOM, or octanoic acid)in the absence(Fig.1a)and presence(Fig.1b)of Ca2+,respectively.In the absence of Ca2+,theflux decline profiles of membranes fouled by the various foulants are insignificant.The 2+Fig.2.Influence of a mixture of(a)2foulants or(b)more than2foulants on fouling of LFC-1membranes in the presence of0.5mM Ca2+.The total ionic strength of the feed solution wasfixed at10mM by adjusting with NaCl and the feed solution pH was adjusted to6.0±0.2,as necessary,by adding NaOH.Fouling conditions were identical to those in Fig.1.RO membranes by BSA,SRNOM,or octanoic acid is minimal.How-ever,we have observed that the presence of Ca2+can affect fouling behavior when the foulant concentrations are higher(300mg/L BSA;2mM or288mg/L octanoic acid)[11,12].3.1.2.Fouling with mixture of foulantsTo investigate the implications for wastewater reclamation, the effect of Ca2+on fouling of RO membranes by all possible combinations of two or more foulant types is investigated.The con-centration of each foulant type was maintained at25mg/L.Fig.2a shows the normalizedflux profiles of membranes fouled by a mix-ture of two foulants in the presence of Ca2+.The effect of Ca2+is most significant for feed solutions containing alginate as one of the two foulant types.This mechanism will be further investigated with the aid of DLS and AFM paring theflux profiles of mem-branes fouled by alginate as a co-foulant,theflux-decline profile of membrane fouled by alginate and octanoic acid is the least sig-nificant due to the formation of octanoic acid–calcium complexes, which increase the hydrophilicity of the fouling layer[12].Fig.2b shows the normalizedflux profiles of membranes fouled by a mixture of three foulant types and all foulant types in the presence of Ca2+.In the presence of Ca2+,for membranes fouled by mixtures containing alginate,the effect of Ca2+onflux profiles is most significant,especially for the membrane fouled by a mixture of alginate,BSA,and SRNOM(without octanoic acid).In compar-ing the latter with theflux profile of the membrane fouled by all200W.S.Ang et al./Journal of Membrane Science376 (2011) 196–206Fig.3.Sodium ion(Na+)rejection of RO membranes measured before,and at the start and end of the fouling runs,at an adjusted feed solution pH of6.0.The membranes were fouled by combined foulant types,composed of25mg/L each of alginate,BSA,SRNOM,and octanoic acid.Permeate and feed samples obtained before the fouling run were collected30min before the onset of fouling.Samples taken at the start of the fouling run were initiated afterfirst discarding20mL of permeate(duration of8min).Permeate and feed samples taken at the end were collected during thefinal40min of the fouling run.Error bars indicate one standard deviation.Fouling conditions were identical to those in Fig.1.contained alginate and octanoic acid in the presence of Ca2+.The inhibitory effect of octanoic acid onflux-decline profiles can also be observed by comparing theflux profile of combined foulant types of alginate,SRNOM,and octanoic acid in Fig.2b with the profile of alginate and SRNOM in Fig.2a.3.1.3.Impact of fouling on salt rejectionFig.3presents Na+rejection of the RO membranes fouled by combined foulant types of alginate,BSA,SRNOM,and octanoic acid in the presence of Ca2+,at the start and end of the fouling runs.The trend of observed Na+rejection is similar both in the absence and presence of Ca2+.At the onset of fouling,the Na+rejection instan-taneously increases.This phenomenon is consistent with previous observations,which attributed the decrease in Na+permeability to the fouling layer acting as an additional selective barrier[12]. Toward the end of the fouling runs,the fouling layer becomes thicker and denser,resulting in even higher Na+rejection.It can be inferred that the presence of Ca2+resulted in a more compact fouling layer,which improves the ability of the fouling layer to fur-ther act as a selective barrier against the transport of Na+across the membrane.3.2.Fouling mechanisms3.2.1.Role of foulant–foulant interaction and foulant sizeRecent studies have demonstrated that the long-term organic fouling of RO membranes and the consequent behavior of water flux are dominated by the feed water chemistry and strong foulant–foulant interactions[4,20,21,28].Quantifying these inter-actions provides a basis for the understanding of the fouling mechanisms and for the rational selection of a suitable cleaning strategy.As discussed in Section3.1.2,fouling behavior becomes significant when alginate is one of the co-foulants.When alginate is absent from the feed solution,regardless of the other foulant types present,fouling is relatively insignificant.This behavior can be explained by evaluating the interaction forces among the differ-ent foulants.To investigate the effect of interactions of alginate with other foulant types,DLS analysis is performed on a solution contain-ing2foulant types(200mg/L alginate plus200mg/L of another foulant type)in the presence of Ca2+.Fig.4a shows that the alginate molecules in the solution have an effective hydrodynamic diame-ter of84nm,which is larger than the effective diameter of51nm of alginate molecules in a solution in which the foulant concentration is halved.The results imply that aggregation of alginate molecules is concentration dependent.The larger effective diameter of aggre-gates formed in400mg/L alginate solution as opposed to those formed in200mg/L alginate solution also implies a more exten-sive gel network at a higher concentration.The effective diameters of the foulant molecules in mixtures of alginate and BSA,alginate and SRNOM,and alginate and octanoic acid are,respectively,48, 63,and73nm.The effective diameter is an indirect indication of the foulant size due to aggregation between the foulants.Because of the varying interactions between alginate and another foulant type in the presence of Ca2+,the aggregate size differs for foulant aggregates of different foulant combinations.Fig.4b shows the intermolecular forces between foulant adsorbed on a colloidal probe and a membrane fouled by algi-nate as determined by AFM.For a membrane fouled by alginate and octanoic acid,the dominant foulant interactions are between alginate and alginate molecules(1.03mN/m)and between octanoic acid and octanoic acid molecules(0.90mN/m).For a membrane fouled by alginate and SRNOM,the dominant foulant interaction is between alginate and alginate molecules(1.03mN/m).For a membrane fouled by alginate and BSA,the dominant foulantinter-Fig.4.(a)Effective diameter of foulant aggregates in solutions of various foulant combinations that contain alginate as co-foulant.The foulant solution consists of200mg/L alginate plus200mg/L of another foulant type in an electrolyte solution of0.5mM CaCl2and8.5mM NaCl(same solution chemistry as that used in fouling experiments).TheW.S.Ang et al./Journal of Membrane Science376 (2011) 196–206201Fig.5.Proposed structure of fouling layer on membrane surface under different combinations of foulants.actions are between alginate and alginate molecules(1.03mN/m) and between alginate and BSA molecules(0.73–0.79mN/m).We observe that when alginate is present in the feed,regardless of the co-foulant,the interaction of alginate molecules among them-selves is most dominant,with the possibility of alginate molecules interacting with other molecules,especially BSA molecules.Comparing the effective diameters of the foulant aggregates in various2-foulant mixtures(Fig.4a)with the intermolecular adhe-sion force between different foulants(Fig.4b)reveals that there is an inverse correlation between the foulant aggregate size and the intermolecular adhesion force(foulant aggregate size generally decreases as intermolecular adhesion force increases).It is hypoth-esized that the interaction among the foulant types within the aggregates would affect the conformation,and hence,the size of the aggregates in the foulant solution.For example,the relatively stronger intermolecular adhesion force between alginate and BSA molecules in the feed solution in the presence of Ca2+results in a more‘compact’or‘tighter’conformation of the foulant aggregates as compared to the foulant aggregates formed from a solution of alginate and SRNOM.The deposition of the smaller and more‘com-pact’alginate–BSA aggregates results in a tighter fouling layer and a lowerfinalflux(Fig.5)[29].We note that the SA–SA aggregate does not follow the trend of a decrease in aggregate size with increasing adhesion force because alginate molecules tend to form extended gel networks in the presence of calcium ions[29],as opposed to the other combinations of foulants.3.2.2.Proposed structure of fouling layerThe fouling experiments reveal that membrane fouling in the presence of Ca2+is controlled by alginate.From the AFM force mea-surement analysis and the DLS experiments,the proposed structure of the fouling layer when severe fouling occurs under various solu-tion chemistries is schematically shown in Fig.5.The top drawing shows the likely conformation of the cross-linked alginate fouling layer when the feed contains alginate in the presence of Ca2+.In this case,the fouling layer has the typical structure resulting from the formation of an‘egg-box’shaped gel network on the mem-brane surface[29].The middle drawing shows the proposed fouling layer formed by a feed solution containing a mixture of alginate, BSA,SRNOM,and octanoic acid(each foulant has the same concen-tration).The DLS experiments show that the aggregates of foulant mixtures containing alginate as a co-foulant have smaller effective feed solution in which alginate is the sole foulant.When the algi-nate concentration is increased while maintaining the same total foulant concentration,the fouling layer becomes more porous due to the increase in the highly ordered alginate–calcium complexes on the membrane surface.The state of the fouling layer would affect the transfer of a cleaning agent to the fouling layer,and hence,the cleaning efficiency of the cleaning agent as delineated in the next sections.3.3.Cleaning of fouled membranes3.3.1.Type of cleaning agentFig.6presents the cleaning efficiencies of various cleaning agents on membranes fouled by combined foulant types compris-ing alginate,BSA,SRNOM,and octanoic acid in the presence of 0.5mM Ca2+.Cleaning was performed for15min without an oper-ating pressure(i.e.,no permeate)and at a crossflow velocityfive times higher than that during fouling.Cleaning the fouled mem-brane with DI water resulted in19%cleaning efficiency,which implies that the fouling layer on the membrane surface was largely irreversible.Conventional cleaning agents,such as NaOH(pH11),Fig.6.Cleaning efficiencies of various cleaning agents on membranes fouled by combined foulant types comprising alginate,BSA,SRNOM,and octanoic acid,with the concentration of each foulant type at25mg/L,in the presence of0.5mM Ca2+.Cleaning conditions:time,15min;temperature,21±0.5◦C;and no applied。
英语文献常用词及缩写翻译
英语文献常用词及缩写翻译Abstracts Abstr 文摘Abbreviation 缩语和略语Acta 学报Advances 进展Annals Anna. 纪事Annual Annu. 年鉴，年度Semi-Annual 半年度Annual Review 年评Appendix Appx 附录Archives 文献集Association Assn 协会Author 作者Bibliography 书目，题录Biological Abstract BA 生物学文摘Bulletin 通报，公告Chemical Abstract CA 化学文摘Citation Cit 引文，题录Classification 分类，分类表College Coll. 学会，学院Compact Disc-Read Only Memory CD-ROM 只读光盘Company Co. 公司Content 目次Co-term 配合词，共同词Cross-references 相互参见Digest 辑要，文摘Directory 名录，指南Dissertations Diss. 学位论文Edition Ed. 版次Editor Ed. 编者、编辑Excerpta Medica EM 荷兰《医学文摘》Encyclopedia 百科全书The Engineering Index Ei 工程索引Et al 等等European Patent Convertion EPC 欧洲专利协定Federation 联合会Gazette 报，公报Guide 指南Handbook 手册Heading 标题词Illustration Illus. 插图Index 索引Cumulative Index 累积索引Index Medicus IM 医学索引Institute Inst. 学会、研究所International Patent Classification IPC 国际专利分类法International Standard Book Number ISBN 国际标准书号International Standard Series Number ISSN 国际标准刊号Journal J. 杂志、刊Issue 期（次）Keyword 关键词Letter Let. 通讯、读者来信List 目录、一览表Manual 手册Medical Literature Analysis and MADLARS 医学文献分析与检索系统Retrieval SystemMedical Subject Headings MeSH 医学主题词表Note 札记Papers 论文Patent Cooperation Treaty PCT 国际专利合作条约Precision Ratio 查准率Press 出版社Procceedings Proc. 会报、会议录Progress 进展Publication Publ. 出版物Recall Ratio 查全率Record 记录、记事Report 报告、报导Review 评论、综述Sciences Abstracts SA 科学文摘Section Sec. 部分、辑、分册See also 参见Selective Dissemination of Information SDI 定题服务Seminars 专家讨论会文集Series Ser. 丛书、辑Society 学会Source 来源、出处Subheadings 副主题词Stop term 禁用词Subject 主题Summary 提要Supplement Suppl. 附刊、增刊Survey 概览Symposium Symp. 专题学术讨论会Thesaurus 叙词表、词库Title 篇名、刊名、题目Topics 论题、主题Transactions 汇报、汇刊Volume Vol. 卷World Intellectual Property Organization WIPO 世界知识产权World Patent Index WPI 世界专利索引Yearbook 年鉴。
给水排水工程专业英语文献翻译译文第三篇
污水的有机污垢物污染的反渗透膜的污染和清洗摘要：被模拟的混合有机废水污水污染反渗透膜的结垢和随后的清洗已经有了系统的研究。
有机污染研究包括海藻，牛血清白蛋白（BSA），萨旺尼河天然有机物，与辛酸,分别代表多糖、蛋白质、腐殖酸和脂肪酸，在出水有机物中它们是无处不在的。
建立了存在或缺乏钙离子的混合有机污染物的结垢行为和机制后，我们的研究集中在被有机污染物质的混合物污染的渗透膜的清洗机制。
化学清洗剂代理包括碱（氢氧化钠），金属螯合剂（乙二胺四乙酸），阴离子表面活性剂（十二烷基硫酸钠），和浓缩盐溶液（氯化钠）。
具体来说，我们研究清洁剂型，清洁液，清洗时间，和结垢层组成对膜清洗效率的影响。
在有机污染物质的混合物污染的污染膜的的条件下模拟的化学清洗的调查时，粘附力值测量值提供了深入了解化学清洗机制。
结果表明，在单用碱性溶液（氢氧化钠）不能有效的破坏含钙有机污染形成的配合物，较高的pH值会导致有效的清洁，如果有足够的流体剪切力（由横向表面流提供）存在。
表面活性剂（十二烷基硫酸钠），一个强大的螯合剂（乙二胺四乙酸），和盐溶液（氯化钠）可以有效的清洗混合污染的反渗透膜，尤其是如果应用在高pH值和更长的清洗时间。
观察各种清洁剂的清洗效率均符合相关测量–分子间力值值。
此外，我们已经表明，最佳的清洁剂浓度可以从绘制的还原百分比–粘附力的值与清洗剂浓度的对比中推出。
1 景区简介全球范围对饮用水需求的增加，选择水源满足这一需求的方式从传统的来源，如水库、湖泊，转换到较常规来源，如污水二级污水处理。
为生产优质用水，使用膜进行海水淡化和废水回收已应用的更广泛。
膜污染是利用膜技术等应用的一个主要障碍，因为污染是不可避免的。
尽管努力研究开发更好的防污膜[和改进控制方法策略，膜污染仍随时间发生。
因此，长期解决办法是通过化学清洗清除沉积膜。
在废水中，回收为了选择适当的清洁剂和采用有效的化学清洗规程，必须了解废水排放特性的对膜污染的影响。
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研究生课程（论文类）试卷
2010 /2011 学年第 1 学期
课程名称：专业英语
课程代码：11000003
论文题目：再生式流体压缩机作为二级气泵控制发动机排气学生姓名：张峰
专业学号：制冷与低温工程 102310121
所在学院：能源与动力学院
图
二级气泵已经被确立为汽车发动机的主要部件，但更多的研究目的是为了提高二级气泵运行的效率，可靠性，宽范围。
汽车工业通常期望的二级气泵都要有以下特性。
40%上下；
与传统的二级气泵相比，流速增加的同时效率提高了但不会增加电流消耗；
能在维持泵的现行流速同时通过降低泵的能耗来增加二级气泵的效率；
在电动机转速限制在≤16500转/分钟的情况下，能够实现
在没有引导的情况下，启动时压力上升最快合适；
尺寸紧凑。
无量纲流量系数为：
尽管如此,再生式流体压缩机最大的优势，特别是在这样的减排类型的发动机应用中图3. 在9.96 kPa反压下，再生式流体压缩机和离心空气泵流量和压力随时间变化的比较
图4.在9.96 kPa反压下，再生式流体压缩机和离心式空气泵运行故障时间长短的比较
图5 再生流体涡轮机切向压力偏差（来自附录2）
流体进入泵通过入口区域(A)处流动压力的损失。
这个区域已经被试验证明在泵里面对流体的型态以及泵的性能具有很大的影响。
在流体从A到B的过程中得到加速。
流体进入工作区域（B-C
的速度和压力主要取决于进口区域。
这个工作区域压力变化是线性的，流体型态在这个区域中充分发展，并且流体经历一个重要的升压过程。
当流体流体在出口（区域D）离开泵时，经历一个与入
图6 压力沿着泵环面从吸收到释放的变化过程
性能预测
图7 近距离观察到叶轮叶片之间的速度矢量(叶轮叶片三维流场观察图)
图8.在进出口压力差为10 kPa，转速为16 500 r/min条件下再生式流体压缩机模型运行时的压力分布
图12.在压力差为10kPa，转速为16 500 r/min， T3温度下在气泵进口区的静压轮廓图
图16.切向流动和循环部件
通过进一步的简化公式,再循环压力上升可以表示为(见附录2细节推导)：。