英语语言学概论semantics
新编简明英语语言学 Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学
Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学一、定义1. semantics语义学:Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.语义学可以简单地定义为对意义的将研究。
二、知识点5.2 Different views of meaning意义研究的不同观点5.2.1 The naming theory命名论(by希腊Scholar Plato)The naming theory命名论:Words are just names or labels for things.词语只不过是其代表的事物的名字或标记。
Eg. desk—a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs.The limitations of this theory局限性:1. This theory seems applicable to nouns only.这一理论看起来仅适用于名词(Some words are definitelynot lables of object:eg. jump, quickly, pretty, and, in,hearted, think, hard, slowly…)2. There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world:ghost, gragon, unicorn麒麟.有些名词是指世界中根本就不存在的事物。
3. Nouns that do not refer to physical object, but abstract notions such asjoy and impulse.有些名词并不是指实物性的物体，而是指：joy, impulse刺激，这样的抽象概念。
英语语言学概论Chapter7Semantics（语义学）
英语语⾔学概论Chapter7Semantics（语义学）7.1 Introduction7.1.1 What is semantics?Semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics; it is generally defined as the study of meaning.7.1.2 Sub-branches of semantics. John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics, Wen Qiufang makes a distinction between l exical semantics and sentence semantics the latter of which is also termed sentential semantics by some people.7.2 meaning7.2.1 Uncertainty of meaningThe words mean and meaning can be used in many different contexts and for different purposes in daily communication.Even as a technical term, meaning is defined and used differently according to different theoretical approaches.7.2.2 theories of meaningJohn Lyons1.The referential (or denotational theory) 指称说2.the ideational, or mentalistic theory 意念说.3.the behaviourist theory ⾏为反应说4.the meaning-is-use theory ⽤法说5.the verificationist theory验证说6.the truth-conditional theory.真值说Li Fuyuan Semantic triangular 语义三⾓理论7.2.3 Basic concept related to meaningReference所指is the relation between the linguistic expression and the object in extra-linguistic reality to which the expression refers. Denotation指称is a term which is intrinsically connected with referenceReferent is the object or state of affairs in extra-linguistic reality or a linguistic element to which the speaker or writer is referring by using a linguistic sign. LimitationsSense意义the characteristic or quality of the object denoted by the linguistic expression. Denotes the relationship inside language. Extension and intensionExtension is the class of entities to which a linguistic expression is correctly applied Intension is the set of defining properties which determines the applicability of a linguistic expression.Concept is the result of human cognition,reflecting the objective world in human mind.7.2.4 Types of meaningDenotation and connotation 外延意义和内涵意义The denotative meaning of a linguistic form is the person,object, abstract notion, event, or Mate which the word or sentence denotes. We can say that the denotation of a linguistic expression is its dictionary meaning.The main application of the term connotation is with reference to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of the meaning of a linguistic unit, especially a lexical item.Positive neutral negative (Wen Qiufang)7.3Lexical semantics is concerned with the meaning of lexical items.7.3.1 componential analysis成分分析The way to decompose the meaning of a word into its components is known as componential analysis. We can analyze a word as a set of semantic features or semantic components with the values: plus ( + ) or minus ( -)7.3.27.3.2 Semantic field 语义场Words do not exist in isolation. They are always related to each other in one another and form different semantic fields. Semantic field theory is a theory of the German structuralist school：the vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organized into areas, or fields, within which words interrelate and define each other in various ways. (Crystal. 1985, 274).7.3.3 Lexical relationsSaeed 8 lexical relations⼀Form relation 形式关系Homonymy同⾳（同形）异义关系two or more lexical items are synonyms when they have the same meaningsAbsolute homoyms 同⾳同形异义词Homopones 同⾳异义词Homographs 同形异义词⼆Sense relations 语义关系1.Polysemy⼀词多义关系 a lexical item has a range of different meanings2.Synonymy同义关系two or more lexical items have the same meanings3.Antonymy反义关系two words are opposite in meaningcomplementary antonymy 互补反义关系Gradable antonymy 等级反义关系Relational opposite 关系对⽴反义词4.Hyponymy下义关系Hyponym 下义词Hyperonym 上义词三object relations 实体关系1.Meronymy 组成部分与整体关系2.Member-collection 成员与集体关系3.Portion-mass 部分与整体关系Lexical ambiguity is caused by ambiguous words rather than by ambiguous structures and is usually created by polysemy or homonymy.7.4 sentential semanticsSix essential factors for determining sentence meaningi) the meanings of individual words which make up a sentence;ii) grammaticality of a sentence;iii) the linear ordering of the linguistic forms in a sentence;iv) the phonological features like stress and intonation;v) the hierarchical order of a sentence;vi) the semantic roles of the nouns in relation to the verb in a sentence.Nine semantic rolesAgent （施事格）Patient （⽬标格）Experiencer （经验者）Instrument （⼯具格）Cause （动因格）Attribute （属性）Recipient （接受者）Locative （⽅位格）Temporal （时间格）SynonymousEntailContradictPresuppose presupposition trigger TautologyContradictionSemantically anomalous 异常的反常的Predicate谓语argument论元proposition命题。
戴炜栋英语语言学概论Chapter 5
The naming theory
Proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, words are just names or labels for things. Limitations: 1) It‘s applicable to nouns only; 2) Even within the category of nouns, there are still some nouns can not be named by physical objects.
Semantic triangle or triangle of significance (语义三角或意义三角)
THOUGHT/ REFERENCE (ept)
SYMBOL/ FORM…….. REFERENT (所指)
Linguistic element (words, phrases)
grammatical meaning (语法意义): grammaticality (语法性), which is governed by the grammatical rules of the language. semantic meaning (语义意义): is governed by rules called selectional restrictions (选择 限制), i. e. , constraints on what lexical items can go with what others (即对词汇项搭
X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X.) X 蕴含 Y (Y是 X的一个含义) e.g. X: He has been to France. Y: He has been to Europe. ―He has been to France‖ entails ―He has been to Europe‖ 或者 “He has been to Europe‖ is entailed by ―He has been to France‖. If X is true, Y is necessarily true. If X is false, Y may be true or false. 如果X为真,那么Y必定为假，如果X为假, 那么Y可 能为真也可能为假.
英语语言学第五章semantics
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6.3 Complementary antonymy
The members of a pair complementary to each other. They divide the whole of a semantic field completely. The assertion of one means the denial of the other and the denial of one means the assertion of the other. There is no intermediate ground between the two. Distinction between gradable and complementary contrary and contradictory
3
3.2 Connotative meaning
the emotional association which a word or a phrase suggests in one’s mind. It is the supplementary value added to the purely denotative meaning of a word. Mother a female parent connotes love, care and tenderness. Dogs have different connotative meaning between Chinese and English.
9
3.7 Thematic meaning
determined by the order of the words and the different prominence they each receive.
chapter5semantics语言学
chapter5semantics语言学语义学是对语言单位，尤其是词和句子意义的研究。
1.“意义”的意义G.Leech提出7种意义：概念意义，内涵意义，社会意义，感情意义，反射意义，搭配意义，主题意义。
G.Leech的概念意义包括两个方面：涵义和指称。
涵义和指称的区别类似内涵与外延：前者指一个实体的抽象属性，后者指拥有这些属性的具体实体。
每个单词都有涵义，即概念意义，否则他们无法使用或理解，但并非每个单词都有指称。
2.指称论（命名论）：该理论把词语意义与词所指或词所代表的事物联系起来。
该理论对于解释专有名词或在现实中有所指的名词时很有效。
但其无法指称抽象概念。
有时同一东西会有不同词语的表达。
3.概念论。
代表是语义三角说。
该理论认为，词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，而是以抽象的概念为中介。
4，语境论认为应该在具体语境中研究词的意义. 语境包括情景语境和上下文两种。
5.行为主义理论认为词的意义是说话者说话得情景及听话人的反应6.意义关系词语词之间的主要意义关系：相同关系，相反关系，包含关系a.同义关系。
完全同义关系很少，所谓的同一都依赖语境，并总在某方面不同。
（方言，内涵，文体等）b.反义关系主要包括：等级反义关系，互补反义关系，关系反义关系。
1）等级反义的特点：第一，否定一方并不必然是肯定另一方，还有中间状态；第二，没有绝对评判标准，标准随对象而改变。
第三，通常用其中表示较高程度的词来覆盖整个量级。
覆盖性词被称为“无标记的”，即一般性的；被覆盖词被称为“有标记的”，即特殊的。
一般使用覆盖性词语。
一旦使用被覆盖词语，表示有某种特殊的、不一般的情况。
第四，可用very修饰，可有比较级最高级2）互补反义关系，第一，肯定一方意味着否定另一方。
反之亦然。
第二，不用very修饰，没有比较级最高级。
第三，评判标准绝对。
没有覆盖性词语3）关系（反向）反义关系，表现两个实体间的一种反向关系，不构成肯否定对立。
一个预设着另一个的存在。
语言学导论-第5章Semantics
Lexical vs. Compositional Semantics
LEXICAL “man”: COMPOSITIONAL
Dog bites man. (happens all the time; not too interesting) Man bites dog.
2-legged mammal, (relatively) hairless, male sex,
Applicable to Ns only Ns: denote things that do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost, dragon, unicorn, phenix… Ns: do not refer to abstract notions e.g. joy, impulse, hatred…
The conceptualist view 概念论
a linguistic form
“dog” no direct link what it refers to
Rather, they are linked through the mediation of
concepts in the mind.
The naming theory 命名论 The conceptualist view 概念论 Contextualism 语境论 Behaviorism 行为主义论
The naming theory 命名论
Plato Words are names or labels for things. “whale” “microorganism” Limitations:
Homonymy 同音/同形词
英语语言学概论Lexical semantics--吴晓栋
同义关系 反义关系 上下义关系 整部关系 同音异义关系 多义关系
Changes in Lexical Meaning
• Semantic Extention 词义扩展 • Semantic Narrowing 词义缩小 • Semantic Degradation 词义贬降 • Semantic Elevation 词义扬升
• Semantic Extention
• The vocabulary is more meaningful than its former meaning.
• E.g.
• "Salary" meaned "salt money" before, but now it refers to periodic payment for regular employment.
• Semantic Narrowing
• The meaning has smaller range than former meaning.
• E.g.
• "Corpse" meaned "body of (alive or dead) human beings and animals", now it refers to dead body of human beings.
thecompilationofdictionariessenserelations?synonymousrelationship同义关系?antisenserelationship反义关系?hyponymy上下义关系?wholerelationship整部关系?homonymy同音异义关系?multirelationship多义关系changesinlexicalmeaning?semanticextention词义扩展?semanticnarrowing词义缩小?semanticdegradation词义贬降?semanticelevation词义扬升?semanticextention?thevocabularyismoremeaningfulthanitsformermeaning
英语语言学名词解释总结
Chapter 6 SemanticsSemantics: it is generally defined as the study of inherence or intrinsic meaning, the meaning in isolation from the context.The naming theory:命名论it is one of the oldest notions concerning meaning proposed by Plato, which holds the view that the relationship between linguistic forms and what they stand for is one of naming. Its defaults: firstly, the theory seems applicable to nouns only. Secondly, even within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world at all or things that do not refer to physical objects, but abstract notions. Finally, some words may have different meanings in different contexts while the same reference may have different names such as “the morning star” and “the evening star”The conceptualist theory: 意念论C. K .Ogden Richard created the semantic triangle to show the indirect relationship between symbols and their supposed referents.Symbol: it refers to the linguistic elements such as word or sentence.Referent: it refers to the object in the world of experience.Context: it refers to what comes before and after a word, phrase, statement, etc. helping to fix the meaning; or refers to circumstances in which an event occurs. Contextualism :情境论、语境论John FirthSituational context: it refers to the particular spatiotemporal situation in which an utterance occurs, the main components of which include, apart from the place and time of the utterance, the speaker and the hearer, the actions they are performing at the time, the various objects and events exists in the situation.The linguistic context: sometimes known as context, it includes a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word, which forms part of the “meaning” of a word, and, also the part of text that precedes and follows a particular utterance. For example, the meaning of the word “paper” differs in the two collocations of “a piece of paper” and“a white paper”。
英语语言学概论semantics
年ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ年第学期第周星期
课题名称（含教材章节）：Semantics
教学目的和要求：了解并掌握语义学的定义、语义学的分支、有关意义的理论、语义学的一些重要概念（reference, denotation, referent, sense, extension, intension, concept）、意义的类型、意义的要素、成分分析理论、语义场理论、词汇关系、决定句子意义的基本因素、句子之间的意义关系。
教学重点：语义学的定义、语义学的分支、有关意义的理论、语义学的一些重要概念（reference, denotation, referent, sense, extension, intension, concept）以及述位结构理论。
教学难点：意义的类型、意义的要素、成分分析理论、语义场理论、词汇关系、决定句子意义的基本因素。
教学内容（要点）
Definition of semantics
Meanings of meaning
Theories of meaning
Word meaning
Componential analysis
Sentence meaning
徐州工程学院教案纸
新编简明英语语言学Chapter5Semantics语义学
Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学、定义1. semantics 语义学：Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language. 语义学可以简单地定义为对意义的将研究。
二、知识点5.2 Different views of meaning 意义研究的不同观点521 The naming theory命名论(by 希腊Scholar Plato)The naming theory命名论：Words are just names or labels for thin gs词语只不过是其代表的事物的名字或标记。
Eg. desk—a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs.The limitations of this theory 局限性：1. This theory seems applicable to nouns only这一理论看起来仅适用于名词(Some words are definitelynot lables of object：eg. jump, quickly, pretty, an d, i n,hearted, thi nk, hard, slowly …)2. There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world： ghost,grago n, un icorn麒麟.有些名词是指世界中根本就不存在的事物。
3. Nouns that do not refer to physical object, but abstract notions such asjoy and impulse有些名词并不是指实物性的物体，而是指：joy, impulse 刺激，这样的抽象概念。
语言学概论名词解释
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (Language is a means of verbal communication.)Arbitrariness 任意性There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.( refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.) Duality 二层性is the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.Creativity (productivity) 创造性Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.)Displacement 移位性Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.( means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present( in time and space) at the moment of communication.)Linguistics 语言学is the scientific study of language.Saussure distinguished the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as Langue and Parole. Competence 语言能力the ideal user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules of his language.Performance 语言运用the actual realization of this knowledge in concrete situations.Chapter 2Phonetics 语音学(the study of sounds) studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.Phonology 音系学is the study of sound patterns and sound systems of languages. Coarticulation 协同发音When a speech sound changes, and becomes more like another sound which follows it or precedes it, this is called coarticulation.(When simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call this process coarticulation.) Broad Transcription 宽式音标the transcription with letter-symbols only.Narrow transcription 窄式音标the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics 读音符号.Phone 音素A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme 音位A phoneme is a phonological unit which is the smallest unit of sound in language which can distinguish two words.Allophone 音位变体the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Assimilation 同化is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Syllable 音节A syllable is composed of a compulsory nucleus(peak), a non-compulsory onset and a non-compulsory coda.Stress 重音refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.Intonation 语调involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varyingChapter 3Morpheme 词素is the smallest meaning minimal meaningful units in a language. (Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.)Morphology 形态学studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.Free morphemes 自由音素those that may occur alone, that is those which may constitute words by themselves.Bound morphemes 黏着音素those must appear with at least another morpheme, that is, they cannot stand alone.Root 词根is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning.Affixes 词缀forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. (is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem), so affix is naturally bound.Stem 词干is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.Inflection indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case. It will not change the grammatical class of the stem to which it is attached.Word formation refers to the process of how words are formed.Compounding 复合法the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.(The term compound refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form.)Derivation (affixation) 派生法the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to stems. ConversionChapter 4Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.Syntax is the study of the formation of sentences.Syntactic relations can be analysed into three kinds, namely, positional relations, relations of substitutability, and the relations of co-occurrence 同现关系.Positional relation (word order) 位置关系refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. The sequential arrangement of words can either be well-formed or ill-formed (ungrammatical or nonsensical).Relations of substitutability 可替换关系Firstly, it refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure. Secondly, it refers to groups ofmore than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.Grammatical construction/construct 语法结构can be used to mean any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains. - Constituents are the components within one sentence (a term used for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger unit).Immediate constituents 直接成分are constituents immediately, or directly, below the level of a construction, which may be a sentence, a word group or even a word (which can be further analyzed into morphemes).Endocentric construction 向心结构is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable center or head.Exocentric construction 离心结构refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable center or head.- Subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case.- Object Traditionally, subject can be defined as the doer of an action (the agent), then object m ay refer to the “receiver” or “goal” of the action (the patient), and it is further classified into Direct Object and Indirect Object.PS rules provide explanations on how syntactic categories are formed and sentences generated.Chapter 5Semantics is the study of meaning, or more specifically, the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.Referential theory 指称论The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stand for, is known as the referential theory.- Reference is the relation by which a word picks out or identifies an entity in the world.Chapter 8Pragmatics 语用学Speaker’s meaning (utterance or contextual meaning) –the interpretation of a sentence depends on who the speaker is, who the hearer is, when and where it is used. In a word, it depends on the context. The discipline which concentrates on this kind of meaning is called pragmatics.Locutionary Act 发话行为（以言指事）When we speak we move our vocal organs and produce a number of sounds, organized in a certain way and with a certain meaning. The act performed in this sense is called a locutionary act.Illocutionary act 行事行为（以言行事）When we speak, we not only produce some units of language with certain meaning (locution), but also make our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood. This is the second sense in which to say something is to do something, and the act performed is known as an illocutionary act.Perlocutionary act 取效行为（以言成事）- It refers to the consequential effects of a locution upon the hearer.By telling somebody something the speaker may change the opinion of the hearer on something,or mislead him, or surprise him, or induce his to do something, etc.- Whether or not these effects are intended by the speaker, they can be regarded as part of the act that the speaker has performed.。
英语语言学概论 Chapter 7 Semantics
3 objects, characteristics and state of affairs in the real world. 4 the speaker and the specific situational context(情景语境)
(4) Theories of meaning
Conceptual meaning: the meaning given in the dictionary: Associative meaning(联想意义):the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning: connotative, stylistic, affective and collocative meanings.
Basic concepts
Reference(所指 指称 the relation between 所指,指称 所指 指称): the linguistic expression and the object in extra-linguistic reality to which the expression refers to. Denotation: the objects or state of affairs in the real world that linguistic expressions stand for. Denotation is invariant and utteranceindependent while reference is variable and utterance dependent, could be specific.
Extension(外延 the class of entities to 外延): 外延 which a linguistic expression is correctly applied. Intension(内涵 内涵):the set of defining 内涵 properties which determine the applicability of a linguistic expression. Extension and intension are two aspects of denotation, which are complementary to each other.
语言学知识-语义学
语义学一．语义学（Semantics）的定义：研究语言单位的意义，尤其是词语和句子的意义。
二．词汇意义（Lexical Meaning）：1）意义与指称（sense and reference）：意义与指称是语言研究中的两个术语，它们之间既相互联系，又相互区别。
意义（sense）是一系列抽象语义特征的集合，与语境无关，可以在字典中查到。
而指称（reference）是语言形式在现实物质世界中所指的事物；它涉及语言形式与非语言的现实世界之间的关系。
意义与指称是意义的两个相关但不同的方面，例如“morning star”和“evening star”的意义虽然不同，但其指称一样，都指代天空中的同一颗星星。
2）外延意义（denotative meaning）：指词语所指称的外部世界的事物、状态、抽象情感。
例如：dog(狗)的外延意义是指“一种四肢、有毛、会汪汪叫的”，这种意义在任何国家、任何时代都不会改变。
3）内涵意义（connotative meaning）：指源于语言使用者的个人经历、情感、评价、语境等外部因素的意义。
例如dragon一词，在汉语文化中象征着“高贵”、“权利”，但在某些英语国家文化中，其内涵意义则为“残暴”和“邪恶”。
三．意义关系（Sense Relationship）：1）同义关系（Synonymy）：方言同义词（Dialectal synonyms）：意义相同但方言有差异的词，例如：autumn（BrE）= fall（ArE）。
文体同义词（Stylistic synonyms）：意义相同但在文体上或者正式程度上有差别的词，例如：buy（较为随意）—— purchase（较为正式）。
搭配同义词（Collocational synonyms）：指意义上相同，但是搭配不相同的词。
例如：provide和supply，provide sth. for sb.和supply sth. to sb.在情感或评价意义方面存在差异的同义词（Synonyms with different emotive or evaluative meaning）：意义相同，但在情感或评价意义方面存在差异的词，例如：politician（政客）含贬义色彩，statesmen（政治家）含褒义色彩。
语言学--SEMANTICSPPT课件
Types of Synonyms:
1. Dialectal synonyms（方言） e.g. autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol – gasoline… 2. Stylistic synonyms（文体风格---正式、一般、口语）
e.g. kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence;… 3. Synonyms that differ in emotive or evaluative meaning （褒义或贬义）
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5
The conceptualist view 概念论
• Definition： one concerning meaning.
• It is also called ideational theory（观念论）.
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6
SEMANTIC TRIANGLE（语义三角） THOUGHT/REFERENCE
Complete homonyms 同音同形异义 two words are identical in both sound and spelling,but different in meaning.
e.g. fast adj fast v (斋戒）
.
13
Hyponymy 下义关系
Definition: the sense relation between a more general, more
inclusive word and a more specific word.
(下义关系指的是一个更普遍, 范围更广泛的词和一个更具体的词之间的关系.)
Superordinate(上义）: the word which is more general in
semantics含义和举例
semantics含义和举例
Semantics是一个英语词汇，指的是语言学和逻辑学中与词义、句义以及语言表达的意义相关的概念和研究领域。
在语言学中，semantics研究词汇和句子的意义，并探讨词汇和句子之间的
关系。
在逻辑学中，semantics研究命题、谓词和推理等的意
义和语义逻辑。
举例:
1. 在语言学中，semantics可以用来解释词汇的意义。
比如，
英语单词"dog"的semantics是指代一种四肢的、长尾巴的、被
驯化且以人类为主要伙伴的哺乳动物。
2. 在逻辑学中，semantics可以用来解释谓词和推理的意义。
例如，谓词"是母亲"的semantics可以定义为"对于一个人x，
如果存在一个人y，y是x的孩子，则x是母亲"。
3. 在计算机科学中，semantics可以用来解释编程语言的意义。
比如，当编写一个计算两个数之和的程序时，semantics可以
定义为将两个数相加并返回结果的操作。
总而言之，semantics的含义涵盖了语言学、逻辑学和计算机
科学等多个学科领域。
它帮助我们理解和研究词汇、句子、命题以及计算机程序等的意义和语义关系。
英语语言学概论第五章笔记
There are words that bear the same meaning but express different emotions of the user, indicating the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about.
意念论认为，语言形式及其所代表的对象之间（即语言与现实世界之间）没有直接联系；确切地说，在理解语义时，是通过大脑中存在意念这一中介物来联系的。
3)Contextualism语境论
Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context.
Autumn fall
Lift elevator
Flat department
Windscreen windshield
Torch flashlight
b)Stylistic synonyms – synonyms differing in style.
Words having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality. In other words, some words tend to be more formal, others casual, and still others neutral in style.
英语 语言学semantics
Exercises
Point out what of the followings are? Polysemy, homophony or metaphor? Run down: ____ stairs; feel ____ ; __ a list of names; Seat: ____ of one’s pants; ____ of government; driver’s _____; Ear: ____ for music; ___ of corn; ___ on your head; Spell: ____ a word; under a ____; a dry _____
2) complementary
alive dead in /out , innocent/guilty, true/false 3.converseness: the presence of a word indicates the existence of the other. teacher/student, left/right, buy/ sell, give / receive Doctor/patient, above/ below
Discussion
Ex. Guard the door A security guard A point guard To-too-two Saw (v.) vs. saw (n.) Hear-here Bear: bear a burden; bear a child; bear in the woods Bank
practice
True is antonym of ____. Sister is the converse of _____. Partner is the converse of _______. Menu is the whole of ______. Friend is the synonymy of _______.
语言学考试整理 名词解释
1.Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study oflanguage.2.Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used incommunication is called phonology.3.Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to formsentences is called syntax. .4.Design features: it referred to the defining properties of human languagethat tell the difference between human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.5.Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings ofmind is called psycholinguistics.nguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for humancommunication.7.Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication iscalled phonetics.8.Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to formwords is called morphology.9.Parole: it referred to the actual phenomena or data of linguistics.10.P honology：Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language；it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. 11.P honeme:The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme；it is a unit ofdistinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact，a phoneme is nota sound；it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.12.A llophone:The different phones which can represent a phoneme in differentphonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.13.I nternational phonetic alphabet：It is a standardized and internationallyaccepted system of phonetic transcription.14.I ntonation:When pitch，stress and sound length are tied to the sentencerather than the word in isolation，they are collectively known as intonation.15.P honetics:Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium oflanguage；it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages16.A uditory phonetics:It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point ofview. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.17.A coustic phonetics:It studies the speech sounds by looking at the soundwaves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.18.P hone:Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use whenspeaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.19.P honemic contrast:Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between twophonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning，they are in phonemic contrast.20.T one：Tones are pitch variations，which are caused by the differing ratesof vibration of the vocal cords.21.M inimal pair：When two different forms are identical in every way except forone sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings，the two words are said to form a minimal pair.22.M orphology：Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internalstructure of words and the rules by which words are formed.23.I nflectional morphology：The inflectional morphology studies the inflections24.D erivational morphology：Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.25.M orpheme：It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.26.F ree morpheme：Free morphemes are the morphemes which areindependent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.27.B ound morpheme：Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot beused independently but have to be combined with other morphemes，either free or bound，to form a word.28.R oot：A root is often seen as part of a word；it can never stand by itself al-though it bears clear，definite meaning；it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.29.A ffix：Affixes are of two types：inflectional and derivational. Inflectionalaffixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories，while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.30.P refix：Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word. Prefixes modify themeaning of the stem，but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.31.S uffix：Suffixes are added to the end of the stems；they modify themeaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.32.D erivation：Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivativeaffixes are added to an existing form to create a word.33.C ompounding：Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two orsometimes more than two words to create new words.34.S yntax：Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies thesentence structureof language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.35.S entence： A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usuallycomprises a number of words to form a complete statement，question or command. Normally， a sentence consists of at least asubject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.36.C oordinate sentence：A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined bya linking word called coordinating conjunction，such as "and"，"but"，"or".37.S yntactic categories：Apart from sentences and clauses， a syntacticcategory usually refers to a word （called a lexical category）or a phrase （called a phrasal category）that performs a particular grammatical function.38.G rammatical relations：The structural and logical functional relations ofconstituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases，grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom.39.L inguistic competence：Universally found in the grammars of all humanlanguages，syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.40.T ransformational rules：Transformational rules are the rules that transformone sentence type into another type.41.D-structure：D-structure is the level of syntactic representation that existsbefore movement takes place. Phrase structure rules，with the insertion of the lexicon，generate sentences at the level of D-structure.42.S emantics：Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning inlanguage.43.S ense：Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form；it is abstract and de -contextualized.44.R eference：Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real，physical world；it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience45.S ynonymy：Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity ofmeaning.46.P olysemy：Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may havemore than one meaning.47.H omonymy：Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words havingdifferent meanings have the same form，i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling，or in both.48.H omophones：When two words are identical in sound，they are calledhomophones.49.H omographs：When two words are identical in spelling，they arehomographs.50.C omplete homonyms：When two words are identical in both sound andspelling，they are called complete homonyms.51.H yponymy：Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a moregeneral，more inclusive word and a more specific word.52.A ntonymy：Antonymy refers to the relation of oppositeness of meaning.53.C omponential analysis：Componential analysis is a way to analyze wordmeaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components，which are called semantic features.54.T he grammatical meaning：The grammatical meaning of a sentence refersto its grammaticality，i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.55.P redication：The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.56.A rgument：An argument is a logical participant in a predication. It isgenerally identical with the nominal element （s）in a sentence.57.P redicate：A predicate is something that is said about an argument or itstates the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.58.T wo-place predication：A two-place predication is one which contains twoarguments.59.P ragmatics：Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of alanguage use sentences to effect successful communication.60.C ontext：Generally speaking，it consists of the knowledge that is shared bythe speaker and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types：theknowledge of the language they use，and the knowledge about the world，including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.61.U tterance meaning：The meaning of an utterance is concrete，andcontext-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning；it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication，or simply in a context.62.S entence meaning：The meaning of a sentence is often considered as theabstract，intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication.63.C onstative：Constatives were statements that either state or describe，andwere verifiable.64.P erformative：performatives，on the other hand，were sentences that didnot state a fact or describe a state，and were not verifiable. Their function is to perform a particular speech act.65.L ocutionary act：A locutionary act is the act of uttering words，phrases，clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax，lexicon and phonology.66.I llocutionary act：An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker'sintention；it is the act performed in saying something.67.P erlocutionary act：A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resultingfrom saying something；it is the consequence of，or the change brought about by the utterance；it is the act performed by saying something. 68.C ooperative Principle：It is principle advanced by Paul Grice. It is a principlethat guides our conversational behaviours. The content is：Make your conversational contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or the talk exchange in which you are engaged.69.S ociolinguistics：Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social contexts.70.S peech community：The social group isolated for any given study is calledthe speech community or a speech community is a group of people who forma community and share the same language or a particular variety oflanguage. The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must，in some reasonable way，interact linguistically with other members of the community. They may share closely related language varieties，as well as attitudes toward linguistic norms.71.S peech variety：Speech variety，also known as language variety，refersto any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers. The distinctive characteristics of a speech variety may be lexical，phonological，morphological，syntactic，or a combination of linguistic features.72.L anguage planning：Language standardization is known as languageplanning. This means that certain authorities，such as the government or government agency of a country，choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it，including its pronunciation and spelling systems，across regional boundaries.73.I diolect：An idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that com-bines aspects of all the elements regarding regional，social，and stylistic variation，in one form or another. In a narrower sense，what makes up one’s idiolect includes also such factors as voice quality，pitch and speech rhythm，which all contribute to the identifying features in an individual's speech.74.S tandard language：The standard language is a superposed，sociallyprestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system，used by the mass media，and taught in educational institutions，including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.75.N onstandard language：Language varieties other than the standard arecalled nonstandard languages.76.L ingua franca：A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as amedium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.77.P idgin：A pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by nativespeakers of other languages as a medium of communication.78.C reole：A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become establishedas a native language in some speech community.79.D iglossia：Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very differentvarieties of language co-exist in a speech community，each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.80.B ilingualism：Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which twostandard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers，such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.81.E thnic dialect：Within a society，speech variation may come about becauseof different ethnic backgrounds. An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language，often cutting across regional differences. An ethnic dialect is spoken mainly by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation，such as racial discrimination or segregation. 82.S ociolect：Social dialects，or sociolects，are varieties of language used bypeople belonging to particular social classes.83.R egister：Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use inparticular speech situations，in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users.Format reason，registers are also known as situational dialects.84.S lang：Slang is a casual use of language that consists of expressive butnon-standard vocabulary，typically of arbitrary，flashy and often ephemeral coinages and figures of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.85.T aboo：Taboo，or rather linguistic taboo，denotes any prohibition by thepolite society on the use of particular lexical items to refer to objects or acts.86.E uphemism：A euphemism，then，is a mild，indirect or less offensive wordor expression substituted when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh，unpleasantly direct，or offensive.。
chapter 5 Semantics英语专业语言学
linguistic elements & the nonlinguistic world of experience. • E.g.: The dog is barking.
Sense & reference (add)
Leech’s “Seven Meanings” 111-
• 1.Conceptual meaning (denotative meaning/cognitive meaning, central meaning, core meaning)概念义--词的 核心意义.
• 2. Connotative meaning (above its purely conceptual content.)内涵/附加 义
• Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.
• Linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense.
Approaches to meaning 104
• 1.The Naming Theory/referential theory—Plato命名说
• Definition: the meaning of an expression is what it refers to, or names.
Problems with naming as meaning
Leech’s “Seven Meanings”112
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Definition of semantics
Meanings of meaning
Theories of meaning
Word meaning
Componential analysis
Sentence meaning徐州工程学来自教案纸徐州工程学院教案
年至年第学期第周星期
课题名称（含教材章节）：Semantics
教学目的和要求：了解并掌握语义学的定义、语义学的分支、有关意义的理论、语义学的一些重要概念（reference, denotation, referent, sense, extension, intension, concept）、意义的类型、意义的要素、成分分析理论、语义场理论、词汇关系、决定句子意义的基本因素、句子之间的意义关系。
教学重点：语义学的定义、语义学的分支、有关意义的理论、语义学的一些重要概念（reference, denotation, referent, sense, extension, intension, concept）以及述位结构理论。
教学难点：意义的类型、意义的要素、成分分析理论、语义场理论、词汇关系、决定句子意义的基本因素。