Language and Culture---语言与文化的关系
Relationship between Language and Culture,语言和文化的关系
The Relationship between Language and CultureLanguage Phenomenon:Due to the differences between Chinese and western culture tradition and customs, the way of greeting is, of course, not the same. Because China is a long period of farming community, there is lot of ‘food’ in the daily expression. When people meet with each other, they will say ‘have you eaten?’ for greeting. This way of greeting is just the same as ’hi’ or ‘hello’ in western country. In China, it is a common way to say ‘hello’, but th e western people do not think so. They may think this greeting seems to be saying:’ I have nothing to eat. Come on. Let’s go to eat something.’ Or ‘I was going to ask you to my house for a dinner.’ All in all, this means that say ‘hello’ invitation to dinn er sometimes. Another way of greeting in china is’ where are you going?’ or ‘where have you been?’ In China, this greeting is just polite formula. But if you use these sentences to greet to western people, they will feel unhappy. Their reaction is likely to be: it is none of your business! Western people always talk about the weather when they meet. Such as‘the weather is fine.’ They respect the privacy of others, and will not ask others privacy issues.Analysis:So what is the relationship between language and culture? Before that, we should first know what language is and what culture is. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication; culture refers to the patterns of customs, traditions, social habits, values, beliefs and language of a society. Every language is inseparable from a culture, it has to serve and reflect cultural needs.Different countries have different cultures, and different language. Language and culture are interdependent and interactional. Language is one of the most important carriers of culture. On the other hand, culture have a great impact on language, that is culture conditioning. People from different cultural background find themselves with different customs, such as the different greeting ways when they meet each other, in the conversation, western people are unwilling to say their age, income, marriage, love, fat and so on. But in China, it is very normal to talk about marriage, income, love, age and so on.Every society has its own culture, which is record, reflected and symbolized by its language. Language and culture evolved and developed together, and thereforehave been interwoven and mutually dependent throughout their history. Neither of them can exist without the other. So without language, culture would not be possible. On the other hand, Language is influenced and even shaped by culture. It is well recognized that language is not only a scientific system of linguistic symbols, but also a sociocultural activity. This view can account for the statement that language is culturally transmitted. Cultural transmission is one of the important characteristics of human language.Relationships:The relationship between language and culture can be summarized as the following:Firstly, language is part of culture. Due to the Chinese agriculture tradition and customs, the way of greeting is ‘have you eaten?’ like other cultural phenomenon, language is also a social phenomenon, it occurred with the production of society, and develops with the development of society. We can say that language has all the attributes of culture, so language is also a kind of culture, one of the many cultural phenomena. It has been clear that language is a part of culture and influenced by culture. If languages are molded in part by the ideas processing capacities and social factors all people have in common, they should have certain feature in common---linguistic universals. But to the extent that language is molded by accidental properties of thought, technology and culture, features will also differ from language to language.Secondly, language is the foundation of the development of culture. When we said the cultural development, it is pointing to the development on the original basis which is preserved and spread by language. The development of culture can’t do without thinking, and thinking activity can’t do without the language: the development of culture must rely on the collection of creation of social members. Only by using language which is good communication tool, can social members communicate and achieve mutual understanding. Different culture should learn from each other through language. Above all, culture must use language as tools to develop. So the language is the foundation of the development of culture.Conclusion:In short, language is part of culture and the also foundation of culture development, it can reflect the characteristics of national culture and the cultural differences between different nationalities to a maximum extent. From different nationalit ies’languages, we can find the evidences of different nationality’s values, is or not standard, customs, and religious beliefs, social system, and so on. Language is one of the most important carriers of culture has a great impact on language in conditioning. They both can’t survive with each other. On the other hand, the difference of language and culture may arouse inconvenience and misunderstanding.Therefore, learning the difference of cultures between different countries is very important. Realizing the difference of cultures between different nations is good for us to communicate with different language.（881words）。
language and culture 语言与文化
Historical Linguistic Techniques
When tracing the history of language, linguists have no writing to rely upon Several techniques have been developed to trace the probable changes Glottochronology: the reconstruction of past languages on the assumption that 14% of a language changes every 1000 years Core vocabulary: Comparison of words for common objects based on similarity A list of words is compiled for each of two languages that refer to objects that are common everywhere: body parts, sun, rain, stones, trees, and others The closer the vocabulary—cognates or similar words between two languages, the more closely related the two languages are thought to be.
Language Origins: Interspecies Comparison
When
language began is anyone‟s guess Defining communication and comparing different communication systems is a first step Chimpanzees have used American Sign Language and computer buttons to convey messages somewhat like languages But speech organs have long since deteriorated, so we have at best indirect evidence.
nida,_e._a._(2001)._language_and_culture的主要内容
nida, e. a. (2001). language and culture的主要内容1. 引言1.1 概述本文将探讨Nida, E.A. (2001)的著作《Language and Culture》中关于语言和文化之间相互影响的观点和理论。
语言和文化是人类社会中不可分割的两个要素，它们相互交织、相互影响，并共同塑造着我们的社会生活和认知方式。
通过深入研究Nida的论述，本文将展示语言如何塑造文化，以及文化又如何影响着语言使用。
1.2 文章结构本文主要分为四个部分：引言、Nida, E.A. (2001). Language and Culture背景介绍、语言与文化的关系以及Nida的观点和理论、正文（包括语言对文化的影响、文化对语言的影响以及跨文化交流中的挑战和解决途径）和结论。
每一部分都将详细阐述相关内容，并根据作者的观点进行阐释和探讨。
1.3 目的本文旨在通过研究Nida, E.A. (2001)所提出的有关语言和文化之间相互关系的理论，增进我们对这一领域认识的理解。
通过实证研究和案例分析，本文将探索语言如何塑造文化，以及文化对语言的影响，并讨论跨文化交流中的挑战以及可能的解决途径。
通过深入理解语言和文化之间的互动关系，我们可以更好地理解多样性、发展跨文化教育方法并促进更有效的跨文化交流。
综上所述，本篇文章旨在探讨语言与文化之间的紧密联系并阐述Nida, E.A. (2001)在此领域的观点和理论。
以下部分将详细介绍Nida, E.A. (2001). Language and Culture的背景、语言与文化之间的关系以及相关问题。
2. Nida, E.A. (2001). Language and Culture:2.1 背景介绍:Nida, E.A.是一位著名的语言学家和翻译家，他对多种语言及其文化之间的关系进行了深入研究。
在他的著作《Language and Culture》中，他探讨了语言与文化之间的紧密联系，并提出了一些重要观点和理论。
语言与文化的关系-语言与文化
语言与文化关于“文化” 一关于“文化”的概念文化是一个广泛的概念，很难给它下一个严格和精确的定义。
自本世纪以来，不少哲学家、社会学家、人类学家、历史学家和语言学家一直都在努力地想从各自学科的角度，给文化下一个令人满意的定义，然而，迄今为止仍没获得一个公认的定义。
据克罗门（Kroeber）和克勒克洪（Kluckhohn）在1963 年出版的《文化——关于概念和定义的评论》（Culture：A Critical Review ofConcepts and Definitions）一书中的统计，有关“文化”的各种不同的定义至少就有150 个之多。
可见人们对“文化”一词的理解所存在的差异。
就目前的情况来看，人们普遍都依照奥斯华尔特（Oswalt，1970）的“大写字母的文化”和“小写字母的文化”这一区分来理解“文化”这一概念。
也就是说，人们一般都将“文化”的概念分成广义和狭义两类。
广义的文化指的是人类在社会历史发展过程中所创造的物质和精神财富的总和。
它包括物质文化、制度文化和心理文化三个方面。
物质文化是指人类创造的种种物质文明，是一种可见的显性文化，如生产和交通工具、服饰、日用器具等。
制度文化和心理文化属于不可见的隐性文化。
前者指的是种种制度和理论体系，如生活制度、家庭制度、社会制度以及有关这些制度的各种理论体系等；后者则指思维方式、宗教信仰、审美情趣、价值观念等。
狭义的文化指的是人们的社会风俗习惯、生活方式、相互关系等。
文化是一种社会现象，它是人们通过他们的创造活动而形成的产物。
文化同时又是一种历史现象，是社会历史的积淀物。
每一代人都继承原有的文化，同时又在不断扬弃和更新原有的文化，对社会文化的发展作出贡献。
文化具有鲜明的民族性、独特性，是民族差异的标志。
各个民族由于地域、生态环境、社会政治经济制度、历史背景、风俗习惯、价值观念、行为模式等的不同，其文化也具有各自的特点。
例如，在受到别人的赞扬时，根据操英语民族的文化，被赞扬的人应表示接受，以表明自己认为对方的赞扬是诚心诚意的或所赞扬的事是值得赞扬的。
语言与文化(Language and Culture)
Language and CultureI firmly believe that language and culture are familiar with everyone on earth. Nevertheless, I don’t think everyone is clear about the real meaning of language and culture. On this basis, this essay will explain some basic information about language and culture, including what is language, what is culture and the relationship between language and culture. What’s more, quite a number of examples will be cited to help you have a better understanding of language and culture.Let’s begin with the concept of language. When we put a key word “language”into the online Wikipedia(维基百科)，which is a free encyclopedia to people all over the world, we find that language is defined as the human capacity for acquiring and using complex system of communications , and a language is any specific example of such a system. From this definition, we have a clear consciousness towards language. When we look into the Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary, Language is divided into several meanings as follow：1. use of words in an agreed way as a method of human communications 2. system of words of a particular community or country etc. 3. faculty of speech 4. system of symbols and rules for writing computer programs 5. any method of communication.6. professional or specialized vocabulary. Besides, I have also learned the definition of language from my linguistics class. In the book A New Concise Course in Linguistics for Students of English(新编简明英语语言学教程). Langue is thought to be a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication. Short as it is, this definition has captured the main features of language. First of all, language is a system, that is, elements of language are combined according to rules. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that theme is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation: A rose by any other name would smell as sweet. This quotation means rose is still rose even it is called by another name.For my part, the definition of language is varied. Generally speaking, it is a series code that facilitates human communication. And beyond a specific context, language has no intrinsic meaning.After finishing talking about what is language, let’s know more about culture. Similarly, in the Wikipedia, culture is defined as fallowing meanings, Firstly, culture is deemed as a modern concept based on a term first used in classical antiquity by the roman orator Cicero: Cultura animi ( cultiration of the soul). Secondly, the term “culture”in American anthropology had two meanings: the evolved human capacity to classify and represent experiences with symbol, and to act imaginatively and creatively. Thirdly, Hoebel describes culture as an integrated system of learned behavior patterns and which are not a result of biological inheritance. Besides, we learn the meaning of culture from theIntercultural Communication course. Culture is defined as the group of people who share the same ancestry. There are also many renowned socialists give culture several definitions. For example, E.sapir once said that culture may be defined as what a societu does and thinks.Shortly, culture is involved in so many aspects that it is hard to give it an accurate definition. Put in another way, for different people, culture has very different meaning, according to their own value, education background, social status and so forth. So there is nothing to criticize when other’s understanding of culture is different from yours.Having known so much basic information about language and culture, we will have look at the relationship between language and culture. In the book Intercultural communication in English(新编跨文化交际英语)，there is a description of the relationship between language and culture. It goes like this: culture and language are intertwined and shape each other. Language is not a matter of neutral codes and grammatical rules. Each time we select words form sentences, and send a message, either oral or written. We also make cultural choices. We all agree that language helps in communication with people from different backgrounds. However, we may be less aware that cultural literary is necessary to understand the language being used. Personally speaking, language and culture is not two totally different subjects with no relevance. On the contrary, they are tightly related. That is to say, onlywhen language is put into a specific environment of cultural context does it have some real meaning.To have a better understanding of language and culture, several typical examples of the language and cultural difference between China and the western countries will be cited. We all know that the Chinese culture is both profound and extensive which leads to numerous idioms, allusions, proverbs and sayings, which is hard for foreigners to understand. Take some of them for instances. Firstly, take “过着牛郎织女的生活” for example, it can be literally translated as the Herd-boy and the spinning maid(mythical lovers separated by the Milky Way). But a foreigner may feel puzzled when look at this allusion, for they do not have the cultural background of the allusion. Actually, it is a folk tale of ancient China which means husband and wife living apart. If you want a foreigner fully understand this allusion, you’d better to tell him the whole tale, which also help him to know more about Chinese culture.There are also other four-character allusions in Chinese. Such as 三顾茅庐—make three calls at the thatched cottage(as Liu Bei did when he sought the aid of Zhuge Liang, a master straight then living in seclusion)—repeatedly request someone to take up a responsible post.完璧归赵——return the jade intact to the state of Zhao—return something to its owner in perfect condition.拔苗助长—stand by a stump waiting for hares to come and dash themselves against it—trust to chance and waiting forgains without pains.对牛弹琴—play music to an ox—cast pearls before swine.Most of the allusions come into being according to china’s long history. That’s why many foreigners find it hard to know comprehensively about Chinese language and culture. Nevertheless, there are some equivalents between these two different cultures. For example, in Chinese , there is an allusion called “画蛇添足” , in English, there is a similar proverb called gilding the lily. What’s more, it takes two to make a quarrel can be found in Chinese 一个巴掌拍不响. Hopefully, these make it easier to understand each other’s culture.In short, language in different cultures is hard to understand to most foreigners. The only thing to do is try one’s best to know more about each other’s culture, including all walks of life.。
请用英语论述语言与文化的关系作文
请用英语论述语言与文化的关系作文全文共6篇示例，供读者参考篇1The Link Between Language and CultureHi there! My name is Emma, and I'm going to tell you all about how language and culture are connected. It's a pretty neat topic if you ask me. Language and culture go together like peanut butter and jelly!First off, what even is culture? Culture is the way people live, what they believe in, the foods they eat, the clothes they wear, the music they listen to, and all the traditions they follow. Every group of people has its own unique culture. That's what makes the world such an interesting and diverse place!Now, language is a big part of culture. The words we use, the way we say things, it all comes from the culture we grow up in. Let me give you an example. In English, we say "cheese" when we take a picture. But in Spanish, they say "whiskey!" Isn't that funny? It's because "whiskey" kind of sounds like the Spanish word for cheese, which is "queso."Language also reflects the values and beliefs of a culture. Like, in some cultures, they have different ways of addressing elders or people in authority to show respect. In English, we might call our grandparents "Grandma and Grandpa," but in other languages, they might use special titles or honorifics.Another way language and culture are linked is through idioms and expressions. Idioms are phrases that mean something different from the literal meanings of the words. For instance, in English, we might say "It's raining cats and dogs" to mean it's raining really hard. But in other languages, they might use a completely different expression for the same idea.Imagine if you grew up speaking a language and practicing the culture associated with it, and then you moved to a new country with a different language and culture. It would probably feel pretty strange and confusing at first! That's because your language and culture are so deeply connected to who you are and how you see the world.There are also some cultures that have more than one language. Like in Switzerland, they speak German, French, Italian, and Romansh. And in India, they speak hundreds of different languages! But even within the same country, the differentlanguage groups often have their own unique cultural traditions and practices.Sometimes, when two cultures come together, their languages can influence each other too. This is called language borrowing. For example, the English word "algebra" actually comes from Arabic, and the Spanish word "nacho" comes from the name of a Mexican guy named Nacho who invented the dish!Preserving languages is important for preserving cultures too. When a language dies out, a part of that culture's identity and history can be lost forever. That's why there are efforts to revive endangered languages and keep them alive.Okay, I could go on and on about this topic, but I think you get the idea. Language and culture are like two peas in a pod –you can't really have one without the other. The way we communicate through language is shaped by our cultural backgrounds, and our cultures are expressed and passed down through language.So the next time you learn a new word or phrase in another language, think about what it might reveal about the culture it comes from. And remember, learning about different languages and cultures is a great way to expand your understanding of the world and the people in it.That's all from me, folks! I hope you found this essay informative and maybe even a little bit fun. Let me know if you have any other questions about language and culture. I'm always happy to chat more about this fascinating topic!篇2Certainly! Here is an essay of around 2000 words, written in an elementary school student's tone, discussing the relationship between language and culture in English.The Magic of Words and TraditionsHi there! Have you ever wondered why people from different parts of the world speak different languages? Or why they have different customs and celebrations? Well, let me tell you all about the fascinating connection between language and culture!Language is more than just a bunch of words we use to communicate. It's like a magical key that unlocks the door to a whole new world – a world filled with unique beliefs, traditions, and ways of life. You see, every language is deeply rooted in the culture it comes from, and every culture has its own language that helps it grow and thrive.Let me give you an example. Imagine you're visiting a friend's house, and their family is celebrating a special occasion. You might see them wearing traditional clothes, eating delicious foods you've never tried before, and even participating in funny-looking dances or rituals. At first, it might seem a little strange, but that's just because it's different from what you're used to!But here's the cool part: the words they use to describe these traditions and celebrations are just as special and unique as the traditions themselves. They might have words in their language that don't even exist in yours because those words describe things that are specific to their culture. Isn't that amazing?It's like having a secret code that only people from that culture can fully understand. And the more you learn about their language, the more you'll understand about their culture, too!But it doesn't just work one way. Culture also shapes language in incredible ways. Think about all the sayings and expressions we use in our everyday conversations. Many of them come from our cultural beliefs, stories, and even the way we see the world.For example, in English, we say "it's raining cats and dogs" when it's raining really hard. That's because, in our culture, wehave a lot of funny sayings and stories involving animals. But in other cultures, they might use completely different expressions to describe heavy rain, based on their own traditions and beliefs.And that's not all! Even the way we pronounce certain words or the way we structure our sentences can be influenced by our cultural backgrounds. It's like our language is a mirror that reflects the rich tapestry of our customs, values, and histories.But don't worry, you don't have to be a language expert or a cultural scientist to appreciate this amazing connection. All you need to do is keep an open mind and be curious about the world around you.Whenever you meet someone from a different culture, ask them about their language and their traditions. You might be surprised to learn that the way they say "hello" or the way they celebrate a birthday is completely different from what you're used to. And who knows, you might even pick up a few new words or expressions along the way!So, the next time you hear someone speaking a language you don't understand, or you see them practicing a tradition that seems unfamiliar, don't be afraid to ask questions and learn more about it. Because every language and every culture has afascinating story to tell, and the more we understand each other, the more we can appreciate the incredible diversity of our world.And who knows, maybe one day you'll be the one teaching others about your own language and culture, and how they're both part of the same magical adventure we call life!篇3The Connections Between Language and CultureHi there! My name is Jamie and I'm going to tell you all about how language and culture are connected. It's a really interesting topic that I've been learning about in school.First, let me explain what language and culture mean. Language is the way we communicate with words, either by speaking, writing, or using sign language. Every country and group of people has their own language or languages that they use. Culture is all the beliefs, values, traditions, behaviors, and ways of life that are shared by a particular group of people. It includes things like their holidays, food, music, art, and more.Now, you might be wondering how language and culture are related. Well, they are actually super closely linked! The language that people speak impacts and shapes their culture. At the sametime, the culture of a group influences the language they use. It's like they go hand-in-hand and affect each other.Let me give you some examples to help explain. Different languages have certain words that don't exist in other languages because those words represent ideas, objects or traditions that are unique to a particular culture. Like in the indigenous language of Hawaii, there is a word "ohana" which refers to their concept of family being extended beyond just parents and siblings. It includes neighbours, close friends and other loved ones. Because this idea of an extended family is so important in Hawaiian culture, they have a special word for it in their language.Another example is how some languages have different ways to refer to people based on their age, status or gender to show respect. This reflects cultural values around hierarchy and manners. In Korean, there are specific honourifics and different verb forms you use with elders, teachers or your boss to be polite. But more casual language is fine with your peers. Their language encodes those cultural beliefs about showing deference.Food terms are another area where you can really see the culture-language connection. Cultures with particular signature dishes or ingredients will have very specific words for them intheir language. Like the French have around 400 words just relating to cheese because it's such a huge part of their cuisine and culture! Or how there are over 200 words for camels and their behaviors in Somali since camels are central to their nomadic way of life.Sometimes the words and metaphors we use can give insights into a culture's core values too. Expressions involving time reflect whether a culture has a more linear, future-oriented view or a cyclical, tradition-focused perspective. Languages also encode cultural attitudes towards concepts like individuality versus community, humanity's relationship with nature, and much more.Beyond vocabulary, even the grammatical structures and rules of a language can be shaped by cultural influences. Some languages' grammars emphasize hierarchical relationships more through complex systems of honourifics and formalities. While others place more value on egalitarian principles with simpler grammars that don't encode feudal-style hierarchies as much.Overall, you can see that language and culture have this amazing, intertwined relationship where they constantly influence each other. The culture impacts the language through imported words, metaphors, and structures. And in turn, thelanguage shapes the culture by highlighting certain ideas and viewpoints that then become central to that group's shared experiences and values. They really can't be fully separated.I find this topic so fascinating because it shows how language isn't just a neutral tool for communication. The words and grammar we use are imbued with deeper cultural meanings, assumptions and ways of thinking about the world. By learning about the language-culture connections, we can better understand different societies and appreciate the diversity of human experience and knowledge systems.Language is powerful - it doesn't just describe reality, it also plays a role in constructing our understanding of that reality. That's why preserving linguistic diversity is so important, since each language captures unique cultural wisdoms and perspectives that could be lost if those languages go extinct.Hopefully this has helped explain the deep, interwoven relationship between language and culture! Even though the details can seem quite complex, the core idea is simple - the words we speak don't exist in isolation, but carry with them entire worldviews, value systems and cultural DNA. The next time you're learning a new language, pay attention to those hidden cultural meanings too. There's a whole world of fascinatingconnections to explore between how people communicate and how they see the world around them.篇4The Connection between Language and CultureHave you ever thought about how the language you speak is related to your culture? Language and culture are like two sides of the same coin – they are closely connected and influence each other in many ways. Let me explain what I mean.Languages are more than just words and grammar rules. Each language carries its own unique way of thinking, expressing ideas, and viewing the world. The words we use, the way we structure sentences, and even the sounds we make all reflect the culture and history of the people who speak that language.For example, in English, we have many words that come from other languages like French, Spanish, and German. These words were introduced into English through cultural exchanges, trade, and migrations of people. The word "croissant" comes from French, and it reflects the influence of French culture on English-speaking countries. Similarly, words like "taco" and "fiesta" come from Spanish and reflect the influence of Spanish-speaking cultures.Languages also reflect the values, beliefs, and customs of their speakers. In some languages, there are specific words or expressions that don't exist in other languages because they represent unique cultural concepts. For instance, in Japanese, there is a word "omoshiroi" which means something is interesting or enjoyable, but it also carries a sense of appreciation and respect for the experience. This word reflects the Japanese cultural values of finding joy in simple things and appreciating beauty in everyday life.Different languages can also have different ways of addressing people based on their age, social status, or relationship. In many Asian languages, like Korean and Japanese, there are special honorific forms of speech used when talking to elders or people of higher social status. This reflects the cultural emphasis on respect for authority and hierarchical relationships in these societies.The way we communicate through language is also shaped by our cultural norms and expectations. In some cultures, it is considered polite to maintain eye contact during a conversation, while in others, direct eye contact is seen as rude or disrespectful. Similarly, the amount of personal space people prefer duringconversations, the use of gestures, and the volume and tone of voice can all be influenced by cultural factors.Just as language reflects culture, culture can also shape and influence the evolution of language over time. As societies change, new words and expressions are introduced into languages to describe new concepts, technologies, or social phenomena. For example, with the rise of the internet and social media, words like "selfie," "tweet," and "hashtag" have become part of our everyday vocabulary, reflecting the cultural impact of these technologies.Moreover, language can play a crucial role in preserving and transmitting cultural traditions, stories, and histories from one generation to the next. Many indigenous cultures around the world have rich oral traditions, where stories, myths, and legends are passed down through language. The loss of a language can also mean the loss of valuable cultural knowledge and identity.In conclusion, language and culture are deeply intertwined. Language reflects the unique cultural perspectives, values, and ways of life of its speakers, while culture shapes and influences the evolution of language over time. By learning and appreciating different languages, we can gain a deeperunderstanding and respect for the diverse cultures that exist in our world.篇5Certainly! Here's an essay of around 2000 words on the relationship between language and culture, written in English from the perspective of an elementary school student.The Link Between Language and CultureHave you ever wondered why people from different parts of the world speak different languages? Or why some words and phrases sound strange or funny to you? Well, the reason is that language is closely tied to culture, and they both influence each other in many ways.Let me explain what I mean by using some examples. Imagine you're learning a new language, like Spanish or Chinese. You'll quickly notice that some words or expressions don't make sense when you translate them directly into English. That's because those words or phrases are connected to the culture and traditions of the people who speak that language.For instance, in Spanish, they say "¿Cómo estás?" which means "How are you?" But if you translate it word-for-word intoEnglish, it would be "How are you standing?" That sounds a bit odd, doesn't it? But in Spanish culture, it's just a polite way of asking how someone is doing.Similarly, in Chinese, they have a phrase that translates to "Have you eaten rice yet?" which is a way of saying "Hello" or "How are you doing?" This phrase comes from the importance of rice in Chinese culture and the idea that ensuring someone has eaten is a way of showing care and concern.These examples show how language reflects the values, beliefs, and practices of a particular culture. The words and expressions we use are not just random combinations of letters and sounds; they carry deeper meanings and histories that are tied to the way people in that culture live and think.But it's not just words and phrases that connect language and culture. The way we communicate and interact with others is also shaped by our cultural backgrounds. For example, in some cultures, it's considered rude to interrupt someone while they're speaking, while in others, it's seen as a sign of engagement and interest.Similarly, the way we use body language, gestures, and facial expressions can vary greatly across cultures. In some cultures,maintaining eye contact is seen as respectful, while in others, it's considered impolite or even confrontational.Language and culture are also intertwined when it comes to storytelling, literature, and the arts. The stories, poems, and songs that are passed down from generation to generation often reflect the values, traditions, and beliefs of a particular culture. They use language in ways that are meaningful and relatable to the people of that culture.For example, in many Native American cultures, stories and legends are used to teach important lessons about respecting nature, honoring ancestors, and maintaining a balance between humans and the natural world. These stories are told using specific language, metaphors, and imagery that resonate with the cultural beliefs and experiences of the people.Similarly, in African cultures, oral traditions and storytelling play a significant role in preserving history, passing down wisdom, and celebrating cultural identity. The language used in these stories is rich with proverbs, riddles, and figurative expressions that convey deeper meanings and cultural values.Learning a new language can also give you insights into the culture it's connected to. When you study a language, you learn about the customs, traditions, and ways of life of the people whospeak it. This can help you understand and appreciate different cultures better, and even develop a deeper respect and understanding for people from diverse backgrounds.For instance, when you learn Spanish, you might learn about the importance of family, hospitality, and celebrations in many Spanish-speaking cultures. When you learn French, you might learn about the cultural significance of food, art, and fashion in French society.In conclusion, language and culture are deeply intertwined. The words and expressions we use, the way we communicate, and the stories and traditions we pass down are all influenced by our cultural backgrounds. Learning a new language can open up a window into different cultures and help us develop a greater understanding and respect for the diversity of human experiences. So, the next time you encounter a word or phrase that seems strange or confusing, remember that it's likely connected to a deeper cultural meaning and history.篇6The Connections Between Language and CultureHi everyone! My name is Emily and I'm going to talk to you today about languages and cultures. Have you ever thoughtabout how the language you speak is connected to your culture? It's really interesting to learn about!Every culture around the world has its own language or languages that developed over many years. The words, grammar, sayings and way of speaking in a language grew out of the beliefs, traditions, environment and experiences of that cultural group. So in a way, a language captures the culture's view of the world.For example, some languages have lots of words for different types of snow, while others might have more words about the desert or the ocean depending on where those people lived. The Inuit people who live in the Arctic regions have dozens of words in their language for the different types of snow and ice because it's such an important part of their environment and lifestyle. They need a way to describe the snowy world around them very precisely.Or think about how we say "It's raining cats and dogs" in English when there is heavy rain. That's a funny expression that doesn't make much sense if you think about it literally! But it reflects how English has developed lots of colorful idioms and sayings over time as part of the culture. Other languages willhave their own unique expressions that might not translate directly.The way people speak and the exact words they use can give you clues about their culture and heritage. If you hear someone use certain phrases or talk about particular cultural traditions, you can start to guess where they or their family is originally from. The language holds secrets about their background.When I was younger, I remember struggling a bit with my grandparents' accents when they spoke English. I realized later that was because the way they pronounced certain words was influenced by the Native American language of their tribe. Their accents reflected that cultural heritage carried through the generations, even as they learned to speak English too.Languages and cultures don't just influence each other's vocabulary and pronunciation over time - they can also share fundamental thought patterns and views of the world. The grammatical structures and rules of a language can reveal how its speakers typically organize their thoughts and see the world around them.For instance, some languages assign gender to every noun by calling it "she" or "he" - even for objects like keys or tables! That could suggest those cultures perceive everything as havingmasculine or feminine traits in a way English doesn't. Other languages have a different concept of time built into the grammar, describing events as ongoing or already completed differently than we do in English. So the core structure of a language can shape its speakers' perspective.When children learn a language from birth, they start seeing the world through the patterns and mindsets embedded in that language's system. That cultural view gets passed down from parents and communities as an integral part of how the language is spoken and understood. Fascinating, right?Of course there are exceptions to these generalizations, and language and culture don't match up perfectly for every individual. But in broad terms, the languages and cultures of communities around the globe have grown togetherhand-in-hand over centuries. They have influenced and reinforced each other through shared philosophies, experiences, traditions and environments.That's why languages can be so difficult to translate between - you often can't find a perfect word-for-word match because the deeper cultural context is different. And it's also why learning a new language can give you a window into understanding how other cultural groups view the world in their own unique way.Pretty interesting stuff, isn't it? Languages and cultures are kind of like two tightly woven strands of yarn that make up the tapestry of human diversity on this planet. I find it amazing how the evolution of spoken and written communication has been shaped by cultural influences for every society, and vice versa! Let me know if you have any other thoughts on this topic.。
语言与文化的关系The relationship between language and culture
Questions:
1. Does language form culture? 2. To what extent does language influence culture?
3. Language is influenced and shaped by culture.
The most obvious influence of culture on
The relationship between language and culture
---Introduction
2014-10-22
The same one word may stir up different associations in people with different backgrounds
nguage is part of culture.
Culture is a wider system
Culture
Language
that completely includes language as a subsystem. The relation of language to culture is that of part to whole.
apartment
• Chinese + English = Chinglish ---English with Chinese chracteristics
The appearance of Chinglish also reflects the relationship between language and culture. It shows a special kind of relationship between English language and Chinese culture.
The relationship between language and culture (语言与文化的关系)
The relationship between language and cultureIntroductionLanguage is the important means of communication, and it is the carrier of culture and a part of culture, any language was born with formation of its culture, develops with the development of culture, and in most cases, perishes with death of its culture.1. Language, as a concrete system of signs, has its own significance in the culture communicationIt has long been recognized that language is an essential and important part of a given culture and that the importance of culture upon a given language is something indispensable.1.1 Language is a systemThe important of language to the study intercultural communication is clearly captured in the American poet Ralph Waldo Emerson’s simple sentence “Language is the archives of history.” His declaration takes on added significance when we realize that one of the major characteristics identifying us as human is our ability to use language –to make sounds and marks serve as substitutes for things and feelings.Over millions of years, we have evolved the anatomy necessary to produce and receive sounds have taken on meaning by representing things, feelings, and ideas. This combination of evolution and culture has led to the development of a four-part process that enables us share our internal states with other human beings. In short, we can receive, store, manipulate, and generate symbols to represent our personalized realities.1.2 The importance of languageLanguage is extremely important to human interaction because it is how we reach out to make contract with our surroundings. If we were to survey a normal day, we would soon see that we use words for a wide variety of purposes we may use language when we first awake: “Good morning!” We use words as a wa y to write with the outside world. Or we may use words to share an unpleasant experience and to get support from other: “Let me tell you about the horrible dream I had last night.” This example also demonstrates how we employ words to relate to the past, that is, to talk about something that has already happened.We use words so that we can experience some control over the present: “please pass me thesalt and pepper.” We each seek to affect our environment, to influence many lf the daily situations in which we find ourselves. Words, and how we manipulate them, permit us to make those alterations through symbolic transactions with others.We also use words to form images of the future: “I have meet with Jane at work today, but I dread seeing her, because I k now she’s going to be upset about the changes I’m making in her work schedule.” Our wording ability allows us to predict and describe the future .We use words to persuade to exchange ideas, to exchange ideas, to express views, to seek information, and to express feelings. When we study another language, we soon discover that the symbols, the sounds for those symbols, and the rules for using those symbols and sounds are different.2. Language, as a culture institution, is born with culture. It develops and interacts with the cultureTo preserve the language of a nation is to preserve its special culture and history. When people can not understand the old language, they will be less tightly connected to or even gradually lose their cultures and histories. Their enemies know much more clearly than themselves as to this point.We still remember that in the famous article The Last Lesson, the first thing Prussians did when they intruded France, was to replace French with Prussian in the school education. Japanese also took the same strategy in order to cut off the connection between people and their histories and cultures. This evil refused to only stay in people's memory and is still threatening certain cultures and nations. Thus both Jews and Tibetans are still fighting to preserve their languages for the sake of their cultures and histories at the edge of being extinguished.2.1 Explain the meaning of the cultureWhen delivering daily speech, the word "culture" refers to pursuits such as literature and music. More broadly, we can define "culture" as all the modes of thought, behavior, and production that are handed down from one generation to the next by means of communicative interaction── speech, gesture, epic, construction, and all other communication among hu mans── rather than by genetic transmission or heredity. "Culture" is an essential concept for it is what makes humans unique in the animal kingdom. All familiar forms of social organizations, ranging from the simplest family to the most sophisticated corporation depend upon "culture" for their existence. Nevertheless, "society" and "culture" might be confusing forone to distinguish. "Society" is population that is organized to carry out the major function of life.A society's "culture" consists of all the ways in which its members think about it among themselvesCulture, in a broad sense, means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. As culture is so inclusive, it permeates virtually every aspect of human life and influences predominantly people’s behavior, including linguistic behavior. In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, belief or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture etc.Generally speaking, there are two types of culture: material and spiritual. While material culture, as the term itself suggests, is concrete, substantial and observable, most of spiritual culture, the products of mind, is abstract, ambiguous, and hidden. In contrast with nature in the sense of what is born and grows, culture refers to what has been grown and brought up with, in other words, what can be nurtured. Culture, especially material culture, is reproduced and preserved through the maintaining of beliefs, traditions, education and other institution mechanisms, mean while, it changes slowly with the development of the society.2.2 The relationship between language and cultureWe begin our preview of language by noting that it is impossible to separate our use if language from our culture. In its most basic sense, language is a set of symbols and the rules for combining those symbols that are used and understood by a large community of people. When we study another language, we soon discover that not only are the symbol and sounds for those symbols different, but so are the rules (phonology, grammar, syntax, and intonation) for using those symbols and sounds.Word different are obvious in various language. In English, we live in a house. In Spanish, we live on a case. In Thai we live in a ban. Phonology also varies culturally. In English, we have 21 consonant sounds and 5 vowels that combine to from 38 various sounds. “Vie tnamese has 34 segmental phonemes consisting of vowels, semivowels and consonants.” The Filipino language has 16 consonants and 10 vowels forming 26 phonemes. Portuguese has 21 consonants and 13 vowels that form 34 basic phonemes. Grammatical structures are unique to each language as well. In English verb tenses express contrast between past, present, and future acts, but in Vietnamese, the same verb reflects all three and the time of action is inferred from the context. Syntax, or theword order and structure of sentences, also varies depending on the language. The normal woes order for simple sentences in Filipino is the reverse of the word order in English. That is, the predicate is followed by the subject. For example, the English sentence “The teacher died” would be “Namatay ang guro” or “died the teacher” in Filipino. In English, the subject is followed by a verb and then an object, but in Korean, the subject is followed by the object and then the verb. So in English we might say, “The cat ate the mouse,” but in Korean, “Cat mouse ate” would be correct.These examples indicate that if we want to communicate in another language, it is important for us to know not only the symbols of that language, but also the rules for using those symbols. As you know language is much more than a symbol and rule system that allows us to communicate with another person-language also shapes the process by which people became introduced to the order of the physical and social environment. As Nanda indicates, “language, therefore, would seem to have major impact on the way an individual perceives and conceptualizes the world.”2.2.1Language not only express a person’s meaning but also express a nation’s cultureWe can have different meanings for the same word. For instance, to one person, the woes grass might mean something in front of then house that is green, has to be watered, and must be mowed once a week: to another person, grass may mean something that is rolled in paper and smoked. All people, drawing on their backgrounds, decide what a word means. People have similar meanings only to the experience includes baseball, to us a rope is a line driver. If our background lies in the world of jazz music, the word ax does not indicate something used to chop wood but any horn or woodwind instrument. And it is likely that we and a physician respond differently to the woes cancer.If we include culture as a variable on the process of abstracting meaning, the problems became all the more acute, for culture teaches us both the symbol and what the symbol represents. When you are communicating with someone from your own culture, the process of using words to represent your experience is much easier because within a culture people share many similar experiences. But when communication is between people from distinct cultures, different experiences are involved and the process is more troublesome. Objects, events, experiences, and feelings have the labels or names they do because a community id people arbitrarily decided to so name them. If we extent this notion to the intercultural setting, we can see that diverse cultures can have both different symbols and different responses.There are even differences between British and American usage in word meanings. Although some words are spelled and pronounced the same, they have different meanings. For instance, the words boot, bonnet, lift, and biscuit in British English translate into American English as car trunk, car hood, elevator, and cookie. In the area of business, there are also some interesting differences. For example, the British term annual gunnel meeting translates in American English as annual meeting of shareholders; scheme translates as pension plan. From these examples, we see that culture exerts an enormous influence on language because culture teaches not rules for using those symbols and rules for using those symbols, but more important, the meaning associate with the symbols. Further, culture influences the way people use language.2.2.2 Language and its culture influence are exemplified in the theoretical formulations of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesisLanguage and its culture influence are exemplified in the theoretical formulations of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, which in essence states that language is a guide to “social reality.” T his hypothesis implies that language is not simply a means of reporting experience but, more important, it is a way of defining experience. Sapir wrote:Human beings do not live in the objective world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society …The real world is to a large extent unconsciously built up on the language habits of the group. No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same world with different labels attached. Nanda provides an excellent example if the Sapir-Whorf concept in practice: If my language has only one term-brother-in-law- that is applied to my sister’s husband, my husband’s brothers, and my husband’s sisters’ husbands, I am led by my language to perceive all of these relatives in a similar way. Vocabulary, through what it groups together under one label and what it differentiates with different labels, is one way in which language shapes our perception of the world.3. Linguistic evidence of cultural differenceAny linguistic may be simultaneously of a denotative, connotative, or iconic kind of meanings. To begin with, any sign has a meaning that can be found in a dictionary, this is the denotative meaning. For example, “rose” is a flower that has a pleasant smell and is usually red,pink, white, or yellow etc. On most occasions “rose” means more than a flower, it also triggers many associations mostly good ones such as love, fragrance, passion and beauty etc. These are its connotations or connotative meanings. Moreover, the word “rose” also invok es image to people. The famous line “my love is a red rose” stirs up vividly the imagination if a beautiful young lady. This is the iconic meanings.All these types of meanings are bound with culture encodings from their associations. Each language has its own metaphors that provide semantic cohesion within its boundaries. Motivated by the need and desire to influence others, people choose to use words which emphasize denotative meaning, connotative meaning or iconic meanings or all of them, during the same process its cultural meanings are created.The following are some illustrations of the cultural differences in language use which we may often come across in our daily life.3.1 A Comparison of Chinese and British Hospitality in Treating GuestsIn China, people’s hospitality is shown by the number of the dishes offered as well as by the eagerness to impress the guest with the most expensive and nutritious food.While in Britain, people value equality. Their hospitality is shown by treating the guest as an equal with the host. Believing in simplicity regarding food, they may offer their guest the same type of meal they usually eat. Part of the reason is their egalitarianism and other reason is that the host wants to introduce the foreign guest to British food and eating customs, and make the guest feed comfortable.The foreign guest might think of the saying. “When in Rome, do as the Romans do.”3.2Different Topics between China and West Common topics in China3.2.1Common topic in ChinaSince there is not much privacy that is found in China. People feel free to ask almost any question without being offensive. The most common topics are age, income, property, family life, especially children, politics and religion. Also, when a purchase, is made, Chinese people will often ask or voluntarily tell the item’s price in order to share the happiness of shopping. But most Westerns feel it very inappropriate to talk about the price of products they have purchased. That information is considered private, so question about price should not be asked.Elderly people are highly respected in China, of “old” means wisdom and experience, theolder the better. Males especially will often ask about each other’s age to show respect for the elder one. And the elder one feels very happy to be addressed as “lao” plus surname.Today, more and more Chinese women, who have been influence by the Western cultures, do not want to give their ages.However, it is very rude for person to address the senior or the elder only by their family names. Some topics concerning the death will always be avoided.3.2.2 Common topics in the westPeople in the West like to talk about the weather, sports, news, traveling, interests and hobbies. Do not ask personal questions about age, weight, illness, income, property, religion and politics. In general conversations asking about these political issues. Beware that politics is an “emotionally changed” topic because the people in the conversation may have differing viewpoints within the group.General question about family can be asked to start a conversation. You may ask if a person is single or married. Depending on how the conversation is going, you can either ask directly by saying, “Are you single?” or “Are you married?” or indirectly by saying, “Do yo u have a family?”3.3 Friendship3.3.1 Friendship in ChinaIn China most people expert their friends to do for then when they are in need. There is an obligation to a friendship. People feel obligated and a duty to do for their friends. We have a lot for Chinese sayings concerning friendship:“为朋友两肋插刀”(people can take any risks, even risk of their lives, especially among male friends, to do everything for their friends disregarding whether it’s right or wrong);“有难同当，有福同享” (people can not only share bitterness ,hardships but also happiness with their friends). Other proverb and sayings such as “一个篱笆三个桩，一个好汉三个帮”(As one fence needs three stakes, a good guy needs three fellows.)“在家靠父母，出门靠朋友”(It is your parents that you can rely on at home, but it is your friends that you can count in when out in the society ), show that friendship really counts or is very important to a person in the society.Having friends reflects having a good personality you have and more sociable you are. Your life will be better if you have more friends, and will be worse without friends. One needs a friend to help him or her out when difficulties occur, and one needs a friend to offer financial supportwhen there is a lack of money. So in other words, one cannot be without friends in his or her life. Actually, there is a lot to say about Chinese friendships, and I am sure you have more explanations you can add to this list because of a better understanding of your own personal friendships.3.3.2Friendship in the United StatesIn general, American has causal, friendly relationships with many people, but deeper, closer friendships with only a few. Friendship requires time and commitment (The state of being bound emotionally or intellectually to a course of action or to another person or persons) and depending on the American is commitment to family, which is a priority, and time require for work or school, various types of friendships will be developed.3.3.3 Different ways of Expressing FriendshipPeople in the west apologize to their friends over things like asking for help in some small matter or telephoning late at night. They tend to use polite forms such as “could you”, and “would you” even with their friends. They may sound cold and distant when they feel perfectly friendly.Chinese people tend to make more direct requests to their friends. They address those they know quite well in a very direct way. They may sound rude and demanding when they intend to sound friendly.3.4 Greetings and term of addressIt is estimated that in English there are at least a dozen different g reetings, from “Hi” and “Hello” to more specific and longer ones like “How are you getting on?” or “How is everything with you?” People choose the proper one to greet different people they meet on different occasions. For example, people greet a new acquai ntance with “How do you do?” and expect the same in answer, but they greet an old friend differently. When friends meet, you may find more than once they are uttering” How are you?” at the same time to each other, and they both answer “Fine, thank you.” Di fferently, a Chinese speaker may greet his friends or new acquaintance with “Nin hao” or “Nihao”, whether they meet for the first time or anytime in the day.Another noticeable difference between the two greeting systems is that most Chinese people tend to greet acquaintances with “have you eaten?” or “Where are you heading for?” Obviously, if we greet the native speakers of English in this way, it will certainly cause misunderstanding.Sometimes different terms of address can be equally misleading for Chinese learners ofEnglish or English learners of Chinese. While in China “Tongzhi” was once used for all people irrespective of sex, position or marital status, in English –speaking communities “Mr.” “Mrs.” “Miss.” “Ms.” would be appropriate in similar situa tions. It is also interesting to note that in recent years “Mr.” and “Miss.” Are picked up again to replace “Tongzhi” with the changes in society. Meanwhile “shifu” is frequently used to show respect for strangers. English speakers, on similar occasions, w ould use “Sir” or “Madam”.The extension of kinship term is another feature of Chinese culture . Term such as “uncle, aunt, grandpa, and granny” are used as honorific titles for senior people or strangers, as in “ Granny Li” and “Uncle “Zhang”. Native spea kers of English would be puzzled if they are addressed in this way by people outside the immediate family. Similarly, the use of respectful titles-Chair-man Jiang, Premier Zhou, Director Ma-to indicate people’s influential status is typical of Chinese culture. Such practice, however, is less common in English –speaking cultures.3.5 Natural environmentIn Chinese, "the east wind" makes one feel warm genial, the grass long hawk flies, mixed peanut tree, but "the west wind" then just right is opposite, some one kind the flavor which sends the human to the bone to inter the body or bones of a monk. Yan Shu had written that “last night the west wind withered the blue tree”, Ma Zhiyuan had written that “ancient road, the west wind and thin horse.” All these are illustrations. However English situation is actually different from Chinese. We can read to Samuel Butler’s poem that” biting east winds”. Charles Dickens had written that “How many winter days have I seen him. Standing blue nosed in the snow and east win d! “About the west wind, then has John Milton’s line from his poem” And west winds with musky wing”. John Masefield had written that “It is a want wind the west wind full of birds ' cries. “The meaning of the two kinds of wind association of summer is so d ifference in Chinese and English people’s mind. The reason is also the geographical position. China is located in the Asian mainland. Because of the continental climate in China, the four seasons are distinct. In summer the most obvious characteristic is a scorching sun and unendurable hot. But England is located in the North temperate zone. Because of the marine climate, the summer in England is so beautiful, temperate and satisfied.3.6 manners and customsIn English there is only a word “cousin” but in Chinese there male cousin, younger male cousin, younger female cousin to express the same meaning. We can find that, Chinese relates unexpectedly the cousin obtains so strictly. It must say the sex and branch out the size. That is different from using only one word in English .The reason of this language phenomenon should attribute to the Chinese 23,000 years long time feudal rule. This kind of feudalism patriarchal society takes the blood relationship relations highly. It emphasized specially rank difference, and advocated the precedence and maintained between seniors and juniors. Westerner’s ideal is everybody pursues equality .They want to obtain the equal standing with the dialogue person. So westerners always directly shout the name of their sisters, brothers even their father and mother.3.7 Thanks and complimentsCulture differences are also evident in the ways gratitude and compliments are expressed. It is noted that people in the West tend to verbalize their gratitude and compliments more than Chinese speakers and that the westerners tend to accept thanks and compliments more directly and frankly than we Chinese do.When a native English speaker expresses to us his gratitude, a Chinese speaker may feel embarrassed and would sometimes say “no, no” t o decline whatever expressions of gratitude. However, English speakers, in a similar situation , would say something like “I am glad to hear it “ or “I am glad to be of help “ to acknowledge and accept the thanks. To native speakers of Chinese, expressions like “Not at all” or “It is nothing” which are sometimes used by Englishmen to turn down thanks may sometime lead to misunderstanding.Similarly, many native Chinese speakers will feel embarrassed when they hear compliments like “you speak excellence English” or “You have acquired a native English speaker accent.” To show their modesty and that they do not deserve a compliment, is sincere, they tend to use an emphatic “no”. English speaking people, unlike Chinese, will accept compliment. Therefore, they think it is inappropriate to show false humility, or pretended modesty.3.8 Privacy and taboosAlthough people of different culture have many common areas of privacy or taboos, there are also areas where our culture differs from western culture. As the sa ying goes “A man’s home is high value on privacy. It is not appropriate for us to ask questions about personal information like age, family background, salary, or questions on personal activities. It is advisable we shouldnot talk about such things, when conversing with English –speaking people unless they indicate clearly that they do not mind or they talk about them first themselves. Some of these questions are listed below:How old are you?What are your wages?How much do you earn?You make a lot of mo ney, don’t you?What’s you name?How much did that pair of shoes cost you?Moreover, we should be careful to avoid expressions related sexual intercourse, some organ of human body, four-letter words and racism etc.In China when two people first meet each other, they will ask many questions to each other. After three minutes, they will know each other very well. They have got much privacy information clearly from each other. Include family situation, individual condition. This also is the different cultural context which both sides locates is having an effect. The English beautiful women pay great attention to individual privacy specially. They thought individual matter shouldn’t let others know. And they wouldn’t others to intervene. Since 1100 years Chines e people live in a village near to each other and contact each other very often. So their privacy affair was difficult to let other persons know. Therefore they very are willing to understand others good and bad in life, others also want honestly to consider.3.9 Culture –relate idioms, proverbs and metaphorsDifferent languages may reflect different culture, different cultures entail different language expressions. Idioms, proverbs and saying and metaphors in different languages, derived from different origins, also demonstrate cultural differences. Different languages may have different idioms owing to different living environments, social conventions and literature tradition etc. A constellation of examples could be picked up from different levels of language analysis to illustrate the interplay of language and culture.When you get your hands dirty, it does not necessarily mean in the American culture that you have done some manual work and need to wash your hand.When you have enough dumbbells, it does not necessarily mean that you keep pair if this instrument for regular physical practices.Another example that since English people view dog as human being’s best friend, we can find more English people view dog as human being’s best friend, we can find more English expressions with dog than in Chinese.Luck dog: a luck personClever dog: a clever boy or smart ladDumb dog: silent person or a person who keeps secretsLead a dog’s life: to live an exhausted and unhappy lifePut on the dog: put in airAnd some proverbs and saying with dogs are listed as fellows.Every dog has his day.Dog does not eat dog.Give a dog an ill name and hang him.Barking dogs seldom bite.Beware of a silent dog and still water.Love me, love my dog.As to metaphor, we can easi ly find that in Chinese anger id compared with “liquid” or “qiti” as in “wo qi si le”(I am anger to death)while in English anger is more compared with “fire” as in “he is outraged.” “His face turned red with anger.” “She lost her temper.”, to mention just a few.3.10 Color wordThere are many color words in our language, such as red, white, black, yellow, purple and so forth, which are used frequently. In the first place, I’d like to introduce the common usages of the color words.English abounds with phrases containing color words. Colors may convey different messages to people of different cultures. Due to the respective cultural background and tradition, some phrases containing color words have far surpassed their original meanings, forming different connotations.What does see red mean? If he is in a blue mood, what kind of mood is he in? Is he happy, sad, or what? Obviously, red and blue do not mean just the color. Each has additional meanings-certain cultural associations-that are hidden behind the word. The following part will be devoted to the discussion of cultural differences of certain color words.In both Chinese and English, red is usually associated with happy occasions. On calendar,。
与国际关系英语词汇大全
与国际关系英语词汇大全英语作为世界上广泛使用的语言之一，对于学习国际关系的学生来说，掌握相关的专业英语词汇是非常重要的。
本文将为大家提供一个与国际关系相关的英语词汇大全，帮助大家更好地理解和运用这些词汇。
一、国家与国际组织1.国家（Nationalities）：- China 中国- America 美国- Russia 俄罗斯- France 法国- Germany 德国- Britain 英国- Japan 日本- India 印度- Brazil 巴西- Canada 加拿大2.国际组织（International Organizations）：- United Nations 联合国- World Trade Organization 世界贸易组织- International Monetary Fund 国际货币基金组织- European Union 欧盟- NATO 北大西洋公约组织- World Bank 世界银行- International Atomic Energy Agency 国际原子能机构- World Health Organization 世界卫生组织- International Criminal Court 国际刑事法院- Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries 石油输出国组织二、政治与外交1.政治制度（Political Systems）：- Democracy 民主- Republic 共和国- Monarchy 君主制- Socialism 社会主义- Capitalism 资本主义- Communism 共产主义- Totalitarianism 极权主义- Autocracy 独裁统治- Federation 联邦制- Confederation 联盟制2.外交与外交政策（Diplomacy and Foreign Policy）：- Diplomat 外交官- Diplomatic Mission 外交使团- Embassy 大使馆- Consulate 领事馆- Ambassador 大使- Diplomatic Immunity 外交豁免权- Bilateral Relations 双边关系- Multilateral Relations 多边关系- Diplomatic Negotiation 外交谈判- Peacekeeping 和平维持三、国际法与国际组织1.国际法（International Law）：- Sovereignty 主权- Territory 领土- Treaty 条约- Diplomatic Recognition 外交承认- International Court of Justice 国际法院- Geneva Conventions 日内瓦公约- United Nations Convention Against Torture 联合国禁止酷刑公约- International Criminal Court 国际刑事法院2.国际组织（International Organizations）：- United Nations 联合国- World Trade Organization 世界贸易组织- International Monetary Fund 国际货币基金组织- European Union 欧盟- NATO 北大西洋公约组织- World Bank 世界银行- International Atomic Energy Agency 国际原子能机构- World Health Organization 世界卫生组织- International Criminal Court 国际刑事法院- Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries 石油输出国组织四、国际经济与贸易1.国际贸易（International Trade）：- Import 进口- Export 出口- Tariff 关税- Free Trade 自由贸易- Protectionism 保护主义- Trade Deficit 贸易逆差- Trade Surplus 贸易顺差- Balance of Payments 收支平衡- World Trade Organization 世界贸易组织- Trade Agreement 贸易协定2.国际金融（International Finance）：- Exchange Rate 汇率- Currency 货币- Foreign Direct Investment 外商直接投资- International Monetary Fund 国际货币基金组织- World Bank 世界银行- International Financial Crisis 国际金融危机- Inflation 通货膨胀- Recession 经济衰退- Economic Development 经济发展- Sustainable Development 可持续发展五、战争与安全1.军事和战争（Military and War）：- Armed Forces 武装力量- Army 陆军- Navy 海军- Air Force 空军- War 战争- Conflict 冲突- Defense 防御- Nuclear Weapons 核武器- Peace 和平- Terrorism 恐怖主义2.安全与安全合作（Security and Security Cooperation）：- National Security 国家安全- Collective Security 集体安全- Arms Control 军备控制- Non-proliferation 非扩散- Peacekeeping 和平维持- Security Council 安全理事会- Security Alliance 安全联盟- Intelligence Intelligence 情报六、跨文化交流与全球化1.语言与文化（Language and Culture）：- Language 语言- Culture 文化- Interpreter 翻译- Cultural Exchange 文化交流- Cultural Diversity 文化多样性- Intercultural Communication 跨文化交际- Globalization 全球化- Cultural Imperialism 文化帝国主义- Cultural Relativism 文化相对主义- Cultural Assimilation 文化同化2.国际媒体与科技（International Media and Technology）：- Internet 互联网- Social Media 社交媒体- Mass Media 大众媒体- Communication Communication 通信- Information Information 信息- Digitalization 数字化- Cybersecurity 网络安全- Artificial Intelligence 人工智能- Virtual Reality 虚拟现实- E-commerce 电子商务这份国际关系英语词汇大全涵盖了与国际关系相关的各个方面，希望能够对大家的学习和研究有所帮助。
语言与文化language and culture
• What is the meaning of this sentence? • When spoken and written , language takes on tangible (可触摸到的)and perceptible (看得出的)forms. These tangible forms, as with any cultural product, can be described through language. We constantly employ metalamguage (元语言) to disscuss language itself.
How can we use the right language in the right way according to the author?
It is based on direct experience in the culture and interactions with members of the culture, in all the complexity this entails.
and of itself. Practices: It perhaps the most obvious use of language. Cultural practices almost always
Perspectives: Language also reflects and embodies perspectives. The perspectives are indeed embodied in words, phrases, and sentences, but the perspectives are not always immediately obvious.
语言与文化的关系（英文）
1. Relationship between language and cultureRelationship between language and culture can be summarized as the following: (1)Language is part of culture.Like other cultural phenomenon, language is also a social phenomenon, it occurred with the production of society, and develops with the development of society. Language has all the attributes (属性)of culture, so language is also a kind of culture.The language is with nationality, different nationalities often have different languages. It is the most important spiritual wealth of human society .We can say that the human language is not only a part of culture, but also the most important part.(2)Language is the main carrier of culture.Although language is part of culture, other cultural phenomenon generally can't exist independently from language. Only through language, culture can be preserved, extended and spread, just like the inheritance of history and the spread of religion. (3)Language is a mirror of cultureLanguage reflects a nation's culture and reveals the contents of the national culture. Through a national language, people can understand the nation‘s customs, lifestyles, ways of thinking and other features.Above all, we can conclude that language and culture not only in close relationship, but also the special relationship.2. How should we doAs we all know the relationship of language and culture, we get some inspiration. Let’s see how should we do.(1)Understand and respectFirstly, we should understand and respect the language and culture of different countries. Different nations have different cultures, this is true. The same thing, this culture can accept it, but not necessarily be acceptable in another culture. We cannot judge a culture by "good" and "bad". It is simply that different people do the same things in different manners, even though we cannot understand. We should show the respect. If we treat people different from us withrespect, love and fair, you will see they will treat usin the same way.(2)Keep learningThe purpose of learning a foreign language is to communicate. When we learn the pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and other linguistic knowledge of a language, you must also understand the cultural background of the language. If lack of understanding of the language and cultural backgrounds, misunderstandings even embarrassing situationwilloccur when you communicate with ethnic people using this language. Therefore, we should understand and master the language and cultural differences between Western and Chinese cultures, and strive to cultivate the ability to cross-cultural communication. Learn and understand the features and differences between different cultures, I believe this is the best way to make our life become more comfortable and make the world more harmonious.In short, language is one of the most important carriers of culture and culture has a great impact on language in conditioning. They both cannot survive with each other. On the other hand, the difference of language and culture may arouse inconvenience and misunderstanding. Therefore, learning the difference of cultures between different countries is very important. Realizing the difference of cultures between different nations is good for us to communicate with different languages.3. Two sayings we give you(1)When in Rome,do as the Romans do.(2)Never too old to learn.。
Language, culture, society
Language, cultm their field work, a lot of language data had been documented, provding much first-hand evidence to show how the interpersonal relationship is related to lingusitic forms in their daily communication. This anthorpological approach to the study of language and culture laid a firm foundation in the history of linguistic development. The potential impact of this tradition can still be felt when we talk about the ethnography of communication.交际民族学 We should not miss some brilliant points made by Eugene Nida奈达, a well-known linguist and translation theorist, concerning the relationships between language and culture. For many years he has been involved in the Bible translation work across different languages. His rich experience in this respect leads him to claim that, as translators, if we want to do good job in cross-cultural cmmmunication, there are five types of sub-culture we should be fully aware of :
language and culture
在汉语中一般只用“公”和“母”（或“雌”和“雄”）二字来区分禽兽的性别。在英语中则往往各有单独名称，小动物也另有名称。见下表：
总称
雄性名称
雌性名称
小动物名称
chicken
鸡
cock, rooster
hen
chick
duck
鸭
drake
duck
duckling
goose
鹅
gander
goose
gosling
在表示自然现象的语言中，汉语中“节气”的概念在英语中是没有的。（应当指出，把“节气”译成solar terms，大部分西方人仍然不懂。）如一部常用的现代《汉英词典》中，把“雨水”译成Rain Water（2nd Solar Term），把“惊蛰”译成Waking of Insects（3rd Solar Term），把“清明”译成，Pure and Brightness（5th Solar Term）。这些名称不另加解释就没有什么意义。但有些“节气”的名称在英语中确实有对应词：春分=Spring Equinox；夏至=Summer Solstice；秋分=Autumnal Equinox；冬至=Winter Solstice。
日常生活中的用语也有类似现象。多数英美人从来投有睡过中国的“炕”（kang, a heatable bricked bed）,没有吃过“冰糖葫芦”，（candied haws on a stick），也没有用过中国的“秤”（steelyard）。大部分中国人没有住过美国的motel（专为开汽车的游客开设的、有停车场的旅馆），没有吃过pasta (通心粉)，也不需要在上班时由time clock，（出勤记录钟）证明他们是否按时上班。类似这样的英语词在汉语中都找不到对应词，连词义相近的词也没有，因为根本没有这种概念。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题及典型题详解(7-12章)【圣才出品】
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different languages may probably express their unique ways of understanding the world. Following his argument, two important points could be captured in this theory. On the one hand, language may determine our thinking patterns; on the other, similarity between languages is relative. For two different speech communities, the greater their structural differentiations are, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be. For this reason, this hypothesis has alternatively been referred to as linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity. 【考点：名词解释；指出该假说的两种版本】
②To help the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of the
【英语听力】Language and Culture 语言和文化
Language and Culture语言和文化Languages are marvelously complex语言是极其复杂and wonderfully complicated organs of culture:难解的文化工具：they embody the quickest and the most efficientmeans of communicating 它们是最快捷最有效的交流思想的方法within their respective culture.在各文化中。
To learn a foreign language is to learn another culture.学习外语就等于学习另一种文化。
In a words of a poet and philosopher,一位诗人兼哲学家曾经这样说过："As many languages as one speaks, so many lives one lives.""你懂几种外语，你就过着几种不同的生活。
"A culture and its language are as inseparable as brain and body;文化及其语言正像人脑与人体一样不可分割。
while one is a part of the other,neither can function without the other. 虽然其中一个是另一个的部分，但是失去一部分，另一部分就不能运作。
In learning a foreign language, the best beginning学习外语最好的开始是is with the non- verbal linguistic elements of the language,从这种语言的非语言的语言成分开始，its gestures,its body language.即从手势，体语开始。
新编跨文化交际英语教程答案详解
-导言"新编跨文化交际英语教程·教师用书”主要是为使用"新编跨文化交际英语教程”教师配套的教学指南。
"新编跨文化交际英语教程”是在原有"跨文化交际英语教程”的基础上经过全面、系统修订而成，我们对全书做了较大的更新和完善，调整和增补了许多材料，力求使其更具时代性，更适合教学实际和学生需求。
为了进一步推进跨文化交际教学，在多年从事跨文化交际教学和研究的基础上，我们又特地编写了这本"新编跨文化交际英语教程·教师用书”，希望能对使用本教材进行教学的广大教师们，尤其是初次使用这本教材的教师们提供一些必要的引导和实质性的帮助。
为此，我们尽可能地为各单元中几乎所有的部分和项目都提供了参考提示。
除此之外，还补充了一些取自跨文化交际学重要著作的选段，供教师进一步了解相关背景知识和理论基础，以拓宽视野，有利于更好地进行教学。
同时我们还在书后附上了推荐的中文阅读书目（英文阅读书目可参看**外语教育的"跨文化交际丛书”系列）和有关跨文化交际的部分电影资料简介。
"新编跨文化交际英语教程”主要适用于高等学校英语专业教学中的跨文化交际课程，旨在通过课堂教学及相关活动使学生认识跨文化交际对当代世界所具有的重要意义和作用，了解文化对人类生活各个方面、尤其是交际活动的制约和影响，理解并把握交际活动的重要性、丰富性、复杂性，熟悉跨文化交际的基本构成以及所涉及的各种因素，培养跨文化意识，形成和发展对文化差异的敏感和宽容、以及处理文化差异问题的灵活性，提高使用英语进行跨文化交际的技能，为最终获得与不同文化背景人们进行深入交流的能力奠定基础。
通过使用本教材，教师也可从中获得更多有关文化（包括我们自己文化和外族文化）和跨文化交际的知识。
这本教材共分为10个单元，涉及全球化时代的交际问题、文化与交际、各类文化差异、语言与文化、跨文化言语交际、跨文化非言语交际、时间与空间使用上的文化、跨文化感知、跨文化适应、跨文化能力等，包括了跨文化交际的各个方面，对其中一些重要问题都有相对深入的介绍与探讨。
语言与文化的关系
语言与文化的关系
语言的背后是有 东西的。而且语 言不能离开文化 而存在。
(1884～1939) ～
美国人类学家、语言学家。1884 年1月26 日生于德国劳恩堡（今波兰勒博尔克）。 1939年2月4日死于纽黑文。萨丕尔 5岁时 移居美国。1907年起先后在加州大学、宾 州大学从事研究与教学。1909年获哥伦比 亚大学博士学位。1910～1925年任渥太华 加拿大国立博物馆人类学部主任。1925年 起任芝加哥大学人类学与语言学副教授、 教授。1931年到耶鲁大学,任刚成立的人类 学系主任。他担任过美国语言学会会长 （1933）和美国人类学会会长(1938)，还 被选为美国艺术和科学院院士。
他发展了音位理论，根据语音的分布模式 分析语音，是形态音位概念最早提出者之一， 他把在词形变化表中能互相替代的音位都归 为一类。在历史比较语言学方面，他做了大 量研究工作，探索语言之间的亲缘关系。他 提出结构压力论，说语言变化（音位变化、 形态变化）是由于受到语言本身固有的有关 模式的影响。他根据吐火罗语的材料,按喉 辅音假说研究古印欧语。他还认为印欧语言 和闪族语言可能同出一源。萨丕尔认为不同 语言的表达方式会对同一客观世界提出不同 的分析和解释，这种观点后来被B.L.沃尔夫 绝对化,成为“萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说”。他的 语言人类学研究包括以下3个方面:美洲印第 安民族及其语言、人类一般概念、文化和个 性的关系。主要著作有《语言论》(1921)和 《萨丕尔选集》(1949)。
Chinese :叔 伯 叔 夫 姑父 Engli约着思 维的方式，范围和深度； 维的方式，范围和深度；间接地影 响文化。 响文化。 • 语言作为文化的传播工具，对文化 语言作为文化的传播工具， 的传播有着极大的制约作用。 的传播有着极大的制约作用。 • 文化的传播，尤其是异族文化的传 文化的传播， 语言中又会出现一些新的词语， 播，语言中又会出现一些新的词语， 新的表达方式， 新的表达方式，这样文化又影响和 制约着语言。 制约着语言。
language和culture关系名人名言
language和culture关系名人名言1、语言就是一个文化的指路标，它告诉你人从哪里来，他们又要去哪里。
——丽塔·麦·布朗Language is the road map of a culture.It tells you where its people come from and where they are going.--Rita Mae Brown2、语言和文化是相互联系的。
语言与文化之间有着密切的关系，因为没有语言就不可能理解一种文化，而且是落后的。
生活在某个地区的人们分享他们共同的信仰，文化价值观和语言，即使它是一种次要的方言。
Language and culture are connected.There is a close relationship between language and culture because it is impossible to understand a culture without language,and backward.People who live in a certain area share their common set of beliefs,cultural values,and language,even if it is a minor dialect.3、语言是人类所使用的最有效果的药方。
——吉普林4、语言是赐于人类表达思想的工具。
——莫里哀5、语言的准确性，是优良风格的基础。
——亚里士多德The clearest style is formed by ordinarylanguage.--Aristotle6、语言属于一个时代，思想属于许多时代。
——卡拉姆辛7、语言作为工具，对于我们来说，正如骏马对骑士的重要。
最好的骏马适合最好的骑士，最好的语言适合最好的思想。
——但丁8、学习另一种语言不仅是学会用另一种文字去表达一个意思，而是用另一种思维方式去思考事情。
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Language and Culture●IntroductionSince human being appeared ,all kinds of languages came into being bir by bit .And with the development of languages ,cultures, varieties of cultures grew ,too .What we can not deny is that there is a intimate relationship between language and culture . There are many ways in which the phenomena of language and culture are intimately related. Both phenomena are unique to humans and have therefore been the subject of a great deal of anthropological, sociological, and even memetic study. Language, of course, is determined by culture, though the extent to which this is true is now under debate. The converse is also true to some degree: culture is determined by language - or rather, by the replicators that created both, memes.●Language as Determined by CultureEarly anthropologists, following the theory that words determine thought, believed that language and its structure were entirely dependent on the cultural context in which they existed. This was a logical extension of what is termed the Standard Social Science Model, which views the human mind as an indefinitely malleable structure capable of absorbing any sort of culture without constraints from genetic or neurological factors.In this vein, anthropologist Verne Ray conducted a study in the 1950's, giving color samples to different American Indian tribes and asking them to give the names of the colors. He concluded that the spectrum we see as "green", "yellow", etc. was an entirely arbitrary division, and each culture divided the spectrum separately. According to this hypothesis, the divisions seen between colors are a consequence of the language we learn, and do not correspond to divisions in the natural world. A similar hypothesis is upheld in the extremely popular meme of Eskimo words for snow - common stories vary from fifty to upwards of two hundred.Extreme cultural relativism of this type has now been clearly refuted. Eskimos use at most twelve different words for snow, which is not many more than English speakers and should be expected since they exist in a cold climate. The color-relativity hypothesis has now been completely debunked by more careful, thorough, and systematic studies which show a remarkable similarity between the ways in which different cultures divide the spectrum.Of course, there are ways in which culture really does determine language, or at least certain facets thereof. Obviously, the ancient Romans did not have words for radios, televisions, or computers because these items were simply not part of their cultural context. In the same vein, uncivilized tribes living in Europe in the time of the Romans did not have words for tribunes, praetors, or any other trapping of Roman government because Roman law was not part of their culture.Our culture does, sometimes, restrict what we can think about efficiently in our own language. For example, some languages have only three color terms equivalent to black, white, and red; a native speaker of this language would have a difficult time expressing the concept of "purple" efficiently. Some languages are also moreexpressive about certain topics. For example, it is commonly acknowledged that Yiddish is a linguistic champion, with an amazing number of words referring to the simpleminded.Language is never the entity which has been invented or scripted in isolation. It certainly has evolved gradually with the continuous development of a culture. A culture being a building made of social behaviors, human emotions, or way of expressing feelings, the language has continually adapted accordingly to accommodate these identified notion and gesture of human activity. Finding a symbolism every time to register it in the language, thus contributing to its growth. A language has always been a weapon to express one's ideas and feelings. And the reason enough to make this weapon more efficient to handle one's need of expressing things with intended accuracy. It has been tuned-up with each new finding, getting honed up continually to get its flawless shape with developing culture.●Cultu Culture and Language - United by MemesAccording to the memetic theorist Susan Blackmore, language developed as a result of memetic evolution and is an example of memes providing a selection pressure on genes themselves. The definition of a culture in memetic theory is an aggregate of many different meme sets or memeplexes shared by the majority of a population. Using memetic reasoning, it can be seen that language - itself created by memes and for memes - is the principal medium used for spreading memes from one person to another.As Blackmore states in The Meme Machine, memes were born when humans began to imitate each other. According to her theory, this event preceded - indeed, had to precede - the development of language. When imitation became widespread, producing selection pressure on genes for successful imitation, memes began to exploit verbalizations for better and more frequent transmission. The end result of this complex process was language, and the anatomical alterations needed for its successful use.Language, created by memes as a mechanism for ensuring better memetic propagation, has certainly been a success. Today, the vast majority of memes are transmitted via language, through direct speech, written communication, radio or television, and the internet. Relatively few memes are transmitted in a non-linguistic way, and those that are have very specific, localized purposes, such as artwork and photography. Even these media, though nonlinguistic in themselves, assume language and very rarely appear without some sort of linguistic commentary. This might take the form of a critical analysis of an artwork, a caption for a photograph, a voice-over for a video, etc.●Language as Part of CultureFor many people, language is not just the medium of culture but also is a part of culture. It is quite common for immigrants to a new country to retain their old customs and to speak their first language amid fellow immigrants, even if all present are comfortable in their new language. This occurs because the immigrants are eager to preserve their own heritage, which includes not only customs and traditions but also language. This is also seen in many Jewish communities, especially in oldermembers: Yiddish is commonly spoken because it is seen as a part of Jewish culture. Linguistic differences are also often seen as the mark of another culture, and they very commonly create divisiveness among neighboring peoples or even among different groups of the same nation. A good example of this is in Canada, where French-speaking natives of Quebec clash with the English-speaking majority. This sort of conflict is also common in areas with a great deal of tribal warfare. It is even becoming an issue in America as speakers of standard American English - mainly whites and educated minorities - observe the growing number of speakers of black English vernacular. Debates are common over whether it is proper to use "Ebonics" in schools, while its speakers continue to assert that the dialect is a fundamental part of the "black culture".English is far more world wide in its distribution than all other spoken languages. It is an official language in 52 countries as well as many small colonies and territories. In addition, 1/4 to 1/3 of the people in the world understand and speak English to some degree. It has become the most useful language to learn for international travel and is now the de facto language of diplomacy. In 2001, the 189 member countries in the United Nations were asked what language they wish to use for communication with embassies from other countries. More than 120 chose English, 40 selected French, and 20 wanted to use Spanish. Those who wanted English to be the common language included all of the former Soviet republics, Viet Nam, and most of the Arab world. English is also the dominant language in electronic communication, particularly on the Internet. However, the percentage of Internet users who are not native English speakers is increasing rapidly, especially in Asia. In fact, China estimated in 2008 that there are now more people who have online access in their country than in the U.S., which had been the global leader in Internet access.In reality, the distribution of languages globally is very complex and difficult to easily describe. Numerous migrations of people over the last several centuries have resulted in most large nations now having many different languages. There are at least 165 languages spoken in the United States today. Consequently, it is somewhat misleading to describe the U.S. as being an English speaking country. The same caution applies to other multicultural nations as well.Some parts of the world have unusually high concentrations of different languages. There are around 900 native languages spoken by the 5-10 million people of New Guinea and its neighboring islands. That is roughly 1/6 of all languages being spoken by far less than 1% of the world's people. Other language high density areas have been native California and the Caucasus Mountains north of Turkey and Iran.The majority of the languages in the world are unwritten and many of them are disappearing. About 1/2 of the world's languages are no longer spoken by children. This is the first step in the extinction of a language. About 2,000 languages now have less than 1,000 speakers. The most threatened are the indigenous languages of Australia and the Americas. By the end of the 20th century, about 200 Australian languages survived, but more than 1/2 had less than 10speakers. Two dozen had a single elderly speaker. Young Aborigines now predominantly speak English, especially in urban areas. There has been a similar pattern in California where Indian languages disappeared at the rate of nearly one a year during the late 20th century. Globally, the rate of language loss now is one every two weeks. The areas where indigenous languages are being lost the most rapidly are central South America, Oklahoma and the American Southwest, the Northwest coastal region of the U.S. and Canada, eastern Siberia, and northern Australia.There are no "primitive" languages. All languages have a system of sounds, words, and sentences that can adequately communicate the content of culture. The languages of the so-called "primitive" peoples are often very complex in their grammatical structures. There seems to be no correlation between a language's grammatical complexity and the technological level of a society or other aspects of culture. However, cultures that have more complex, diverse economies and advanced technologies have larger vocabularies. For instance, English has roughly 615,000 non-technical words. If slang and specialized technical words are added, English has more than 2,000,000 words and is growing at a rate of hundreds to thousands every year. By comparison, German has about 185,000 non-technical words, French may have less than 100,000, and Spanish even fewer. The major reason that English has so many more non-technical words is the fact that as it evolved from its Germanic roots, it acquired words from more than 240 other languages. However, it is unlikely that any one individual knows the meaning of all English words. Most Americans only use 800-1,000 words in everyday conversation. A typical American college student knows 20,000-30,000 words by the time he or she graduates. While this is 20-37 times more than the average person who has not gone to college, it is still less than 2% of all English words.Every language can create new words to describe new situations and objects. Therefore, it is not surprising that all languages change through time. None is static. However, they change at different rates at different times in response to new social, cultural, and environmental situations. Some nations strongly resist the acquisition of new words from other languages. This has been the case with the French government's response to the relentless invasion of English words in recent decades, especially in pop culture and technology. However, young people in most developed nations eagerly embrace new words regardless of attempts by their governments to retain "language purity."From hat has been discussed above ,we may safely draw the conclusion that the word men use not only express but shape their ideas .Language is an instrument ;it is even more an environment .It has as much to do with the philosophical and political conditioning of a society as geography or climate .Just as Ludwing Wittgenstein said “the limits of my language are the limits of my world”.References:⏹The Language Instinct⏹How the Mind Works⏹Words and Rules⏹The Meme Machine⏹The Environment of Language⏹ 1.爱不释手fondle admiringly.⏹ 2.百闻不如一见（眼见为实）Seeing is believing.⏹ 3.比上不足比下有余worse off than some, better off than many; to fall short ofthe best, but be better than the worst.⏹ 4.笨鸟先飞A slow sparrow should make an early start.⏹ 5.不眠之夜white night⏹ 6.不以物喜不以己悲not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personnallosses⏹7.不遗余力spare no effort; go all out; do one's best⏹8.不打不成交No discord, no concord.⏹9.拆东墙补西墙rob Peter to pay Paul⏹10.辞旧迎新bid farewell to the old and usher in the new; ring out the old yearand ring in the new⏹11.大事化小小事化了try first to make their mistake sound less serious andthen to reduce it to nothing at all⏹12.大开眼界open one's eyes; broaden one's horizon; be an eye-opener⏹13.国泰民安The country flourishes and people live in peace.⏹14.过犹不及going too far is as bad as not going far enough; beyond is as wrongas falling short; too much is as bad as too little⏹15.功夫不负有心人Everything comes to him who waits.⏹16.好了伤疤忘了疼once on shore, one prays no more⏹17.好事不出门恶事传千里Good news never goes beyond the gate, while badnews spread far and wide.⏹18.和气生财Harmony brings wealth.⏹19.活到老学到老One is never too old to learn.⏹20.既往不咎let bygones be bygones⏹21.金无足赤人无完人Gold can't be pure and man can't be perfect.⏹22.金玉满堂Treasures fill the home.⏹23.脚踏实地be down-to-earth⏹24.脚踩两只船sit on the fence⏹25.君子之交淡如水the friendship between gentlemen is as pure as crystal; ahedge between keeps friendship green⏹26.老生常谈陈词滥调cut and dried, cliché⏹27.礼尚往来Courtesy calls for reciprocity.⏹28.留得青山在不怕没柴烧Where there is life, there is hope.⏹29.马到成功achieve immediate victory; win instant success⏹30.名利双收gain in both fame and wealth⏹31.茅塞顿开be suddenly enlightened⏹32.没有规矩不成方圆Nothing can be accomplished without norms orstandards.⏹33.每逢佳节倍思亲On festive occasions more than ever one thinks of one'sdear ones far away.It is on the festival occasions when one misses his dear most.⏹34.谋事在人成事在天The planning lies with man, the outcome with Heaven.Man proposes, God disposes.⏹35.弄巧成拙be too smart by half; Cunning outwits itself⏹36.拿手好戏masterpiece⏹37.赔了夫人又折兵throw good money after bad⏹38.抛砖引玉a modest spur to induce others to come forward with valuablecontributions; throw a sprat to catch a whale⏹39.破釜沉舟cut off all means of retreat；burn one‘s own way of retreat and bedetermined to fight to the end⏹40.抢得先机take the preemptive opportunities⏹41.巧妇难为无米之炊If you have no hand you can't make a fist. One can'tmake bricks without straw.⏹42.千里之行始于足下a thousand-li journey begins with the first step--thehighest eminence is to be gained step by step⏹43.前事不忘后事之师Past experience, if not forgotten, is a guide for thefuture. 44.前人栽树后人乘凉One generation plants the trees in whose shade another generation rests.One sows and another reaps.⏹45.前怕狼后怕虎fear the wolf in front and the tiger behind hesitate in doingsomething⏹46.强龙难压地头蛇Even a dragon (from the outside) finds it hard to control asnake in its old haunt - Powerful outsiders can hardly afford to neglect localbullies.⏹47.强强联手win-win co-operation⏹48.瑞雪兆丰年A timely snow promises a good harvest.⏹49.人之初性本善Man's nature at birth is good.⏹50.人逢喜事精神爽Joy puts heart into a man.⏹51.人海战术huge-crowd strategy⏹52.世上无难事只要肯攀登Where there is a will, there is a way.⏹53.世外桃源a fictitious land of peace away from the turmoil of the world;⏹54.死而后已until my heart stops beating⏹55.岁岁平安Peace all year round.⏹56.上有天堂下有苏杭Just as there is paradise in heaven, while there areSuzhou and Hangzhou on earth⏹57.塞翁失马焉知非福Misfortune may be an actual blessing.⏹58.三十而立A man should be independent at the age of thirty.At thirty, a manshould be able to think for himself.⏹59.升级换代updating and upgrading (of products)⏹60.四十不惑Life begins at forty.⏹61.谁言寸草心报得三春晖Such kindness of warm sun, can't be repaid by grass.62.水涨船高When the river rises, the boat floats high.⏹63.时不我待Time and tide wait for no man.⏹64.杀鸡用牛刀break a butterfly on the wheel⏹65.实事求是seek truth from facts; be practical and realistic; be true to facts⏹66.说曹操,曹操到Talk of the devil and he comes.⏹67.实话实说speak the plain truth; call a spade a spade; tell it as it is⏹68.实践是检验真理的唯一标准Practice is the sole criterion for testing truth.⏹69.山不在高，有仙则名'No matter how high the mountain is, its name willspread far and wide if there is a fairy; '⏹70.韬光养晦hide one's capacities and bide one's time⏹71.糖衣炮弹sugar-coated bullets⏹72.天有不测风云Anything unexpected may happen. a bolt from the blue⏹73.团结就是力量Unity is strength.⏹74.“跳进黄河洗不清” eve if one jumped into the Yellow River, one can notwash oneself clean--there's nothing one can do to clear one's name.⏹75.歪风邪气unhealthy practices and evil phenomena⏹76.物以类聚，人以群分Birds of a feather flock together.⏹77.往事如风'The past has vanished (from memory) like wind.; What in past, ispas⏹78.望子成龙hold high hopes for one's child⏹79.屋漏又逢连阴雨Misfortunes never come singly. When it rains it pours.⏹80.文韬武略military expertise; military strategy⏹81.唯利是图draw water to one's mill⏹82.无源之水,无本之木water without a source, and a tree without roots⏹83.无中生有make create something out of nothing⏹84.无风不起浪There are no waves without wind. There's no smoke withoutfire.⏹85.徇私枉法bend the law for the benefit of relatives or friends⏹86.新官上任三把火a new broom sweeps clean⏹87.虚心使人进步,骄傲使人落后Modesty helps one go forward, whereasconceit makes one lag behind.⏹88. 蓄势而发accumulate strength for a take-off⏹89.心想事成May all your wish come true⏹90.心照不宣have a tacit understanding; give tacit consent; tacit understanding91.先入为主First impressions are firmly entrenched.⏹92.先下手为强catch the ball before the bound⏹93.像热锅上的蚂蚁like an ant on a hot pan⏹94.现身说法warn people by taking oneself as an example⏹95.息事宁人pour oil on troubled waters⏹96.喜忧参半mingled hope and fear⏹97.循序渐进step by step⏹98.一路平安，一路顺风speed somebody on their way; speed the parting guest ⏹99.严以律己,宽以待人be strict with oneself and lenient towards others⏹100鱼米之乡⏹101.有情人终成眷属'Jack shall have Jill, all shall be well.'⏹102.有钱能使鬼推磨Money makes the mare go. Money talks.⏹103. 有识之士people of vision⏹104.有勇无谋use brawn rather than brain⏹105.有缘千里来相会Separated as we are thousands of miles apart, we cometogether as if by predestination.⏹106.与时俱进advance with times.⏹107.以人为本people oriented; people foremost.⏹108.因材施教teach students according to their aptitude.⏹109.欲穷千里目，更上一层楼'to ascend another storey to see a thousand milesfurther; Ascend further, were you to look farther; Would eye embrace athousand miles? Go up, one flight.' a land of milk and honey⏹110.欲速则不达Haste does not bring success.⏹111. 优胜劣汰survival of the fittest.⏹112.英雄所见略同Great minds think alike.⏹113.冤家宜解不宜结Better make friends than make enemies.⏹114.冤假错案'cases in which people were unjustly, falsely or wrongly charged orsentenced; unjust, false or wrong cases'⏹115.一言既出，驷马难追A real man never goes back on his words.⏹116.招财进宝Money and treasures will be plentiful.⏹117.债台高筑become debt-ridden.⏹118.致命要害Achilles' heel.⏹119. 众矢之的target of public criticism⏹120.知己知彼,百战不殆Know the enemy and know yourself, and you can fighta hundred battles with no danger of defeat.⏹121. 纸上谈兵be an armchair strategist⏹122.左右为难between the devil and the deep blue sea.⏹123.纸包不住火Truth will come to light sooner or later.。