简明语言学第一章总结
新编简明英语语言学 第一章
What is linguistics?
---It is a scientific study because it is based on the systemetic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.
> Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians tended to emphasize the importance of the written word.
---Hall, 1968
语言是“人类利用约定俗成的任意性视听符号借以相互交流和影响的习惯体 系”。
---霍尔 , 1968
What is language?
From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.
synchronic and diachronic
>The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.
对历史上某一时间点的语言状况 所作的研究是共时研究
>The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.
简明语言学1-6章总结
Chapter 1 IntroductionIn this chapter,the main content is to explain what is linguistics and what is language.This chapter devide two parts.The first introduce somenting about linguistics,the second about language.I Linguistics1 Linguistics definition : Linguistics is scientific study landuage.2 The scope of linguistics:(1) Phonetisc----the study of speech sounds and how they are produced(2) Phonology----the speech sounds of a particular language,the study of these sounds.(3) Morphology----the form of words(4) Syntax---the way that words and phrases are put together to form sentences in a language(5) Semantics---the study of the meanings of words and phrases(6) Pragmatics----the study of the way in which language is used to express what sb really means in particular situations,especially when the actual words used may appear to mean sth diferrent3 Some important distinctions(1) Prescriptive vs. Descriptive(2) Synchronic vs. Disachronic(3) Speech vs. WritingAims to describe and analyze the language people actually use Aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language The description of alanguage at some pointtime in historyThe description of a language as it changes through time Primary medium of human language;play a greater role;acquires his mother tongue; reveals more featureslater developed;information conveyed taught laterrevised record of speech(4) Langue vs. Parole(5) Competence vs. Performance(6) Traditional grammar vs. Modern linguisticsII Language1 Language definition: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication2 Design features(1) Arbitrainess----there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.(2) Productivity----it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(3) Duality-----having two parts(4) Displacement---refer to things which are pensent or not present,real or imagines matters.(5) Cultural transmission--- beening tought and learned another language 3 Funtiondescriptive function; expressive function; social function.Abstract linguistics ;Set of conventions andrules;Abstract;Relatively stableRealization of langue; Concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; Concrete; varies Ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language The zctual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationDescriptive; Regard the spoken language as primary; Not force languages into Latin-based framework Prescriptive; Emphasize the written word; force languages into Latin-based frameworkIn this chapter,it mainly explains phonetics and phonology.They both belong to the speech sounds.Phonetics studies the speech sounds and how they are produced.And phonology studies speech sounds of a particular language and the study of these sounds.I Phonetics1 What is phonetics(articulatory phonetics)(acoustic phonetics)(auditory phonetics)2 Organs of speech(1)The pharyngeal cavity----the throat(2)The orall cavity--- -the mouth(the uvula,the velum ,the hard palate, the softpalate ,the teeth ridge,the teeth and the lips)(3)The nasal cavity---the nose3 Broad and narrow transcriptionsBroad transcription ----the transcription with letter-symbols onlyNarrow transcription---- the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics4 Classification of English speech soundsconsonants(1)maner: stops, fricatives, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals, glides(2)place:bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, glpttalvowels(1)front central back(2)close semi-close semi-open openII Phonology.1 Phone ,phoneme, and allophonePhone---unit or segmentPhoneme—phonological unitAllophone---reresent a phoneme in different phonetic environment2 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairPhonemic contrast3 Some rules in phonologySequential rule assimilation rule deletion rule4 Suprasegmental featuresStress tone intonationThis section present how words are formed in English and what speakers of English know about word formation,the morphology of their language. Morpholog----refer to the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure.1 Open class and closed class2 Morphemes—the minimal units of meaning(1)Free morpheme---a morpheme can be a wordBound morpheme--a morpheme must be attached another one(2)Allomorphs3 Analyzing word structures---roots and affixes4 Dervational and inflectional morphemsDervationa morphem---add prefixes or suffixe to n.adj.and v.Inflectional morphem---change in the form of a word,especially en ending5 Morphological rules of word formation--productive6 Derivation---an affixational process that forms a word with a meaning and/or category distinct from that of its bases.7 CompoundsChapter 4 SyntaxIn this chapter it was concerned with the composition of sentences by introducing some of the most common categories of words and some simple rules that govern the organization of these categories into larger structural units. 1 Categories(1) Word-level categories ---words can be grounped together into a relatively small number of class.Three criteria are determined a word’s category: meaning,inflection, distribution (2) Ptrase categories and their structures ① NP VP AP PP②Phrases contain the following elements: head specifier complement 2 Phrase structure rule(1) (Det) + N+(PP)…e.g. those people(Qual) + V +(NP…e.g. always play games (Deg) + A +(PP)…e.g.very handsome (Deg) + P +(NP)…e.g.on the shelf(2) XP rule: XP----(specifier) X (complement) (3) Coordination rule X----X* Con X3 Phrase elements ---specifiers complements modifiers (1) Specifiers(2) Complements Items HeadsExamples Adjective afraid,awareI was afraid that nobody would believe me.Nouns fact, claim She can’t believe the fact that she would fail in the exam. Prepositions over,aboutThey argued over whether she had come to class.SpecifiersHeads ExamplesDeterminerNthe tree ,this bookQualifierValways fail, often drinkDegree wordAless interesting ,quite goodPalmost in , quite above(3)ModifiersModifiers Position Examples AP precedes a very careful girl PP fact, claim open with care Advp over,about read carefully The Expanded Xp rule:XP----(Spec) (Mod) X (Complent*) (Mod)4 Sentences ( The S Rule)The S Rule----NP VP5 Transformations(1)Auxiliary Movement(2)Do insertion(3)Deep structure and surface structure(4)Wh MovementChapter 5 Semantics1 Some view meaningThe naming theory The conceptualist view Contextualism Behaviorism 2 Lexical meaning(1)sense and referenceSense---inherent meaningReference—real ,physical word ,(2)Major sence relation①SynonymyDialectal synonyms , Stylistic synonyms , Collocational synonyms Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative menging,Semantically different synonyms②Polysemy③Homonymy④Hyponymy⑤AntonymyGradable antonymy Complementary antonymy Relational opposites 3 Sense relations between sentences(1)X is synonymous with Y(2)X is inconsistent with Y(3)X entails Y(4)X presupposes Y(5)X is contradiction(6)X is semantically anomalous4 Analysis of meaning(1)Componential analysis---a way to analyze lexical meaningBoy:[+HUMAN, --ADULT,+ ANMATE, +MALE](2)Predication analysis---a wy to analyze sentence meaningIs the baby sleeping BABY (SLEEP)Chapter 6 Pragmatics1Some basic notions (1) DefinitionPragmatics:how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.pragmatics vs. semantics(2) Context: constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. (3) Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning Abstracc,decontextualized concrete,contextdependent 2 Speech act theory—an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. (1) Austin’s model of speech actsConstatives and performatives-------locutionary act,illocutionary act,perlocutionary act.(2) Searle’s classification of speech actsRepresentatives,directives,commissives,expressives,declarations (3) Indirect speech acts 3 Principle of conversation (1) Conventional implicature(2) Particularized conversational implicature(3) The maxim of quantity eg. War is warThe maxim of quality eg.Would you like to join us? Cooperative Principle I’m afraid I have got a class The maxim of relation eg. How are you? I have a lunchThe maxim of manner eg. He took his book to hishome.The study of the intended meaning of a speakerThe study of the literal meaning of a sentence。
语言学第一章概括
Summary of chapter oneChapter one mainly talks about linguistics and language.To begin with, linguistics does not refer to any particular language, but it is a general idea of language. It is defined as the scientific study of language.The study of languages which is often called general linguistics includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Phonetics refers to the study of sound used in linguistic communication. And phonology refers to how to put the sounds together and convey meaning in communication. Morphology refers to how to arrange and combine the sounds to form words. Syntax refers to making the words form in understandable sentences by rules. Semantics refers to study the meanings that words convey. Pragmatics refers to the context of language use. The study of language or general linguistics is not isolated from human society. That is to say, it is connected with other branches of social studies, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, and applied linguistics. Sociolinguistics refers to studying all the social aspects of language and its relation with society form. Psycholinguistics refers to the study of language to psychology in linguistics. Applied linguistics refers to using the findings in linguistics studies to solve the practical problems.And next, language, I have mentioned above, is defined officially as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. And there are some important points that should be emphasized. First of all, language is a system and it has its rules suited for itself. Second, language is arbitrary. Different languages have different words for the same thing, which is arbitrary. Third the term vocal is primary medium for all the language. In an addition, words are symbols. They contain objects, actions, ideas and so on. And the last important term is human. Only human can communicate with each other by using language. Furthermore the animals’ sound is not a language at all.And to learn design features of language, we can better distinguish between human language and the nature of language. The features include arbitrariness, productivity, duality, displacement and cultural transmission. Arbitrariness means there is nological connection between meanings and sounds. Productivity means to make possible construction and interpretation of new signals in language. Duality means language consists of two sets of structures: sounds and units. Displacement refers to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. The last one means each language system is not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.At last, language has three main functions: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function. The first one means to convey factual information. The second one supples information about the user’s feelings. The last one means to support the social relations between people.于野09301089。
语言学教程第一章总结
1115101044 李素萍Chapter1 Invitation to Linguistics1.1 Why Study Language?Language is such an integral part of our life and humanity that too much about it has been taken for granted.Language plays a central role in our lives as individuals and social beings.1.2 What Is Language?Language is the systematic, conventional use of sounds, signs or written symbols in a human society for communication and self-expression.(David Crystal, 1992)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(Ronald Wardhaugh)To give the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication. In short, language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.1.3 Design Features of LanguageArbitrarinessArbitrariness means that the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their sound and meaning. The dog barks wow wow in English but “汪汪汪” in Chinese.Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning. Arbitrariness at the syntactic level. language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention. DualityThe property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization:Primary units …words‟ (meaningful) consist of secondary units …sounds‟ (meaningless).CreativityLanguage is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to create new meanings.Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before. Information imparted by animals is severely limited and confined to a small set of messages, as birds, bees.Because of duality the human speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard.Language is creative in another sense,that is, its potential to create endless sentences.DisplacementHuman languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. Thus, we can refer to Confucius, or the North Pole.In a word, intellectual benefits of displacement to us is that it makes possible for us to talk and think in abstract terms.1.4 Origin of LanguageThe”bow-wow”, the” po oh-pooh” and the” yo-he-yo” theory1.5 Functions of LanguageLinguists talk about the functions of language in an abstract sense, that is, not in terms of using language to chat, to think, to buy and sell, to read and write, to greet, praise and condemn people, etc.For Jakobson, language is above all for communication.While for many people, the purpose of communication is referential, for him (and the Prague school structuralists), reference is not the only, not even the primary goal of communication.In conjunction with speaker, addressee, context, message, code, contact, Jakobson established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication, namely:referential (to convey message and information), poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake), emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions), conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests), phatic (to establish communion with others),metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.Informative function(ideational function)信息功能Language is the instrument of thought and people often feel need to speak their thoughts aloud.Language serves for the expression of content and give helps to determine our way of looking at things.Interpersonal Function人际功能By far the most important sociological use of language, and by which people establish and maintain their status in a society, e.g. Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant.It is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation.Performative Function施维功能Language canbe used to do things, to perform action.It is primarily to change the social status of persons and is usually quite formal and even ritualized. For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an. Emotive Function感情功能It is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.It is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress, e.g. God, My, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh, Oh.It is also discussed under the term expressive function. The expressive function can often be entirely personal and totally without any implication of communication to others.Phatic Communion寒暄功能It refers to the social interaction of language.We all use small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content. Ritual exchanges about health or weather such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day often state the obvious.Recreational Function娱乐功能The recreational function of a language is often overlooked because it seems so restrictive in purpose and supposedly so limited in usefulnessThe use of language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby's babbling or a chanter's chanting.Metalingual Function元语言功能Our language can be used to talk about itself, for example, I can use the word book to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “book” itself.1.6 What Is Linguistics?Linguistics is usually defined as the scientific study of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language. Linguistics is a rich and exciting field.Linguistics has firmly established its place as a major branch of humanities and social sciences as well.1.7 Main Branches of LinguisticsPhonetics语音学Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc.Phonology音系学Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure.A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning.Morphology形态学Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning — morphemes and word-formation processes. Syntax 句法学Syntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct sentences. Semantics语义学Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.Pragmatics语用学Pragmatics is the study of meaning in particular context. In other words, pragmatics is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is internally structured.1.8 MacrolinguisticsOther disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnography, the science of law and artificial intelligence etc. are also preoccupied with language. Psycholinguistics心理语言学Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, for example, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition. Sociolinguistics社会语言学Sociolinguistics is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community. Anthropological Linguistics人类语言学Anthropological linguists are interested primarily in the history and structureof formerly unwritten languages.Computational Linguistics计算语言学Computational linguistics centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language(also known as “natural language”, to distinguish it from computer languages).To this field, linguistics contributes an understanding of the special properties of language data, and provides theories and descriptions of language structure and use.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing)is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes throughtime is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, andit may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time whereinTHE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp25-27).1.22.What is speech and what is writing?No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis,namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary, because it existedlong long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or thatthe speech sounds : individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, giveslanguage new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carriedthrough space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carriedthrough time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby,so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly,oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional(causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encouragerepeated unalterable reading. Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech,different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for??“correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptivebecause many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammarswere based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should bedescribed in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy.These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?F. de Saussure refers “langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualizedlanguage, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to thespeaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always anaturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a massof confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguistought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole,i. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make thanthe subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance? According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user‟s knowledgeof the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of thisknowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand anindefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker‟s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker‟s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of hisnative language.Chomsky‟s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as , thoughsimilar to , F. de Saussure‟s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product,and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a propertyof the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociologicalor sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issuespsychologically or psycholinguistically.。
语言学概论 (00541)知识点汇总(第一章)
语言学概论(00541)知识点汇总第一章语言和语言学(一)语言和民族、国家的关系★★1.一个民族使用一种语言,这种说法(不正确)2.一般而言,一个民族使用同一种语言,语言是民族的重要标志3.同一民族使用多种语言,不同民族使用同一语言的现象客观存在。
语言不是识别民族的可靠标志(二)语言特点和语言类型★★★1.从语言历时演变角度来划分不同的语言,可以建立语言的(谱系分类)2.与英语亲缘关系最近的是(德语),都属于印欧语系-日耳曼语族3.根据语言是否有形态变化,可以分为分析性语言即(孤立语)和形态语即(屈折语、黏着语)4.汉语属于(分析性语言/孤立语),没有丰富的形态变化,主要由词序和虚词来体现各种结构意义5.德语、俄语属于形态语中的(屈折语),日语、朝鲜语、维吾尔语、芬兰语属于(黏着语)(三)“语言”和“言语”★★1.区分“语言”和“言语”的主要目的是(明确语言学的研究对象)2.(语言)是由有限材料、有限规则组成的系统,是社会的,如“语言能力是每个正常人都具有的”3.(言语)是具体的、无限的、个人的,如《红楼梦》的语言、“法官认为证人说的话可信”中的“话”(四)“口语”和“书面语”★★★1.口语就是有声的口头语言,任何一种语言都有口头存在形式,它是书面语产生的基础。
2.书面语:是用文字记录的语言形式,是文字产生后在口语的基础上产生的,书面语是经过加工、提炼和发展了的口语的书面形式。
3.书面语与口语基本一致,但不是口语绝对忠实的记录,也不是口语的机械记录和重复。
(五)“能指”和“所指”★★★★★1.属于符号的是(语言、文字、红绿灯、旗语)2.符号中能够指称某种意义的成分被称为(能指),符号所指的意义内容是(所指)3.语言符号的能指是(语音),语言符号的所指是(意义)4.首先提出“能指”和“所指”这对概念的语言学家是(索绪尔)5.能指和所指的关系是(不可分割)的,一旦分开,语言符号就不存在了。
(六)“约定”和“任意”★★★★★1.交通信号灯中红灯表示“停”的意思,红灯和“停”之间的关系是(约定的)2.语言符号的任意性是指(语言符号的物质实体和意义内容之间没有必然联系),即:声音和意义之间没有必然联系的理据关系,在语言符号产生之初,它的声音和意义的结合是任意的,是由社会约定俗成的,它们之间的关系是不可论证的3.语言符号具有可变性的根本原因在于语言符号的(任意性)4.语言符号的强制性是指(个人不能任意改变已经约定的符号)(七)“线性”和“离散”★★★1.语言结构的线性特征:语言符号的结构必须是按照时间顺序成一条线的样子排列。
简明语言学整理笔记
第一章1.linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language 2.The scope of linguisticsPhonetics-语音学phonology-音系学morphology-形态学syntax-句法学semantics-语义学pragmatics-语用学从语言形式划分:Sociolinguistics社会语言学,psycholinguistics心理语言学,applied linguistics应用语言学3. Important distinctions in linguistics Descriptive &> prescriptive 规定性&描写性Synchronic & >diachronic 共时性&历时性Speech&> writing 口语&书写Langue & <parole 语言&言语Competence &< performance 语言能力&语言运用(Saussure and Chomsky think rule>language fact )Traditional grammer & modern linguistics4.What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication5.Design features of language 语言的识别特征CharlesHockett①Arbitrariness(任意性)refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)②Productivity/creativity(能产性):Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users③Duality(双重性):The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.. ④Displacement(移位性):Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication.⑤Cultural transmission(文化传承性)人独有。
语言学---第一章知识框架
Chapter 1Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why Study Language?1.Some myths about language2.Some fundamental views about language3.Some concrete demonstrations to show Linguistics’importance1.2 What is Language?1. Language “is not to be confused with human speech, of which it is only a definite part, though certainly an essential one. It is both a social product of the faculty of speech and a collection of necessary conventions that have been adopted by a social body to permit individuals to exercise that faculty”.--Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913): Course in General Linguistics (1916) 2. “Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”--Edward Sapir (1884-1939): Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech (1921)3. “A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group co-operates.”--Bernard Bloch (1907-1965) & George Trager (1906-1992): Outline of Linguistic Analysis (1942)4. “A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which the members of a society interact in terms of their total culture.”--George Trager: The Field of Linguistics (1949)5. “From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”--Noam Chomsky (1928- ): Syntactic Structures (1957)6. Language is “the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.”--Robert A. Hall (1911-1997): Introductory Linguistics (1964)7.“Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.”--Ronald Wardhaugh: Introduction to Linguistics (1977)8. “Language is a means of verbal communication.”—It is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act.—It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. -- Our textbook (2006)9. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design Features of LanguageLanguage distinguishes human beings from animals in that it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.Human language is ‘unique’1. Arbitrariness①Definition②Different levels of arbitrarinessa.Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaningb.Arbitrariness at the syntactic levelc.Arbitrariness and convention2. Duality①Definition②Two levels of structures in languageThe secondary level (sounds, meaningless)The primary level (words, meaningful)③Hierarchy of language3. Creativity①Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can useit to create new meanings.②The recursive nature of language provides a potential to create an infinitenumber of sentences. For instance:---He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who ..4. Displacement①Definition②Two examples③The advantage of displacement1.4 Origin of language1.The “bow-wow”theory2.The “pooh-pooh”theory3.The “yo-he-ho”theory1.5 Functions of language1.Jakobson’s classificationContextREFERENTIALAddresser EMOTIVE(e.g. intonation showing anger)MessagePOETIC(e.g. poetry)AddresseeCONATIVE(e.g. imperatives andvocatives)ContactPHATIC(e.g. Good morning!)CodeMETALINGUAL(e.g. Hello, do you hear me?)2.Halliday’s classification①Three metafunctions of language②Seven categories of language functions by observing child languagedevelopment3.The author’s introduction①Informative②Interpersonal Function③Performative④Emotive Function⑤Phatic Communion⑥Recreational Function⑦Metalingual Function1.6 What is Linguistics?Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language.1.7 Main branches of Linguistics1.Phonetics2.Phonology3.Morphology4.Syntax5.Semantics6.Pragmatics1.8 Macrolinguistics1.Psycholinguistics2.Sociolinguistics3.Anthropological Linguisticsputational Linguistics1.9 Important distinctions in Linguistics1.Descriptive vs. Prescriptive2.Synchronic vs. Diachronicngue & Parolepetence and Performance。
简明英语语言学知识点汇总
简明英语语言学知识点汇总Document number【AA80KGB-AA98YT-AAT8CB-2A6UT-A18GG】新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总1 Introduction1.1 What is linguistics?Scientific study of language.Interpretation:①try to answer the basic questions and probe into various problems related to language;②linguistics studies not any particular language but language in general;③scientific study because based on systematic investigation of linguistic data.1.1.2 The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistic.1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics1.2 What is language1.2.1 Definitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Characteristics:①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules;②language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what it stands for,A rose by any other name would smell as well;③language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound;④language is human -specific,different from animal communication.1.2.2 Design features of languageProposed by American linguist Charles Hockett:comparing the animal & human communication systems.Following are five major design features of human language:①arbitrarinessNo logical connection between meaning and sounds(except onomatopoetic and compound words)②productivityIt makes to possible to construction and interpretation of new signal by its users.③dualityLanguage is a system which consists of two structures. At the lower level there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by themselves.But the sounds can grouped or regrouped together into a larger numbers of units of meaningsuch as morpheme or words,which are found at the higher levelof system(carp & park).Then the higher level can be arrangedand rearranged into an infinite numbers of sentences;④DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speakers;⑤cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis,thedetails of any language systems are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.(language is cultural transmitted[language not mutually intelligible] while animalcall system is genetically transmitted)1.2.3 Functions of languageThree main functions of language which distinct from each other but actually overlapping to some degree:①descriptive functionThe primary function of language;The Sichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has ever suffered.②expressive functionSupply information about the user’sfeeling,preference,prejudices and value,etc.I will never come to this coffee shop again.③social functionServes to establish and maintain social relations between people. How can I help you, Sir?Others:Russian-born structural linguist Roman Jakobson:six elemens (function)of a speech:Addresser-emotive (动机) addressee-conative(意动) context-referential message-poetic contact-phatic communioncode-metalinguisticBritish linguistic M.A.K Halliday:①ideational function(语篇功能)[included descriptive & expressive functin] is to organize the speaker’s experience of the real or imaginary world.②interpersonal function is to indicate ,establish,or maintain social relationship between people.[social function]③textual function is to organize written or spoken texts to cohere within themselves and fit to the particular situation in which they are used.2.Phonology2.1 The phonic medium of languageSpeech sounds produced by human speech organTwo major media of communication:speech and writing;2.2phonetics2.2.1 what is phonetics?The study of phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occurs in the world’s language.发音语言学听觉语言学)声学语言学)2.2.2 organs of speechPharyngeal cavity(咽喉)Nasal cavity(鼻腔)Oral cavity(口腔)Voicing:vibration of the vocal cordsNarrow: letter symbols + diacritics(变音符)[p h it] [spit] h→aspiration [phonetician more interested in]2.2.4 classification of English speech soundsMonophthongs:2.3 phonology2.3.1 phonology & phoneticsStem: believable (除掉所有的语法成份,Base:unbelievable (un的词基)Prefix:change meaningSuffix: change meaning and parts of speechInflectional morpheme:signify tense number caseWord formation:①Clipping(shortening & abbreviation)[no change of part of speech]I.e gym expo memo disco burger quake fridge script②back-formation[change of part of speech]I.e editor-edit hawker-hawk beggar-beg baby-sister--baby-sitButcher-butch donation-donate orientation-orient(ate)③conversion(functional shift)I.e: N-v v-n a-v a-n④acronyms[pronounced as words]CEO B2B IT CPI IAD WTO BBS(FOR BULLETIN BOARD SYSTEM)APEC AIDS UNESCO UCLA IDD⑤initialism[produced as letters]C.O.D FBI EEC⑥blendingSmoke+fog=smogTaikong+astronaut=taikonaut⑦compoundingBittersweet landlady⑧onomatopoeiaBlast rustle5.SemanticsSome views concerning the study of meaning:1)the naming theory,plato,words →objectsLimitations: √N ×ADJ ADV V√Concrete ×abstract2)the conceptualist viewSemantic triangle,ogden & richardswords→mind→wordsLimitations:what is the precisely link symbol and concept unclarify3)ContextualismJ.R Firth。
语言学纲要笔记第一章
第一章语言的功能语言的功能是多方面的,从宽泛的意义讲,大致都可以归入语言的社会功能和思维功能两方面。
第一节:语言的社会功能语言的社会功能:信息传递功能和人际互动功能。
一、语言的信息传递功能:信息传递功能是最基本的社会功能。
这一功能体现在语言上就是内容的表达。
各种信息传递形式的比较:身势等非语言的形式,独自传递的信息有限,多半是辅助语言来传递信息;文字是建立在语言基础之上的再编码形式;旗语之类则是在语言或文字基础之上的再编码形式;语言是人类社会信息传递第一性的、最基本的手段。
二、语言的人际互动功能建立或保持某种社会关联,即是语言的人际互动功能。
可以这样理解:说话者在传递客观经验信息的同时,在也表达主观的情感、态度和意图,寻求听话者的反馈。
而受话者在接收说话者传递的客观信息的同时,也了解了说话者的主观情感态度,从而做出回应。
说话者———————————————————————————→受话者(寻求反馈)传递客观经验信息;表达主观情感、态度和意图(做出回应)第二节:语言的思维功能一、语言和思维的关系语言是社会现象,是社会的交际工具,同时也是心理现象,是人类思维的工具。
思维功能是语言功能的另一个重要方面。
二、语言思维功能的生理基础大脑是语言思维功能的生理基础,语言功能区主要存在于左半球。
(左半球掌管抽象、概括的思维,右半球掌管不需要语言的感性直观思维)(不过,人脑分工是存在的,但其运用是综合性的)。
三、儿童语言习得和思维的发展1.独词句→双词句(孩子学话中的关键的两步)从某类概念→不同事物的区别和不同事物中共同的东西,同时把统一的事物分析成不同的要素。
独词句体现了词与事物的联系,特别是词指称整类事物的概括性。
双词句体现了造句的基本原理,就是选择需要的词,按照学会的格式把它们组合在一起。
2.大体发展趋势:独词句→双词句→实词句→虚词的掌握→熟练运用语言也就是外界的现象概念范畴化的过程。
3.儿童语言习得的条件:儿童语言习得一定得具有先天生理基础,其中最重要的就是大脑的结构和功能。
语言学纲要 - 第一章 语言的社会功能
2.人类是语言动物
人类和其他动物之间存在智力上的巨大差 异,所以一般动物无法创造和使用人类语言这 样复杂的信息工具。语言只属于人类。
大量研究证明,一些动物,如蜜蜂、海豚、 黑猩猩等,都有自己独特的交际方式,如蜜蜂 会用其特定的舞蹈动作告诉自己的同伴蜜源的 方位、距离等;海豚、黑猩猩等,会用不同的 叫声来传递不同的信息,有些似乎还挺“复 杂”。这些就是所谓的“动物语言”。但是人 类的语言同动物的“语言”却有着本质的区别。
交际是通过人与人之间的往来接触,进行情 感和思想的信息交流。交际必须有不同的信息发 出人和接收人,必须有信息的传播意图、行为。 没有其他人接受的信息不是交际。
(二)交际工具
交际工具是指人们用来交流思想,进行交 际的工具。交际总会凭借一些工具。 最简单的是用我们人自己身体的活动,包 括眼神、手势、身势等。如中国人见面握手,日 本人见面鞠躬,西方人见面接吻、拥抱等,都是 表示不同的思想感情的交际方式,都使用了视觉 性或触觉性工具。
此外,我们常常看到海上或空中作业用的 旗语,交通用的红绿灯,厕所门口区分男女性 别用的示意图画,聋哑人的手势语,数学符号, 物理、化学公式,还有电报代码等,也都是代 表一定意义的交际工具。
语言也是交际工具,分成听觉的口语和视 觉的书面语两种方式,分别表现为语音和文字 两种形式。
四、语言是人类最重要的交际工具
同一个民族使用两种或多种语言的有的是, 不同的民族由于长期生活在一起,渐渐地人口 多,经济、文化、科学技术发展水平高的那个 民族的语言就会“吃掉”其他民族的语言,而 呈现几个民族共同使用同一种语言的现象。如 清代的统治民族——满族到了清末时也几乎都 改用汉语,而不说满语,但他们还是满族人。
2.“相互理解联系与区别:语言是一种工具, 需要人去用,不用就会“生锈”,就会“退化”。 而说话则是人们运用语言工具跟人们交流思想的 行为,说出来的话是这种行为“生产”出来的 “产品”,是为了适应他人的需要而存在的,没 有这种需要,人们就会丧失说话的语言能力,这 就是等于说:语言不等于说话,也不等于说出来 的话。
语言学复习重点 第一章
Chapter 1 Language and Linguistics(这一章主要探讨什么是语言,语言的功能是什么,语言的起源和分类,以及,什么是语言学,语言学的研究范围是什么)1.1 The nature of language---什么是语言?一句话总结,Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (systematic, symbolic, arbitrary, primarily vocal, human specific, used for communication)nguage is systematic 系统性(重点:语言的双重性duality)解释:language is systematic since element in it are arranged to certain rules.(e.g.only certain combination of sounds are possible in English)双重性duality: Each language is organized into two basic systems: a system of sound and a system of meaning.nguage is symbolic 符号性(重点:Icon, Index, Symbol 的区分)解释:there is no or little connection between the sounds that people use and objects to which the sounds refer.(这句话丝毫没重点,不过没办法,PPT上这么说,我觉得对符号性的理解应该是people use signs to communicate, which means that language involves signs 才有逻辑)因为:伟大的现代语言学之父Saussure: linguistics is a subdivision(分支)of semiology(符号学), dealing with language as a special means of human communication. (语言学是符号学的分支,是研究语言作为以一种特殊交流方法的学科。
新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总
新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总1 Introduction1.1 What is linguistics?Scientific study of language.Interpretation:①try to answer the basic questions and probe into various problems related to language;②linguistics studies not any particular language but language in general;③scientific study because based on systematic investigation of linguistic data.1.1.2 The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistic.1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics1.2 What is language1.2.1 Definitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Characteristics:①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules;②language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what it stands for,A rose by any other name would smell as well;③language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound;④language is human -specific,different from animal communication.1.2.2 Design features of languageProposed by American linguist Charles Hockett:comparing the animal & human communication systems.Following are five major design features of human language:①arbitrarinessNo logical connection between meaning and sounds(except onomatopoetic and compound words)②productivityIt makes to possible to construction and interpretation of new signal by its users.③dualityLanguage is a system which consists of two structures. At the lower level there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by themselves.But the sounds can grouped or regrouped together into a larger numbers of units of meaning such as morpheme or words,which are found at the higher level of system(carp & park).Then the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite numbers of sentences;④DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speakers;⑤cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis,the details of any language systems are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.(language is cultural transmitted[language not mutually intelligible] while animal call system is genetically transmitted)1.2.3 Functions of languageThree main functions of language which distinct from each other but actually overlapping to some degree:①descriptive functionThe primary function of language;The function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denial, and in some case even verified.e.g: The Sichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has ever suffered.②expressive functionSupply information about the user’sfeeling,preference,prejudices and value,etc.I will never come to this coffee shop again.③social functionServes to establish and maintain social relations between people. How can I help you, Sir?Others:Russian-born structural linguist Roman Jakobson:six elemens (function)of a speech:Addresser-emotive (动机) addressee-conative(意动)context-referential message-poetic contact-phatic communion code-metalinguisticBritish linguistic M.A.K Halliday:①ideational function(语篇功能)[included descriptive & expressive functin] is to organize the speaker’s experience of the real or imaginary world.②interpersonal function is to indicate ,establish,or maintainsocial relationship between people.[social function]③textual function is to organize written or spoken texts to cohere within themselves and fit to the particular situationin which they are used.2.Phonology2.1 The phonic medium of languageSpeech sounds produced by human speech organTwo major media of communication:speech and writing;2.2phonetics2.2.1 what is phonetics?The study of phonic medium of language;it is concerned with allthe sounds that occurs in the world’s language.Articulatory phonetics(发音语言学)Three branches Auditory phonetics(听觉语言学)Acoustic phonetics(声学语言学)2.2.2 organs of speechPharyngeal cavity(咽喉)Nasal cavity(鼻腔)Oral cavity(口腔)Voicing:vibration of the vocal cordsLongest historylung airglottisVocal cords2.2.3 orthgraphic representation of speech sounds :broad & narrowInternational phonetic alphabet:letter→soundsBroad(used in textbook):letter symbols [p]Narrow: letter symbols + diacritics(变音符)[p h it] [spit] h→aspiration [phonetician more interested in]2.2.4 classification of English speech sounds2.2.4.1 classification of English consonant(流音)Glides(滑音)VD w j2.2.4.2 classification of English vowelsMonophthongs:front central back close I: I U: u Semi-close e e:Semi-open e C: open ae a ^D a:2.3 phonology2.3.1 phonology & phoneticsP h o n o l o g y v s p h o n e t i c sSpeech soundsForm patters & convey meaning Produced features & classified2.3.5 suprasegmental features(phonemic features that occur above the level of segments)Stress : N & vTone:四声Intonation: different may convey different meaning even the sentences unchanged3.MorphologyGrammar that is concerned with word formation and word structureWord: the smallest free form found in languageMorpheme: the smallest unit of meaningRoot stem baseRoot: believeStem: believable (除掉所有的语法成份,留下词根和派生成份)Base:unbelievable (un的词基)Derivational morpheme:change category grammatical class of words Prefix:change meaningSuffix: change meaning and parts of speechInflectional morpheme:signify tense number caseWord formation:①Clipping(shortening & abbreviation)[no change of part of speech]I.e gym expo memo disco burger quake fridge script②back-formation[change of part of speech]I.e editor-edit hawker-hawk beggar-beg baby-sister--baby-sitButcher-butch donation-donate orientation-orient(ate)③conversion(functional shift)I.e: N-v v-n a-v a-n④acronyms[pronounced as words]CEO B2B IT CPI IAD WTO BBS(FOR BULLETIN BOARD SYSTEM)APEC AIDS UNESCO UCLA IDD⑤initialism[produced as letters]C.O.D FBI EEC⑥blendingSmoke+fog=smogTaikong+astronaut=taikonaut⑦compoundingBittersweet landlady⑧onomatopoeiaBlast rustle5.SemanticsSome views concerning the study of meaning:1) the naming theory,plato,words →objectsLimitations: √N×ADJ ADV V√Concrete ×abstract2)the conceptualist viewSemantic triangle,ogden & richardswords→mind→wordsLimitations:what is the precisely link symbol and concept unclarify 3)ContextualismJ.R Firth。
简明英语语言学知识点汇总
简明英语语言学知识点汇总LG GROUP system office room 【LGA16H-LGYY-LGUA8Q8-LGA162】新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总1 IntroductionWhat is linguistics?Scientific study of language.Interpretation:①try to answer the basic questions and probe into various problems related to language;②linguistics studies not any particular language but language in general;③scientific study because based on systematic investigation of linguistic data.The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistic.Some important distinctions in linguisticsWhat is languageDefinitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Characteristics:①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules;②language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what it stands for, A rose by any other name would smell as well;③language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound;④language is human -specific,different from animal communication.Design features of languageProposed by American linguist Charles Hockett:comparing the animal & human communication are five major design features of human language:①arbitrarinessNo logical connection between meaning and sounds(except onomatopoetic and compound words)②productivityIt makes to possible to construction and interpretation of new signal by its users.③dualityLanguage is a system which consists of two structures. At the lower level there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by the sounds can grouped or regrouped together into a larger numbers of units of meaning such as morpheme or words,which are found at the higher level of system(carp & park).Then the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite numbers of sentences;④DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speakers;⑤cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis,the details of any language systems are not genetically transmitted, but insteadhave to be taught and learned.(language is culturaltransmitted[language not mutually intelligible] while animal call system is genetically transmitted)Functions of languageThree main functions of language which distinct from each other but actually overlapping to some degree:①descriptive functionThe primary function of language;The Sichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has ever suffered.②expressive functionSupply information about the user’s feeling,preference,prejudices and value, will never come to this coffee shop again.③social functionServes to establish and maintain social relations between people. How can I help you, Sir?Others:Russian-born structural linguist Roman Jakobson:six elemens (function)of a speech:Addresser-emotive (动机) addressee-conative(意动) context-referential message-poetic contact-phatic communioncode-metalinguisticBritish linguistic Halliday:①ideational function (语篇功能)[included descriptive & expressivefunctin] is to organize the speaker ’s experience of the real or imaginary world.②interpersonal function is to indicate ,establish,or maintainsocial relationship between people.[social function]③textual function is to organize written or spoken texts to coherewithin themselves and fit to the particular situation in which they are used.The phonic medium of languageSpeech sounds produced by human speech organ Two major media of communication:speech and writing;what is phonetics?The study of phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occurs in the world ’s language.发音语言学听觉语言学) 声学语言学) organs of speech Pharyngeal cavity(咽喉) Nasal cavity (鼻腔)Oral cavity (口腔)Voicing:vibration of the vocal cordsh →aspiration [phonetician more interested in] classification of English speech sounds Monophthongs :phonologyphonology & phoneticsStem: believable (除掉所有的语法成份,Base:unbelievable (un的词基)Prefix:change meaningSuffix: change meaning and parts of speechInflectional morpheme:signify tense number caseWord formation:①Clipping(shortening & abbreviation)[no change of part of speech]gym expo memo disco burger quake fridge script②back-formation[change of part of speech]editor-edit hawker-hawk beggar-beg baby-sister--baby-sit Butcher-butch donation-donate orientation-orient(ate)③conversion(functional shift): N-v v-n a-v a-n④acronyms[pronounced as words]CEO B2B IT CPI IAD WTO BBS(FOR BULLETIN BOARD SYSTEM)APEC AIDS UNESCO UCLA IDD⑤initialism[produced as letters]FBI EEC⑥blendingSmoke+fog=smogTaikong+astronaut=taikonaut⑦compoundingBittersweet landlady⑧onomatopoeiaBlast rustle5.SemanticsSome views concerning the study of meaning:1)the naming theory,plato,words →objectsLimitations: √N ×ADJ ADV V√Concrete ×abstract2)the conceptualist viewSemantic triangle,ogden & richardswords→mind→wordsLimitations:what is the precisely link symbol and concept unclarify 3)ContextualismFirth。
新编简明英语语言学教程笔记
新编简明英语语言学教程笔记Chapter one Introduction 一、定义一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining ofhuman language that distinguish it from anypoperties of humananimal system of communication.Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性文化传递Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.二、知识点二、知识点nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象,而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。
(完整word版)新编简明英语语言学教程中文版
第一章:绪论1.什么是语言学?1.1定义语言学常被定义为是对语言进行系统科学研究的学科。
语言学研究的不是某一种特定的语言,而是人类所有的语言.为了揭示语言的本质,语言学家首先要对语言实际使用进行观察,并在此基础上形成有关语言使用的概括性假设,这些初步形成的假设要在语言使用中进行进一步的检验,最终形成一条语言理论。
1.2语言学的研究范畴:语言学研究有不同的侧重。
对语言体系作全面研究的语言学研究称为普通语言学.语音学主要是对语言声音媒介的研究,它不只是研究某一特定的语言的声音媒介,而是所有语言的声音媒介。
音系学与语音学不同,它主要研究特定语言的语音体系,即音是如何结合在一起产生有意义的单位。
形态学主要研究单词的内部语义结构,及这些叫做词素的语义最小单位是如何结合构成单词。
句法学主要研究构成潜在句子的句法规则.语义学以研究语义为目的,传统语义学主要研究抽象的意义,独立于语境之外的意义,语用学也是研究语义,但是它把语义研究置于语言使用语境中加以研究.语言不是一个孤立的现象,而是一种社会现象,各种社会因素都会对语言的使用产生影响。
从社会的角度来研究语言的科学被称之为社会语言学。
语言和社会之间的关系是社会语言学研究的主要内容.心理语言学主要从心理学的角度来研究语言.它要研究人们在使用语言时大脑的工作机理,如人是如何习得母语的,人的大脑是如何加工和记忆语言信息等问题。
把语言学的研究成果应用到实践中的科学形成了应用语言学。
狭义上,应用语言学指把语言理论和原则运用于语言教学的科学,在广义上,它指把语言理论与原则应用于解决实际问题的科学。
除此之外还有人类语言学、神经语言学、数学语言学、计算语言学等。
1.3语言学研究中的几对基本概念1.3.1规定性和描述性语言学研究是描述性的,不是规定性的。
这是语言学和传统语法的一个重要区别。
语言学研究的目的是对人们使用的语言进行客观描述与分析,而不是对语言的使用作出规定。
传统语法是规定性的,它主要建立在笔头语言基础之上,旨在规定一系列的语法规则,并且把这些语法规则强加给语言使用者。
语言学概论(第一章:语言的社会功能)-PPT文档资料
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语言是人类最重要的交际工具
语言是说话和表达思想、交流思想的工具,
而说话是运用语言进行思想交流的行为, 说出来的话则是人们运用语言工具生产出 来的“产品”。
语言规则支配着说话,说话是对语言规则 的具体运用,语言就存在于无数的说话之 中。
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语言是人类最重要的交际工具
要寻找语言,就需要仔细收集人们说出来
的“话”(“产品”),建立语料库,从中寻找 语汇材料和语句的各种结构规则。
语料库越大,找出来的材料就越丰富,规 则就越可靠。从语料库中找出来的语言, 用最简单的话来说,就是一部词典和一本 语法书。它们潜存于每一个人的脑子里, 说出来的话都是人们灵活运用语言的结果。
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语言是人类最重要的交际工具
(3)语言和言语 言语是说话的行为和结果,语言则是说话
说话是运用语言跟人们交流思想的行为,是 语言能力的外在表现形式,本身不等于语言。
“说话”是一种复合现象,可以分为以下三 个层面: 第一是“说话”的动作、行为,称为言语动 作或言语行为(speech act);
《三国演义》第64回:“且说黄盖卧于帐 中,诸将皆来劝问,盖不言语,但长吁而 已。”
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语言是人类最重要的交际工具
索绪尔用多种方式来描述它们:
言语是个人的、从属的、偶然的。 语言是社会的、主要的、确定的。
从言语的角度来看,两个人说同一个词的声 音可能相差很远,从语言的角度来看,这两 个相差很远的声音是在说同一个词。
在言语中,甲说“我”是指甲,乙说“我” 是指乙;在语言中,“我”既不指甲也不指 乙,而是指说话人。
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语言是人类最重要的交际工具
第二是说话所使用的一套符号,由语音、
简明英语语言学教程1-8章知识要点
1.1 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language . The study of language as a whole if often called general linguistics . phonetics(语音学): the study of sounds phonology(音位学): how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning Lexicon / morphology(形态学): how morphemes(词素) are arranged and combined to form words syntax(句法学): the study of rules that govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences semantics(语义学): the study of meaning pragmatics(语用学): the study of meaning in the context of language use interdisciplinary branches: sociolinguistics(社会语言学), psycholinguistics(心理语言学), applied linguistics(应用语言学) Important distinctions in linguistics prescriptive(规定性 old linguistics) vs. descriptive(描述性 modern linguistics) synchronic(共时性) vs. diachronic(历时性) 1.2 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Arbitrariness (任意性): Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. Productivity/creativity (能产性): Construction and interpretation of new signals are possible, so that large number of sentences can be produced. Duality (双层性): Two levels enable people to talk about anything within their knowledge. lower level(sounds)---higher level(words) Displacement(移位性): enable people to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place. Cultural transmission(文化传承): We are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of language system have to be taught and learned. Phonetics (语音学)(定义) Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.(是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究,它关注语言世界中的所有语音) Three branches of phonetics: articulatory phonetics (发音)auditory phonetics (听觉)acoustic phonetics (声学) Orthographic representation of speech sounds :Broad transcription and Narrow transcription A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound. Phonetics & phonology :(定义,区别) Both are concerned with the same aspect of language: the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; (it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.) Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Phone (音素)Phoneme (音位)Allophone (音位变体): (定义) Phone: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment (音素是一个语音单位或者说语音段) The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, and some don’t Phoneme: a phoneme is a phonological unit ; it is a unit of distinctive value, it is an abstract unit.(音位是一个音位学的单位,而且是一个有区别意义的单位,是一个抽象的单位) Allophones: the different phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.(在不同的语音环境下代表某个音位的音素) vowels (the air stream meets with no obstruction) and consonants(obstructed) stops(塞音), fricatives(擦音), affricates(塞擦音), liquids(流音), nasals, glides, bilabial(双唇音), laviodental(唇齿音), dental(齿音), alveolar(齿龈音), palatal(腭音), velar(软腭音), glottal(喉音) close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, open vowels(openness) unrounded vowels, rounded vowels(shape of the lips) long/tense vowels----short/lax vowels monophthongs(单元音), diphthongs(双元音) (single or combined)2.3 Phonology and phonetics differ in their approach and focus. phonology: how speech sounds form patterns and are used to convey meaning concerned with sound system of a particular language phonetics: of a general nature, interested in all the speech sounds stress(重音)---word stress and sentence stress The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. E.g. ‘import (n.) im’port (v.) // blackbird vs. black bird tone(语调)---pitch variation(音高变体) distinguish meaning E.g. 汉语四声 Intonation(音调)---English tones: falling tone, rising tone, fall-rise tone, rise-fall tone E.g. That’s not the book he wants. ⏹ Minimal pair----when two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. When the phonetically similar sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in complementary distribution . ⏹ The syllable consists of three parts: the ONSET (节首), the PEAK (韵峰), the CODA (韵尾) ⏹ Sentence stress----the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed.3.3 Word is the smallest free form found in language. Morphemes are the minimal units of meaning. Free and bound morphemes(自由词素can be a word by itself 粘着词素must be attached to another one---affix) 3.4 V----teachN Af----er Root (词根)Stem (词干)affix(词缀)(定义,会用,选择)Root: A root is that part of the word left when all the affixes (inflectional & derivational) are removed, e.g. “desire” in “desirable”, “care” in “ca refully ”. Affix:is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme 3.5 Derivational and inflectional morphemes(派生词素和屈折词素) Free morphemes Bound morphemes Root Root Affix dog, cat -ceive Prefix Suffix grammar -vert Derivational Derivational Inflectional … -mit un-, dis- -ment -s, -ing, -‘s, -er ● Derivational morphemes ---- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. modern---modernize, length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc. ● Inflectional morphemes ---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g. a) number: tables apples cars b) person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talked c) case: John/John’s Syntax (句法学)(定义) Syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. (句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支) Phrase categories and their structures Phrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as noun phrase: NP (N), verb phrase: VP (V), adjective phrase: AP (A), and prepositional: PP (P). The structure: specifier + head + complement Head (中心语)---- the word around which a phrase is formed Specifier (标志成分)---- the words on the left side of the heads Complement (补足成分)---- the words on the right side of the heads Phrase structure rules: The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as: NP (Det 限定词) + N + (PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls. VP (Qual 修饰词) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments. AP (Deg 程度词) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to PP (Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station S→NP VP (A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase)Do insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position. Semantics (语义学)(定义)Semantics: the study of meaning from thelinguistic point of view (对意义的研究)Behaviorism→ Bloomfield 行为主义论 based on contextualist view S: stimulus r: responseJill Jack S---------r………s ---------R(The small letters r, sàspeech) (The capitalized letter R, Sàpractical events)Pragmatics (语用学)(问答,辨析,定义)Pragmatics: the study of language in use orlanguage communication; the study of the use ofcontext to make inference about meaning.The study of how speakers of a language usesentences to effect successful communication. (book)Pragmatics vs. semanticsSemantics: is the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration).Pragmatics: the study of the intended meaning ofa speaker (taking context into consideration), e.g. “Today is Sunday”, semantically, it means that today is the first day of the week;pragmatically, you can mean a lot by saying this,all depending on the context and the intention of the speaker, say, making a suggestion or giving an invitation…Context: a basic concept in the study ofpragmatics. It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background,situation(time, place, manner, etc.), the relationship between the speaker and the hearer,etc. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义 Sentence meaning: Abstract and context-independent meaning; literal meaning of a sentence; utterance meaning: concrete and context-dependent meaning; intended meaning of a speaker; linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. Syntactic categories —word-level categories: major lexical categories (often assumed as the heads around which phrases are built) ---Noun (N) Verb (V) Adjective (A) Preposition (P) minor lexical categories---Determiner (Det) Degree words (Deg) Qualifier (Qual) Auxiliary (Aux) Conjunction (Con) Three criteria(条件) determining a word’s category: meaning, inflection (变形) and distribution (分布) A word’s category can be determined only by all three criteria. Phrase category is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP), prepositional phrase (PP) phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain : head, specifier, complement 4.3 Phrase structure rule---special type of grammatical mechanism regulating the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase NP→(Det) N (PP) an NP consists of a determiner, an N head, and a PP complement VP→(Qual) V (NP) a VP consists of a qualifier, a V head, and an NP complement AP→(Deg) A (PP) …… PP→(Deg) P (NP) …… XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement) Coordination rule: coordinate structures (consist a conjunction “and”/”or”)X→X *Con X Either an X or an XP can be coordinated; one or more categories can occur to the left of the Con. 5.3 Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning,which are related but different aspects of meaning.Sense: e.g. “dog”---a domesticated mammal... refer to any animal that meets the features describedReference: “dog”---A said to B:” The dog’s barking.” refer to a certain dog knownto both A&B Major sense relations:Synonymy (近义词)---words that are close in meaning dialectal syn.(autumn in BE & fall inAE), stylistic syn.(daddy & father), polysemy (一词多义)one word may have morethan one meaning)homonymy (同音形异义)homophones--- twowords same in sound, homographs---same in spelling, complete homonyms---same in both sound and spelling)feet 、fete meat/meet site/sighthyponymy (上下层关系)relation between a general word —superordinate, and a specific word--hyponyms) flower , rose, Lilyantonymy (反义)words that are opposite in meaning)gradable ant.---e.g. hot vs. cold complementary ant.---e.g. male vs. femalemarried. / John’s a bachelor. X, T—Y, F; X, F —Y, TX entails Y. E.g. He’s been to France. / He’s been to Europe. X, T—Y, T; X, F —Y, may be T or FX presupposes Y. E.g. John’s bike needs repairing. / John has a bike. X, T —Y, T; X, F —Y, TX is a contradiction. E.g. My unmarried sister married a bachelor. X is always false. X is semantically anomalous. (absurd in the sense)5.5 componential analysis----lexical meaning E.g. man---+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE predication(谓项) analysis---sentence meaning E.g. The kids like apples. ---KID, APPLE (LIKE) Tom smokes. ---TOM (SMOKE) It is hot. --- (BE HOT) Pragmatics studies how speakers of a language usesentences to effect successful communication (meaning in a certain context). Clause —a group of words which form a grammaticalunit and which contain a subject and a finite verb. A clause forms a sentence or part of a sentence and often functions as a noun, adjective or adverb.“IC analysis” is a new approach of sentencestudy that cuts a sentence into two (or more) segments. ⏹ Componential analysis---- a way toanalyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example,⏹ Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE] Cooperative principle (CP)---- According toGrice, in making conversation, there is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe.。
新编简明英语语言学教程
新编简明英语语言学教程引言英语是世界上最广泛使用的第二语言,拥有超过20亿的非母语使用者。
因此,研究英语语言学对于理解这一全球语言的结构和运作方式至关重要。
本文将介绍一部新编的简明英语语言学教程,旨在帮助学习者系统地学习和理解英语语言学的基本概念和原理。
第一章:语言和语言学本章将介绍语言学的定义和目标,解释语言的基本概念,如语音、语法、语义和语用。
通过对语言学的基础知识的介绍,学习者将能够理解英语语言学的主要研究领域和方法。
第二章:音系学音系学是语言学的一个重要分支,研究语音的产生、传播和感知。
本章将介绍英语语音的分类和描述,包括元音、辅音和重音等内容。
同时,还将讨论声调、音位和音变等语音学的重要概念。
第三章:形态学形态学研究词的内部结构和变化规律。
本章将介绍英语的词形变化和构词法,帮助学习者理解单词的构成和词义的变化。
通过学习形态学,学习者将能够更有效地记忆和运用英语中的词汇。
第四章:句法学句法学研究句子的结构和组成规则。
本章将介绍英语句子的基本结构和常见句法规则,如主谓结构、宾语和定语从句等。
学习者将通过理解句法学的知识,提高英语句子的构建和理解能力。
第五章:语义学语义学研究词和句子的意义。
本章将介绍英语词汇的意义分类和语义关系,如同义词、反义词和上下位关系等。
同时,还将讨论句子的真值条件和语义角色等语义学的重要概念。
第六章:语用学语用学研究语言在社交交际中的使用和理解。
本章将介绍英语中的言外之意、语体、礼貌原则和会话分析等语用学的重要概念。
通过学习语用学,学习者将能够更好地理解英语中的语用规则和言语行为。
第七章:历史语言学历史语言学研究语言在时间上的变化和发展。
本章将介绍英语的历史演变和变异,帮助学习者了解英语的词汇、语法和语音的变化过程。
通过学习历史语言学,学习者将能够更深入地理解英语的发展历程。
结论新编简明英语语言学教程是一部全面介绍英语语言学基本概念和原理的教材。
通过系统地学习该教程,学习者能够掌握英语语言学的核心内容,提高对英语语言的理解和运用能力。
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Chapter 1
ⅠThe things that I have learnt
①Linguistics: the scientific study of language.
②The scope of linguistics: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics,
pragmatics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, applied linguistics ect.
③Some important distinctions in linguistics: prescriptive vs. descriptive, synchronic
vs. diachronic, speech and writing, langue and parole, competence and performance.
④Traditional grammar: prescriptive; tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize
the importance of the written words; forced languages into a Latin-based framework.
⑤Several different definitions of language, e.g. Language is a purely human and
non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. (Sapir,1921)
⑥Generally accepted definition: language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols
used for human communication.
⑦Design features of language (design features refer to the definition properties of
human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.) : arbitrariness, productivity, duality, displacement, cultural transmission ect.
⑧Functions of language: phatic, directive, informative, interrogative, perforrnative,
expressive and evocative.
⑨Saussure: the Swiss linguist in the early 20th century.
⑩Chomsky: the American linguist in the late 1950s.
ⅡThe things that I am interested in.
①The scope of linguistics, such as phonetics.
②The differences between modern linguistics and traditional grammar.
③Design features of language.
ⅢThe things that I am confused
①the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th century; the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s. How to understand the red parts (the underline parts)
②How to understand the following words
Synchronic, diachronic, langue and parole
③The functions of language. I still can’t understand each function means what exactaly.。